Earthmoving Course Handouts Page 1-115

The Center for Mechanised Mining Systems
The School of Mining Engineering

At the University of the Witwatersrand
Johannesburg, South Africa
EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT,
TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
GDE COURSE
Conducted by
Professor Zvi Borowitsh

Honor. Professor (adj.), School of Mining Engineering
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg SA
The Technion, Israel institute of Technology
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2
EarthmovingEquipmentTechnologyandManagement
page
contents
3 openingnotes
15 principlesofperformanceandproductionrates
54 highaltitudeoperations
63 principlesoftraction
69 volumetricandstructualchangesofmovedsoil
82 rockrippingwithtracktypetractors
90 buldozerapplicationsandproductionrates
101 earthloadingsystems
140 earthhaulingsystemstrucks,scrapers
157 haulroaddesignprinciples
172 fleetselectionmatchinghaulersandloaders
182 fleetsimulations,fleetoptimization
193 machineandfleetavailabilityandproductionrates
201 earthmovingtiresapplicationandmanagement
224 earthmovingcostcalculations
235 safetyinearthmovingprojects
239 summaryexercises
241 abbreviations,earthworkcalculationformulas
performancecharts
20 directdrivetracktypetractors
21 largeTTTspecsvaraiaty
45 ADT740performacecurve
46 RFT773performancecurve
48 HD7857 performancecurve
50 631Gscraper performancecurve
51 637Gscraper performancecurve
52 OHtruck777D performancecurve
61 Cataltitudederation
62 Komatsualtitudederation
65 HD7855 performancecurve
68 tyreballasting
76 materialdensity,swelletc
78 TerexR100dimentions
85 rippability
95 dozeruncorrectedproductioncurves
120 loaderSAEratings
134 wheeldozerincoalproductioncurves
138 loaderandtrucksmaching#ofpasses
149 HitachRigidframevsADT
154 speedvsfavorablegrades
177 Queuingtables
196 fleetavailabilitytables
203 BridgestoneTKPH
207 MichelinTKPH
227 costcalculatiotables
240 773ERFT performancecurve
241 earthworkcalculationformulas
3
Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com
GDE COURSE At the
DAILY MONDAY-TUESDAY,
DAILY, MONDAY TUESDAY
School of Mining Engineering
THURSDAY-FRIDAY
8:00 -10:00 Session 1
University of the Witwatersrand
10:00 – 10:30 Coffee break
Johannesburg
10:30 – 13:00 Session 2
CONDUCTED BY
13:00 - 13:45 Lunch break
13:45 – 15:15 coffee break
Zvi Borowitsh 15:15 – 17:00 Session 3
Israel In Israel Institute of Technology
Friday, adjourn at 15:00.
OBJECTIVES:
Earthmoving projects; MOVE LARGE VOLUME OF ROCK AND SOIL,
•Civil Engineering
¾Road Construction, Railways, Runways, Peripheral AT THE MINIMUM COST,
E ca ations ,Water
Excavations Water projects WHILE COMPLYING WITH THE JOB
¾Drainage, Flood control, Water dams, Water supply SPECIFICATIONS and environmental
and sewage pipe laying requirements
¾ Building sites development, residential, public industrial, AT THE SPECIFIED TIME SCHEDULE
Landscaping, Trenching for communication and
supply lines
Agriculture:
•Agriculture:
¾ Drainage, Soil conservation, Land leveling,
¾ water supply canals, ditches etc
•Mining:
¾ Overburden removal, ore excavation and hauling.
•Rock quarries for Aggregates, Cement production,
1
4
Objectives to be achieved: OBJECTIVES:

By detailed knowledge of the “ MOVE LARGE VOLUME OF ROCK AND SOIL,
- Job requirements, terrain and environment, AT THE MINIMUM COST “ *
earth quantity to be moved, job scheduling
- The equipment potential performance, plant and Should be added –
manpower alternatives,
- Entire costing data for plant, manpower and “at the entire project duration” (can not
overhead be done on a hourly basis only), as care
must be given to the plant mechanical
Steps to accomplish availability by ;
- Determination
D t i ti off the
th various
i alternatives
lt ti
- Calculating production and cost •MTBF Mean-Time Between Failures
- Use both manual calculations and computer (Unscheduled shutdown)
earthmoving simulations. (FPC, Talpac, others)
•MTTR (Mean Time to Repair)
Optimizing Earthmoving
•MTBF Mean-Time Between Failures (Unscheduled By analyzing the Mining Alternatives for
shutdown)
•MTTR (Mean Time to Repair) - a) Mining equipment and systems
•Equipment maintenance is costly due to loss - b) Hauling routes

production, in the first place and generally exceeds
to combined cost of replacement parts repair labor - c) Payload to be applied
and overhead maintenance.
•A shovel breakdown stops p the operation
p of a fleet For excavation, loading, hauling and
of trucks, and might impede the plant operation. spreading
di
•A truck breakdown will instantaneously increase
the loading cost.
2
5
a) Mining equipment and systems a) Mining equipment and systems
Power Shovel and Mining Truck Track type Dozer and Ripper
Hydraulic Shovel and Mining Truck
Hydraulic Excavator and mining Truck
3
6
Front End Loader and Mining truck
Hydraulic excavator and Articulated Dump Truck (ADT)
Front End Loader in Load and Carry (Load Haul Dump) Push Loaded Scrapers
Application
4
7

Always to be considered-
proper Implement selection
- Buckets and loading arrangements for all types of

loaders and excavators,
- Mining trucks bodies.
All b
based
d on th
the material
t i l loaded
l d d and
dhhauled,
l d hhauling
li
Draglines routs etc.
Any excessive iron comes on the account of payload
b) Haul Route Selection

c) Payload to be applied
Hauling route selection depends on
•Viable road alternatives
B
•Lower payload than rated might increase
•Machine capability, production in tougher application.
•Road
R d condition,
diti grade
d andd surface
f
• Payload should always be adjusted to tire
limitations.
•Higher payload than rated must be within the

manufacturer’s overload policy for loaders and
t
trucks.
k
5
8
The main advancements; The main advancements;

1) Machine innovative design affects production, 2) Advanced maintenance systems reduce downtime
•Advanced metallurgy, computerized design and application •Machine monitoring and diagnosis systems, for preventing
g , allowing
simulation reduces weight, g for increased payload.
p y g repair
serious breakdown and reducing p time.
•More efficient diesel engines, advanced power-train •The industry is targeting for remote diagnosis and
reducing losses in both mechanical and hydraulic drives. support global center, to respond for 24 hours a day for
service support, data base for parts and components
•Introduction of the AC electric drives, advanced availability, shipping information, maintenance procedures
semiconductors inverters technology. etc.
•All resulting in an improved net-tare ratio (NTR) (payload to •Dealers are organized for parts and components exchange
empty weight). The mega 350-400 ton payload trucks are for reducing MTTR.
reaching a 1.3-1.5 net-tare ration. Industry is already
targeting for 1.8-2.0 net-tare ratio. (LIMP…) •Routine Oil Sampling is common for most large fleets
The main advancements The main advancements

Advanced maintenance systems reduce downtime
(continue) 3) Computer aided management and operation systems –
Equipment manufacturers endeavoring to prolong service
g maintenance cost,, reducing
intervals for reducing g • p
Truck dispatch systems
y
downtime for maintenance.
As an example – the new 993 wheel loader includes the • Machine payload and performance remote monitoring
Oil Renewal System (ORS). By regularly burning small
amounts of engine oil and automatically adding makeup • GPS guidance for bulldozer, grader, rock drill,
oil to the crankcase, ORS offers a means to reduce or
eliminate engine oil changes and to increase machine • Internet aided logistics – part supply, components and
availability. tire availability, service support
• Automatic and/or remote machine operation
6
9
The main advancements

Industry is searching for
energy sources
Applying existing or new
technologies to various
applications
Recent Announcement of the D7E Electric Drive,

Common is mining trucks
trucks. “A
A traditional mechanical transmission
is not needed, because the variable speed electric motors serve
the function of a continuously variable transmission. The electric
drive train has 60 percent fewer moving parts compared to
previous D7s. The electric system also provides power to
auxiliary components so that no engine belts are needed….)

Earthmoving machines are divided into two
Robotics are coming soon to main categories:
the mining industry. This 3500 1) Mobile Machines
ton dragline,
d li 120 ton off dirt
di iin a
single bite, 100 m boom, with a
2) Static or Semi Static Machines
semi-automatic operation.
Needs less 80 percent of
operator’s involvement
(Anglo Coal Australia Callide
“Th dragline
“The d li iis essentially
ti ll Coalfield)
Coalfield).
1950s technology. It's fairly low-
tech. What we've done is retrofit
it with a brain,”
..\..\MOVIES\Finsch
Autonomous operation.mpg
7
10
Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com TRACK TYPE DOZER

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com
1) Mobile Machines
Defined as machines which have to move their

entire
ti structure
t t for
f moving
i excavatedt d material
t i l , ffor
example
Track type dozers and rippers

Track type front end loaders
Wheel type front end loaders
Wheel type dozers
Motor graders
WHEEL DOZER WHEEL LOADER & TRUCK
Mobil
LHD
Cleanup
boulders
energy
wear
8
11

TRACK TYPE LOADER Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com
MOTOR GRADER
Mobile machines (continued)
Trucks; Off highway, rigid frame On highway dump trucks

Off highway, articulated
O hi
On highway
h ddump ttrucks
k
9
12
Off highway, rigid frame Off highway, articulated
mobility
2) Static or Semi static machines

Scrapers Defined as machines which have to move the upper
structure only for excavating and/or handling material,
for example
Hydraulic excavators, backhoe type

Hydraulic front shovels
Rope (power) shovels
Draglines, clamshells,
M t scrapers
Motor Belt conveyors
Single engine, push loaded Drill rigs
Single engine, elevating
Twin engine, push loaded
Twin engine, Push-pull system
10
13
HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR
HYDRAULIC SHOVEL

• Power Shovel
• Rock Drill Rig

Lower cost/ton
11
14

Earthmoving machines are divided also into
Dragline in mining operation a) ground engaging machines (ripping,dozing,excavating)
b) non ground engaging machines (mainly hauling)
c) combination of both (scrapers)
Summary –
Mobile machines
For mobility,
Haulingg
Load-Haul-Dump
Oversize removal
Road and floor maintenance
Moving between faces
Static machines
F l efficiency
Fuel ffi i
Low repair cost (Tires, Undercarriage)
high availability
No traction limitation (all season operation)
12
15
EARTHMOVINGEQUIPMENT,
TECHNOLOGYANDMANAGEMENT
PRINCIPLESOFPERFORMANCEANDPRODUCTION
RATES
TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT
Operation & management
MACHINE SITE
CAPABILITY CONDITIONS
FLEET ACTUAL
PRODUCTION ECONOMICS
COST PARAMETERS
(FLEET COST/HR
COST PER UNIT PRODUCT

WHICH WE STRIVE TO MINIMIZE
2
power performance wits 2008 1

16
Fixed time
haul
load dump
Variable time
return
Variable delays can be predicted, but their exacts

occurrence can not be anticipated;
wait for trucks, replace tips, move machine, minor
repairs, human needs
Fixed delays are those planned in advance, and appear

periodically;
Lunch break, change shifts, scheduled maintenance
EarthmovingStudies.com

17
FLEET PRODUCTION, ENERAL TERMS

VARIABLE TIME FIXED TIME CYCLE TIME
(HAUL AND RETURN)+ (LOAD, DUMP) = (minutes)
(minutes) (minutes)
VARIABLE CYCLES PER 60 min HOUR

DELAYS PAYLOAD
(min/hour) HOURLY
PRODUCTION
FIXED DELAYS
SHIFT
PRODUCTION
CLIMATE
MECHANICAL
INTERFERNECE
AVAILABILITY
LONG TERM PRODUCTION
REQUIRED PRODUCTION
5
FLEET SIZE
Earthmoving Production and cost

basic flowchart
Road characteristics + Machine Total Weight (GVW) Pull Required
Pull Required + Machine performance Speed of motion
Speed of Motion +length of Section Time to complete section
Summing up all sections, haul and return Variable (moving) Time

Variable (moving) Time +Fixed time (Load, Dump etc Total cycle time
Total cycle time + Working minutes/hour Cycles/hour
Cycles/hour +Payload Hourly production
Hourly production + Machine cost /hour

Cost per unit product

18
POWER:
ThePULLCAPABILITY
andtheSPEEDOFMOTION
DETERMINETHEPRODUCTIONOF
EARTHMOVINGMACHINES
POWER=PULLCAPABILITYxSPEEDOFMOTION
NEEDPOWERFOR•
Mechanicalandhydrauliclosses
Roadresistancetomotion
Accelerateentiremachineorupperstructure
Accelerate entire machine or upperstructure
Groundengagingactivities

19
1kilowattsisthepowerrequiredtoovercomearesistanceof
onekiloNewton
alongadistanceofonemeter
withinonesecond.
i,etoapplyaforceofonekNataspeedofonem/sec
I
Inourindustrywemeasurespeedbykm/h
i d t d b k /h
Thepoweroutput(kW)istherefore
=pull(kN)xspeed(km/h)/3.6
9
Thepowergeneratedbythepowersource,generallyadiesel
engineismeasuredinflywheelkW
Thegroundpowerisconsiderablylowerthantheflywheel
Th d i id bl l h h fl h l
power,duetomechanicalandhydrauliclossesalongthe
powertrain.(transmission,torqueconverters,finaldrives,
undercarriagecomponentsetc.)
Thegroundpower
The ground power ,isthemostdecisivevaluedetermining
is the most decisive value determining
machineperformanceandproductionrates
10

20
www.EarthmovingStudies.com 21
The difference between the engine power and what remains as ground power
makes sometime the engine power irrelevant for evaluating machine
performance. Just look at the following comparisons for track type and wheel
type tractors.
Let us also look at a D9T track type tractor published specifications.

