35-Donkeys For Traction and Tillage

Agrodok 35
Donkeys for traction and

tillage
Luurt Oudman
© Agromisa Foundation, Wageningen, 2004.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photocopy,
microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher.
First edition: 2002

Second edition: 2004
Author: Luurt Oudman

Editor: Jan H. Loedeman
Illustrator: Barbara Oranje
Design: Ien Ko
Translation: Catherina de Kat-Reynen
Printed by: Digigrafi, Wageningen, The Netherlands
ISBN: 90-77073-95-7
NUGI: 835
Foreword
Both CTA the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-
operation and the Agromisa Foundation felt a need to add a booklet on
animal draft power to Agromisa’s Agrodok series. Marg Leydens, who
then was the Agrodok publication co-ordinator, came across Draft
Animal Technology, a manual for a Bachelor of Science Course in Ag-
ricultural Engineering, which I had completed in 1997. This manual is
a reflection of part of my work as Farm Power and Machinery lecturer
at the University of Nairobi, Kenya. Marg invited me to write an
Agrodok booklet on animal draft power. We soon realised that ‘animal
draft power’ implied a scope that was too wide for the Agrodok series.
Though we decided to limit the subject to donkeys, all facets of don-
key labour should be addressed, including animal care in the broadest
sense, training, harnessing, back-packing techniques as well as the
description of suitable implements for transport and crop cultivation.
An agricultural engineer myself, I am familiar with the engineering

aspects of donkey power. For an adequate coverage of other aspects,
however, I had to lean heavily on other publications. My main sources
have been ‘Draught Animal Power Manual’, published by the FAO in
1994, and ‘Donkeys for Development’ by Peta Jones. I am most grate-
ful to both the FAO and Dr. Jones for allowing me to use their illustra-
tions and certain descriptions. After I had completed the manuscript
Janhein Loedeman did an excellent editing job and
Catharina de Kat-Reynen upgraded my English to a UK standard. I

also like to express my heartfelt thanks to Barbara Oranje, who took
care of the reproduction and improvement of the numerous illustra-
tions and to Ien Ko who completed the layout.
Luurt Oudman
October 2001.
Foreword 3
Contents
1 Introduction 6
2 Characteristics and use 8

2.1 Horses, mules and donkeys 8
2.2 General donkey features 9
2.3 Selection characteristics 10
2.4 Using draft donkeys 12
3 Care 14
3.1 Body condition 14
3.2 Feeding 15
3.3 Health and disease 19
3.4 Daily care of working donkeys 20
4 Usage as pack animal 24

4.1 Loads and comfort 24
4.2 Packing rules 24
4.3 Simple packs 25
4.4 Jerry cans 26
4.5 Pack-frames and soft baskets 27
5 Training programme 30
5.1 The rationale of a training programme 30
5.2 Step 1: roping and walking 32
5.3 Step 2: harnessing and walking 32
5.4 Step 3: pulling loads 34
5.5 Step 4: working as a team 35
6 Harnessing 37
6.1 Purpose of a donkey harness 37
6.2 Harnesses in general 38
6.3 Various pulling harnesses 39
4 Donkeys for traction and tillage

7 Hitching 46
7.1 Hitching a single donkey to a cart 46
7.2 Hitching two donkeys to a cart 48
7.3 Other hitching arrangements for teams of two or more
donkeys 49
7.4 Reining systems 50
8 Equipment for transport 52

8.1 Sledges 52
8.2 Carts 52
8.3 Wagons 56
9 Equipment for primary tillage 57

9.1 Mouldboard plough 57
9.2 Ard 62
9.3 Scarifier 64
9.4 Ripper 65
9.5 Ridger 66
10 Equipment for crop husbandry 68

10.1 Secondary tillage 68
10.2 Equipment for sowing 70
10.3 Equipment for inter-row weeding 74
11 Maintenance of farming equipment 76

11.1 Daily maintenance and inspections 76
11.2 Maintenance at the end of the season 76
Further reading 78
Useful addresses 80
Glossary 82
Contents 5
1 Introduction
Although the donkey is indigenous to the Northeast part of Africa, its
use on the continent as a whole is limited. The donkey is probably
most appreciated in its true home, in arid and mountainous areas, whe-
re it is used most extensively. It is widely acknowledged that these
animals can play a major role in rural development.
The steady speed of a donkey’s walk is what makes it so popular as a

pack animal or for pulling small carts. When properly harnessed and
hitched, it is also fairly fast at ploughing. The intelligence of a donkey
is often underestimated. A donkey is easy to manage once the animal
knows what to do and recognises the appropriate verbal commands.
When a donkey refuses to work, it is almost always because the work
is impossible for the animal, not because it is “stubborn”.
Donkeys are an undervalued power source in a large part of the world.

Their potential to work is very high and their contribution to any
household or even national economy is considerable. Generally the
buying and selling price of donkeys is far below their true value,
which should be calculated on the basis of the work they give over the
14 years they are able to work, if well cared for. If a donkey works six
hours a day, four days a week over that many years, it will have given
about 15,000 hours of work. The low price of donkeys, therefore, is a
reflection of distorted perceptions of their role. This situation is chang-
ing. In Zambia, for instance, donkeys are now selling for the same
price as cattle.
This Agrodok offers insight into the possibilities of donkey use, based
on experiences with working donkeys around the globe. It is aimed at
farmers, agricultural technicians and extension officers, for rural arti-
sans and for people engaged in rural- and town transport with don-
keys. The information provided is meant to assist them in tapping the
work potential of the donkey in a manner that is humane for the ani-
mal.

The booklet starts in Chapter 2 with ‘Characteristics & Use’. Before a
farmer starts working with donkeys he should know what characteris-
tics are important in selecting a good working animal. ‘Care’ is the
subject of the next chapter because proper treatment of a donkey is
required to make optimal use of its potentials. The most basic use of
donkeys is as ‘pack animals’, see Chapter 4. For pulling carts or im-
plements, donkeys need to be trained in a step-wise approach, see
Chapter 5. After training, proper harnessing is required to link the
animal to the implement effectively, see Chapter 6. Useful implements
for transport, primary tillage and crop husbandry are presented and
discussed in Chapters 7 through 11.
The illustrations used in this Agrodok originate from other textbooks.

We are grateful to the authors of the books for allowing us to use their
illustrations. These books are highly recommended for further reading.
Introduction 7
2 Characteristics and use
Horses, donkeys and mules belong to the equine group. They are
found mainly in temperate, semi-arid or highland areas. Equines move
more quickly than cattle and buffaloes. They walk at 4-6 km/h, the
speed of a normal human, and readily trot faster than this, making
them particularly well suited for transport. They can maintain a good
pace over long distances and are capable of rapid surges of power (ve-
ry useful for getting stopped carts moving). They tend to be single-
purpose work animals, and humans seldom consume their meat and
milk.
2.1 Horses, mules and donkeys

Health problems and the need for very good management restrict the
range and use of horses in the tropics. Horses tend to be high-status,
expensive, specialised work animals. In North Africa, Senegal and
some highland regions in Africa, horses maintained mainly for trans-
port may be used briefly for crop cultivation. However, for most
smallholders in tropical Africa, horses are unlikely to be used as work
animals.
Mules are specialised work animals produced by crossing a female

horse with a male donkey. They are therefore only found where both
horses and donkeys breed well, notably in temperate, semi-arid high-
land areas. They make excellent, single-purpose work animals, being
more hardy than horses and stronger than donkeys. The great disad-
vantage of mules is that they are not fertile; so female horses have to
be kept around to produce baby mules. This makes mules rather ex-
pensive.
Donkeys are small work animals, well adapted to semi-arid areas.

They do not seem to thrive in humid or semi-humid conditions, but
they are reputed to survive better than Zebu cattle in tsetse-infested
areas. They have great ability to live entirely on poor free range graz-

ing, and in serious drought conditions they tend to outlive cattle. The
animal is mainly used for carrying pack loads, pulling light carts or for
riding.
2.2 General donkey features

Donkeys are often very inexpensive and have little, or no, disposal
value. Although they have sometimes been considered as animals of
ridicule or low status, they have excellent reputations as easily train-
able and very dependable work animals. Children can easily manage
donkeys.
Table 1: Main advantages and disadvantages of using donkeys

(Jones, 1997)
Advantages Disadvantages
Friendly towards humans Suffer from being alone

Willing to work Noisy when frustrated or lonely
Can turn in a small space Friends not easily separated
Easy to train Uncastrated males agressive towards other
donkeys
Need little supervision in work
Skin easily wounded
Can utilize poor feed well
Wander long distances if not supervised
Not affected much by external parasites
Do not move out of the way of traffic
Need little water
Need shelter from cold and damp
Can survive well in tsetse-infested areas
Meat not generally eaten
Can survive droughts better than cattle
Comparatively small in size
Comparatively cheap to buy
Mature slowly
Strong relative to size
Breed slowly
Live and work many years in good care
Manure more fibrous than nutrient-rich
Useful for calming and guarding other kinds
of animals
Fast walking speed
Both males (intact males are called jacks and castrated males are geld-
ings) and females (jennies) can be used for work. Donkeys reach ma-
turity around four years of age, with maximum weights being reached
Characteristics and use 9

at about six years of age. In Africa, donkeys generally weigh about
120-180 kg. Naturally, good management affects the speed of growth
and final body characteristics. With good care, donkeys can have a
working life of 12-15 years, and they can live even longer.
Castration will help to improve the temperament and reliability of ma-

les. However, good jacks are important for breeding, and farmers may
be able to obtain fees for allowing their jacks to breed.
2.3 Selection characteristics

Before describing the characteristics of a working donkey, some basic
knowledge is needed of English names of parts of the animal, as
shown in the figure below.
Figure 1: Names of the parts of a donkey.

When selecting an animal for work certain physi-cal characteristics
should be observed. These include: a large frame with wide shoulders
and a deep chest, a straight back and well-muscled straight legs which
have a 90° angle to the ground (figure 2). In young animals large
knees are an indication of future thickness, but even in a large-kneed
foal, the knees should not touch.The donkey should have good eye-
sight and agility (liveliness) and an attractive hair coat, without skin
diseases or an abundance of ticks. It is important to observe an animal
while it is working, to detect whether it has a physical disability, such
as coughing, poor breathing, lameness, sores or wounds.
Figure 2: Desirable and undesirable conformation features in don-

keys.
The sole of a donkey’s hoof should be concave underneath; only the

front part and the edges touch the ground. The shape of the hoof
should be as round as possible. The angle between the pastern and the
ground should be about 50-60 degrees, being slightly steeper in the
front legs. The hoof angle and the pastern angle should be similar.
Animals with feet abnormalities should not be selected (figure 3).

