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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO THE MANUAL 7

SECTION I:
GOAT AND SHEEP FARMING 9
1. Legal Aspects of Goat and Sheep Farming 10
2. Introduction to the Most Popular Races 12
2.1 Sheep 12
2.2 The Main Sheep Races in the world 14
2.3 Goats 14
2.4 The Main Goat Races in the World 15
3. Basic Elements of Goat and Sheep Nutrition 17
3.1 The Concept of Forage Unit 17
3.2 Stages of Farming and Animal Needs 20
3.3 Concentrates 23
3.4 Some Examples of Food Portions 24
3.5 Integration of Vitamins and Minerals 26
3.6 Water Needs 26
3.7 Equipment to Improve Nutrition Manners 28
3.8 Food Production 30
3.9 Food Preservation 37
3.10 Preparation of Leaves for the Winter 38
4. Pastures: Importance, Criteria for Use and Improvement 42
4.1 Importance of Pastures 42
4.2 Poisonous Herbs in the Pastures 43
4.3 Use, Maintenance and Improvement of Pasture 44
5. Veterinary Health and Treatments 47
5.1 Some of the Major Sheep and Goat Diseases in the World. 48
5.2 Summary of Recommended Veterinary Treatments 56
5.3 Disinfestation and Cleaning of the Stable 58
5.4 Farm Biosecurity and Quarantine 59
6. Reproduction of Goats and Sheep 60
6.1 Breeding 60
6.2 Good Practices for the Maintenance of Animals During
Pregnancy 61
6.3 Weaning 63

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SECTION II:
FARMING STRUCTURES 64
7. Legal Aspects for Structures of Agricultural Use 65
8. Structural Aspects for the Construction of a Stable for Small
Ruminants 65
8.1 Location of the Stable 66
8.2 Space of the Stable 66
8.3 Height of the Stable 67
8.4 Windows 68
8.5 Roof of the Stable 69
8.6 Paddock and Fences 70
8.7 Mangers and Drinking Troughs 70
8.8 Internal Organization of the Stable 71
8.10 Creation of a Milking Area 72
8.11 Stable Model for Mountain Areas 75

SECTION III:
MILK AND CHEESEMAKING PROCEDURES 79
9. Legal Aspects of Food Safety 80
9.1 Sanitary Conditions of the Flock 80
9.2 Hygienic Requirements for Milk Processing Premises and
Equipment 81
9.3 Hygienic Conditions to Be Respected for Milking, Collection
and Transportation of Milk 81
10. Milking 82
10.1 Best Practices for Milking 83
10.2 Using the Milking Machine 84
11. Mini Dairy Model for Mountain Areas 87

SECTION IV:
MEAT AND SLAUGHTER 91
12. Farming Factors that Influence the Quality of Sheep and Goat Meat 92
13. Cleaning 94
14. Transportation 96
15. Slaughter 97
15.1 Resting of the Animals 99

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 15.2 Stunning 99
15.3 Bleeding 101
15.4 Removal of the Skin, End Part of the Limbs and Head 102
15.5 Removal of the Viscera (Pelvis, Abdomen, Chest) 102
15.6 Summary Table Based on the Age of Goats and Sheep of
the Specific Risk Material and the Times When Necessary
to Carry Out the Rapid Test for TSE 104
15.7 Grooming and Washing 105
15.8 Cooling 105
15.9 Dissection Cuts in Carcass 106
16. Slaughter Yield 107
17. BCS, Conformation and Classification of the Carcass and Meat 107

SECTION V:
MODELS 112

6
 INTRODUCTION TO THE MANUAL

During the implementation of the Project “Alliance for the Development and
Promotion of Family Farming in Northern Albania”, it was realized that the lack
of information regarding breeding practices limited the development of the
supply chain, and that the remote location of many small family farms hindered
continuous veterinary support for them. Based on these considerations,
the idea of a “Practical Guide to Goat and Sheep Farming” came about, as
a support and reference to the daily activities that arise in breeding of small
ruminants. The present document is, therefore, not a veterinary or animal
husbandry manual, but rather a collection of best practices introduced during
the Project, and the result of the collaboration between different subjects,
directly involved in the development of the sector.