One can count 7 different ratings for one engine.
fwkw irrelevant D9.doc

Therefore – what really count is the power delivered at the drawbar, or at the
wheel contact with the ground, presented by the Drawbar Pull vs. Speed chart
(following page)
At 4 km/h drawbar pull is 225 kN. 4x 225/3.6=250 ground kW. (Considering

306 kW for flywheel power, the calculated PTE is 0.81.
At 8 km/h pull is 105 kN. Ground power is 233 ground kW, with 0.76 for PTE.
Also note that practically, the advertised engine power can not be verified by
any contractor or miner, while the Pull vs. Speed charts, are checkable (by a
simple dynamometer and speed reading) workable, and, in most cases
reliable.
D9T track type tractor
fwkw irrelevant D9.doc

23
FORTRACKTYPEMACHINES
Groundpowerandgroundpullaremeasuredatthedrawbar
(drawbarpower,drawbarpull,)oratthemounted
implement(Dozer,Ripper)
11
FORWHEELTYPEMACHINES
Groundpowerandgroundpullaremeasuredatthe
pointofcontactbetweenthewheelsandthegroundfor
(rimpull)
12

24
Theratiobetweenthegroundpower(kW)andtheflywheel
powerisknownasthePowerTrainEfficiency(PTE),
pronouncedinpercents,ordecimals
PTE%=groundpower/flywheelpowerx100
13
ThePowerTrainEfficiencyofearthmovingmachinesdrops
whileoperatingathighergears.
Duetoacceleratedpowerlossattheundercarriagearea,the
dropinthePowerTrainEfficiencyismorepronouncedin
p y p
tracktypemachines,thanwheeltype.(seetable)
14

25
Track Type Tractors Flywheel Power vs. Ground Power

Example - D10R track type tractor, equipped with dozer blade and Ripper
note: kgx1000 should be multiplied by 10 to read kN
D10 R
Flywheel
Power, kW 433
Ground Ground Ground Power Train

speed power
km/h Pull kN kW Effic. %
2 620 344 79.5
4 265 294 68.0
6 160 267 61.6
8 110 244 56.5
10 85 236 54.5
15
For track type tractors,

Drawbar Power (DBKW) = Drawbar Pull (kN) x Travel Speed (km/h) /3.6
Engine
fwkw 149 D7R drawbar pull & mechanical efficiency
at lugging.
at engine Engine
rpm 2150 rpm 1450
drawbar drawbar dbkw drawbar drawbar
pull power % of max pull power pte
gear km/h kN kW PTE 1st gear km/h kN kW %
1 2.6 163 118 0.79 100 1.75 209.80 102.19 0.69
2 3.7 109 112 0.75 95 2.50 142.20 98.57 0.66
3 5.3 73.4 108 0.73 92 3.57 95.90 95.22 0.64
4 7.9 46.9 103 0.69 87 5.33 62.10 91.91 0.62
5 10.3 34.5 99 0.66 84 6.95 46.30 89.34 0.60
16

26
Forwheeltypetractors
Rimpower(kW)=rimpull(kN)xtravelspeed(km/h)/3.6
773E Truck
Flywheel Power, kW 501
Ground Ground Ground

Speed Pull poower
km/h kN kW PTE
10 150 417 0.83
20 74 411 0.82
30 50 417 0 83
0.83
40 37 411 0.82
50 29 403 0.80
60 25 417 0.83
17
Whensoilresistanceincreases,thepull(kN)producedbythe
tractorincreases,uptothepointof"maximumtorque",
occurringatlowerrpm.
Luggingisthesituationwhentheexternalresistanceexceeds
theenginetorqueatit’sratedpower.
g q p
Theenginerpmandconsequentlythemachinespeeddropsat
luggingconditions.
Thetorque,howeverdeliveredbytheengineincreasesupto
thepointof"maximumtorque",occurringatlower
rpm.
rpm.
18

27
Track type tractor - direct drive
Model D7G
Engine fw-
kw 149
at rated
engine at lugging.
rpm 2150 Engine rpm 1450 Approx
drawbar drawbar drawbar drawbar torque rise
pull power pull power (ratio)
gear km/h kN kW PTE km/h kN kW PTE
1 2.6 163 118 0.79 1.8 210 102 0.69 1.29
2 3.7 109 112 0.75 2.5 142 99 0.66 1.30
3 5.3 73.4 108 0.73 3.6 96 95 0.64 1.31
4 7.9 46.9 103 0.69 5.3 62 92 0.62 1.32
5 10.3 34.5 99 0.66 6.9 46 89 0.60 1.34
19
Goodluggingcharacteristicsareessentialfor
dieselengineoperatingundervaryingload
asinmostearthmovingapplications.
Thetorqueriseisdefinedasthedifference
betweenthemaximumtorque(atlug)
andthetorqueatratedrpm,dividedbythe
q p , y
ratedrpmtorque
20

28
Engine performance curves

D7G Ground Power.XLS
Flywheel torque
Maximum
torque (pull)
Flywheel power (kW)

Max.power output
Fuel consumption
21 Engine RPM (rev/min)
Total Resistance to motion (TR) (kN) =
Grade resistance(GR) + Rolling Resistance (RR)
22

29
The Grade Resistance
GR(kN)=GVW(kN) x sin A
H
GVW
a
GR(kN)=GVM(ton)
( ) ( ) x g x Sina
Assuming for small grades sin a ~ tan a
GR(kN)=GVM(ton) x g x Tan a
g=gravitational acceleration =9.8 (assume 10)
For GVM – 1ton, For a=1percent slope
(Tan a=1/100=0.01)
23
GR(kN)=1 x 10 x 0.01 = 0.1 kN/ton per each % slope
percent grade, degrees and trigo functions

slope angle,
percent degree Sin Cos Tan
1.00 0.57 0.01 1.00 0.01
2.00 1.15 0.02 1.00 0.02
3.00 1.72 0.03 1.00 0.03
4.00 2.29 0.04 1.00 0.04
5 00
5.00 2 86
2.86 0 05
0.05 1 00
1.00 0 05
0.05
6.00 3.44 0.06 1.00 0.06
7.00 4.01 0.07 1.00 0.07
8.00 4.58 0.08 1.00 0.08
9.00 5.15 0.09 1.00 0.09
10.00 5.71 0.10 1.00 0.10
12.00 6.85 0.12 0.99 0.12
14.00 7.97 0.14 0.99 0.14
16.00 9.09 0.16 0.98 0.16
18.00 10.21 0.18 0.98 0.18
20.00 11.32 0.20 0.98 0.20
22.00 12.41 0.21 0.98 0.22
24.00 13.50 0.23 0.97 0.24
26.00 14.58 0.25 0.97 0.26
28.00 15.65 0.27 0.96 0.28
30.00 16.71 0.29 0.96 0.30
24

30
Rolling resistance
Rolling Resistance (RR) on hard surface = 0.17-0.23 kN/ton
Assuming 0.2 kN/ton for most cases
On soft roads,
0.06 kN/ton should be added

for each cm of tire sinking into ground
RR(kN) = GVM (ton) x (0.2 + 0.06 x TS)

(TS = rate of tire sink, cm)
1 % grade = 0.1 kN/ton

X% grade = 0.06
X% = 0.06 x 1 / 0.1 = 0.6
I.E each cm sinking to ground equivalent to 0.6 % grade
25
Rolling Resistance –track type tractors
Track sinking into ground vary slightly

amongst various soils, and therefore
considered constant.
Drawbar pull considers already the rolling

resistance of track type tractors. RR for
track type tractors should be ignored for
calculation purposes
Steel rollers are traveling on a steel road
26

31
Total Resistance/effective grade
The total resistance (sometimes defined as effective grade),

p
expressed in percent,
p , is the sum of the topographic
p g p grade
g (%)
( )
plus the rolling resistance "translated" into percent grade.
A each
As h percentt grade
d needs
d 0.1
0 1 kN / tton tto overcome,
0 1 kN per ton of RR is equivalent to 1 percent slope.

0.1 slope
The total resistance is g

generally
y the right
g axis of the
rim-pull curve
27
The rolling resistance is

Equivalent to 2 percent grade on a hard surface
Plus 0.6
0 6 percent for each cm of tire sinking to ground
A truck which moves on dirt road

With 5 cm tire sinking to ground
encounters rolling resistance equivalent to
2+0.6 x 5 =5 percent grade
28
32
The rim-pull curve

The rim-pull curve, specific to each machine, is used to evaluate
the speed of motion of wheeled vehicles,
The vehicle speed is a function of ;
1. Vehicle power and performance characteristics,

2. Gross vehicle mass
(with rated payload, empty, or partially loaded)
3. Total resistance to motion, expressed in percent grade
29
30

33
For determining the speed,
1. read down the Total

resistance (%) to the
intersection with the gross
mass,
2. move horizontally to the rim-
pull curve to meet the
relevant gear,
3. move down to find the
speed of motion (km/h).
31

34

35
Road Analysis Control (RAC)
Road Analysis Control (RAC) is an information product that allows the customer to
monitor haul road conditions and improve large mining truck performance,
productivity and safety while lowering repair, maintenance costs and downtime.
Integrated with the Vital Information Management System (VIMS®), RAC provides
real time feedback to the operator about haul road conditions which are detrimental
to cycle times and power train, frame, suspension components and tires.
Through the VIMS message center, two levels of RAC events alert the operator to
places in the haul road, which require attention, both from the standpoint of truck
operation and support equipment. The operator should slow down or avoid the areas
that trigger the events and support equipment should be assigned to remedy the
problem areas. When used with a telemetry system like Caterpillar's VIMSwireless,
this information can be transmitted in near real time to mine supervision or
management in the office for immediate action. VIMS also logs RAC information from
each cycle's rack and pitch data and creates a summary measurement called a
Fatigue Equivalent Load Analysis (FELA) which allows management to track severity
and benchmark road conditions. Utilizing the same sensors that determine payload
weight and cycle times, RAC measures the frame's rack and pitch at ten times per
second. Rack is the lateral twisting of the frame due to uneven loading on the
diagonal tires. For instance, a fully loaded truck with the left front tire in a rut and the
right rear tire on an incline results in excessive forces on the frame. Pitch is the force
on the frame from front to rear which occurs when the truck crosses a bump or dip
perpendicular to the line of travel, hard braking or hard turns. RAC measures these
values and sends them almost instantaneously to the on board VIMS module which
calculates events and trends. From there, extreme measurements are displayed to
the operator and all information is recorded for downloading with VIMSpc software.
By monitoring this data, mines will be able to identify and attend to haul road sections
affecting cycle times and component life. The results are properly maintained haul
roads which means safer operating conditions, decreased mechanical wear, less
physical stress and improved comfort for the operator, reduced fuel consumption,
lower tire road hazard cost, suspension and component operating costs and more
uptime. RAC is not simply an added function to VIMS. RAC is designed to help all
Cat large mining truck users derive more value from their owning and operating
experience.
Benefits of RAC:
x Properly maintain haul roads

x Faster cycle times
x Longer component, frame, suspension system and tire life
x Less operator physical stress and improved comfort
x Safer operation
x Reduced fuel consumption
x Lower operating costs

www.EarthmovoingStudies.com 36
page 1
Earthmoving Equipment, Technology and Management
Earthmoving Equipment
Power and performance - Basic analysis
Exercises
1) A track type tractor is pulling a proof roller on a runway project
Tractor Flywheel power is 100 fwkW

Assuming the Power Train Efficiency is 0.75
and the pull required is 45.0 kN
to be found - the speed of motion km/h
2) A single engine push loaded scraper is hauling earth on a dam project
Scraper Flywheel power is 350 fwkW

Assuming the Power Train Efficiency is 0.76
M hi mass, unladen
Machine l d 42 ton
t
Rated payload 34 ton
scraper hauling uphill, at a grade of 5.0 percent

Rolling resistance to be assumed 0.3 kN/ton
to be found - the speed of motion km/h
3) Articulated trucks are operating in a residential are development project
Truck model - 740 - performance data enclosed

Assume trucks are loaded to their rated capacity
One
O e way
ay haul
au d
distance
sta ce 700
00 meters
ete s
Hauling uphill at a grade of 5.00 percent
movement is mostly on sand dunes
assume tires sinking into haul way at a rate of 5.00 cm
time to position and load truck per cycle at cut area 3.50 minutes
time to dump and maneuver at fill area 2.00 minutes
allocate for accelerating, deccelerating per cycle 2.00 minutes
Assume truck move empty, downhill at 25.00 km/h
for variable delyas per hour to be allocated 7.00 minutes
charge of single truck per hour 92.00 dollar/h
1) explain; the conversion of tire sinking into ground to percent slope

2) find the truck production in terms of ton/hour and the cost in dollar/ton
EarthmovingStudies.com exercises 2008.xls

page 2
Exercises
4) Off Highway (rigid frame) Trucks are hauling sandy clay at a dam construction project
trucks model 773E

unladen mass 40.2 ton
laden mass 99.3 ton
truck positioning and loading time 3.5 minutes
positioning and dumping time 2.0 minutes
accelerate, deccelerate, manuever along route per cycle 1.0 minutes
hourly utilization 53 min/h
Road descripion rolling

section meters resistance% grade %
1 200 3.0 0.0
2 400 2.0 4.0
3 300 2.0 6.0
4 200 2.0 4.0
5 150 3.0 0.0
max speed on site 45 km/h
return assume avereage of 40 km/h
truck total cost/h 140 dollar/h
assume rated load payload
to be calculated
single truck production ton/h
cost per ton for haulage dollar/ton
5) Off Highway mining trucks HD 785-7 model are hauling mine overburden uphill
from machine specs (enclosed):

Gross Vehicle Mass 166,000 kg
Empty Vehicle Mass 72,600 kg
the following is the road profile GR RR

section percent percent
1 100 0.0 3.0
2 400 3.0 2.0
3 500 5.0 2.0
4 400 2.0 2.0
5 100 0.0 3.0
return downhill along the haul route

add for acceleration, deceleration, maneuver 2.0 minutes
add for loading trucks including truck position 4.0 minutes
add for other delays per cycle(wait for loader, hopper,trafic delays 2.5 minutes
maximum speed on site 50 km/h
truck total charge per hour 195 dollar/h
Sigle truck production in ton/h and cost per ton of hauling should be presented
Enclosed the HD 785-7 truck performance curve

page 3
Exercises
6) Scrapers are operating in a mine rehabilition project
material-sandy clay
Haul distance 800 m
Grade while hauling adverse
Machine alternatives
A) Single engine push-loaded scraper
model 631G or similar
Hourly charge 160 Dollar/h
B) Tween engine push-loaded scraper

model 637G or similar
Hourly charge 200 Dollar/h
Fixed time to load, including scraper position 1.0 minute

add for machine acceleration, retarding and manouver 2.0
hourly utilization 53 minutes/h
assume scrapers return empty downhill at 40 km/h
To be found:
The effective grade (grade +rolling, %) in which the two engine scraper becomes economical
7) affect of Rolling Resisitance on truck performance