Figure 3: Hoof and bones showing correct angles and dimensions.
In addition to sound physical characteristics, an animal should have a

suitable temperament. It should be responsive, but not excitable or
aggres-sive. However, the extent to which an animal develops into a
good working animal will also depend on its relationship with its han-
dler. No animal will perform well if its handler is cruel or inconsistent.
2.4 Using draft donkeys

Carrying loads
The donkey is a good animal for packing as it is sure-footed and can
easily negotiate narrow paths over steep and rocky terrain. An indi-
vidual donkey should not carry more than one third of its body weight,
i.e. 40 - 60 kg, depending on its size. Some variation can be allowed,
for instance heavier loads can be carried for shorter times along shor-
ter distances.
Donkeys are often too small to carry large human beings and are more
frequently ridden by children. Most donkeys do not move very fast
unless trained to do so, and they refuse to be hurried. Where there are
hardly any roads, the donkey is an ideal means of transportation for

the sick, the old, and the disabled and very small children. A blanket
over the donkey’s back makes it more comfortable to ride.
Pulling carts
If donkeys are well harnessed, two donkeys together can pull (in a
smooth running cart), four times the load they can carry on their
backs. In practical terms this means that a cart is economical only if it
costs less than six donkeys, and carries a load not exceeding 500 kg.
Other uses
With the right equipment, donkeys can also be used to turn the wheels
for milling grain and for operating pumps that lift water. On a tread-
wheel that operates a reciprocating pump, a donkey working for 20
minutes can pump 3,600 litres of water up 10 metres. One donkey
should not do this work continuously for more than 20 minutes.
In various parts of the world, donkeys are used to guard other animals,
such as sheep, and can protect them from predators. They may do this
by raising the alarm with their loud braying, and in exceptional cases
they may attack predators should they come near. They can form
“friendships” with other animals, particularly if there is only one other
donkey in their vicinity.

3 Care
The housing of donkeys can be kept very basic. Depending on the
climate and season, a small shelter is sufficient. It should have at least
a roof and three closed sides that face the prevailing wind directions.
There must be enough space to lie down and the floor should not be
damp or cold. Barbed wire enclosures should not be used for enclos-
ing donkeys. Many donkeys will try to get through or jump over and
injure themselves. The fence or shelter does not have to be very strong
since donkeys will not use great force to get through a fence.
3.1 Body condition
Figure 4: Body condition of donkeys.
The basic well-being of a donkey can be observed by its body condi-

tion (figure 4). A donkey is too thin if its ribs or the backbone are very
obvious, the neck is thin on top, the rump is pointed or the hipbones
are sticking up like those of a cow. A good body condition is a reward
for good management. Malnutrition or disease may cause a decline of
body condition. Adult male donkeys that are working may require ex-
tra energy, and perhaps additional salt. Animals that are still growing,

and females that are pregnant or nursing may also need extra energy,
especially extra protein and important minerals (e.g. calcium and
phosphorus).
3.2 Feeding
Donkeys need several important feed components - energy, protein,
vitamins, minerals and water. Different feeds contain these compo-
nents in different amounts. Provided natural pasture is abundant and
donkeys have adequate time to graze, the feeding of donkeys should
not be a major problem. Besides forage (or roughage) from grazing,
the animals may be fed additional forage and concentrates provided by
the farmer, depending on age and workload.
In general, feeding strategies should be aimed at maintaining adequate

body condition during periods of work stress or reproductive stress.
Some preserved forage or concentrates should be stored for such peri-
ods. This is particularly important if donkeys have to work at the end
of the dry season, when natural pasture is scarce.
A properly fed animal will live longer, work harder and resist diseases
better. If well fed, females will become pregnant sooner, and pregnant
and nursing jennies will produce bigger and healthier foals. Foals gi-
ven extra food at weaning will grow faster, survive disease better and
end up larger. Supplements are most important in the following cir-
cumstances:
? Local grazing is poor because of drought or over-grazing.
? Animals must walk long distances for food.
? Don-keys do not get at least six grazing hours each day.
? Female donkeys are in the last three months of pregnancy or they
are nursing a foal.
? Young foals are growing, especially between 6 and 18 months of
age.
Care 15
Forage
In general, forage consists of leaves and stalks of plants (grass, maize
stover, etc.). Donkeys need to eat forage every day. The quality of for-
age depends on plant species and age, season and weather conditions.
As donkeys are selective feeders, they need to have a wide variety of

plants to choose from when grazing. Donkeys can be fenced, staked,
herded or left to graze unsupervised. If they are herded or range freely,
they will be able to seek out a range of plants. If donkeys are staked, it
is important to move their stake daily, or even twice per day. If they
are fenced, it is better to have several small paddocks rather than one
large one. This allows donkeys to be moved often (rotational grazing).
In this way donkeys gain more nutrients than if they continually and
selectively graze one large pasture. A grazing donkey can ingest eggs
of internal parasites contained in manure, causing internal infections
with these parasites, particularly worms. Therefore donkeys should
not be allowed to graze in areas with lots of manure.
The most common forage supplements are crop residues. These in-
clude groundnut hay, and maize and sorghum stover. The leaves of
legume fodder trees (e.g., Leucaena, Sesbania and some Acacias) are
rich in protein and can also be fed to donkeys. Other sources of fodder
include sugar cane bagasse and even shredded paper (if it does not
contain too much ink).
Young plants, as well as those growing in cooler, drier seasons provide
more nutrients than older plants. The quality of conserved forages
(such as dried grass and groundnut hay) depends both on the quality of
the original product and on the way it has been stored. They should be
stored in a dry place. Forages that become wet and mouldy or dusty
can be very unhealthy. If the available forage is not of sufficient quan-
tity or quality to keep donkeys in suitable body condition, they may
need to be given some concentrates as well.
Concentrates
Concentrates are generally seed grains and milling by-products such
as wheat bran, oilseed cake and molasses. Concentrates contain more

energy, and often more protein and minerals, than do forages. And
they are generally more expensive.
The choice of concentrate feed will depend on local availability and

costs. Good (but expensive) concentrated feed includes milled grains
such as maize, sorghum and millet. Soiled grains considered unsatis-
factory for human consumption can be used, provided they are not
mouldy. Cottonseeds, cottonseed cake, groundnuts, and groundnut
cake are all good. Dried cassava root can be used, as can green ba-
nanas. If they are available, brewer’s grains or citrus pulp can be fed.
Donkeys like molasses, which provides energy and can be poured on
top of bran or forage.
Many by-products of grain are cheaper but less nutritious than grains.
Maize bran from traditional pounding is very good. Rice bran and
wheat bran can also be fed, but should not form the entire diet, par-
ticularly not for young animals, as the range of nutrients is very lim-
ited. The amount to be fed may be 1 to 2 kg per day. Finely ground
bran may need to be mixed with a little water, to prevent choking. In
some countries commercially made concentrates are sold for cattle. If
these contain special additives (antibiotics or chemicals such as Mo-
nensin or Rumensin) they should not be fed to donkeys.
Do not feed male donkeys concentrates on days in which they are not
working, unless they are very thin. On the other hand, mothers and
foals may need to be fed concentrates every day. Feed one half in the
morning and the other half in the evening.
How much to feed

The amount of extra feed that donkeys need depends on their size, the
amount of work done, the quantity and quality of pasture available and
the type and quality of feed used for supplementation.
Donkeys have stomachs designed for frequent small meals (such as

when grazing naturally) so the more often they are fed the better. It is
not a good idea to feed a lot of forage in the morning before work.
Care 17
Give small amounts then and during rest periods in the day. Supply
supplementary forages in the afternoon and evening, allowing don-
keys to feed during the night. A nursing jenny needs the equivalent of
about 2 - 3% of her body weight a day if she is only fed forage. A
working donkey needs about 3 - 4% of its body weight a day. Thus an
average donkey will need about 4 to 6 kg of fodder a day if nursing or
working. A jenny that is both nursing and working will need more. If a
donkey cannot obtain this amount from available grazing, it will need
supplements. In any case, if donkeys are fed concentrate each working
day, they will require less grazing, and learn that work brings rewards.
If a donkey is fed well, but is still thin, it probably has internal para-
sites which need treating.
Water
Donkeys need clean fresh water every day, especially when working
in hot weather. Lack of water can cause colic, a fatal condition. If pos-
sible, donkeys should have access to fresh water all the time, or at
least in the morning and evening. Keep the troughs clean. Donkeys
should be allowed to drink as much as they want, without being rus-
hed. Donkeys are often expected to drink from nearby ponds or
streams. This is convenient, as long as they are not exposed to heavily
used, damp, muddy areas as these may favour the spread of parasites,
such as liver fluke.
Extra minerals
All donkeys need salt. Rock salt is widely available and small quanti-
ties (about three teaspoons daily) can be fed on the palm of the hand
or mixed with feed. Commercial salt lick blocks or mineral licks can
also be provided in the pens of donkeys. Unless they are fed grain
concentrates, donkeys will often need extra calcium and phosphorus.
These are needed for growth and reproduction and they may be lack-
ing in local forage. Cattle mineral licks contain these minerals, but
avoid cattle licks that have more than five p.p.m. of iodine, as these
can be toxic to foals. If licks are not available, try to ensure that the
donkeys have some feeds rich in calcium (like legume fodder leaves,
groundnut hay, molasses) and phosphorus (such as wheat bran, bone

meal). Calcium can be supplied from crushed limestone (one teaspoon
a day mixed with the salt). Bone meal can be made locally by boiling
and crushing bones.
3.3 Health and disease

General signs of disease
Donkeys tend to be quite healthy. When an animal falls ill, give it a
rest in a quiet place with food and water. Consult, if possible, the local
animal health agent or veterinarian.
A farmer should be able to tell in an early stage whether the donkey is
sick. Signs of ill health are when a donkey:
? has a very warm muzzle, pasterns and feet;
? has a nervous or depressed expression;
? hangs its head;
? has a rough coat with hairs standing up;
? stands with all four legs close under it;
? is reluctant to take steps;
? is sweating before work;
? does not pass faeces or urine, or if these are abnormal.
The earlier a disease is recognised, the sooner treatment can start. The
cost of medicine or loss of work power can thus be minimised.
Wound treatment
Donkeys should regularly be checked for sores or cuts. Working don-
keys in particular may have sores caused by the harness and should be
inspected daily. Minor wounds are fairly common with working ani-
mals and may be treated on the farm. Clean the wound thoroughly
with a salt solution (brine) and then apply a curative measure, such as:
? Dettol if the wound is fresh, or preferably:
? an antibiotic spray (e.g. Alamycin, Tetracyclin, E.S. 50, etc.)
? healing oil (which contains an antiseptic). This is cheaper but less
effective.
Care 19
Good donkey owners seldom have to treat pack and harness sores, because
they try to prevent them.
3.4 Daily care of working donkeys

At the beginning of the working day a halter has to be placed around a
donkey’s head, for instance by using a rope that passes behind the ears
and around the nose (figure 5). Lead the animal to a tree or post to
groom and prepare it. Donkeys like routine so use the same place each
day.
Figure 5: Knotting a head rope or halter.
This is a good moment to give some concentrates or by-products. Oth-

erwise give something like fruit peelings, a banana or a handful of
maize. This will encourage the donkey to come and enjoy human at-
tention. Observe the donkey. If its behaviour is different from previous
days then something may be wrong. Alertness and interest will indi-
cate that the donkey is healthy.