Off highway (rigid frame) trucks are are hauling iron ore uphill
trucks model 777D
hauling uphill grade 2.0 percent
rolling resistance 2.5 percent
truck engine power 699 fwkW
machine gross mass (Loaded) 163.2 ton
assume power train eficiency 0.76
machine speed to be evaluated
rolling resistance can be reduced to 1.75 percent

by better road maintenance, tire pressure control
To ba calculated
1) Truck speed on existing road km/h
2) Truck speed potential on the improved road km/h
3) engine edditional power required to regain the higher speed
while still moving on the inferior road fwkW

39
page 4
Exercises
8) Off Highway Rrigid Frame Trucks are hauling Phosphate ore in an open cast mining operation
Truck Model HD785-7

Number of trucks in fleet 5
Hours per day 20
operating days/ year 325
expected mechanical availab 92
Haul road profile

Haul distance, one way 3,000 meters
average grade percent 3.00 uphill
rolling resistance, % grade equivalent 2.50 percent
time to accelerate, dump manuever per truck cyc 2.0 minutes
time to be loaded, including truck positioning 3.0 minutes
returning empty along haul road at a speed of 50 km/h
truck charge per hour, owning, operation, overhe 195 dollar/hr
hourly utilization 53 min/hr
For improving performance, also In view of the increasing fuel and other cost,
mine management considers to invest in road maintenance, with an objective to reduce
rolling resistancepercent, grade eq 1.50 pecent
in order to reduce truck hours required per annum, reduce cost respectively
truck charge per hour, owning, operation, overhead expected to go down
for reduced wear and tear for truck and 188 dollar/hr
based on similar projects, speed on return is 55 km/h
enclosed: HD785-7 rimpull curve for evaluating haul speed
road maintenace additional cost

grader 800 hours/yr
at a cost of 85 dollar/hour
water truck 800 hours/yr
at a cost of 70 dollar/hour
note: the annual production is presently satisfying mine demand

i.e the saving should be reflected by reduced number of trucks reqired
to be evaluated
Annual production ton/yr
present situation improved road saving

truck hours required/yr
Cost dollar/ton
Annual cost for haulage $
percent
40
Q3suggestedsolution
Articulated traucks are operating in a residential are development project
Truckmodel740performancedataenclosed
Assumetrucksareloadedtotheirratedcapacity
Onewayhauldistance 700 meters
Haulinguphillatagradeof 5.00 percent
movement is mostly on sand dunes
movementismostlyonsanddunes
assumetiressinkingintohaulwayatarateof 5.00 cm
timetopositionandloadtruckpercycleatcutarea 3.50 minutes
timetodumpandmaneuveratfillarea 2.00 minutes
allocateforaccelerating,decceleratingpercycle 2.00 minutes
Assumetruckmoveempty,downhillat 25.00 km/h
forvariabledelyasperhourtobeallocated 7.00 minutes
chargeofsingletruckperhour
h f i l t k h 92.00
92 00 dollar/h
d ll /h
1)explainconversionoftiresinkingintogroundtopercentslope
2)findthetruckproductionintermsofton/hourandthecostindollar/ton
loaded kg
empty
py kgg
payload kg
divideby
payload ton
rrbasic %
sinking cm
onecmequivto%grade
RR due to sinking
RRduetosinking
RRgradeequivalent %
roadgrade %
totalresistance
speedfromcurve km/h
haul m
time min
return min
roading,total min
load min
dump min
acceletc min
cycle min
minutes/hr
cycles/h
payload
ton/h
cost/h
cost/ton
C:\DocumentsandSettings\LENOVO\MyDocuments\Earthmoving\WITS\Power&performance\740
Q&TemplateQ&A.xls
41
C:\Documents and Settings\LENOVO\My Documents\Earthmoving\WITS\Power&performance\773 100m
TEMPLATE.xls
Q4 solution template
Construction project
trucks model 773E
unladen mass 40.2 ton
laden mass 99.3 ton
load and transfer time 3.5 minutes
dump time 2.0 minutes
accelerate, deccelerate, manuever 1.0 minutes
Road descripion
section meters rolling resistance % grade %
1 200 3.0 0.0
2 400 2.0 4.0
3 300 2.0 6.0
4 200 2.0 4.0
5 150 3.0 0.0
max speed on site 45 km/h

return assume avereage of 40 km/h
truck total cost/h 140 dollar/h
assume rated load
to be calculated
cost per ton for haulage
solutions (template)
payload ton
section meters RR GR TR km/h haul

1 minutes
2 minutes
3 minutes
4 minutes
5 minutes
minutes
total minutes
minutes
minutes
minutes
minutes
minutes
cycles/h
production ton/h
cost/hr dollar/h
cost/t dollar/t
773 100m TEMPLATE.xls

42
Q5 template solution
Off Highway mining trucks HD 785-7 model are hauling mine overburden uphill
along the following route
from machine specs (enclosed):
the following is the road profile
GR RR
section percent percent
1 100 0.0 3.0
2 400 3.0 2.0
3 500 5.0 2.0
4 400 2.0 2.0
5 100 0.0 3.0
return downhill along the haul route

add for acceleration, deceleration, maneuver 2.0 minutes
add for loading trucks including truck position 4.0 minutes
add for other delays per cycle(wait for loader, hopper,
trafic delays 2.5 minutes
maximum speed on site 50 km/h
truck total charge per hour 195 dollar/h
The cost per ton of hauling should be presented
Enclosed the HD 785-7 truck performance curve
solution
GR RR TR km/h
section meters percent percent percent
1 minutes
2 minutes
3 minutes
4 minutes
5 minutes
haul minutes
return return minutes
total variable time per cycle minutes
add for acceleratin, decceleration, manouver minutes
add for loading trucks including truck position minutes
add for other delays per cycle(wait for loader, hopper,
trafic delays minutes
minutes
minutes per hour minutes
cycles/h
ton/load ton
ton/h t/hr
truck charge per hour dollar/h
cost/ton dollar/ton
C:\Documents and Settings\LENOVO\My Documents\Earthmoving\WITS\Power&performance\HD 785-7 100

meters template.xls 01/11/2009
43
Q 6 suggested Solution
Fixed time
return empty 800 m
at 40 km/h
minutes 1.20 minutes
load 1.0 minutes
others 2.0 minutes
total fixed time 4.2 minutes
Single engine scraper 631G

loaded mass ton
empty ton
payload ton
travel total
TR % km/h loaded cycle cycles/h ton/h dollar/ton
minutes minutes
8
10
12
14
16
Two engine scraper 637G
loaded mass ton
empty ton
payload ton
travel total
TR % km/h loaded cycle cycles/h ton/h dollar/ton
minutes minutes
8
10
12
14
16
631G vs 637G Template.xls

44
Q8
hours/day 20
daysperyr 325
hoursperyearpertruckscheduled
mechanicalavailability 92.0
availablehours
trucksinfleet 5
totalhours/fleet
present road improved road

meters
pld ton
grade percent
RR%
TR%
speedloaded(fromrimpullcurve) km/h
speedempty km/h
traveltimeloaded minutes
traveltimeempty minutes
fixedtime,various minutes
loadandposition minutes
totalcycle minutes
minutes/hr
cycles/hr
ton/hr ton/hr
truck hours available
Annual production (production remains same) savings ton/annum

truck hours required truck hours
truck cost per hour
total haulage cost, gross Dollar
add maintenance cost Dollar
net haulage cost Dollar
total saving percent
cost per ton
less for road maintenance additional cost

net saving
grader hours
at dollar/hr
total dollar/yr
watertruck hours
at dollar/hr
total dollar/yr
totaladditionalcostforroadmaintenance
C:\DocumentsandSettings\LENOVO\MyDocuments\Earthmoving\WITS\Power&performance\HD7857Improvedroad
template.xls
45
Articulated Trucks 740 Rimpull-Speed-Gradeability

● 29.5R25 Tires
GROSS WEIGHT*
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 kg x 1000
kg x 1000
lb x 1000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 lb x 1000
45
E L
(Grade plus Rolling Resistance)

40 90
35
TOTAL RESISTANCE
75
30 1A 40%
RIMPULL
60 35%
25
30%
20 45
1B 25%
15 20%
30 2 15%
10 3
4 10%
5
15 5 6 7 5%
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 mph
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 km/h
SPEED
KEY KEY
1A — 1st Gear (Converter Drive) E — Empty 32 840 kg (72,400 lb)
1B — 1st Gear (Direct Drive) L — Loaded 70 840 kg (156,175 lb)
2 — 2nd Gear
3 — 3rd Gear *At sea level.
4 — 4th Gear
5 — 5th Gear
6 — 6th Gear
7 — 7th Gear
10-18
46
773E Rimpull-Speed-Gradeability Construction & Mining Trucks

● 24.00R35 Tires
GROSS WEIGHT
0 50 100 150 200 lb x 1000
lb x kg x
1000 1000
45 0 20 40 60 80 100 kg x 1000
100
40
A B
90 1A
80 35
TOTAL RESISTANCE
(Grade plus Rolling)
70
30
30%
RIMPULL
60
25
50 25%
20
1B
40 20%
15 9
30 2 15%
3
10
20 4 10%
5
10 5 6 5%
7
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 km/h
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 mph
SPEED
KEY KEY
1A — 1st Gear (Torque Converter) A — Empty 40 188 kg (88,600 lb)
1B — 1st Gear B — Max GMW 99 300 kg (219,000 lb)
2 — 2nd Gear
3 — 3rd Gear
4 — 4th Gear
5 — 5th Gear
6 — 6th Gear
7 — 7th Gear
9-21
47
Construction & Mining Trucks Specifications
MODEL 773E 773E 775E 775E

Body Type Flat Floor Dual Slope Quarry Flat Floor Flat Floor Lined
Gross Machine Weight 99 300 kg 219,000 lb 99 300 kg 219,000 lb 108 400 kg 239,000 lb 108 400 kg 239,000 lb
Chassis Weight* 31 930 kg 70,330 lb 31 930 kg 70,330 lb 32 140 kg 70,850 lb 32 140 kg 70,850 lb
Body Weight 9550 kg 21,050 lb 9210 kg 20,300 lb 13 070 kg 28,810 lb 9809 kg 31,640 lb
Payload without Liner 57 820 kg 127,620 lb 58 160 kg 128,370 lb 63 190 kg 139,340 lb 61 920 kg 136,510 lb
Standard Liner Weight 4000 kg 8800 lb 3900 kg 8600 lb — —
Target Payload** 53 820 kg 118,820 lb 54 260 kg 119,770 lb 63 190 kg 139,340 lb 61 920 kg 136,510 lb
Capacity:
Struck (SAE) 26.6 m3 34.8 yd3 26.6 m3 34.8 yd3 31.4 m3 41.1 yd3 31.2 m3 40.8 yd3
Heaped (2:1) (SAE) 35.5 m3 46.4 yd3 35.2 m3 46 yd3 41.5 m3 54.3 yd3 41.2 m3 53.9 yd3
Distribution Empty:
Front 47.3% 47.3% 44.3% 44.3%
Rear 52.7% 52.7% 55.7% 55.7%
Distribution Loaded:
Front 33.3% 33.3% 31.2% 31.2%
Rear 66.7% 66.7% 68.8% 68.8%
Engine Model 3412E TA 3412E TA 3412E TA 3412E TA
Number of Cylinders 12 12 12 12
Bore 137 mm 5.4" 137 mm 5.4" 137 mm 5.4" 137 mm 5.4"
Stroke 152 mm 6" 152 mm 6" 152 mm 6" 152 mm 6"
Displacement 27 L 1649 in3 27 L 1649 in3 27 L 1649 in3 27 L 1649 in3
Net Power 501 kW 671 hp 501 kW 671 hp 544 kW 730 hp 544 kW 730 hp
Gross Power 530 kW 710 hp 530 kW 710 hp 567 kW 760 hp 567 kW 760 hp
Standard Tires 24.00R35 (E-4) 24.00R35 (E-4) 24.00R35 (E-4) 24.00R35 (E-4)
Machine Clearance
Turning Circle 23.8 m 78'9" 23.8 m 78'9" 23.8 m 78'9" 23.8 m 78'9"
Fuel Tank Refill Capacity 680 L 180 U.S. gal 700 L 185 U.S. gal 700 L 185 U.S. gal 700 L 185 U.S. gal
Top Speed (Loaded) 65.8 km/h 41.1 mph 65.8 km/h 41.1 mph 65.8 km/h 41.1 mph 65.8 km/h 41.1 mph
GENERAL DIMENSIONS
(Empty):
Height to Canopy Rock
Guard Rail 4.45 m 14'6" 4.35 m 14'4" 4.34 m 14'2" 4.40 m 14'2"
Wheelbase 4.19 m 13'9" 4.19 m 13'9" 4.19 m 13'9" 4.19 m 13'9"
Overall Length (Operating) 9.72 m 31'9" 9.72 m 31'9" 9.48 m 30'10" 9.48 m 30'10"
Overall Length (Shipping) 9.20 m 30'2" 9.20 m 30'2" 9.21 m 30'3" 9.21 m 30'3"
Loading Height (Empty) 3.79 m 12'5" 3.77 m 12'5" 3.91 m 12'10" 3.91 m 12'10"
Height at Full Dump 8.82 m 28'11" 8.79 m 28'10" 8.80 m 28'11" 8.80 m 28'11"
Body Length (Target Length) 5.52 m 18'1" 5.52 m 18'1" 6.53 m 21'4" 6.51 m 21'5"
Width (Operating) 5.08 m 16'8" 5.08 m 16'8" 5.08 m 16'8" 5.08 m 16'8"
Width (Shipping)*** 3.99 m 13'1" 3.99 m 13'1" 3.97 m 13'0" 3.97 m 13'0"
Front Tire Tread 3.28 m 10'9" 3.28 m 10'9" 3.28 m 10'9" 3.28 m 10'9"
***Weights include lubricants, coolants, 100% fuel and a debris allowance (4% of chassis).
***Refer to Caterpillar’s 10/10/20 Payload Policy for Quarry & Construction Trucks.
***Disassembled.
9-4
HD785-7 O F F - H I G H W A Y TR U C K
SPECIFICATIONS
Power Mode
GROSS WEIGHT
EMPTY LOADED
LOADED
UNLOADED
RIMPULL
TOTAL RESISTANCE (GRADE + ROLLING) (%)
TRAVEL SPEED
TRAVEL PERFORMANCE
48
To determine travel performance: Read from gross weight down to the percent of total resistance. From
this weight-resistance point, read horizontally to the curve with the highest obtainable speed range, then
down to maximum speed. Usable rimpull depends upon traction available and weight on drive wheels.
OFF-HIGHWAY TRUCK
HD785-7
49
BODY WEIGHT (APPROX.)
Capacity: Empty weight ....................................................................... 72.600 kg

Struck...................................................................................... 40 m³ Gross vehicle weight ......................................................... 166.000 kg
Heaped (2:1, SAE).................................................................. 60 m³ Not to exceed max. gross vehicle weight, including options, fuel and
Payload......................................................................... 91 metric tons payload.
Material............................................................................. 130 kg/mm² Weight distribution
400 Brinell high tensile strength steel Empty:
Material thickness: Front axle .................................................................................. 47%
Bottom................................................................................... 19 mm Rear axle................................................................................... 53%
Front...................................................................................... 12 mm Loaded:
Sides ....................................................................................... 9 mm Front axle ............................................................................... 31,5%
Target area (inside length × width) .................. 7.065 mm × 5.200 mm Rear axle................................................................................ 68,5%
Dumping angle ...............................................................................48°
Height at full dump............................................................. 10.210 mm
Heating ...................................................................... Exhaust heating
SERVICE REFILL CAPACITIES
Fuel tank................................................................................. 1.308 ltr

Engine oil................................................................................... 129 ltr
ENVIRONMENT Torque converter, transmission and retarder cooling................. 205 ltr
Differentials (total) ..................................................................... 137 ltr
Engine emissions ............................... Fully complies with EPA Tier II Final drives (total) ...................................................................... 128 ltr
exhaust emission regulations Hydraulic system ....................................................................... 175 ltr
Noise levels: Brake control ............................................................................... 36 ltr
LpA operator ear ...........................................75 dB(A) (SAE J1166) Suspension (total)........................................................................ 93 ltr
15
50
Wheel Tractor-Scrapers 631G Rimpull-Speed-Gradeability

● 37.25R35 Tires
GROSS WEIGHT
lb x 1000
lb x kg x
1000 1000 kg x 1000
TOTAL RESISTANCE
RIMPULL
km/h
mph
SPEED
KEY KEY
1 — 1st Gear Torque Converter Drive E — Empty 45 362 kg (100,006 lb)
2 — 2nd Gear Torque Converter Drive L — Loaded 82 647 kg (182,206 lb)
3 — 3rd Gear Direct Drive
4 — 4th Gear Direct Drive
8-38
51
Wheel Tractor-Scrapers 637G Rimpull-Speed-Gradeability

● 37.25R35 Tires
GROSS WEIGHT
lb x 1000
lb x kg x
1000 1000 kg x 1000
TOTAL RESISTANCE
RIMPULL
km/h
mph
SPEED
KEY KEY
1 — 1st Gear Torque Converter Drive E — Empty 51 147 kg (112,760 lb)
2 — 2nd Gear Torque Converter Drive L — Loaded 88 432 kg (194,960 lb)
3 — 3rd Gear Direct Drive
8-44
52
Specifications Construction & Mining Trucks
MODEL 775E 777D 777D

Body Type Dual Slope Flat Floor Dual Slope
Gross Machine Weight 108 400 kg 239,000 lb 163 293 kg 360,000 lb 163 293 kg 360,000 lb
Chassis Weight* 32 140 kg 70,850 lb 50 610 kg 111,575 lb 51 329 kg 113,160 lb
Body Weight 9710 kg 21,400 lb 16 687 kg 36,788 lb 15 778 kg 34,785 lb
Payload without Liner 66 550 kg 146,750 lb 95 996 kg 211,637 lb 96 186 kg 212,055 lb
Standard Liner Weight 4450 kg 9810 lb 5460 kg 12,040 lb 5461 kg 12,040 lb
Target Payload** 62 100 kg 136,940 lb 90 536 kg 199,597 lb 90 725 kg 200,015 lb
Capacity:
Struck (SAE) 32.7 m3 42.8 yd3 42 m3 54.6 yd3 42.1 m3 55 yd3
Heaped (2:1) (SAE) 41.2 m3 53.9 yd3 60.2 m3 78.6 yd3 60.1 m3 78.6 yd3
Distribution Empty:
Front 45.9% 41.75% 47%
Rear 54.1% 58.25% 53%
Distribution Loaded:
Front 31.6% 33% 33%
Rear 68.4% 67% 67%
Engine Model 3412E 3508B EUI 3508B EUI
Number of Cylinders 12 8 8
Bore 137 mm 5.4" 170 mm 6.7" 170 mm 6.7"
Stroke 152 mm 6" 190 mm 7.5" 190 mm 7.5"
Displacement 27 L 1649 in3 34.5 L 2105 in3 34.5 L 2105 in3
9
Net Power 544 kW 730 hp 699 kW 938 hp 699 kW 938 hp
Gross Power 567 kW 760 hp 746 kW 1000 hp 746 kW 1000 hp
Standard Tires 24.00-R35 (E4) 27.00R49 27.00R49
Machine Clearance Turning Circle 23.8 m 78'9" 28.4 m 83'0" 28.4 m 83'0"
Fuel Tank Refill Capacity 700 L 185 U.S. gal 1137 L 300 U.S. gal 1137 L 300 U.S. gal
Top Speed (Loaded) 65.8 km/h 41.1 mph 60.4 km/h 39.9 mph 60.4 km/h 39.9 mph
GENERAL DIMENSIONS (Empty):
Height to Canopy Rock Guard Rail 4.40 m 14'2" 5.18 m 17'0" 4.91 m 16'1"
Wheelbase 4.19 m 13'9" 4.60 m 15'0" 4.60 m 15'0"
Overall Length (Operating) 9.48 m 30'10" 10.3 m 33'8" 10.3 m 33'8"
Overall Length (Shipping) 9.21 m 30'3" 9.78 m 32'1" 9.78 m 32'1"
Loading Height (Empty) 3.93 m 12'11" 4.57 m 15'0" 4.39 m 14'5"
Height at Full Dump 8.74 m 28'8" 10.0 m 33'1" 10.05 m 33'0"
Body Length (Target Length) 6.40 m 21'0" 6.79 m 22'3" 7.28 m 23'11"
Width (Operating) 5.08 m 16'8" 6.10 m 20'0" 6.10 m 20'0"
Width (Shipping)*** 3.97 m 13'0" 3.51 m 11'5" 3.51 m 11'5"
Front Tire Tread 3.28 m 10'9" 4.17 m 13'8" 4.17 m 13'8"
***Weights include lubricants, coolants, 100% fuel and a debris allowance (4% of chassis).
***Refer to Caterpillar’s 10/10/20 Payload Policy for Quarry & Construction Trucks.
***Disassembled.
9-5
53
Construction & Mining Trucks 776D, 777D Rimpull-Speed-Gradeability

Construction & Mining Tractors ● 27.00R49 Tires
GROSS WEIGHT
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 lb x 1000
lb x kg x
1000 1000
60 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 kg x 1000
130
55
30%
120 1A
A B
50
110
25%
100 45
TOTAL RESISTANCE
90 40
20%
80
RIMPULL
35
70
30
1B 15%
60
25
50
20 2 10%
40
15 3
30
10 4 5%
20 5
6
10 5 7
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 km/h
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 mph
SPEED
KEY KEY
1A — 1st Gear (Torque Converter) A* — Empty 64 359 kg (141,889 lb)
1B — 1st Gear B* — Max GMW 163 293 kg (360,000 lb)
2 — 2nd Gear
*These two reference lines (A and B) apply only to 777D.
3 — 3rd Gear
4 — 4th Gear
5 — 5th Gear
6 — 6th Gear
7 — 7th Gear
9-30
54
High Altitude Operations
•Less dense air at high altitude might not enable

efficient burning
g of the diesel fuel.
•Engine power output will be reduced.
•Naturally aspirated engines will encounter loss of power

at 1500-2000 m
•Turbocharged engines will maintain power to higher

altitudes
1
55
• Most machines might lose considerable power at 3000

meters altitude
• Engines must then be de-rated

de rated to enable proper air to fuel
ratio.
• Alternatively – more and/or larger turbochargers will bring

power back to specs
Collahuasi copper mine, Andes mountains, Northern Chile,

4800 meters altitude,
350 m depth of pit
pit,
370,000 tpd of overburden and ore,
45 x 797 model trucks,

345 ton payload, 200 M3,
24 cylinder engines, 3524B EUI
added 4 extra turbochargers
g
to maintain
the 2537 fwkW output.
2
56
Depending on the application, loss of earthmoving

production is considerably less than the loss in engine
power.
Application
pp Power Ratio ((APR)) is defined as
Cycle Average Power Output / Continuous Rated Output
Typical APR values are as follows:
Wheel loaders 0.75
Rigid Frame Mining/Quarry Trucks 0.40
Articulated Dump Trucks 0.55
Hydraulic Excavators 0 60
0.60
Track type Dozers-Rippers 0.70
Farm Tractors, long furrow plowing 0.85
Loss in production is expected to be
APR x engine power loss (fwkW)
• Altitude Compensation. When operating at high

altitudes, the system automatically derates power
by limiting fuel to prevent excessive exhaust gas
temperatures
p and related damage.
g
The system uses atmospheric pressure to determine the

engines altitude.
High Altitude Arrangements are available and they use

either additional displacement or two stage turbocharging
to get full machine performance even at the highest mine
sites in the world.
3
57
4
58

Tires at high altitude;
•Using nitrogen in Earthmovers rather than plain

compressed air is becoming popular.
•Nitrogen is an inert gas, which totally eliminate

danger of combustion inside the tire,
•An important point at high altitude with greater chance of

lightening strikes, in tropical storms which could create an
internal electrical discharge.
5
59
Tires at high altitude;
Relative pressure increases when machines move to

high altitude projects.
Pressure must be therefore adjusted, by using relative

pressure gauge not an absolute pressure gauge
6
60
Estimating Production Off-the-Job Mining and

● Altitude Earthmoving
Answer: power deration will be reflected in the machine’s

Firm earth — Usable DBP = gradeability and in the load, travel, and dump and
0.90 26 800 kg = 24 120 kg load times (unless loading is independent of the
(0.90 59,100 lb = 53,190 lb) machine itself). Altitude may also reduce retarding
Loose earth — Usable DBP = performance. Consult a Caterpillar representative
0.60 26 800 kg = 16 080 kg to determine if deration is applicable. Fuel grade 22
(0.60 59,100 lb = 35,460 lb) (heat content) can have a similar effect of derating
If a load required 21 800 kg (48,000 lb) pull to move engine performance.
it, this tractor could move the load on firm earth. The example job problem that follows indicates one
However, if the earth were loose, the tracks would method of accounting for altitude deration: by increas-
spin. ing the appropriate components of the total cycle
NOTE: D8R through D11R Tractors may attain time by a percentage equal to the percent of horse-
higher coefficients of traction due to their power deration due to altitude. (i.e., if the travel time
suspended undercarriage. of a hauling unit is determined to be 1.00 minute at
full HP, the time for the same machine derated to 90%
Example: Wheel Tractor-Scraper of full HP will be 1.10 min.) This is an approximate
What usable rimpull can a 621F size machine exert method that yields reasonably accurate estimates
while working on firm earth? on loose earth? The up to 3000 m (10,000 feet) elevation.
total loaded weight distribution of this unit is: Travel time for hauling units derated more than
10% should be calculated as follows using Rimpull-
Drive unit Scraper unit Speed-Gradeability charts.
wheels: 23 600 kg wheels: 21 800 kg 1) Determine total resistance (grade plus rolling)
(52,000 lb) (48,000 lb) in percent.
Remember, use weight on drivers only.
GROSS MACHINE WEIGHT (GMW)
Answer: EMPTY LOADED
Firm earth — 0.55 23 600 kg = 12 980 kg
(0.55 52,000 lb = 28,600 lb)
Loose earth — 0.45 23 600 kg = 10 620 kg
(0.45 52,000 lb = 23,400 lb)
TOTAL RESISTANCE
On firm earth this unit can exert up to 12 980 kg
(28,600 lb) rimpull without excessive slipping. How-
RIMPULL
ever, on loose earth the drivers would slip if more

than 10 620 kg (23,400 lb) rimpull were developed.
●●●
Altitude — Specification sheets show how much
pull a machine can produce for a given gear and
speed when the engine is operating at rated horse- SPEED
power. When a standard machine is operated in high
altitudes, the engine may require derating to main- 2) Beginning at point A on the chart follow the
tain normal engine life. This engine deration will total resistance line diagonally to its intersection,
produce less drawbar pull or rimpull. B, with the vertical line corresponding to the appro-
The Tables Section gives the altitude deration in priate gross machine weight. (Rated loaded and
percent of flywheel horsepower for current machines. empty GMW lines are shown dotted.)
It should be noted that some turbocharged engines 3) Using a straight-edge, establish a horizontal
can operate up to 4570 m (15,000 ft) before they line to the left from point B to point C on the rim-
require derating. Most machines are engineered to pull scale.
operate up to 1500-2290 m (5000-7500 ft) before 4) Divide the value of point C as read on the rim-
they require deration. pull scale by the percent of total horsepower avail-
The horsepower deration due to altitude must be able after altitude deration from the Tables Section.
considered in any job estimating. The amount of This yields rimpull value D higher than point C.
22-7
61
Tables
ALTITUDE DERATION (Continued)*