Feel the legs to be sure they are not swollen or hot. Any damage to the
legs caused on the previous day will show up in a stiff and obviously
uncomfortable gait. Any temporary stiffness should be quickly “wal-
ked off”. If this does not happen the donkey should be put to rest for
as long as necessary. If the stiffness persists a veterinarian needs to be
consulted.
Care of the coat

Grooming means taking care of the hair and skin of the animal. Daily
grooming is important for the health of working donkeys. Donkeys
enjoy being groomed and will become tamer by this daily routine.
Grooming keeps the donkey’s skin healthy and prevents dirt from cau-
sing harness sores. Give special attention to those parts of the skin that
are in contact with the harness and/or back pad.
Grooming is usually done first with a stiff round comb, made of plas-
tic, hard rubber or metal. This is used to loosen the dirt. A body brush
is then used to remove the dirt. Brush in the direction of the hair (i.e.
head to tail) using firm pressure. If such items cannot be purchased
locally, a scrubbing brush with stiff plastic or fibre bristles can be
used. A piece of cloth or wad of clean straw rubbed in a circular mo-
tion, also helps to clean the donkey. Keep grooming equipment clean
and periodically soak it in a disinfectant. This will help prevent the
spread of disease, especially if the equipment is used on more than
one animal.
If a donkey gets very dirty or sweaty, it may be helpful to wash it all

over with clean or soapy water. Take a damp cloth and wipe out the
nostrils and around the eyes. Any secretions that may have occurred
during the night should not be left on the face during the day, as these
will attract flies.
Check the coat for external parasites such as ticks. Ticks do not only
create wounds, but also spread many infectious diseases. Check espe-
cially under the tail and inside the legs where the donkey cannot easily
reach when grooming itself. Remove by hand any ticks that are found.
Care 21
Care of legs and hooves
Inspect a donkey’s hooves daily and take care of them. A donkey’s
hoof should be short and upright with an oval bottom. If the toe be-
comes long and slanted, it should be trimmed. Excess hoof wall, as
well as ragged loose pieces of frog, can be removed with a sharp,
strong knife. Cracks and chips in the wall can spread, and eventually
destroy the entire hoof (figure 6). Metal horseshoes are used in some
countries to protect the hooves of donkeys. If shoes are not available,
the rough edges of the donkey’s hooves can be smoothed with a wood
file. Coating them daily with oil or grease may help hooves that are
very dry or brittle, badly cracked or broken. This prevents them from
further dehydration and assists healing.
Figure 6: Donkey hooves.
A donkey will pick up its foot if the tendon is pinched at the back of
the leg, just above the pastern. Pick up and handle the feet of the don-
key early and often in its training, calling a clear command like “leg!”
so that it will not object to this care later on during its working life.
Clean out the bottom of the hooves with a hoof pick before each use
of the donkey, to prevent lameness from stones or other materials
penetrating the sole of the foot. Clean from the heel towards the toe,
especially in the grooves between the frog and the bars of the hoof
(figure 7).

Figure 7: The underside of a donkey’s hoof. When clean, all these
should be visible. Clean alongside frog, pushing dirt out at back.
Look for stones and thorns which may be lodged, and remove
them carefully.
If the area around the frog becomes black, oozing and very smelly the
animal has “thrush”. This bacterial disease results from prolonged
standing in wet areas. Treat it by pouring on a solution of copper sul-
fate or iodine daily. Take the animal out of wet housing. An untreated
hoof will rot and cripple the animal permanently.
Figure 8: A hoof pick can be easily made by bending a piece of

round steel into the desired shape with one end flat and pointed.
Care 23
4 Usage as pack animal
The most common use of donkeys is as pack animals for transport of
goods and people. They do not need very intensive training to be able
to be used as a pack animal. Often, young animals already walk along
with the older animals and learn by observation. If donkeys transport
goods in a group there is normally a natural order. The strongest ani-
mal will lead the group while the others follow. If the farmer keeps a
good eye on the leader, managing the rest of the group is not a prob-
lem.
4.1 Loads and comfort

Because donkeys are so docile and willing, it is easy to overload them.
Some farmers make donkeys carry goods equal to the weight of the
donkey. This is excessive. In Zimbabwe, it has been recommended
that in their initial years, donkeys can carry about one kg for every
month of their age. Thus a three-year old could carry 36 kg. Depend-
ing on the local conditions, adult animals should be able to carry 40 -
80 kg.
A pack donkey ought to be comfortably loaded. An even load of rea-
sonable weight on its well-padded back will allow a donkey to walk
long distances with little or no attention.
Loads should be kept as close to the animal as possible. Tall loads are
unstable, particularly if they are not well balanced. They are more li-
kely to be uncomfortable and to shift during motion. In extreme cases
they may cause a donkey to fall. At the end of the working day, pack
saddles and pads should be removed to allow grooming.
4.2 Packing rules

Load balancing
All loads should be balanced evenly, with similar weight and bulk on
either side of the animal so that it is comfortable. If loads are balanced
at the start, they seldom shift or require adjustment.

Back padding
Two-layer padding material between the pack load and the donkey’s
back is required for protection of its skin. The layer that rests on the
skin should be both soft (to provide protection) and absorbent (to take
up sweat). It has to be washed or replaced regularly, to avoid growth
of noxious bacteria. Several layers of cotton material or sheepskin are
ideal for this purpose. Sacking materials are not recommended. Hes-
sian (gunny) sacks can be quite rough and plastic bags are not absor-
bent.
The second layer should provide a cushioning effect. Well-suited are a

folded blanket or a straw-filled sack. With the latter it is important to
sew the bag into sections to prevent the straw or other filling (animal
hair or kapok) from falling to one end. A protective piece of skin or
leather or a plastic sheet may cover the cushioning layer.
Protection of the backbone

The back padding should be shaped in such a way that it prevents any
direct pressure on the backbone. Therefore, a pack saddle or pack fra-
me is recommended. figure 9 shows how such a device transfers the
weight of the load onto the fleshier parts of the animal’s back at either
side of the backbone, i.e. the upper parts of the ribs. Moreover, a pack
frame brings the load closer to the centre of gravity, which always re-
sults in more stability.
4.3 Simple packs

The simplest form of packing involves a single large sack placed
partly filled on the back of the donkey, or two (small) sacks slung on
either side over the back of the donkey. This is ideal for carrying small
quantities of grain. In the latter case there should not be a hard knot
directly on the animals back. A soft pad should be used over the spine
and a flat knot tied sideways of the backbone. There is no need for a
belly strap.
This system can be used to train donkeys. Light sacks are used of
which the weight can be gradually increased as the animal becomes
Usage as pack animal 25

used to the load. Although this system is convenient, the pack-frame
shown in figure 9 is preferably used to carry heavier and/or bigger
sacks.
Figure 9: Simple pack frame or back-box.
4.4 Jerry cans

Flat, rectangular containers designed to carry liquids and made of me-
tal or plastic usually have handles at their top. Two such containers
with their handles tied tightly together form a good angular shape to
put over the back of a donkey. In this way the sides of the containers
press against the ribs, and the spine (figure 10) does not take the
weight.

Containers come in various sizes. A donkey can
easily carry 40 litres, which can best be divided
into four 10-litre containers if these are available.
Containers must be tied firmly to prevent them

from slipping down gradually, because then the
ropes will cause considerable discomfort to the
animal by pushing on the spine and they might
cut into the skin over the spine. If containers are
used that are not flat and rectangular, they should
be placed on a pack-frame or in panniers at either
side of the back.
Figure 10: Car-
rying jerry cans
4.5 Pack-frames and soft so as not to
baskets stress the spine.
As mentioned earlier, a pack-frame should be
used for most loads. The frame may be made of sticks from strong,
flexible wood and must be shaped symmetrically to give even pressure
on either side; see figure 9 for construction details. It should be well
padded underneath for the animal’s comfort and to prevent sores. The
pack-frame can be held in position by a breast band and a breech
strap. Frames can be specially designed to carry a wide variety of ob-
jects including logs, firewood, jerry cans and rocks.
Softer materials, like groceries for instance, can be put in saddlebags

(figure 11). These can be home-made out of some strong material such
as canvas, and should have flaps at the top so that they can be securely
closed. Large woven baskets should be joined together (preferably
during their manufacture) by a broad back cover. A soft absorbent
back pad should be placed on the donkey before the saddle bags or
soggies figure 12) are put on and loaded.

Figure 11: Saddle bags.

Figure 12: Soggies.

5 Training programme
Before introducing harnesses and starting to work with a donkey, both
the animal and the farmer must be trained. Training may be carried out
at training centres, but when undertaken on the farm or within the vil-
lage community, this provides a more practical and “homely” envi-
ronment. If possible, the farmer should train his or her own donkey,
because the sooner a good relationship is established between farmer
and animal, the better.
5.1 The rationale of a training programme

Communal training is preferred in areas where donkey traction is be-
ing introduced, since it can offer a useful exchange of ideas between
farmers. Such programmes can also assist in ensuring that the training
is continuous because it is executed in a more formal situation.
Guidelines for the farmer

Training of animals requires patience, firmness, perseverance and
above all, consistency. Continuity of the training programme is of
prime importance as the animal can soon forget previous lessons when
breaks occur.
Animals undergoing training will be in close contact with unknown
people, upsetting noises and physical restraints such as harnesses, hal-
ters and equipment. They must become accustomed to all of these and
also learn to follow clear instructions. The following points may there-
fore be useful to the trainer (who is preferably the farmer):
? Keep a calm, patient and consistent approach to the animal(s).
? Follow the training steps as described and repeat until full control of
the animal is obtained. Do not try to train the animal too quickly,
but follow the animal’s acceptance of the training.
? Reward correct behaviour of the animal with a short rest, some
choice food, given always with a word like “good!” so that in the
end the word alone will function as reward.

A sequential programme
The training programme described in this chapter is one approach, but
not necessarily the only one. Improvements can probably be made,
according to local experiences. Training requirements can vary greatly
and depend upon both the ability of the trainer and the temperament of
the animal. An experienced trainer may be able to go through the ex-
ercises much faster. It often helps if a trained animal can duplicate the
training exercises alongside the “novice”.
The programme is built up in four steps:

1 Roping and walking (2 to 3 days), see Section 5.2.
2 Harnessing and walking (7 to 14 days), see Section 5.3.
3 Pulling loads (7 to 10 days), see Section 5.4.
4 Working as a team (21 to 30 days), see Section 5.5.
Voice commands
The number of voice commands should be kept to a minimum and as
short as possible. The following list of words and sounds can easily be
taught to a donkey. It is useful to make use of one standardised set of
short words that are also used by other farmers in the region, so that
if a donkey changes owners, the confusion will be limited.
Word Intended effect Local language synonym

No Stop the donkey’s action
Good Verbal reward for donkey
Come Move donkey towards speaker
Home Send donkey home
Shed Send donkey into shed
Harness Donkey to stand still for harnessing
Move Start donkey moving
Faster Speed up donkey
Stop Stop forward movement of donkey
Reverse Donkey to go backwards
Straight Donkey to move in a straight line
Right Donkey to turn right
Left Donkey to turn left
Leg Donkey to lift leg
Furrow Donkey to follow the furrow
Training programme 31
5.2 Step 1: roping and walking
A rope loop should be made from a length of about 3.5 metres of rope
(see first step in figure 5). Donkeys are not normally difficult to catch,
provided that the trainer approaches slowly and quietly, preferably
offering some food. Call the animal by its name, when approaching,
talking quietly. Try to gain its trust. When the opportunity arises, place
the rope loop around its neck. The knot should be firm so there is no
chance of it tightening further if the donkey tries to pull away. If a
donkey feels strangled, it will feel threatened and become frightened.
The farmer should aim to achieve the opposite: to gain the animal’s
trust.
When the rope is tied, the animal should be encouraged to walk for-
wards whilst the farmer shouts “move!” and holds the rope from be-
hind. It may be necessary to lightly whip the donkey’s rump with the
free end of the rope, but do this only if necessary. Alternatively a blunt
stick can be used to poke on the rump or thigh; poking will often work
better than hitting. The donkey has to be encouraged, not punished.
Now shout the word “stop!” giving short pulls on the rope until the
animal stops. As after every successfully completed exercise, reward
the animal with the word “good” and a rest.
If the donkey fails to stop, however, don’t allow yourself to be drag-
ged along, pulling harder and harder on the rope. It is much better to
repeat the commands, apply further short pulls and follow the donkey
until it finally decides to stop - now the reward can be given.
Repeat the routines several times, calming the animal after successful
completion.
5.3 Step 2: harnessing and walking

Placing the halter on the donkey
The untrained donkey should first be caught and the rope loop placed
around its neck as described in Step 1. Calm the animal by calling its
name and talking to it while caressing the neck area.

The main instrument in training donkeys is the human voice. If the
donkey is calmed down sufficiently, place the halter over the head and
attach a lead rope of about two metres long to the chin ring. Remove
the rope loop.
Walking the donkey

Hold the lead rope close to the halter. Now, standing in front and
slightly to one side, give the commands practised in Step 1. At first the
donkey will resist being pulled, plunging up and down when it feels
the pressure. Use of its name and a calm voice will soon settle it. Give
a reward in the form of some food. The word “good” should be used
only when the donkey is thoroughly calm and not while it is still fight-
ing the rope.
If reward does not work too well in the beginning, a second person
waving something noisy, such as a leafy stick, behind the donkey can
start it. Poke the donkey’s rump or upper legs.
Repeat the exercise of stopping and moving and reward the animal
with a rest each time it has performed well. It helps considerably if an
older well-trained donkey follows the same exercise alongside the
animal that is trained. A young donkey should be trained alongside its
mother.
Introducing turns
Continue practising the “move!” and “stop!” commands and eventu-
ally introduce “right” and “left”. When turning, hold the lead rope
close to the halter and pull the donkey’s head to the side where the
turn is to be made. These walking exercises on a closely held lead
rope should extend over three to four days in two daily sessions of
about an hour and a half.
Extending the lead rope

When the above exercises are repeated, the lead rope should be gradu-
ally held further from the animal‘s head so that it becomes more ac-
customed to obeying the voice commands than being led. The trainer
can eventually stand still, holding the donkey at the end of about 5
metres of lead rope, whilst the animal circles around him or her obey-
ing the commands (figure 13).
Figure 13: Training the donkey at the end of a 5-m lead rope.
Fitting the harness

The animal will need to be calmed as soon as it feels the harness. Fit
the breast band and straps (figure 15) or just the collar (figure 18) de-
pending on the harness adopted, see Chapter 6, and not the full har-
ness. This is done after the halter is already in place.
The walking exercises on a closely held lead rope should be repeated

until the animal accepts the harness. Gradually the training can return
to walking in circles on the long lead rope as before.
5.4 Step 3: pulling loads

Driving the donkey from behind
Before the donkey starts to pull a load, it must learn to be driven from
behind. The halter and part harness are fitted as in Step 2 and the reins
fitted to the halter or bridle with bit if preferred. Repeat the walking
exercises using the commands the donkey learned before until the
donkey is fully controlled from behind. This may take several days.

A new command “reverse!” should also be introduced at this stage.
An assistant may be required to stand in front of the animal and per-
suade it to move backwards by holding its halter and pushing while
the trainer shouts the command “reverse!” from behind.
Attaching the traces and pulling a load

Harness the donkey and attach both traces together with the steering
reins. The right-hand trace should first be tied to the harness so that it
pulls the swingle tree over the ground but the left-hand trace is al-
lowed to trail. Drive the donkey in a left-hand circle from behind, but
with an assistant holding a lead rope on the halter so that it is well
controlled and is forced to the left. The objective is to accustom the
animal to the new sounds made as the hitch system drags over the
ground. Normally a day or two is sufficient for the animal to become
used to the new sensations and noises. As soon as this has happened,
both traces can be attached to the harness and the swingle tree to the
end of a light log, weighing about 10 kg. Drive the animal from be-
hind and practice the voice commands. After a couple of days, a larger
log weighing about 20 kg should be used for the exercise.
5.5 Step 4: working as a team

Making two donkeys familiar with each other
Before commencing the exercises, the donkeys should be fitted with
the breast band or collar harness and tied to a fence for a few hours at
a time for several days. Each animal should always be tied on the sa-
me side, a position that will later be maintained when working in the
field.
Once the pair is familiar with each other, they should be led together
from the stock with the harness fitted. Choose a training area with
plenty of space and hitch the animals to a 20-kg log. An assistant
should lead the animals whilst the trainer uses voice commands to di-
rect them from behind.
After a couple of days pulling the log along the ground, the pair
should be introduced to the idea of working in a furrow. Prepare a
straight furrow beforehand. Now lead the donkeys to pull the log al-
ong it, the right-hand animal walking in the furrow and the left-hand
one walking on the land. Always maintain the animals in the same re-
lative positions for this exercise and repeat until they obey the voice
commands and no longer need to be led by the assistant.
Learning to use farming implements

Lead the animals to the furrow used for the log-pulling exercise. Hitch
them to the plough and lead them to pull it along the furrow. Start by
holding the share clear of the ground so there is little resistance. This
allows them to become accustomed to the noise of the chains and
wheel at work.
After a few practice runs, the plough can be engaged at a shallow

depth. Gradually the depth can be increased and eventually the assis-
tant should no longer be needed to lead the animals, the voice com-
mands from the trainer being understood and obeyed.
The problem to be mastered in using the harrow, is to keep a straight

line whilst the donkeys walk over the tilled land and have no furrow to
follow. For this reason, the voice command “straight!” should be in-
troduced.
Learning to pull a cart

Normally a different harness will be used, as the animals not only
need to pull, but also must be able to support some weight of the cart
and to stop the cart.
The training principles remain the same. Introduce the animals first to
the harness that will be adopted. Allow them time to become used to
it. Hitch them to the cart and, with the help of the assistant; lead them
across the training area.

6 Harnessing
The harness links the draft animal to the cart or implement. So, to be
effective, it has to tap the power of the animal in the right places. In
some parts of Africa, donkeys, horses or mules are used with withers
yokes (also called neck yokes), similar to those used for cattle.
6.1 Purpose of a donkey harness

One reason for yoking donkeys is simply for convenience and simplic-
ity where withers yokes for oxen are already available, and where
equine harnesses are not easy to obtain. Another reason is ignorance of
other harnessing possibilities.
As can be seen from figure 14, weight is best borne on the back, and
the shoulders are the best place to generate pulling force. Donkey
shoulders are too low to be reached by a yoke. Moreover, by pushing
on the neck, a yoke can force a donkey’s head to be kept low, whereas
a donkey works best with its head up and looking straight ahead. The
same can be said about a sling made from sacks, which is often used
to connect a donkey to a cart. Much better harnesses for tapping the
power of all equines are breast bands and collars.
Figure 14: Placement of forces on a donkey’s skeleton.
Harnessing 37
6.2 Harnesses in general
The breast band is the simpler and cheaper harness. The work force
is primarily taken from a broad band of leather, rubber or strong can-
vas material across the animal’s chest. Traces (ropes or chains) or
shafts attached to either end of the breast band pass back to the im-
plement.
One or more straps hold the breast band in position and take up the
vertical component of the workload. Usually there is a neck strap
crossing the withers and a back strap across the middle of the back.
They are often padded on the back and referred to as “saddles”. The
back straps may be adjustable or made to size.
For heavy work a well-fitting collar around the neck is preferred over
a breast band harness. It is positioned between the strongest points of
the donkey (its breast and its withers) and is therefore most efficient
for pulling at an angle as is required for cultivation implements (see
figure 21). The collar is made in two parts so that it is easy to put on.
The making of good collars requires a skilled craftsman and is there-
fore expensive. However, simpler designs have been made recently in
an attempt to bring their cost down, without losing their efficiency.
A harness must properly fit the donkey’s body and must offer a
sufficiently large contact area to spread the load in such a way that
damage to the skin is prevented. The skin of equines is sensitive to
rubbing and relatively soft materials or padding are advisable. Padding
is particularly important at places where harness parts have (even the
slightest) tendency to rub against the skin or to cut into the flesh.
The best construction material for harnesses is leather, although this is

often unobtainable or expensive in some regions. Leather needs to be
well cared for, as it is prone to drying out and hardening. To prevent
hardening, a leather harness should be waxed or oiled with vegetable
oil or animal fat. On the other hand, a leather harness may become
mouldy if allowed to be constantly damp.

There are several useful alternatives to leather. The most successful
are canvas and synthetic webbing, a strong closely woven fabric. Hes-
sian or jute sacking material is often used for making harnesses and
padding, but these materials can be very rough and abrasive if they
have been soaked in sweat and allowed to dry.
All harness equipment should be kept free of dirt and dampness to

avoid sores and infection in the donkey. Therefore, harnesses should
never be left lying on the ground, but should always be hung up so-
mewhere out of the reach of children and animals.
6.3 Various pulling harnesses

Breast band harnesses
The webbing breast band may be made from strips of webbing which
are sewn together to fit the donkey (figure 15). The width of the breast
band is about 6 cm. The neck strap is 4 cm wide and not adjustable.
Leather parts are used to reinforce the breast strap at the connections
with the neck strap and the triangular ring. Short breast bands with
one neck strap have the advantage of connecting the traces near the
power point (figure 14). Long breast bands with two back straps are
required where the implement needs a certain amount of lifting, like
single mouldboard ploughs without a support wheel.
Figure 15: Design for a webbing breast band with one neck strap.
Harnessing 39
A similar design can be made with rubber from an old car tire. The
breast band is cut from the tread of the tire (6 cm wide) and the neck
strap from the tire casing (5 cm wide). The joints are stitched together
with thin wire. To avoid hurting the donkey’s skin, make sure that the
wire is pulled tightly toward the outer side while stitching, so that the
wire is well sunken into the rubber on the inner side of the breast
band, which touches the donkey. Edges should be rounded. Conveyor
belts, joined by bolts, can also be used instead of tire rubber. Padding
must be applied to absorb sweat and to protect the skin.
When made out of leather, a 12-cm wide strap is folded twice. Over
the seam a 3-cm wide strap is fixed for taking the stress (figure 16).
This compiled leather strap (about 5 cm wide) distributes the pressure
on the breast and acts as a cushion at the same time. Fewer sores de-
velop from this arrangement as the major stress is on the middle of the
strap instead of on the edges. In this more expensive design, the neck
strap has a pad on the top to distribute the weight and it has adequate
adjustment possibilities to fit many donkeys.
Figure 16: Adjustable leather breast band harness.
Make sure the harness is properly adjusted for the donkey. The breast
band strap should run across the chest just above the point of the
shoulder (figure 1). When fixed too high, there is a danger of choking
the donkey; when fixed too low, the two ends may run over the shoul-
der points where the front leg bones attach to the main skeleton, mak-
ing walking very uncomfortable for the donkey. The space for a breast

band is actually very limited on the chest of a donkey, which is a ma-
jor drawback for this type of harness.
Zimbabwean breast band harnesses