0-760 m 760-1500 m 1500-2300 m 2300-3000 m 3000-3800 m 3800-4600 m
MODEL (0-2500') (2500-5000') (5000-7500') (7500-10,000') (10,000-12,500') (12,500-15,000')
561M 100 100 100 94 86 80
572R Series II *100* *100* *100* 94 86 80
583R 100 100 100 100 94 87
589 100 100 94 87 80 73
621G 100 100 100 100 97 90
631G 100 100 100 100 97 90
627G Tractor 100 100 100 100 97 90
627F Scraper *100* *100* *100* 92 85 *79*
637G Tractor 100 100 100 100 97 90
637G Scraper *100* *100* 100 95 87 80
657G Tractor 100 100 100 94 88 81
657G Scraper 100 100 100 95 90 84
613C Series II 100 100 100 100 95 87
615C Series II *100* *100* 95 88 81 74
623G 100 100 100 100 97 90
769D 100 100 100 93 88 82
771D 100 100 100 93 88 82
773D 100 100 100 100 93 85
775D 100 100 100 100 93 85
777D 100 100 100 100 93 87
785C* 100 100 100 93 86 80
789C* 100 100 100 93 86 80
793C* 100 100 100 100 100 93
776D 100 100 100 100 93 87
784C 100 100 100 93 86 80
725 100 100 100 100 100 95
730 100 100 100 100 100 95
735 100 100 100 100 99 91
740 100 100 100 100 99 91
814F *100* *100* 100 100 97 94
824G Series II 100 100 100 97 89 82
834G 100 100 100 95 85 75
844 100 100 100 100 92 85
854G 100 100 100 100 93 87
815B *100* *100* 100 100 97 94
825G Series II 100 100 100 97 89 82
816F 100 100 100 100 97 94
826G Series II 100 100 100 97 89 82
836G 100 100 100 95 85 75
**Refer to “Captive Vehicle Engine Fuel Specifications” microfiche at your local dealer.
**Information not available at time of printing.
EUI engine — Automatic altitude deration.
27-8
67
62
PRINCIPLES OF TRACTION
The maximum usable pull which can be produced by a prime mover prior to slipping
of the tracks or wheel on ground is referred to as the USABLE DRAWBAR PULL or
RIMPULL (UP) (all in Kn)
The usable pull is directly proportional to the

x Normal force between the driving wheel or tracks (the "drivers") and the
ground, practically the weight on the drivers (WOD, kN) .
x The traction coefficient, TC, a figure which represents the gripping action
between the drivers surface configuration and the particular ground.
Typical Coefficient of Traction
Rubber tracks
Wheels
Concrete road 0.90 0.45
Clay loam, dry 0.55 0.90
Clay loam, wet 0.40 0.70
Rutted clay loam 0.20 0.70
Dry sand 0.40 0.30
Wet sand 0.65 0.50
Quarry pit 0.35 0.55
Loose gravel road 0.20 0.50
Packed snow 0.55 0.25
Firm earth 0.45 0.90
Loose earth 0.45 0.60
Coal stockpile 0.45 0.60
Notes: Traction is directly proportional to the weight on the drivers. Therefore

machine ballasting to the manufacturer specs are of utmost importance. This
particularly relates to wheel loaders and wheel dozers.
x Machine ballast for better traction can be done
o by design – adding weight to the machine frame at the factory,
o field adding counterweights, front and/or rear ( farm tractors, for
example),
o Iron wheel segments (for motor graders) or,
o Most common - water or CaCl solution ballast.
Water ballast is the less expensive, flexible in adding weight, and does
not add any load on the wheels bearings.
Wheel ballast is extremely important for machine safety and stability
(in particular the lateral one, while truck loading by wheel loaders).
Liquid solution should amount to about 75 percent of the tire volume,
leaving space for inflated air or nitrogen.
Enclosed – sample table for liquid inflation.
x Conclusion – ballast the machine to the manufacturer's specifications.
x Water content significantly affect traction – adversely on muddy terrain,
favorable on dry sand, for example.
x On grades – uphill, rear drive (rigid mining trucks) is advantageous to front
wheel drive only (scrapers)
o Keep roads even. Bumps, especially on soft terrain adversely affect
traction.
Traction E.doc
64
Traction problem - w/template solution
Off highway trucks model HD785-7 are hauling earth in a big road construction project
The trucks are hauling uphill, from cut to fill area.
However, site management demand is that road will fit also empty trucks moving uphill.
Trucks are two axles. Rear propulsion.
Vehicle mass, for empty and loaded, as well as the load distribution are attached.
Rimpull curves are attached, for eveluation machine speed.
consider
Assume traction Coeficient 0.3

Rolling Resistance, percent grade equivale 3.0 percent
For safety margin, also as road slope in not neccesarily even,
must be deducted from the calculated slop 4.0 percent
to be evaluated
a) Slope at which trucks can safely moved uphill, for both empty and loaded truck.
b) Machine speed on section, for both empty and loaded
Truction problem replacing C p. 12/18

model Komatzu HD785-7
empty loaded
Truck mass ton -
front axle %
rear axle %
rear axle mass (for traction) ton
g=
weight on drivers kN
traction coefficient
usable pull kN
must be equal or bigger than the Total Resintance to motion
Total resistance calculation

total mass (GVM) ton
for each percent grade per ton kN/ton/% grade
maximum total grade possible percent
GVM (ton) x 0.1 x S = usable pull
S = usable pull (kN) /GVM (ton)/0.1 percent total equivqlent grade
less for rolling resistance percent
less for safety margin percent
grade for designing road percent
must design at the lower grade to enable both empty and loaded, ie
grade for designing road
for speed calculation
add for rolling
total effective grade
machine expected speed (from rim pull curve)
conclusions
design road grade at
machine speed empty
machine speed loaded
requirement for empty machine travel limits road grade. Loaded machine can negotiate steeper grade from traction point of view
traction HD785-7 EQA template.xls

OFF-HIGHWAY TRUCK
HD785-7
65
BODY WEIGHT (APPROX.)
Capacity: Empty weight ....................................................................... 72.600 kg

Struck...................................................................................... 40 m³ Gross vehicle weight ......................................................... 166.000 kg
Heaped (2:1, SAE).................................................................. 60 m³ Not to exceed max. gross vehicle weight, including options, fuel and
Payload......................................................................... 91 metric tons payload.
Material............................................................................. 130 kg/mm² Weight distribution
400 Brinell high tensile strength steel Empty:
Material thickness: Front axle .................................................................................. 47%
Bottom................................................................................... 19 mm Rear axle................................................................................... 53%
Front...................................................................................... 12 mm Loaded:
Sides ....................................................................................... 9 mm Front axle ............................................................................... 31,5%
Target area (inside length × width) .................. 7.065 mm × 5.200 mm Rear axle................................................................................ 68,5%
Dumping angle ...............................................................................48°
Height at full dump............................................................. 10.210 mm
Heating ...................................................................... Exhaust heating
SERVICE REFILL CAPACITIES
Fuel tank................................................................................. 1.308 ltr

Engine oil................................................................................... 129 ltr
ENVIRONMENT Torque converter, transmission and retarder cooling................. 205 ltr
Differentials (total) ..................................................................... 137 ltr
Engine emissions ............................... Fully complies with EPA Tier II Final drives (total) ...................................................................... 128 ltr
exhaust emission regulations Hydraulic system ....................................................................... 175 ltr
Noise levels: Brake control ............................................................................... 36 ltr
LpA operator ear ...........................................75 dB(A) (SAE J1166) Suspension (total)........................................................................ 93 ltr
15
HD785-7 O F F - H I G H W A Y TR U C K
SPECIFICATIONS
Power Mode
GROSS WEIGHT
EMPTY LOADED
LOADED
UNLOADED
RIMPULL
TOTAL RESISTANCE (GRADE + ROLLING) (%)
TRAVEL SPEED
TRAVEL PERFORMANCE
66
To determine travel performance: Read from gross weight down to the percent of total resistance. From
this weight-resistance point, read horizontally to the curve with the highest obtainable speed range, then
down to maximum speed. Usable rimpull depends upon traction available and weight on drive wheels.
67
Specifications Wheel Dozers
MODEL 844H 854G

Flywheel Power 468 kW 627 hp 597 kW 800 hp
Operating Weight* 70 815 kg 156,120 lb 99 395 kg 219,128 lb
Engine Model C27 3508B DITA
Rated Engine RPM 2000 1750
No. Cylinders 12 8
Displacement 27.1 L 1666 in3 34.5 L 2105 in3
Speeds:
Forward 3 3
Reverse 3 3
Top Speed Forward 21 km/h 13 mph 21.9 km/h 13.6 mph
Turning Circle with Blade 21.73 m 71'4" 23.4 m 76'9"
Standard Tire Size 45/65-R39, PR (L-4) 45/65-R45 (L-4)
Fuel Tank Refill Capacity 1016 L 268 U.S. gal 1562 L 413 U.S. gal
GENERAL DIMENSIONS:
Height (to top of ROPS) 5.023 m 16'6" 5.44 m 17'10"
Height (stripped top)** 3.8 m 12'6" 4.1 m 13'5"
Wheel Base 4.6 m 15'1" 5.89 m 19'4"
Overall Length with Dozer 10.94 m 35'9" 13.405 m 44'0"
Width (over standard tires) 4.37 m 14'4" 4.52 m 14'10"
Ground Clearance 431 mm 1'5" 475 mm 1'7"
SEMI-U DOZER:
Width 5.278 m 17'4" 6.604 m 21'8"
Height 1.877 m 6'2" 2.124 m 6'11"
Capacity 16.1 m3 21.1 yd3 25.4 m3 33.1 yd3
Ground Clearance Below Skid Shoe 1372 mm 4'6" 1539 mm 5'1"
Depth of Cut 466 mm 18" 398 mm 16"
Tilt Adjustment 830 mm 2'9" 1165 mm 3'10"
Tip Adjustment 13° 15° 11
Lift Speed 0.353 m/sec 1.2 ft/sec 0.385 m/sec 1.3 ft/sec
**Operating Weight includes Semi-U, coolant, ROPS cab, full fuel tank and operator. If 75% CaCl2 is added to all four tires, the weight increases by 11 112 kg (24,500 lb)
on the 844H and 12 144 kg (26,770 lb) on the 854.
**Height (stripped top) — without ROPS, exhaust, seat back or easily removed encumbrances.
11-3
Tires Liquid Ballasting* Table
● 75% Fillage**
BIAS PLY TIRES RADIAL PLY TIRES

Weight Mixing Proportions Weight Mixing Proportions
Increase Increase
Per Tire CaCl*** Water Per Tire CaCl*** Water
kg lb kg lb liter gal kg lb kg lb liter gal
13.00-24TG 188 414 55 122 132 35 185 407 57 125 128 34
14.00-24TG 215 475 63 140 151 40 256 565 79 173 179 47
15.5-25 192 423 56 125 136 36 224 493 69 151 155 41
16.00-24TG 333 735 98 217 234 62 355 783 109 240 246 65
17.5-25 262 577 77 170 185 49 311 686 95 210 216 57
18.00-25 454 1002 134 296 322 85 502 1107 154 340 348 92
18.4-34 417 919 123 272 295 78 — — — — — —
20.5-25 405 892 119 263 284 75 448 987 137 303 310 82
23.1-26 522 1151 154 340 367 97 — — — — — —
23.5-25 585 1291 173 382 412 109 633 1396 194 428 439 116
24.5-32 703 1549 207 458 496 131 — — — — — —
26.5-25 758 1671 224 494 533 141 841 1853 258 568 583 154
26.5-29 752 1658 222 490 530 140 928 2045 284 627 644 170
28L-26 709 1563 209 462 500 132 — — — — — —
29.5-25 970 2139 286 632 685 181 1073 2368 328 723 745 197
29.5-29 1050 2315 310 684 738 195 1190 2623 365 804 825 218
29.5-35 1159 2556 344 758 821 217 1286 2835 394 869 892 236
30.5L-32 874 1928 258 570 617 163 — — — — — —
33.25-35 1485 3275 439 968 1048 277 1592 3508 487 1074 1105 292
37.25-35 1712 3775 505 1115 1211 320 2128 4692 653 1439 1476 390
38-39 1870 4123 552 1218 1317 348 — — — — — —
35/65-33 1339 2953 396 873 942 249 1430 3152 438 967 992 262
40/65-39 2077 4580 614 1353 1465 387 2194 4836 673 1483 1522 402
41.25/70-39 1897 4183 561 1236 1336 353 — — — — — —
45/65-45 2548 5617 753 1659 1794 474 — — — — — —
***Ballast weight for bias ply tires from Goodyear data, radial ply weights from Michelin data. Contact your tire supplier for additional information. Under abnormal tire wear
conditions, ballasting of rear tires may be desirable. Ballasting of front tires also should only be done where extremely rapid tire wear rates are encountered. Excessive
weight will reduce machine performance.
***Fillage beyond 75% of tire enclosed volume is not recommended. With liquid ballasting, inflation pressure must be checked at least once per day.
68
***1.6 kg (31⁄2 lb) Calcium Chloride per gallon water. Solution weighs 4.6 kg (10.15 lb) per gallon.
NOTE: When liquid ballasting telehandler tires, consult Telehandler’s Operation and Maintenance Manual for requirements. Total machine mass including all attachments
in operating condition, all reservoirs at full capacity and ballasted tires must not exceed certification mass listed on the ROPS certification label.
69
VOLUMETRIC CHANGES EarthmovingStudies.com
Volumetric changes – the significance;

Earthmoving equipment generally load and haul earth
measured by volume.
This is in contrary to finished products

products, loaded and sold
by weight, for both construction and mining products.
Therefore, payload (tonnage) might varies from the

rated load. Sometimes significantly.
In case of overloading
g – excessive machine wear,,
safety risks.
In case of under-loading – loss of production.
Means of getting desired load -
•Provide built-in electronic weighing devices to loaders and/or

haulers, TRANSMIT DATA TO CAB OR COMMAND OFFICE
•Weighing by portable scales (generally used for tire load

evaluation)
•Evaluate loosed material density, multiply by hauler volume.

In case of ore or rock brought to plant (mining or aggregate
production) – get average truck load by plant receiving scales. This
does not apply to general earthmoving and overburden removal.
1
70
Material swells in front of the blade
Material compacted into the bowl of a push loaded scraper
2
71
Material pulverized by elevator scraper
Does the truck take the rated load? Should it be side boarded?
3
72
Portable weighing device
Mining truck with load sensing device. Data displayed and stored
In cab or transmitted to command office
4
73
Excavated material swells, while increasing voids.

Material
M t i l swells
ll significantly
i ifi tl – from
f 10 percentt on sand
d
dunes to 50 percent and more in shot rock.
Rate of swell depends on material charachteristics and

equipment use
5
74
Terms and definitions
•Bank (In Situ) volume (Vb) measured in Bank m3 (Bm3)

•Loose Volume (Vl) measured in Loose m3 (Lm3)
•Compacted Volume (Vc) in Compacted m3 (Cm3)
•Swell is defined as (Vl-Vb)/Vb/100
•Swell Factor (SF) is defined as Vb/Vl
•Compaction (Shrinkage) Factor as Vc/Vb
•Densities for the 3 states are defined as Db, Dl, Dc
As densities are inversely proportional to the volumes,
•Swell Factor = Vb/Vl = Dl/Db
•Compaction factor = Vc/Vb = Db/Dc
•Density tests are considered a simple way to evaluate swell

and compaction rates, as densities checks are generally a
routine by earth site laboratories.
laboratories
6
75
7
76
Tables
LOOSE BANK LOAD

WEIGHT* OF MATERIALS kg/m3 lb/yd3 kg/m3 lb/yd3 FACTORS
Basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1960 3300 2970 5000 .67
Bauxite, Kaolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1420 2400 1900 3200 .75
Caliche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250 2100 2260 3800 .55
Carnotite, uranium ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1630 2750 2200 3700 .74
Cinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 950 860 1450 .66
Clay — Natural bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660 2800 2020 3400 .82
Dry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1480 2500 1840 3100 .81
Wet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660 2800 2080 3500 .80
Clay & gravel — Dry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1420 2400 1660 2800 .85
Wet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1540 2600 1840 3100 .85
Coal — Anthracite, Raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190 2000 1600 2700 .74
Washed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100 1850 .74
Coal — Ash, Bituminous Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-650 900-1100 590-890 1000-1500 .93
Coal — Bituminous, Raw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950 1600 1280 2150 .74
Washed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 1400 .74
Decomposed rock —
75% Rock, 25% Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1960 3300 2790 4700 .70
50% Rock, 50% Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720 2900 2280 3850 .75
25% Rock, 75% Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1570 2650 1960 3300 .80
Earth — Dry packed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1510 2550 1900 3200 .80
Wet excavated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600 2700 2020 3400 .79
Loam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250 2100 1540 2600 .81
Granite — Broken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660 2800 2730 4600 .61
Gravel — Pitrun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1930 3250 2170 3650 .89
Dry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1510 2550 1690 2850 .89
Dry 6-50 mm (1/4"-2") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1690 2850 1900 3200 .89
Wet 6-50 mm (1/4"-2") . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2020 3400 2260 3800 .89
Gypsum — Broken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1810 3050 3170 5350 .57
Crushed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600 2700 2790 4700 .57
Hematite, iron ore, high grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1810-2450 4000-5400 2130-2900 4700-6400 .85
Limestone — Broken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1540 2600 2610 4400 .59
Crushed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1540 2600 — — —
Magnetite, iron ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2790 4700 3260 5500 .85
Pyrite, iron ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2580 4350 3030 5100 .85
Sand — Dry, loose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1420 2400 1600 2700 .89
Damp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1690 2850 1900 3200 .89
Wet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1840 3100 2080 3500 .89
Sand & clay — Loose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600 2700 2020 3400 .79
Compacted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2400 4050
Sand & gravel — Dry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720 2900 1930 3250 .89
Wet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2020 3400 2230 3750 .91
Sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1510 2550 2520 4250 .60
Shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250 2100 1660 2800 .75
Slag — Broken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750 2950 2940 4950 .60
Snow — Dry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 220
Wet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 860
Stone — Crushed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600 2700 2670 4500 .60
Taconite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1630-1900 3600-4200 2360-2700 5200-6100 .58
Top Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950 1600 1370 2300 .70
Taprock — Broken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750 2950 2610 4400 .67
Wood Chips** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — — — — —
**Varies with moisture content, grain size, degree of compaction, etc. Tests must be made to determine exact material characteristics.
**Weights of commercially important wood species can be found in the last pages of the Logging & Forest Products section. To obtain wood weights use the following
equations: lb/yd3 = (lb/ft3) .4 27
kg/m3 = (kg/m3) .4
27-4
Volumetric Changes of Moved Soils

Questions
1 Density tests of soil show;
Bank 2,000 kg/Bm3
Loose 1,650 kg/Lm3
Compacted 2,100 kg/Cm3
Project volume 200 000
200,000 Cm3
To be found:
Rate of swell, %
Volume to be excavated m3
Volume to be hauld m3
2 The total volume of a bridge foundation is

10,000 Cm3
Material Swell factor 0.72
Compaction Factor 0.80
How many passes of 18 m3 Articulated Dump Trucks (ADT)
are required to accomplish haulage?
3 Rated scraper payload (advertised) 38 ton

Machine net (Tare) mass 45 ton
Scraper rated volume 23 m3
Material bank density 2,550 kg/m3
Material swell factor 0.77
The scraper is utilized to it's volumetric capacity
question: Is the scraper overloaded/underloaded,
and at what rate, in terms of kg and %
of 1) payload, 2) gross machine mass
4 The hourly production of an ADT truck is expected to be 150 lm3/h
truck rated volume (1:1 slope) is 26 Lm3
ADT hourly charge 90 dollar/h
Contractor assumes swell factor 0.85

Real factor, tested thereafter 0.78
Project volume 100,000 Bm3
Find the deviation between the bidding price and the actual project cost
C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\My Documents\Earthmoving\WITS\VOLUMETRIC\Volumetric questions only

wits 2008 book.xlsquestions 1-5
www.EarthmovingStudies.com
78
5 Production loss can result from inadequate body or bucket volume in case of
hauling lighter material
sidenoarding is then required
In a dam buiding project -

Compacted volume needed 200,000 Cm3
Bank density 1,900 kg/Bm3
compaction factor (compacted to bank ratio) 0.94
swell factor (bank to loose volume ratio) 0.76
Truck body volume 57 m3 SAE 2:1
Truck rated payload 90.7 ton
Truck cost per hour 90.00 $/h
truck cycles/hour 6
truck body length (inner) 6.00 m
truck body width (inner) 4.70 m
To be calculated:
Number of truck hours required and haulage cost $
1 when truck loaded to it's rated volume capacity
2 when truck loaded to it's rated payload (ton)
should the truck be sideboarded to achieve rated payload (ton)?
in the affirmative sideboarding height (cm) to be calculated
C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\My Documents\Earthmoving\WITS\VOLUMETRIC\Volumetric questions only wits 2008 book.xlsquestions 1-5
79
Exercise 5
In a dam buiding project -
solution (template)
at rated load (ton)

needed 200,000 Cm3
compaction factor 0.94
needed Bm3
bank density 1,900
needed ton
truck rated payload 90.70 ton
truck does 6 cycles/h
truck does ton/h
hours required
truck cost 90.00 at $/h
cost/project dollar
at rated volume
bank density 1,900 kg/Bm3
swell factor 0.76
loose density kg/Lm3
truck volume, rated 57 Lm3
actual payload ton
truck does 6 cycles/h
truck does ton/h
needed ton/project
hours required
truck cost 90.00 at $/h
cost/project dollar
load@rated payload 90.70 ton

load@rated volume ton
balance ton
loose density
Lm3 to be added
body length 6.00 m
body width 4.70 m
body area m2
sideboarding required cm
C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\My Documents\Earthmoving\WITS\VOLUMETRIC\Volumetric

questions only wits 2008 book.xlsprob 5 q&template
80
Fill material is required at a road construction section
Sandy clay should be brought from a borrow pit

total compacted volume required 143,000 Cm3
material at the borrow pit
bank density at the borrow pit 2,066 kg/WBm3
voids, percent at the borrow pit 0.62
bank water content 16.50 %
material at the fill area should be

compacted to dry density 1,830 kg/Cm3
and water content of 18.30 %
thickness of layers before compaction
as to bid specs 0.2 meter
Swell factor (loose to bank volumes) 0.86
Equipment and operation data

Loading at borrow pit by a sub contractor by Front end Loaders
Hauling by company owned Articulated Dump Trucks

truck payload 25.0 ton
truck cycles per hour 6.0 cycles/h
Spreading by a sub contracted motor grader
Compaction by a 15 ton company owned vibratory compactor

drum width 2.00 meter
Compactor speed, while compacting 1.2 km/h
Assume overlapping of passes 10 %
passes required, as to bid specifications 5
assume hourly utilization, for compactor 53 min/h
cost data
Loading by a sub contractor by Front end Loaders 0.35 dollar/ton

Spreading by a sub contracted motor grader 0.25 dolla/Lm3
Hourly cost of an articulated truck 120.0 dollar/h
Hourly cost of a compactor (Vibratory Roller) 90.0 dollar/h
Cost of water supplied on site 1.0 dollar/m3
To be evaluated
1) material volume to be excavated Bm3
2) material volume to be hauled Lm3
3) truck hours needed hours
4) compactor hours needed hours
5) water to be added/subtracted m3
cost summary dollar percent
6 cost of loading
7 cost of trucking
8 cost of spreading
9 total cost, watering
10 compaction cost
11 total cost of project
23/08/2008
C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\My Documents\Earthmoving\WITS\VOLUMETRIC\Volumetric questions only

wits 2008 book.xlspeaurifoy Q&A
81
suggested reply (template)

volume humidity dry wet dry mass wet mass mass
% density density ton ton water
compacted
bank
loose
loading percent
at dollar per ton of total cost
cost of loading dollar
trucking
truck payload ton
cycles/h
production ton/hr
hours required hours
cost per hour
cost of trucking dollar
spreading Lm3
at cost of dollar/Lm3
cost of spreading dollar
watering
water available m3
water needed m3
to be added m3
at a cost of dollar/m3
total cost, watering
compacting
width meters
overlapping %
working width m
working speed km/h
minutes/h minutes/h
area/h m2/h
passes
area/h m2/h
depth meter
compaction production Lm3/h
total Lm3 to be compacted
hours required hours
at dollar/hour
compaction cost dollar/hour
total cost of project dollar/hour
summery dollar percent

cost of loading
cost of trucking
cost of spreading
total cost, watering
compaction cost
total cost of project
Rock Ripping with track type Tractors
Hard rock ripping is considered as the

toughest track type tractor application.
Rock which can not be ripped economically

must be drilled and blasted.
The break even point between drill and blast

pp
and ripping is mostly based on the product
cost/ton.
Other considerations might be safety,

proximity to inhabited area, environmental
restrictions etc.
Actually, ripping has a long history dating back to the Roman Empire. There is
evidence the Romans used a ripper mounted on wheels and pulled by oxen
when they were building the Appian Way. Rippers were also used in the
United States during railroad construction from 1860 to 1880.
pp as we know it todayy did not appear

The ripper pp pp y 1930.
until approximately
Rippers drawn by tractors were developed by R.G. LeTourneau in 1931 and
used on the Hoover Dam project. At that time, they weighed about
y
3,500 kg and were pulled by tractors with about 75 flywheel p
horsepower
The main shortcoming of drawn rippers was the poor penetration ability. (due
to lack of weight transfer from tractor to ripper). These units achieved only
limited success, usually in shale, clay, limestone, hardpan, cemented gravel,
and frozen ground.
pp
Larger track type tractors and rippers pp
appeared in the ’50s and ’60s with
advanced ripping capabilities by mounting the ripper to the rear of the
machine. This design, coupled with advanced hydraulic systems, more
machine weight, and greater horsepower, greatly improved ripping
performance and efficiency. These advances in performance were welcomed
as environmental factors began to limit or restrict conventional blasting
techniques in urban areas.
If applicable, one benefit of using ripping in mining and quarries rather than
drill and blasting appears in case of a demand for controlled fragmentation
for process improvements. Ripping, where applicable eliminated necessity to
evacuate loading equipment, mobile crushers etc when blasting takes place.
Not all materials or formations can be ripped. Others cannot be ripped

economically. Determining whether or not a rock formation can be ripped is
not a simple process, but today’s technology and experience can help
develop a reasonable prediction.
rip text wits.doc

Obviously, the ideal test for determining rippability is to put a ripping tractor on
the job and see if it can rip the material – test by trial. But this may not be
practical due to the time and expense involved. Moreover, one can evaluate
the ripping performance on the surface, but can not predict the underground
layers response for ripping.
Therefore, in order to determine if ripping is feasible, a basic knowledge of
geology and rock characteristics affecting ripping is necessary.
This knowledge is gained through on-the-job ripping experience in various
formations.
When classified by origin, rocks fall into one of three categories. Knowing the
correct classification can often help answer the question: “Can it be ripped?
Igneous Rocks are formed by the cooling of molten masses originating within
the earth. Igneous rocks never contain fossils, are identified by their mineral
content and texture, and almost never have the stratified, banded, or foliated
characteristics of other rocks. They usually possess high compressive
and tensile strength. Granites, basalts, pegmatites, pitchstone, and pumice
are igneous rocks commonly encountered on earthmoving jobs. Formations of
these rocks are usually the most difficult to rip because they typically lack the
stratification and cleavage planes essential to the successful ripping of hard
rock. Igneous rocks are usually rippable only where they are deeply
weathered and/or very highly fractured. These conditions can readily be
detected via field seismic surveys.
Metamorphic Rocks result from the transformation of pre-existing rocks

which have been changed in mineral composition, texture, or both. The
agents causing metamorphism in rocks are shearing stresses, intense
pressure, chemical action from liquids and gases, and high temperatures.
Common metamorphic rocks are gneiss, slate, marble, quartzite, and schist.
These rocks vary in rippability depending on their degree of stratification or

foliation. All are found on or near the earth’s surface and usually occur as
homogeneous masses.
Sedimentary Rocks consist of material derived from destruction of previously

existing rocks. Water action is responsible for the largest percentage of
sedimentary rocks, although some result from wind or glacial pressure. Their
most prominent feature is stratification, i.e., they are built of layers
differing in texture, material, thickness, color, or a combination of these
properties. This layering is referred to as bedding, and individual layers, which
are often uniform in texture, color, and composition, are referred to as beds. A
single bed may vary in thickness from paper thin to several hundred
feet. Examples of common sedimentary rocks are sandstone, limestone,
shale, conglomerate, and caliche. This family of rocks is generally the most
easily ripped. The material condition of rock affects its rippability.
rip text wits.doc

Although sedimentary formations generally offer the best opportunity for

ripping, and igneous and metamorphic the least, decomposed granites and
other weathered igneous and metamorphic rocks often can in many cases be
ripped economically.
Little or no trouble is encountered with hardpan, clays, shales, or sandstones.