In Zimbabwe, the short and the long breast band harnesses are pro-
moted for their simplicity and durability. They are made out of con-
veyer belts or other belt material. The short breast band is longer than
the one discussed above, since it has two back straps. The front back
strap should be joined to the breast strap at “power point”. The rear
back strap serves to keep the breast band in position (figure 17). The
extended breast band runs all the way to the swingle tree, making
ropes or chains superfluous. If they are used on two donkeys pulling
an ox-cart, two neck slings will also be needed to hold up the single
shaft by means of an additional evener up front (figure 18). The cou-
pling between the evener and the shaft should be flexible.
Figure 17: Longer breast band harness as used for field imple-
ments. The further away the implement, the smaller the pulling an-
gle, which puts less strain on a harness, depending on the resis-
tance of the soil and the required ploughing depth. Greatest force
is exerted where breaststrap and front-backstrap meet. For a
steeper pulling angle, second backstrap should be further back,
over the donkey’s hip bone.
Harnessing 41
Figure 18: Extended breast band harness applied on two donkeys
pulling an ox-cart. See for swingle trees figure 22.
Figure 19: Harness made out of braided goatskin. Any number of

leather strips can be used but even numbers are easier.
Since these breast bands are not adjustable, they should be made to
size to be comfortable. Besides, the sharp edges of the belts, unless

filed round or padded, can cut into the donkey’s skin. There is also the
problem that the heads of the bolts used to connect the different straps,
often catch in the donkey’s hair and irritate the skin. Therefore, it is
necessary that some padding be provided, preferably enclosed in ma-
terial that absorbs the donkey’s sweat. The best solution is to make
these types of harnesses out of leather, such as braided goatskin
(figure 19).
Breast protectors
Most sores and wounds are caused by poor quality or ill-fitting breast
bands in combination with traces that are fixed directly to a rigid part
of the cart and not to a swingle tree. Instead of heavy cloth or sheep
skin as padding for the above-mentioned breast bands, one may also
make a simple removable and therefore easily washable breast protec-
tor. It is a cushion made of foam rubber and canvas placed between
the strap and the donkey’s breast, which can be buttoned to the breast
strap.
Collar harness with straight hames

A recent design made in South Africa uses straight wooden bars pad-
ded with sheepskin. The hame straps are made of home-tanned leather.
They are simply tied together in a way that will easily allow adjust-
ment. See figure 20; the saddle shown is part of the full harness, in-
cluding a breeching made from old fire hose, needed for pulling a cart.
Three-pad collar harness

A special donkey collar harness developed in Kenya is modelled after
European cattle and horse collars. The harness comprises two wooden
hames, hinged by leather straps at the top and joined by a leather strap
at the bottom. The hames are shaped to match the contours of the ani-
mal. The shoulders are protected from direct contact with the hames
by two pads, made of canvas and stuffed with cattle tail hair, recov-
ered from butcheries. The third pad is made of leather and is attached
to the lower of the two top straps, which rests on the withers. The load
is passed by nylon traces from the hames to a swingle tree. For pulling
Harnessing 43
operations, a back and girth strap with trace holders are used to pre-
vent entanglement of the traces and the donkey’s hind legs (figure 21).
Figure 20: South African collar with straight hames.
Three-pad collar harnesses are expensive compared to harnesses dis-

cussed previously, because they are produced by artisans using good
quality materials like hardwood, leather and canvas. However, over
one thousand of them have been made in Kenya on demand and those
who can afford them like them very much for their comfort, power,
efficiency and durability.

Figure 21: Three-pad collar harness with saddle and girth.
A: as mounted (front view)
B: detached (side view)
C: mounted
Harnessing 45
7 Hitching
As the donkey walks, its shoulders move backwards and forwards. To
prevent rubbing the skin, the harness must be able to move in line with
the shoulders. Ideally, the traces should be attached to a swingle or
swingle tree and not directly to the implement. Linking two donkeys
to a cart or implement requires the use of an evener. The implement is
normally pulled from the centre of the evener, but if one animal is
stronger than the other, the trek chain should be attached closer to the
side of the stronger animal to compensate for the inequality in pulling
force. If the traces are made from rope, notches should be filed in the
wooden swingle tree so they cannot slip off (figure 22).
Figure 22: Suggested sizes for the swingle trees and evener.
7.1 Hitching a single donkey to a cart

The breast strap or the collar harness are designed for pulling only and
provide no possibility of pushing in the opposite direction to brake a
moving cart. This can be overcome by adding a breech strap that pas-
ses round the rump and under the tail of the donkey.
The vertical load that the cart imposes on the donkey through the
shafts is carried over a saddle, held in place by the girth strap. Alter-
natively, a belly band can be used which connects the shafts under-
neath the donkey. A belly band has the additional advantage of pre-
venting cart tipping when there is too much load in the back of the

cart. The breech strap is attached to the shafts of the cart whilst the
breast band is attached to the swingle tree on either side (figure 23).
Figure 23: The arrangement off the breast band, breech strap and
saddle for harnessing a donkey to the shafts of a two-wheeled
cart.
The shafts must be able to move forwards and backwards through

the shaft holders to some degree. When the donkey starts pulling, the
shafts go backwards a little so that the traces exert the pulling force
while the breech strap is slack. When the donkey starts braking (or the
cart goes faster than the donkey), the shafts come forwards a bit which
tightens the breech strap and slackens the traces.
A “false breeching” can also be used. This is a wide strap attached

between the shafts right behind the donkey. This method is easier to
arrange than a breech strap. The donkey is able to brake the cart by
pushing its hindquarters against the false breeching.
It is also important to use a rigid saddle rather than just a pad to pro-
tect the backbone if the load is anything but very light. The saddle
should be located right behind the withers as shown in figure 23. The
saddle in this case has a metal sheet on top of the pad to make it rigid.
Hitching 47
The belly strap keeps the saddle in place, while connections between
the saddle parts keep them together.
7.2 Hitching two donkeys to a cart

Many two-wheel donkey carts were designed for oxen. The single
shaft is normally connected to a withers (neck) yoke. Since yokes are
unsuitable for donkeys, another hitching system must be used. The
best solution is to replace the one shaft by three and use the arrange-
ment described above.
Figure 24 shows a similar arrangement with four steel shafts. The ver-
tical load comes on the back saddles and traction is taken through the
collars or breast band harnesses. Commercial transporters who use
their cart and donkeys daily, should consider this option.
Figure 24: Four-shaft design for hitching two donkeys with collar
and saddle to a two-wheeled cart (photo: Luurt Oudman).

7.3 Other hitching arrangements for teams of
two or more donkeys
Alternative hitching arrangements for teams of two, three and four
donkeys with collar harness pulling implements are shown in figure
25A,B and C.
Figure 25: Several hitching arrangements
Hitching 49
An alternative hitching arrangement for two donkeys, called “hitching
in tandem”, is shown in figure 25A. However, the traces of the front
donkey should not be passed through holes in the hames of the collar
of the rear donkey, as shown in this illustration. Instead wire loops
should be fixed to this collar, just for holding up the traces when not
under tension. The same arrangement may be used for a cart with two
shafts. The rear donkey is hitched between the shafts in the normal
way and provides support for the vertical load of the cart besides a
pulling force. The front donkey is connected to its own swingle tree
behind the rear donkey and provides draft force only. Tandem hitching
has the advantage that donkeys of different size, and animals of differ-
ent species, can be hitched together.
However, as one animal provides all the braking force, this method
should be used with caution where gradients have to be negotiated,
unless a mechanical brake is fitted.
Figure 25B shows the hitching of three donkeys side by side. This ar-
rangement is too wide for ploughing, but appropriate for other pulling
jobs. It is also used for pulling a cart, with the centre donkey in be-
tween the shafts.
Figure 25C shows four animals in tandem, a common arrangement for

pulling a plough, cart or wagon. The rear donkeys are provided with
slings to keep the front evener suspended.
If donkeys are used next to each other, a coupling between their heads
will keep them at a consistent distance from each other. There are also
reins going from the (front) animals to the operator for driving the
donkeys in the desired direction (figure 25B and C). To attach these
reins, at least a halter is needed.
7.4 Reining systems

Controlling a donkey’s head is the best way to control a donkey. A
head rope is easy to make and to slip on to a donkey to fetch it when
needed. For more prolonged use, a halter should be made of flat mate-
rial, like leather or strong webbing (figure 26).

A halter should have buckles
or ties for proper fitting and
metal rings by the donkey’s
mouth to which reins for
driving can be attached. Cer-
tain jobs require particularly
good control of the donkey,
like tillage operations or cart
transport in heavy traffic.
Combined with taught com-
mands, only small amounts
of pressure on the reins are
necessary to give that extra
control. Figure 26: Halter.
Hitching 51
8 Equipment for transport
Pulling is generally a more
efficient way of moving
things than packing, be-
cause most of the load is
not borne by the animal.
Moreover, the load does not
have to be prepared in a
special way to fit the ani-
mal. The most simple load
vehicle is a sledge made out
of a Y-shaped tree branch
(figure 27). The sledge is
attached to the animal by a Figure 27: Simple wooden sledge as
trek chain. used in eastern and southern Africa.
8.1 Sledges
The advantages of sledges are that they are cheap and simple to make
and maintain. They have a low centre of gravity and they are narrow,
enabling them to be used on tracks too narrow or steep for carts. They
can often be used in sandy, muddy or rutted conditions where a cart
might become stuck.
However, there are many disadvantages. In most conditions they re-

quire more effort to pull than a cart. They have limited clearance and
can be stopped by stumps. Most importantly they tend to accelerate
erosion by leaving rutted tracks, often only passable by other sledges,
which become watercourses during heavy rains.
8.2 Carts
Carts are two-wheeled vehicles. They can be small and light, pulled by
one donkey, or may carry over one ton and be hitched to a team of

donkeys. Carts are becoming very popular, especially in Africa, as
they can be used on rough roads and throughout the year, while other
implements can only be used for a small number of days each year.
Preferred designs
In recent years small wheels fitted with pneumatic tires have be-
come the accepted standard for animal-drawn carts in many African
countries. Small wheels (40-60 cm diameter) allow cart platforms to
extend over the wheels, which is practically impossible with large
wheels (80-180 cm). Such a design provides a wide, but not too high,
loading area and easy access from the sides, and thus greater conven-
ience for loading and unloading (figure 28).
Small wheels are more likely to be obstructed by holes and ruts than
the large wheels. However, the adoption of common automobile tire
sizes on carts has so many advantages that this drawback just has to be
accepted.
Figure 28: Two-wheel carts using roller bearings and factory-reject

car tires. Designed for a team of oxen, but a smaller size is used
with donkeys in Togo.
Where the use of specially fabricated animal-drawn carts is common

in Africa, the preferred designs have been based on straight steel axles
with sealed roller bearings. A simple steel cart frame is bolted onto the
axle and a wooden or steel platform is fitted into this (figure 29).
While such designs are not particularly cheap, they are usually long
lasting.
Equipment for transport 53

Figure 29: Cart type widely used in West Africa, being based on
fixed solid steel axle, roller bearings and imported wheels and
tires.
Scrap vehicle parts, tires and brakes

In many countries, carts are made from old car axles or from the entire
rear section of light pick-up trucks. These are generally heavier than
carts with purpose-built axles, but where the necessary scrap vehicles
and skills are available, such carts can be very efficient. Also, the in-
dependent stub axles from a car can be welded onto a hollow metal
pipe or square section and attached to a wooden frame. If a metal
frame is used, it should be bolted to the axle so that it may be easily
removed in case of repair.
Old car axles and rims often come with worn down tires. Retread tires
are much more reliable in that respect. An alternative approach,
widely used in West Africa, is to purchase at considerable discount the
reject tires from large factories. Low grade, rejected car tires can be
safely used with animal-drawn carts.