Likewise, any highly stratified or laminated rocks and formations with
extensive fracturing offer good possibilities for ripping. Solid, thickly bedded
rock formations may require drilling and blasting.
aaaa0 86% 75% 25%
The physical characteristics which favor ripping may be summarized by:
1. Frequent planes of weaknesses such as fractures, faults, and laminations

2. Weathering
3. Moisture-permeated formations
4. High degree of stratification
5. Brittleness
6. Low strengths
7. Low field seismic velocity
The list of conditions which make ripping difficult is not nearly as long as it
used to be. Ripping tends to be more difficult if the rock formation is:
1. Massive
2. Without planes of weakness
3. Crystalline rock
4. Non-brittle, energy-absorbing rock fabrics
5. High strengths
6. High field seismic velocity Main types of rippers are
Radial
Main types
yp
operating
The demands of heavy ripping will increase the normal owning and operatin
costs of the tractor. These costs should be increased no less than 30-
40% in heavy ripping applications to estimate rock loosening costs.
There is no ready answer or rule-of-thumb solution to predict ripping

production. Even if everything is known about the seismic velocity (see
below)of the material, its composition, job conditions, equipment and
operator, only a “guesstimate” can be given. The final answer must come from
a production study obtained on the job site.
The charts of ripper performance estimated by seismic wave velocities have

been developed from field tests conducted in a variety of materials.
Considering the extreme variations among materials and even among rocks
of a specific classification, the charts must be recognized as being at best
only one indicator of rippability.
rip text wits.doc

Just to demonstrate the variance in ripping productivity, look at the attached

charts and the production variation within the same seismic velocity.
Accordingly, consider the following precautions when evaluating the feasibility

of ripping a given formation:
— Tooth penetration is often the key to ripping success, regardless of seismic

velocity. This is particularly true in homogeneous materials such as
mudstones and claystones and the fine-grained caliches. It is also true in
tightly cemented formations such as conglomerates, some glacial tills and
caliches containing rock
— Low seismic velocities of sedimentaries can indicate probable rippability.
However, if the fractures and bedding joints do not allow tooth penetration, the
material may not be ripped effectively.
— Pre-blasting or “popping” may induce sufficient fracturing to permit tooth
entry, particularly in the caliches, conglomerates and some other
rocks; but the economics should be checked carefully when considering
popping in the higher grades of sandstones, limestones and granites.
Ripping is still more art than science, and much will depend on operator skill
and experience.
rip text wits.doc

Ripping for scraper loading may call for different techniques than if the same
material is to be dozed away.
Cross-ripping requires a change in approach. The number of shanks used,

length and depth of shank, tooth angle, direction, throttle position — all
must be adjusted according to field conditions.
Ripping success may well depend on the operator finding the proper
combination for those conditions.
Rock ripping is regarded the aggressive tractor operation, in terms of specific

pull forces (force applied on unit area)
A D10R track type tractor develops more than 6200 kPa at the shank frontal
area (more than 62 bar pressure)
D10R Ripper
shank width (with
protector&tip) 0.13 m 13.0 cm
average ripping depth 0.60 m 60.0 cm
cm
frontal area 0.08 m2 780.0 2
machine mass including

SU dozer
Single shank
Ripper
65,40
Rops cab 65.4 ton 0 KG
g= 9.8
weight 641.6 kN
at traction coefficient 0.8 0.8
49,05
maximum usable pull 481.2 kN 0 KG
kP
pressure at contact area 6,169 a 62.9 bar
Calculations still not consider dynamic impact effect
rip text wits.doc

Ripper configuration
– Fixed Parallelogram rippers are common for small track type tractors
Shank is raised and lower perpendicular to ground
– Adjustable parallelogram ripper - two hydraulic cylinders have replaced

the upper beams of the fixed parallelogram ripper, enabling to adjust the
shank angle. This is the most common most versatile available today
– Radial Ripper, adjustable angle
Pryout,” force (kN) — the maximum sustained upward force, generated by

the lift cylinders measured at the ripper tip.
Breakout force (kN) is measured with the shank in the top hole,
shank vertical and ripper full down. Breakout force (horizontal, at the ripper
tip) may be hydraulically or balance limited.
Penetration force, (kN) — the maximum sustained downward force,
generated by the ripper lift cylinders measured at the ripper tip, which is
required to raise the back end of the vehicle with the tip on ground and the
shank (pinned in the top hole) vertical.
rip text wits.doc

RIPPING TECHNIQUES
Things to watch for:

• Rip downhill if possible to utilize the full weight of the tractor.
• Rip in the same direction scrapers will load
• Rip in the direction of layer lamination.
• Always try to vary penetration, number of shanks, spacing and type of
tips, to achieve highest performance.
• Never make a turn with the shank in the ground
• Always make sure that the tractor is moving before lowering the shank.
• Never push down to an extent which will raise rear of the tractor.
• Whenever raising the shank, look at the tip, make sure it is there,
secured and not worn out.
• Never doze down to the bank – leave enough material for padding, for
better traction, less wear.
• 1.5 – 2.5 km/hr at two-thirds throttle is most economical
• Reduce speeds in shock and impact conditions
• Ripper position
• Begin pass with tip rearward
• Pull tip forward after tip penetrates
• Signs of incorrect positioning/operating
• Excessive track slippage
• Blunt tips
• Breaking shank protector or ripper tip pins
• Ripper Ground Engaging Tools
• Penetration ripper tip reinforcing ribs must
face upward
• Ensure ground engaging tool pins, retainers, and bolts are
installed correctly
• Never operate a bare shank
rip text wits.doc

Rock ripping production rate

As advised, production rates vary significantly , and depend mainly on the
rock formation. One reliable method to evaluate ripping production is the on-
the-job study.
An average cycle time should be determined from a number of timed cycles.

Turn-around or back-up time must be included as the fixed time per cycle.

Measure the average rip distance, rip spacing and depth of penetration. This
data will give the volume per cycle from
which the production in bank cubic meters can be calculated.
The following example relates to on-the job ripping production calculation.
D10 size tractor with single

g shank ripper,
pp is ripping
pp g medium-hard limestone.
Average
g ripping
pp g speed
p ( g p) at 4 km/h. Length
is 1.2 km/h, return (backing-up) g of
furrow is 60 meters, spacing between passes - 0.8 meters and the average
depth is 0.4 meters.
Machine hourlyy utilization is 48 minutes/h. Fixed time per cycle (change

directions, accelerate, decelerate) is 0.15 minutes.
Full time ripping (no pushing or dozing assignment).
To be evaluated – production hourly rates in Bm3/h.
rip text wits.doc

90
91
92
93
TRACTOR D6R D7R D7R D8R D8R D9R D9R D10R D10R D11R D11R D11R
BLADE SEMI U SEMI U UNIV. SEMI U UNIV. SEMI U UNIV. SEMI U UNIV. SEMI U UNIV. CARRY
FWKW 123 123 171 228 228 302 302 425 425 634 634 634
GROSS MASS INCLUDING DOZER AND RIPPER (TON)

19.50 30.00 30.50 39.00 40.00 53.00 54.00 73.00 74.00 112.00 113.50 115.00
DOZER CAPACITY,SAE RATING [ LM3 ]
5.62 6.86 8.34 8.68 11.70 13.50 16.40 18.50 22.00 27.20 34.40 43.60
CAPACITY RATIO-"U"/"SU"/"S" BLADES
82 100 74 100 82 100 84 100 79 100 127
BLADE WIDTH [m]
3.26 3.69 3.98 3.94 4.26 4.32 4.65 4.86 5.26 5.60 6.35 6.71
GROSS MACHINE MASS TO BLADE LENGTH [TON]
6.0 8.1 7.7 9.9 9.4 12.3 11.6 15.0 14.1 20.0 17.9 17.1
FWKW / BLADE LENGTH [ FWHP/M ]
37.7 33.3 43.0 57.9 53.5 69.9 64.9 87.4 80.8 113.2 99.8 94.5
FWKW / GROSS WEIGHT [F WHP/T ]
6.31 4.10 5.61 5.85 5.70 5.70 5.59 5.82 5.74 5.66 5.59 5.51
Dozer comparisont E.xls

94
BULLDOZER PRODUCTION RATES

"OFF THE JOB"CALCULATIONS
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Q = hourly production-real,[Lm3/h]
Qm = hourly production,maximum,[Lm3/h],see
production maximum [Lm3/h] see curves/production charts
L = dozing distance[m]
Operating factors;
fo=operator's factor. excellent=1.0 average=0.6-0.75

fd=material
d ate a de density
s ty factor.
acto =13703 0 / real
ea loose
oose de
density[kg/m3]
s ty[ g/ 3]
fx=material state factor; loose stockpile-1.2,hard to cut-0.8
dead,free flow-0.8;wet,sticky-0.8
ripped or blasted rock-0.8
fv=visibility factor, normal=1 dusty-0.85-0.95,rain-0.8-1.0
night operation(machine lights only)-0.8
fg=grade factor-see curves
HU ho rl utilization=real
HU=hourly tili ation real working
orking time [(min)/60]
PRACTICAL HOURLY PRODUCTION[Lm3/h]
Q = Qm x (fo x fd x fx x fv x fg x HU)
dozer E produc calculation.XLS

95
Bulldozers Estimating Production Off-The-Job

● SU-Blades
ESTIMATED DOZING PRODUCTION ● Semi-Universal Blades ● D6N through D11T
Lm3/hr LCY/hr
3600
4600
4400 A
3300
4200
3000 4000
3800
2700 3600
EST. DOZING PRODUCTION
3400
2400 3200
3000
B
2100 2800
2600
1800 2400
2200 C
1500 2000
1800
1200 1600 D
1400
900 1200
E
1000
600 800 F
600 G A
300 400 E B
200 F C
G D
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Feet
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 Meters

AVERAGE DOZING DISTANCE
KEY NOTE: This chart is based on numerous field

studies made under varying job condi-
A — D11T-11SU tions. Refer to correction factors follow-
ing these charts.
B — D10T-10SU
C — D9R/D9T-9SU
D — D8R/D8T-8SU
E — D7R Series II-7SU
F — D6R Series III-6SU
G — D6N-6SU
1-40
96
Estimating Production Off-The-Job Bulldozers

● U-Blades 1
ESTIMATED DOZING PRODUCTION ● Universal Blades ● D7G through D11T
Lm3/hr LCY/hr
4800
3600 A
4600
4400
3300
4200
B
4000
3000
3800
EST. DOZING PRODUCTION
2700 3600
3400
2400 3200
C
3000
2100 2800
2600
1800 2400
D
2200
1500 2000
1800
E
1200 1600
1400
900 1200
F
1000
G
600 800
600 B
A
300 400
C
200 F D
G E
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Feet
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 Meters

AVERAGE DOZING DISTANCE
KEY
NOTE: This chart is based on numerous field
A — D11T-11U studies made under varying job condi-
B — D11T CD tions. Refer to correction factors follow-
ing these charts.
C — D10T-10U
D — D9R/D9T-9U
E — D8R/D8T-8U
F — D7R Series II-7U
G — D7G-7U
1-39
97
98
99
Dozer production- questions
1) Determine the expected production of a D8R model

tractor,equipped with a "U" (Universal) dozer with tilt
cylinder,pushing earth to a distance of 75 m,in the following
conditions:
average operator consider 0.75

material density,loose-1500 kg/m3
material-clay,dry,hard to cut consider 0.85
good visibility-work in day time
material pushed 10 prcnt upgrade see grade factor
average HOURLY UTILIZATION = 50 min/h
2)A sandstone quarry is planned to produce 3000 Lm3 per 10

working hours.The sandstone is ripped and dozed by a D8R tractor
(or equivqlent),equiped with a SEMI UNIVERSAL dozer and a three
shank ripper,then loaded on trucks by wheel type,front end
loaders
Average dozing distance is 40 m,down a slope of 5 %.A good

operator is employed (consider 0.85 operator's factor).Day time
operation with no visibility restrictions.Material density is
1500 kg/Lm3.
Consider machine works for 50 min.h,out of which 25 % is spent

on ripping.
Number of tractors to be employed in the quarry should be

determined.Total hourly cost for the D8R is 160 $/h.Evaluate the
cost per ton,for ripping and dozing.
3) track type dozer model D10R

with U blade and single shank ripper
ripping and pushing overburden
down slope 5 percent
hard conglomerate
assume factors
digability 0.90
operator-average + 0.80
site conditions 1.00
grade 1.10
hourly utilization min/h 53
material density kg/Lm3 1500
total cost/hour dollar/h 260
time allocate for ripping percant 20
to be found - maximum distance allowing cost not to excced
0.8 dollar/Lm3
C:\Documents and Settings\LENOVO\My Documents\Earthmoving\WITS\DOZING\EXCELLS\Dozer EQA.xls

100
EarthLoadingmethods 101
Power(Rope)Shovel
( p )
HydraulicShovel
y
Hydraulic Excavator
HydraulicExcavator
FrontEnd(Wheel)Loader
EarthmovingStudies.com 102
LOADING METHODS - Making the Right Choice

There is no single best way to choose a loading tool. The basic process involves a close
examination of several areas, whether in mining, quarrying or construction projects.
Earthmoving specific needs and the working face are the primary factors to consider.
The overall goal is to provide a loading system at the lowest cost per unit of material moved at
long term operation.
Earth loading machine are the

x Face (Cable) Shovel
x Hydraulic Shovel
x Hydraulic Excavator
x Wheel loader
On- Site Considérations
x Face Material.
x Material Fragmentation.
x Penetration Characteristics.
x Face Height and Angle.
x Maneuvering Space.
x Need for Multi-Loading Faces.
x Floor, underfoot Conditions.
x Job Set-Up.
x Load Area Support Needs.
x Blasting Restrictions
x Size of trucks
x Production requirements
Application zones:
When deciding on a loading unit, life of the mining and quarrying operation, primary loading, multi-
face loading, and secondary functions must all be considered. If the mining operation is long term
with stationary-type loading faces, as well as a good solid floor, the electric cable shovel can be
appealing. Due to its design and structure it offers long life and delivers at a low cost per unit. The
mining operation must be set up to properly accommodate a large truck/shovel fleet, with high
faces, minimizing the number of benches and with loading areas large enough to take advantage
of double side loading.
A major factor in mine and quarry operation - project duration, mine reserves, investment and
financing consideration, trade in (residual value) and product (back-up )support.
Basically, the cable shovel, hydraulic front shovel, backhoe, or front end loader, can fit into primary
loading functions. The point is what is really needed to round out the needs of the user.
Multi-face loading or secondary functions do not favor either the cable or hydraulic shovels but
certainly favors the wheel loader due to its speed and flexibility.
In large high production mines where both cable shovels and wheel loaders are used, the wheel
loader has allowed mine management to better utilize their shovels. The wheel loader is also
mobile enough to handle most of the secondary tasks that must be dealt with on a daily basis.
Available loading systems all have their strong points and shortcomings. . Each loading tool type
has applications where it is the best fit.
Cable Shovels
Key Points
x High Initial Cost

x Long life - 100, OOO Hours and more.
x Low Loading Cost
x High Stick and Crowd Forces
Site Conditions
Favorable.
x 15+ Years Mine/quarry life due to high investment.

x Good Stable Floor.
x High Face (Based on Shovel Size).
x Well Shot Material.
x Electric Power available
x Cost of electricity vs. diesel fuel.
x Single Face Loading
Unfavorable.
x Moving Face to Face.
x Inability to clean –Up,
x Inability to Support mine in other functions.
x Soft, Uneven Floor.
x Tight Loading Areas
x Service availability on site
Cable shovels are the mainstay of production loading in large, high production mining and quarry
operations. Cable shovels have high digging forces and work high faces. Shovels are a source for
reliable, low cost production and provide a long service life (to 100,000 hours and more)).
Common sizes are of 35 m3 and up of buckets capacity. They are sized to efficiently load the high
tonnage trucks exceeding the 300 ton payload.
A four to six bucket passes per hauler provides the most efficient match with the hauler.
Hydraulic Front Shovels

Key Points.
x Flexibility in reaching various layers
x Cycles Fast (25-30 sec.)
x 90% - 100% Bucket fill factors
x High Forces.
x Moderate Mobility (2-3 km/h).
Site Conditions
Favorable.
x Tight Loading Materials.
x Selective Digging.
x Soft, Spongy Floors.
x Jagged, Uneven Floors.
x Multi Loading Targets.
x Tight Loading Area
Unfavorable.
x Excessive Trimming.
x Clean-Up Support.
x Low Face
Hydraulic front shovels provide the high digging forces in smaller operations.
Hydraulic shovels provide the ability to selectively dig deposits anywhere in the face. In extreme
underfoot conditions (soft or jagged), hydraulic front shovels a good platform for cost -effective
loading.
With the exception of the very large units, hydraulic shovels are diesel powered.
Hydraulic Excavators
Key Points.'
x Multi Loading faces
x Fast Truck Loading
x Moderate Mobility.
x Job Flexibility
x Site Conditions
Favorable.
x Single Loading Face.
x Tight Digging Materials.
x Face Height to Stick Length.
x Short Swings
x High Production
x Job Set-Up.
x Dig .Below and Above Grade.
x Tight Quarters
Unfavorable.
x Requires clean-up support
x Single function – loading only.
x Low mobility
x High Benches.
x Low Angle of Repose
Hydraulic excavators provide high digging forces in a very versatile form. With proper job set-up, a
hydraulic excavators are highly productive loading tools, in the form of a mass excavator.
Trucks can be loaded from above or on the same bench. Very quick cycles are possible with short
swing angles.
Wheel Loaders
Key Points.
x Getting larger to load the 300 plus ton trucks.
x Highly Versatile
x Highly Mobile.
x Multi applications on job-site
x Main loading tool in selective mining.
Site Conditions
Favorable.
x Good Loading Materials.
x Level, Stable Floor.
x Lower Face Profile.
x Multi face loading.
x No clean-up support required
x Moving oversize rock
x Load and carry (Load Haul Dump, LHD)
Unfavorable.
x Poor under footing
x High Tire Cost. A major ingredient in O&O machine cost.
x Soft, Spongy Floors
x Tight Load Areas
Wheel loaders have grown in size along with the trucks. Due to its good mobility and self clean-up
capabilities, the wheel loader is the most versatile loading tool. Large wheel loaders are used
effectively as primary loading tools in situations where mobility is paramount and used as
secondary or backup to shovels allowing the shovels to maintain maximum productivity. Wheel
loaders clean up after themselves due to a wide bucket profile and mobility. Wheel loaders have
lower initial cost (indexed by productivity) than other loading tool.
106
Earth
E th Loading
L di E Equipment
i t
Comparative Linear forces (Aggressiveness factor)
Make Komatsu Komatsu Komatsu Komatsu Cat Cat
Model PC3000 PC3000 w Loader w Loader w Loader w Loader
Type backhoe shovel WA900 WA1200 992 994
Breakout force kN 850 1000 666 1274 612 877
Tearout force kN 1100 800
Bucket M3 SAE 2M3 15.0 15.0 13.0 20.0 12.3 18
Bucket width, m mm 3400 3790 4810 6400 6220 4850
SLF* kN/m 250 264 138 199 98 181
empty
t mass, tton ton
t 250 250 107 205 92 192
* Specific Linear Force kN/meter Komatsu Large Wheel loaders

WA 1200, WA900
PC3000 Backhoe (Hydraulic Excavator) PC3000 Hydraulic Shovel
PC3000 Backhoe (Hydraulic Excavator) PC3000 Hydraulic Shovel
Caterpillar Large Wheel loaders

992, 994
107
Backhoe Vs. Shovel Both, the Shovel and the Backhoe attachment
Both are equally superb, which one is more outstanding ? have been designed to develop the highest
David Guíu, LFR January, 2006
breakout and digging forces of any loading
machine in the mining industry.
This may be one of the main reasons, why other types of

loading machinery will play down this very feature.
• All Liebherr Hydraulic Mining Excavators come as both,

Shovels and Backhoes
1. Generalities
• On Liebherr excavators both attachments have been
2. Digging techniques
developed and perfected to do specific jobs
3. Loading methods
4. Conclusion
• Compared with each other, both attachment versions
have their advantages and disadvantages
1
108
Advantages of the Hydraulic Shovel vs. Backhoe Advantages of the Hydraulic Backhoe vs. Shovel
• Less limits on face height (only for safety reasons) • Lower investment cost
• Can handle almost any loading application on horizontal benches • Much lower stress on undercarriage components
components, swing ring
Exceptions: e.g. very tight jobs, water etc. connection and upper frame
• Operator can “study” material before digging it • Digging under water possible
(flooded pit, sand/gravel extraction, pontoons…)
• Better Mixing
Mixing, Blending & Material grade in case of direct excavation • Several different boom & stick lengths are available
• Wider variety of buckets
Advantages of the Hydraulic Backhoe vs. Shovel Advantages of the Hydraulic Backhoe vs. Shovel
• Backhoe produces much lower stress on undercarriage components

• Operator sees material in the bucket (bucket fill) and swing ring connection
Crowd force tries to p

push machine back
• Can
C lload
d trucks
t k ddownstairs
t i or on same llevell
=> Faster and less energy use in case of different levels
• Track chain stress and wear
Hydraulic Shovel
• Excellent view of truck fill when loading down stairs • Higher wear on track pads
• Machine may slide backwards

• Easier,, smoother and safer material placing/distribution
p g on truck • High shear force on swing ring
connection
• Bucket forces may lift rear end

• Typically shorter cycle times (smaller swing angles) off ground ( high g-forces on
upper and lower steel structures)
2
109
Advantages of the Hydraulic Backhoe vs. Shovel Advantages of the Hydraulic Backhoe vs. Shovel
• Backhoe produces much lower stress on undercarriage components • Backhoe produces much lower stress on undercarriage components
and swing ring connection and swing ring connection
Digging
gg g force p
pulls undercarriage
g into g
ground Digging
gg g force p
pulls undercarriage
g into g
ground
• This increases ground pressure,
Hydraulic Backhoe Reaction force of total tooth force Hydraulic Backhoe keeping machine from sliding.
Less wear
• Depending on ground conditions, the
is split into a smaller horizontal machine may sink into muck pile
force and a vertical force, felt as
additional weight • Smaller horizontal force for lesser
shear stress on swing connection
Weight of machine • Smaller horizontal force for lesser
Reaction to bucket tooth force stress on U/C components
Total weight felt by • Shock absorption through idler
undercarriage cushion
Advantages of the Hydraulic Backhoe vs. Shovel
• Truck turn-around time can be influenced for

better truck utilization
Dump
35 sec
sec*
Longer loading time &

shorter turn around time - when: 1. Generalities
• Shortage of trucks - Under trucked 2. Digging techniques
• Shorter travel distance 3. Loading methods
4. Conclusion
25 sec*
Shorter loading time &

longer turn around time - when:
• Plenty of trucks - Over trucked
• Longer travel distance
* times are just for demonstration
3
110
Digging Force Distribution Optimum Digging Depth

Shovel crowd force* Digging force* with horizontal bucket lip
with horizontal bucket lip
1m grid • Highest digging force
Higher force • Good floor cleaning

Lower force
• Good dumping reach
* Force sample calculation
Optimum Digging Depth Backhoe Productivity Vs. Bench Height
R 996 BH R 995 BH
R 994 B BH R 994-200 BH
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Productivity %
30
20
1m grid
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Bench Height (m)
Digging depth is optimum when = about stick length
4
111
Hydraulic Shovel Productivity Vs. Bench Height
R 996 FS R 995 FS
R 994 B FS R 994-200 FS
100
90
80 1. Generalities
70
60
50 3. Loading methods
40
4. Conclusion
Pro d u ctivity %
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Bench Height (m)
Single Side Loading Single Side Loading
Advantage:
• Requires little space
• Best eye contact (left hand cab)
• Easiest back up
• Easier for truck operator due to
better visibility
Disadvantage:
• Long to longest truck exchange time
• Bad eye contact (right hand cab)
Note: We never single side load on the right side as it is more difficult for the haul truck operator
5
112
Drive-By Loading Double Side Loading
Advantage: Advantage:
• Best eye contact (left hand cab) • Zero truck exchange time
• No truck backing required • 2nd highest production method
(highest is with Backhoe)
• Easiest method for truck operator
• Satisfactory eye contact (Right hand cab)
• Shortest truck exchange time
• High production method
Disadvantage:
• Large space requirement
Disadvantage: • Difficult backing for truck on right
• Lot of cleaned floor space
p required
q
• High level training required for truck operators
• Bad eye contact (right hand cab)
• Eye contact problem with left hand cab (night loading)
• Requires optimal planning of truck fleet
Note: This is not utilised due to the possibility of the face falling hitting the shovel on the right side Note: Right hand cab is best for eye contact in this case
Double Side Loading Back-Up Loading - Upstairs
Advantage:
• Works well when bottom:
- is flooded,
- is too rough for truck travel,
- is inaccessible
- too long distance from lower bench
• Opening of new bench
Disadvantage:
• Very high material hoisting
• Up to 90° swing angle
• Long cycle times => reduced production
• Waste of energy (fuel consumption) & time
• Truck exchange times may be excessive
• Truck can reverse into backhoe
6
113
Back-Up Loading - Upstairs Drive-By Loading - Upstairs
Advantage:
• Works well when bottom:
- is flooded,
- is too rough for truck travel,
- is inaccessible
- too long haul distance
• No truck exchange time loss
• Easiest for truck operator
• Opening of new benches
Disadvantage:
• Larger space requirement
U tto 90° swing
• Up i anglel
• Long cycle times, energy waste
• Backhoe has to dump crosswise into truck
• Lower production method
Note: Rarely seen this utilised in a mining application
Drive-By Loading - Bottom Parallel Loading - Bottom
Advantage: Advantage:
• Short cycle times • Zero truck exchange time
• No truck exchange time loss • Shortest swing angle (20-30°)
• No truck backing required
• Easiest method for truck operator
• High production method
Disadvantage: Disadvantage:
• Trucks may have to back up further
• Larger space requirement
• Up to 90° swing angle • Special
S i l ttruck
k operator
t ttraining
i i required
i d
• Backhoe has to dump crosswise into truck • Maximum damage for truck tyres
• Cleaning of lower bench required • Backhoe always digging off side of track frame
• Opening new bench not possible (damage to swing ring, undercarriage, etc.)
Note: Rarely seen this utilised in a mining application
7
114
Parallel Loading - Bottom Double Benching
Advantage:
• Most material from one position
without traveling
• Short swing angle 45 – 90°
• Low
L required
i d material
t i l lifti
lifting height
h i ht
• High production possible
(considering all methods)
Disadvantage:
• High risk for machine damage
• Uncomfortable and injurious for operators
Note: Position of haul truck tyres. A very large concern at present Note: Liebherr does not endorse this method
Double Benching
1. Generalities
3. Loading methods
4. Conclusion
Note: Liebherr does not endorse this method
8
115
In Conclusion, Both are Superb …
• Backhoes offer higher production through better bucket fill & lower
cycle times
• 3 to 5% less fuel consumption for backhoes
• Backhoes require bench height up to 5m (depending on stick length) Thank you

• Hydraulic shovels are the ideal substitution for old rope shovels
(in a first step, then perhaps backhoes)
• Hydraulic shovels can handle every kind of rock and at a large for y
your attention
spectrum of face height

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The Center for Mechanised Mining Systems

The School of Mining Engineering

Professor Zvi Borowitsh

The Technion, Israel institute of Technology

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

Objectives to be achieved: OBJECTIVES:

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

•MTTR (Mean Time to Repair) - a) Mining equipment and systems

•Equipment maintenance is costly due to loss - b) Hauling routes

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

a) Mining equipment and systems a) Mining equipment and systems

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

a) Mining equipment and systems a) Mining equipment and systems

Hydraulic Shovel and Mining Truck

Hydraulic Excavator and mining Truck

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

a) Mining equipment and systems a) Mining equipment and systems

Front End Loader and Mining truck

Hydraulic excavator and Articulated Dump Truck (ADT)

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

a) Mining equipment and systems a) Mining equipment and systems

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

a) Mining equipment and systems a) Mining equipment and systems

proper Implement selection

- Buckets and loading arrangements for all types of

- Mining trucks bodies.

Any excessive iron comes on the account of payload

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

b) Haul Route Selection

•Higher payload than rated must be within the

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

The main advancements; The main advancements;

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

The main advancements The main advancements

• Automatic and/or remote machine operation

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

The main advancements

Recent Announcement of the D7E Electric Drive,

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

The main advancements

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com TRACK TYPE DOZER

Defined as machines which have to move their

Track type dozers and rippers

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

WHEEL DOZER WHEEL LOADER & TRUCK

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

Mobile machines (continued)

Trucks; Off highway, rigid frame On highway dump trucks

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

Off highway, rigid frame Off highway, articulated

Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com Opening notes EarthmovingStudies.com

2) Static or Semi static machines

Hydraulic excavators, backhoe type