Although puncture repair is often seen as a major constraint, it is wi-
dely observed that once a reasonable number of pneumatic tires (on
carts, motorcycles, cars and pick-ups) are in use in an area, puncture
repair services spring up in even quite small villages.
Brakes are important for making emergency stops, but also to save the
animals from discomfort where steep slopes are encountered. Even on
flat ground, a loaded cart pulled at normal speed has a considerable
momentum, and absorbing this through the harnessing system in an
emergency stop or on a downward slope can be very uncomfortable
for the animals.
However, the choice of harnessing system does influence the effi-
ciency with which animals can brake carts with their own bodies.
Good breeching systems are shown in figure 23 and figure 24.
Basic wheel brakes can be made from concave wooden blocks or just
bars or logs that are pushed against the wheel or tire surface. A lever
mechanism is desired for emergency stops. Some manufactured
wheels for carts come with internal brake shoes. Old car brakes can be
quite easily adapted if mechanical parking-brake linkages are avail-
able.
Size and balance of the load

Most carts are designed to withstand loads of up to 1000 kg. The abil-
ity of animals to pull such loads depends on the road surfaces and
slopes. Single donkeys can generally pull loads up to 500 kg, single
horses can pull 700-1000 kg, while pairs of oxen can pull 1000 kg or
more.
Balancing the load on two-wheeled carts is very important, as any im-
balance will cause upward or downward forces on the animals’ har-
nessing system. The axle should be placed in such a position that a
small load is always resting on the harnessing system when the cart is
empty. When the load is put on the cart, it should be balanced in such
a way that the load on the harness remains light but present under all
circumstances, see figure 30. When a heavy load shifts backwards, a
donkey can be literally lifted of its feet. Some cart manufacturers pla-
Equipment for transport 55

place the axle quite far to the rear to avoid such an incident, but they
don’t seem to realise how much unnecessary load will be put on the
animal’s back in this way.
Figure 30: Two-wheel donkey cart in Mali. Provided the load is well
balanced, donkeys can pull impressive loads along flat roads.
8.3 Wagons
Wagons are four-wheeled vehicles with a higher weight capacity than
carts. They also have the advantage that the wheels support the whole
load, so that the animal power is only needed for forward movement.
Wagons can be left with loads in place even when the animals are not
present. However, wagons have a more complicated design to ensure
manoeuvrability and stability, which makes them heavier and more
costly. They are best suited to tarred and level roads and to areas
where the increased load capacity is cost-effective.

9 Equipment for primary tillage
Tillage involves the disturbance of soil to create the best conditions
for seed germination and eventual plant growth. Tillage serves three
main purposes:
? to control growth of weeds by destroying them or by inverting the
soil and burying them;
? to increase the infiltration and reduce the runoff of water from rain
or irrigation supplies;
? to disturb and aerate the soil to a depth which allows the plant roots
to penetrate deeper.
Primary cultivation equipment has a high draft requirement and is

usually more suited to larger animals than the donkey except where
the soils are especially light and sandy. Teams of donkeys or smaller
implements make primary cultivation with donkeys a feasible option.
Various animal-drawn implements are available. The choice depends

on climatic conditions, soil type and farming system. In this chapter
the following will be discussed: mouldboard plough, ard, scarifier,
ripper and ridger
9.1 Mouldboard plough

In regions of moderately high rainfall, where also the heavier soils are
found, weeds are a serious problem. The weeds can be buried by in-
verting the soil with a mouldboard plough. The degree of inversion
depends on the cohesion of the soil and the shape of the mouldboard.
As it moves soil to one side, the mouldboard plough clears a distinct
furrow. By continually turning soil into each previous furrow a farmer
can systematically cultivate a field in one operation, covering both
weeds and surface trash.
An additional advantage of the mouldboard plough is that it is suitable

to mix organic or chemical fertilisers into the soil. When the organic
Equipment for primary tillage 57

material consists of living green plants less than 30 cm tall, all of it
can be ploughed in.
Parts
Most plough bodies comprise a central element, or frog, to which are
attached a share which cuts soil, a mould board which turns the soil
and a trailing landside which provides stability. The end of the land-
side is known as the heel. The heel assists in controlling the depth of
the plough. Since it can be subject to rapid wear, it may be detachable
to be replaced independently of the landside (figure 31).
Figure 31: Parts of the Rumptstad Sandy III plough.
An adjustable land wheel is attached towards the front of the beam to

reduce pitching (front moves up and down relative to the back). Many
use it to restrict the depth of ploughing. However, this practice can
lead to considerable loss of energy, as the vertical adjustment of the

hake should be used for depth control. The handles are meant for stee-
ring and not for depth control (figure 31).
Share size and sharpness

The length and angle of a ploughshare determines the width that the
plough cuts. The quoted size does not refer to the dimensions of the
share itself but to the width it will cut (e.g. distance “a” in figure 33).
Small shares require less draft power; but as each plough furrow is
small, it takes longer to cultivate each hectare. Most mouldboard
ploughs in use in Africa have shares of 18-23 cm. If the width of cut is
18 cm, then the maximum depth of cut that allows good inversion of
the soil beam is 15 cm. So, 15-cm donkey ploughs are limited in their
cutting depth.
Ploughshares need to be regularly sharpened, reworked or replaced. A
worn ploughshare cuts a smaller furrow and can lead to the plough
body itself becoming worn; that is much more difficult to repair. A
worn ploughshare also leads to penetration problems.
Figure 32: A blunt share creates a plough-sole, increases the draft

and makes penetration into the soil difficult.
Blunt ploughshares create a plough-sole since cutting becomes

smearing under most conditions. The macro-pores in the soil become
sealed, which leads to a reduction in the flow of water and air through
the soil. Blunt ploughshares also require considerably more draft
force than sharp ones (figure 32).

Width and depth adjustment
Figure 33 shows (in exaggerated form) the horizontal adjustment of a
plough. In picture A the chain is attached to the central position. The
plough cuts the furrow equal in width to share size. In picture B the
chain has been moved horizontally towards the unploughed land. The
share is skewed so that it is even more angled to the direction of mo-
vement, and thus it will cut a smaller slice of soil. In picture C the
chain has been moved horizontally towards the furrow and the share is
pulled around so that it cuts a wider furrow.
Figure 33: Horizontal (width) adjustment of a plough; rendering is

exaggerated for the sake of clearness.
The depth or vertical adjustment on the regulator can be viewed in a

similar way, as shown again in exaggerated form in figure 34. Moving
the chain downwards causes the plough to pivot so that the heel
presses down and the share points upwards. The share is actually be-
ing pulled out of the ground. Moving the chain upwards causes the
heel to rise and the share to point downwards, hence the plough will
go deeper.

Figure 34: Vertical (depth) adjustment of a plough; rendering is ex-
aggerated for the sake of clearness.
In the correct adjustment, the regulator is positioned on the straight

line between point of pull (preferably the power point of figure 14 at
page 37) and point of resistance (line between mould board and sha-
re).
The large majority of farmers in Africa dismantle the depth/width ad-

justment. This means that exclusively the operator does the steering of
the plough. This is a hard job and the plough will find its own depth.
After a few years a plough-pan is formed which gets harder and more
impenetrable each season, and the ploughshare slides on top of this
pan.

9.2 Ard
The practice of removing organic matter and residues is common, for
example by burning or by the grazing of animals. Measures for apply-
ing extra organic material, such as green manure and animal dung, are
not being exploited in most regions. In that case, inversion of soil may
not be desirable as it may increase the rates at which soil moisture is
lost and humus is decomposed. Under semi-arid conditions a fine tilth
may be dangerously susceptible to erosion. A coarse seedbed prepara-
tion, with the ard for example, reduces these erosion risks.
Though ards have been in use for thousands of years, they still are
clearly well adapted to many contemporary-farming systems. Among
the design features commonly found are:
? the use of a single, symmetrical share set at a fixed angle to the
ground;
? use of a long beam (as opposed to a flexible chain) between the bo-
dy of the implement and the yoke;
? provision of a single handle for control;
? use of materials and construction techniques that allow fabrication
by village artisans.
Numerically, ards are the most important animal-drawn implements in

the world. An ard plough is symmetrical on either side of its line of
draft. As the share and the body of the plough pass through the
ground, the soil is fractured and disturbed equally on either side, due
to the symmetrical construction.
Some ard ploughs (including maresha, figure 35) till a narrow width
(5 cm) at a shallow depth (5-15 cm), and are therefore also called
scratch ploughs, leaving small and irregular ridges and furrows.
Weed control and seedbed preparation are achieved through a series of

cultivation (usually at least three) each at an angle to the others.
Weeds are not covered but are generally uprooted and remain with
stones and other trash at the surface. In semi-arid areas this may result
in quite effective but time-consuming weed control. Assuming an ef-

fective tillage width of 15 cm and three cultivations, it takes 200 km
of travel to finish one hectare. On the other hand, low draft makes this
type of plough ideal for use with two donkeys.
Other ard ploughs, including some body ards and sole ards used in
India and North Africa, have quite large wooden plough bodies. These
follow the steel shares through the earth, breaking up relatively wide
tracts of the soil (up to 25 cm), and are therefore also called breaking
ploughs (figure 35). Although such ards do not fully invert the soil,
they can often be used to systematically plough fields in a single pass.
This allows an appropriate seedbed to be rapidly achieved through
subsequent harrowing.
Figure 35: Some ard designs.
Although Ethiopia has the second largest donkey population in the

world, estimated to be in the range of four to five million, donkeys are
hardly used to pull the maresha. One reason is the type of harnessing
required, since the maresha necessitates the use of a yoke. Since the
withers yoke is not suitable to donkeys, a dorsal yoke has to be made.
An alternative for farmers with donkeys, who like to use ard-like im-
plements, is the use of rippers or chisel ploughs that require the regu-
lar breast band or collar harness.

9.3 Scarifier
Another practice in semi-arid regions, where heavy weed growth has
not developed, is the use of a scarifier. The scarifier is normally
equipped with rather light tines made from spring steel. These vibrate,
loosening the soil and reducing the risk of damage when encountering
obstacles. This implement rapidly opens the land after the first or sec-
ond rain of the season to improve infiltration of the next rains.
When using a pair of donkeys, only three tines should be attached.

One is placed at the front and the other two at the rear of the imple-
ment. The appropriate choice must be made according to local field
conditions, and it also depends upon the type of point fitted (figure
36).
Figure 36: Several examples of a scarifier tine: (a) The reversible

point for scarifying harder soils. (b) The rigid point. (c) The duck-
foot point for scarifying lighter soils and general weeding opera-
tions. (d) The sweep used for weeding.
Under normal conditions, a team of four donkeys can pull a scarifier

with five tines. Lateral spacing between each tine must be equal and
varies normally between 15 and 20 cm. It is particularly important on
an expanding frame such as the Houe Manga that each tine be aligned
in the direction of advance (figure 37).

Figure 37: The Houe Manga in this illustration has the four left-
hand tines correctly alligned. The right-hand tine, however, needs
adjusting.
9.4 Ripper
Where the soil is practically free of weeds a ripper can be used to open
a narrow band of soil ready for seeding. The rest of the soil is left un-
disturbed, if possible under a mulch cover to keep that soil cool and
moist. The ripping system is not widely used yet, but highly promoted
in the interest of soil conservation.
Single, symmetrical, angled tines may be used for tillage in semi-arid

conditions. These are mounted onto steel beams or toolbars, as com-
monly used in sub-Saharan Africa. In Zambia the Magoye ripper was
developed as an attachment to a local plough or ridger frame (figure
38). It is recommended for a “breaking” operation to make planting
furrows for maize instead of a ploughing operation. On heavy soils
this operation should take place right after the onset of rains but on
light soils it can even be done before the rains start. Dry soil shatters
better and by doing this operation ahead of time, the usual high de-
mand for labour and draft animals at planting time can be decreased.
In fields that have been continuously cultivated either with a hand-hoe

or animal drawn plough, a hard layer may have formed hindering

rainwater infiltration and deep rooting. Deeper tillage is then neces-
sary to break the plough pan. The ripper tine can perform this opera-
tion after ploughing, but more often a special subsoiler is used or a
subsoil attachment to the common plough. A subsoiler tine is built
heavier than a ripper tine and consequently takes more draft force.
Figure 38: Magoye ripper attachment on plough beam.
9.5 Ridger
Another fast system of soil cultivation is ridging. Ridging ploughs are
symmetrical around their line of draft and the two mould boards turn
soil to both sides (figure 39). In each pass through the soil a ridger
makes one furrow and two small ridges. In normal use the furrows are
so spaced that two small ridges are combined to make one larger one.
Alternatively a ridger attachment is added to a common plough. Ridg-
ing will generally take only 35 to 50% of the time needed to plough,
which is valued by farmers in low and medium rainfall areas. This is
due both to the wide working width, and the fact that not all the land is
tilled. The soil under the ridges is not disturbed.

Ridging, as a method of cultivation, developed in many African coun-
tries before animal traction was introduced. Its rapid and superficial
manner of working very light soils is highly prized.
When using a properly designed ridger for direct ridging on soils whe-
re also ploughing can be done effectively, the draft requirements for
these two operations will be comparable. In heavy soils however,
direct ridging could lead to the formation of large aggregates that
could hamper seed germination. In those conditions soil may have to
be broken first with tines or a mouldboard plough and ridging be-
comes a secondary tillage operation, as will be discussed in Section
10.1.
Permanent ridges may

lead to the development of
hard layers of soil that are
difficult for roots to pene-
trate. Even on light soils
this can lead to yield re-
ductions and increased
competition by weeds.
The best application of
direct ridging seems to be
in rotation with normal
ploughing: a field that is
directly ridged one year Figure 39: “Inkunki” high wing ridger,
should be ploughed the manufactured in Zimbabwe.
following year and could
be directly ridged again the third year. Consequently, direct ridging
cannot replace ploughing altogether.

10 Equipment for crop husbandry
Secondary cultivation is aimed at both reducing the clod size and lev-
elling the soil surface or forming it into the required shape by ridging.
10.1 Secondary tillage

Harrow
A harrow may be as simple as a
few tree branches or a wooden
plank or a log, weighted down
with stones or the weight of the
operator and pulled across the field
by the animals. However, this
method of harrowing is not rec-
ommended. A common harrow
consists of a wooden frame with
15 to 20 metal spikes, which Figure 40: Sketch of a simple
breaks the clods, mixes the soil wooden spike tooth harrow.
and helps to level the surface. The
spikes should be able to penetrate down to a depth of between 5 and 8
cm (figure 40). Excessive pulverising of the soil should be avoided as
the surface will then become vulnerable to wind erosion and some soil
types will later form hard crusts after rain.
The correct hitching is very important to achieve best results. The size
of the animals and length of the pull chain affect the way in which the
harrow floats across the surface. The implement should be one metre
behind the animals hooves and remain level during the work. Exces-
sive surface vegetation will block the tines and greatly reduce penetra-
tion. It is therefore important to correctly plough the field and to invert
the soil properly beforehand.

Ridger
The ridger is normally used as a secondary cultivation implement after
ploughing or breaking the soil. Ridges channel and collect water in the
furrow and should therefore be made along contours of sloping land to
limit run-off during heavy storms. If a subsoiler or a ripper-ridger
combination is used prior to ridging, the run-off risk is further reduced
as the rainwater quickly infiltrates in the soil before it does any dam-
age.
On flatter land, tied ridges may assist in retaining rainwater (water

harvesting). The ties can be made with either a hand hoe, by simply
lifting an animal-drawn ridge-tying implement every few metres
(figure 41) or with a special ridge-tying device attached to the ridger.
However, the tied ridges can pose an obstacle for later inter-row weed-
ing operations with animals.
Figure 41: An operator lifts a ridge-tying implement to form a ridge-

tie. This “Unibar” multipurpose toolbar fitted with the ridge-tier is
used in The Gambia.
Equipment for crop husbandry 69

Ridging requires a longer evener when two donkeys are used, or two
such eveners when four donkeys are needed. With the standard size,
the donkeys would have to walk on the ridges. This can be avoided by
using a longer evener with a space between the attachment points of
the swingles that is twice the inter-ridge spacing. If two donkeys are
sufficient, they may be hitched in tandem, see figure 25A.
Figure 42: The Agrimal ridging plough weighs 44 kg; the wings are
adjustable.
10.2 Equipment for sowing

Normally, there will be a recommended row width for the crop to be
sown in a particular area. Therefore the minimum working width of
the animal-drawn cultivator should be studied. This implement cannot
be applied if row widths are less than about 45 cm, without causing
excessive damage to the crop. If weeding with donkeys hitched in tan-
dem is planned, the row width should be at least 60 cm and preferably
75 cm or 90 cm.
Sowing methods
The traditional manual techniques for sowing are broadcasting, dib-
bling and drilling. Animal-drawn seeders can replace these techniques.

The objective of a seeder is to obtain accurate and reliable seed
placement conveniently and at an acceptable cost.
Broadcasting involves the scattering of seeds over the soil surface

followed by some mixing with the topsoil. This is the major method of
sowing grasses and small cereals such as wheat, teff and rice. Once
seed is distributed in this way, plants will come up in a random pattern
instead of in evenly spaced rows. Hence, further animal traction op-
erations are virtually impossible without damaging the crop. Because
of the narrow row spacing, animal-drawn multi-row seeders may re-
place hand scattering, but these are expensive and require ideal work-
ing conditions.
Dibbling involves the use of a simple hoe or stick to make holes into
which seeds are dropped. The holes are then covered with soil. Ani-
mal-drawn single-row seeders can replace the manual work. However,
seeders are designed for uniform areas and farmers’ fields can be
highly variable. With hand dibbling a skilled farmer can adjust popula-
tion density very accurately to the soil characteristics within a field.
Drilling is the process of making a narrow furrow into which seeds

are placed at regular intervals after which the furrow is covered with
topsoil and loosely compressed. Most animal drawn seeders are based
on this principle, and have a furrow opener that penetrates the soil to
the required depth, a metering mechanism that determines the seed
rate, and some form of seed tube that transports the seed to the furrow.
There is generally some system for covering the seeds in the furrow
and for tamping the soil lightly. A simple sowing system combines
some of these functions while an elaborate one combines all.
Row seeding can already be achieved using a ploughshare or an ard as

a furrow opener and hand metering while dropping the seeds into the
furrow. If furrow depth is not constant there will be some wastage of
seed. The problem of accurately aiming the dropped seeds can be
overcome by the provision of a plastic seed tube that drops the seed
behind the plough (figure 43).

Figure 43: Simple hand-metered tube seeders. “Nan” single-row
seeder used in India (left) and a simple seeder-weeder developed
in Sudan (right).
A: traces to donkey; B: wooden ground beam; C: chisel point; D:
sweep; E: seed chute; F: seed box.
This simple design can be adapted into a two, three or four row seeder.
The seeds are hand-metered into a small wooden bowl and pass down
plastic tubes to simple furrow openers. A second bowl and series of
tubes can be used to make the implement into a combined seeder and
fertiliser distributor. Such seeders are commonly used in India. How-
ever, for unknown reasons, they are not com-
mon in Africa.
An innovation from Zambia has been accepted

rapidly in eastern and southern Africa. A sim-
ple precision seeder is mounted on a plough-
beam. A double ground wheel drives a woo-
den metering roller. As the implement moves
forward, the roller rotates and seeds coming
from the hopper drop into holes of the roller
and are transferred to the seed tube. Seed rate
is determined by an adjustable opening at the Figure 44: Ripper-
bottom of the seed hopper and spacing de- planter attachment
pends on the shape of the roller. Different roll- to the common
ers are used for different crops (figure 44). plough.

More complex seeders involve a mechanism that takes power from
the ground wheel(s) and drives metering plates, such as the Super Eco
seeder (figure 45). The number of holes in a plate determines inter-
plant spacing and seed plates with different sizes and patterns of holes
are available for maize, sorghum, millet, groundnuts, cowpeas and
rice. They are used for direct planting in very light soils. Since the
number of days a year suitable for planting are few in these semi-arid
areas, there is no time wasted on conventional seedbed preparation.
Figure 45: Super-Eco seeder with various distribution plates and

the next-row marker extended.
A simple aspect of the design is the “next-furrow” marker. This is a

bar that draws a line on the ground parallel to the furrow being cre-
ated. This mark is then followed on the next pass to ensure all rows
have constant inter-row spacing.

10.3 Equipment for inter-row weeding
An example of animal-drawn weeding equipment is the Arara culti-
vator. The multi-purpose beam of the Arara-type implement may be
fitted with either three or five spring tines for weeding between rows.
To fit all five tines, the wide crossbeam of 70 cm is clamped half way
along the main beam. When working with only three tines, the wide
crossbeam is omitted, see figure 46.
The draft of cultivators will depend on soil characteristics and the

depth and width of working. Under the worst conditions the draft of a
three-tine cultivator may be similar to that of a 20-cm mouldboard
plough. Unless soil conditions are very light, cultivators fitted with
five duck-foot tines are likely to prove too heavy for a pair of donkeys
or light oxen. Three duck-foot tines may be preferred.
Figure 46: Arrangement for five times (left) and three times (right)
to work with a single pass in row widths of 90 and 60 cm respec-
tively.

Normally when working with a pair of animals, an evener length equal
to double the row width should be chosen and the implement pulled
from the centre. Weeding is then carried out in a single pass. When the
crop becomes too tall for an evener, tandem hitching becomes neces-
sary.
Minor adjustments can be made with a horizontal regulator of most

implements so that the cultivator follows in an offset position. This
may be necessary when the row spacing is wider than the working
width of the cultivator. In that case the cultivator has to start at one
side of the inter-row. Once the first run along all rows has been com-
pleted, a second run is made along the same rows with the cultivator
offset to the other side so that the complete inter-row space is weeded
(figure 47).
Figure 47: Illustration of the “double run” method of weeding widely

or unevenly spaced rows with a small weeder.

11 Maintenance of farming
equipment
Equipment for arable farming needs regular maintenance to ensure
long-lasting and reliable functioning. For donkey traction, but also for
other power sources, the following routines are recommended for pro-
per maintenance.
11.1 Daily maintenance and inspections

? Scrape off the soil while still in the field.
? When returned to the farm, thoroughly clean the implement, so that
a detailed inspection can be made of all parts.
? Check the tightness of all nuts and bolts with the correct spanner;
never use a wrench or pair of pliers.
? Make sure that bolts and nuts used for field adjustments can be tur-
ned freely; oil them if necessary.
? Check the condition of the wearing parts and plan to replace them
whenever necessary or advised.
? Check the implement for distortion. Redress any bent parts or send
them for repair.
? Maintain working parts in a polished condition to stop the onset of
rust and to reduce unnecessarily high draft forces when the imple-
ment is returned to work. Wipe all working surfaces with a rag
soaked in oil.
Rains or the delayed onset of rains may halt tillage or cultivation for
several days. Such a period of rest allows for completing repairs.
11.2 Maintenance at the end of the season

Follow the normal daily maintenance schedule. This will allow identi-
fication of all worn parts and damaged nuts and bolts. Take advantage
of the end of the season to carry out a general overhaul:
? Completely dismantle the main components of the implement.

? Repair or replace the parts as required.
? Clean the components thoroughly, remove any rust and if necessary,
repaint them. Alternatively, protect them by wiping them with an
oil-soaked rag.
? Do not paint, however, the working surfaces. These should just be
wiped with oil.
? Replace all damaged nuts and bolts, again wiping them with oil on
assembly.
? Reassemble the implement and make sure it has all been wiped with
oil.
? Store it in a safe, dry place and away from animals, sacks of grain
and any stored fertiliser.
Maintenance of farming equipment 77

Further reading
Aeschlimann M. & D. Austbo. Donkey harness with straight hames.
2000. Draught Animal News, No.32, CTVM, University of Edin-
burgh, UK. ISNN 1354-6953.
Dibbits H.J. Harnessing guidelines for donkeys pulling a single
donkey cart. 1995. IMAG-DLO, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
FAO. Draught Animal Power Manual. 1994. Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United nations, Rome, Italy. No ISBN number.
Fielding D. and P. Krause. Donkeys. 1998. The Tropical Agriculturist
series, CTA & Macmillan Education Ltd. ISBN 0-333-62750-4.
Fielding D. and R.A. Pearson. Donkeys, mules and horses in tropi-
cal agricultural development. 1991.C.T.V.M., University of Edin-
burgh, Great Britain. ISBN 0-907-14606-6
IMAG-DLO. IMAG-DLO and conservation tillage: Activities and
Experiences. 1999. Wageningen, The Netherlands. No ISBN number.
Jones P.A. Donkeys for development. 1997. Pretoria: Animal Trac-
tion Network of Eastern and Southern Africa and Agricultural Re-
search Council of South Africa Institute for Agricultural Engineering
(ARC/IAE). ISBN 0-620-22177-1.
Kaoma-Sprenkels C. et al. IMAG-DLO and conservation tillage:
Activities and Experiences. 1998. Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Oudman L. Draft animal technology course for B.Sc. Agricultural
Engineering. 1997. 8141 MP 10A Heino, The Netherlands.
Palabana. Final report on the comparative testing of ox-drawn
mouldboard ploughs 1988-1991. 1993. Palabana ADP Development
Programme, Zambia.
RTS. Donkey harnessing pamphlet. Rural Technology Section, Insti-
tute of Agricultural Engineering, P.O. Box BW 330, Borrowdale, Ha-
rare, Zimbabwe

Starkey P. Harnessing and Implements for Animal Traction. 1989.
GATE/GTZ, Eschborn, FRG. ISBN 3-528-02053-9.
Starkey P. et al. Improving Animal Traction Technology. 1994.
CTA/GTZ, Wageningen, The Netherlands. ISBN 92-9081-127-7
Further reading 79
Useful addresses
[email protected]
For all information concerning "Draught Animal Power Manual"
[email protected]
Dr. Peta Jones, author of "Donkeys for Development"
[email protected]
Dr. Pascal G. Kaumbutho, Chairman of Kenya Network of Draught
Animal Technology (KENDAT) and Chairman of Animal Traction
Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA)
http://www.ATNESA.org
website of ATNESA
[email protected]
Dr. R.A. Pearson, Editor Draught Animal News
[email protected]
South African Network of Animal Traction (SANAT)

P.H. [email protected]
Prof. Paul Starkey, Animal Traction Development
Rumptstad ATM, member of the NETAGCO group, is a specialist in

the supply, and/or transfer of know-how of:
? Animal drawn equipment
Because of its vast amount of know-how and experience of soil tillage
and local manufacturing of agricultural machinery, Rumptstad has
proved to be a welcome and reliable partner. Rumptstad can offer its
partners - large or small farmers, co-operatives or village blacksmiths
- an extensive range of necessary facilities, for the manufacture of ag-
ricultural machinery. With the help of these facilities, our partners are

able to manufacture or use a comprehensive series of modern agricul-
tural implements suited to local demands and circumstances.
These facilities include extensive management support and the trans-
fer of technical knowledge, which provides Rumptstad's partners with
expertise in the techniques of hardening and forging special high ten-
sile steel. The application of this expertise makes it possible to sub-
stantially extend the working life of parts subjected to heavy wear and
tear. Furthermore, Rumptstad can supply its partners with welding fix-
tures, which guarantee a high uniform quality of production.
? There are various methods of co-operation between Rumptstad and
its partner organisations and companies mainly in Africa and South-
America. Not only can Rumptstad provide training and educa-
tion but also, if required, advice on how to set up workshops and
factories. Rumptstad supplies many partners with raw materials,
semi-manufactured products, tools and machinery.
? Village water-supply
? Training centres
? Coffee processing equipment
? Village Cotton Ginning
? Two-wheel tractors
Trade activities:
Thanks to the extensive agent network in Africa, Latin America and
parts of Asia and the existing logistical know how, Rumptstad supplies
high quality goods all over the world in a minimum of time. For inter-
national organisations such as FAO, EuronAid, UNOPS and a lot of
NGO’s Rumptstad is a reliable supplier of agricultural hand tools,
tractors, trailers, generator sets and other technical items.
Rumptstad Agricultural Tropical Machinery B.V.
P.O. Box 1521
3260 BA Oud-Beijerland
The Netherlands
Tel : +31 186 622200
Fax : +31 186 610123
E-mail : [email protected]
Useful addresses 81
Glossary
Arara a multipurpose toolbar manufactured in Benin,
Niger, France and elsewhere.
Ard a plough which shatters soil without inverting,
usually of traditional wooden design.
Breast-band harness a breast strap positioned across the breast and
supported by one or two straps; the first one
passes over the withers and the second one
over the back.
Breeching the strap that passes around the hindquarters of
the harnessed animal and transmits a reverse
draught to the cart. Used for braking and re-
versing.
Bridle straps around head of an animal to which reins
are attached for controlling head.
Cart a type of two-wheeled, animal-drawn vehicle.
The draught animal acts as the third support to
balance the load and it is very important to
ac-commodate this in the harness.
Collar harness a padded collar positioned around the neck;
trac-tion is transferred from the shoulders
through rigid hames and traces.
Dorsal yoke a yoke positioned on the back, preferably im-
mediately behind the withers.
Evener a wooden pole to which the swingles of multi-
ple animals attach to balance the pull from
each animal.
Equine any member of the family which includes don-
keys, horses and zebras and also the hybrids:
mules and hinnies.
False breeching wide strap between the shafts of a cart right
behind the animal.
Gelding castrated male donkey (or horse).

Girth circumference of animal’s body; also strap un-
der equine belly connecting both sides of sad-
dle.
Grooming keeping coat clean and in good condition.
Halter straps or cords around head of animal which can be
pulled by hand, rope or rein to control its head.
Harness the whole power transmission system attaching
the ani-mal to its work load.
Harrow a wooden frame with 15 to 20 metal spikes to
break soil clods and to level the surface.
Hinny cross between male horse and female donkey.
Houe-Manga a design of small cultivator/weeder with ad-
justable width settings manufactured in West
Africa that can be used with single donkeys.
Jack adult male donkey or mule.
Jenny female donkey (also called Jennet).
Mouldboard plough a plough with a shaped piece of metal which
diverts and inverts the soil.
Momentum quantity of motion of a moving body (product
of mass and its velocity).
Mule cross between male donkey and female horse.
Ox cart a large, heavy animal-drawn cart with a carry-
ing capacity of about one ton or more. Fitted
with one draft pole.
Packing placing a load on to the back of an animal for
it to trans-port
Pliers gripping tool with parallel flat surfaces for
holding small objects, bending wire, etc.
Rein strap held in hand of rider or driver and at-
tached to a bridle or halter for controlling an
animal’s head.
Ridger a plough with two mouldboards to make a fur-
row and two small ridges on either side.
Ripper a toolbar or plow-frame with a single angled
tine used for opening a narrow band of soil for
direct seeding; also called chisel-plow.
Glossary 83
Saddle wide strap across equine back for taking load.
Scarifier a cultivator with rather light tines made from
spring steel.
Shaft one of pair of draft poles between which ani-
mal is harnessed to cart.
Spanner tool for turning nut on bolt.
Stub axle short axle to which a wheel is attached in a car
with front-wheel-drive.
Subsoiler a heavy angled tine attached to a plough-frame
or toolbar for the purpose of breaking up hard
underground layers.
Super Eco a design of seeder manufactured in Senegal
and widely used in West Africa.
Swingle a wooden pole to which the traces attach at
each end and the work load attaches at the cen-
ter. This allows the harness to move with the
shoulders, so reducing rubbing.
Tandem one in front of the other, connected.
Tillage preparation of land for crop-bearing.
Tines the soil-contacting descending bars of a culti-
vator or teeth of a harrow.
Traces the chains or ropes used to transmit the draft
force from the collar or breast-band harness to
the work load.
Wagon an agricultural or freight vehicle with four
wheels.
Withers part of equine just behind where the neck joins
its back .
Withers yoke a yoke positioned on the withers; often called
neck yoke.
Wrench hand tool for holding parts in a tight grip; not
suitable for turning nuts.
Yoke strong bar, usually made of wood, which an
animal can push against in order to pull an im-
plement.
Zebu type of Bos indicus humped cattle.

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Agrodok 35

Donkeys for traction and

First edition: 2002

Author: Luurt Oudman

An agricultural engineer myself, I am familiar with the engineering

Catharina de Kat-Reynen upgraded my English to a UK standard. I

2 Characteristics and use 8

4 Usage as pack animal 24

4 Donkeys for traction and tillage

8 Equipment for transport 52

9 Equipment for primary tillage 57

10 Equipment for crop husbandry 68

11 Maintenance of farming equipment 76

The steady speed of a donkey’s walk is what makes it so popular as a

Donkeys are an undervalued power source in a large part of the world.

6 Donkeys for traction and tillage

The illustrations used in this Agrodok originate from other textbooks.

2.1 Horses, mules and donkeys

Mules are specialised work animals produced by crossing a female

Donkeys are small work animals, well adapted to semi-arid areas.

8 Donkeys for traction and tillage

2.2 General donkey features

Table 1: Main advantages and disadvantages of using donkeys

Friendly towards humans Suffer from being alone

Characteristics and use 9

Castration will help to improve the temperament and reliability of ma-

2.3 Selection characteristics

Figure 1: Names of the parts of a donkey.

10 Donkeys for traction and tillage

Figure 2: Desirable and undesirable conformation features in don-

The sole of a donkey’s hoof should be concave underneath; only the

Characteristics and use 11

In addition to sound physical characteristics, an animal should have a

2.4 Using draft donkeys

12 Donkeys for traction and tillage

Characteristics and use 13

3.1 Body condition

Figure 4: Body condition of donkeys.

The basic well-being of a donkey can be observed by its body condi-

14 Donkeys for traction and tillage

In general, feeding strategies should be aimed at maintaining adequate

As donkeys are selective feeders, they need to have a wide variety of

16 Donkeys for traction and tillage

The choice of concentrate feed will depend on local availability and

How much to feed

Donkeys have stomachs designed for frequent small meals (such as

18 Donkeys for traction and tillage

3.3 Health and disease

3.4 Daily care of working donkeys

Figure 5: Knotting a head rope or halter.

This is a good moment to give some concentrates or by-products. Oth-

20 Donkeys for traction and tillage

Care of the coat

If a donkey gets very dirty or sweaty, it may be helpful to wash it all

Figure 6: Donkey hooves.

22 Donkeys for traction and tillage

Figure 8: A hoof pick can be easily made by bending a piece of

4.1 Loads and comfort

4.2 Packing rules