The following people have collaborated in the drafting of this text:

• Luisa Antonella Volpelli: Professor of Animal Nutrition - University of

Modena and Reggio Emilia
• Corrado Torcianti: Veterinarian, breeder and producer
• Nicola Battistella: Coordinator, Alliance for the Development and Promotion
of Family Farming in Northern Albania – Volontari nel Mondo RTM
• Alberto Sartori: Volunteer - Volontari nel Mondo RTM
• Elena Zurli: Volunteer - Volontari nel Mondo RTM
• Benito Prendi: Project Officer - Volontari nel Mondo RTM
• Giulia Tarantola: Volunteer - Volontari nel Mondo RTM
• Luigji Turmalaj: Professor of Veterinary Medicine – Agricultural University
of Tirana
• Alfred Haxhari: Agronomist – Partnership for Development Foundation
• Zef Gjeta: Agronomist – Partnership for Development Foundation
• Sabah Djaloshi: Executive Director – AgroPuka

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8
SECTION I:
GOAT AND SHEEP FARMING

9
1. Legal Aspects of Goat and Sheep Farming

In order to start an agricultural activity as a commercial business, it is necessary

to register your animals and then register your farm.
While the procedures may vary from state to state, we will give you some
generally necessary operations. It is necessary to inquire well in advance, the
specific procedures needed to be followed, in compliance with the minimum
requirements imposed by the home State.
The first step regards the registration of the animals, a process that allows you
to obtain the plastic ear tags to be placed on each animal and the compilation
of a farm register.
If you start a farm from the beginning, with a purchase of sheep and goats
from another farm, you must have the proof of purchase and invoice in which
the registration numbers of each animal are written. These numbers will then
be transferred from a register to the other.
To verify the number of animals and the correct application of the registration
numbers, it is necessary to have an inspection at the farm by the veterinarian
of reference.
The farm register should be updated annually or at least each time new
animals are purchased; baby goats or lambs that are kept for the breeding
must be registered while the slaughtered or dead animals removed. To update
the register, both paper and digital, the breeder must apply to his veterinarian
of reference.

ATTENTION
Usually, it is illegal to purchase or sell animals that
have not been regularly registered.

Apart from being, the first step in regulating one’s business and guaranteeing
the traceability of one’s products, thus respecting the minimum requirements
for selling in formal markets and contexts, registration, can also be an
opportunity to receive state agricultural funding.

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Figure 1 – Ear tags and example of Farm Register

The next step, is registering your business. This step, allows you to operate
in the formal market and to have access to specific grants and programs for
farms and agricultural product processing companies.

ATTENTION
Registration of animals and of the farming business are
fundamental criteria to gain access to state subventions
and grants in most countries.

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2. Introduction to Goat and Sheep Breeds

Sheep and goat farming are a traditional activity in many regions of the world.
In fact, goats and sheep were the first animals domesticated by man for
productive and economic purposes (Mesopotamia, 9000 BC).

2.1 Sheep

Sheep are the most widespread species in the world with about 1.2 billion
animals (30% Asia; 18% Oceania and Africa; 14% Mediterranean; 2% North
and Central America). This success is due to the sheep’s ability to adapt to
most diverse climatic and territorial conditions, to its mild character, to the
good ability to use small size forage, with little nutritional values.
In addition, these animals are able to provide quality products that satisfy the
basic needs of families farming them.

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Figure 2 – Sheep herd

Sheep, usually give only one birth per year, but while kept in barns for meat
production, there can give two births; lambs are born in spring, summer and
winter. Considering the age of slaughter, the following are distinguished:
milk fed lambs (30-40 days); mature lambs (3-4 months); lambs (6-7 months);
castrated (1 year); rams (2 years). In western countries, the consumption of
lambs is more common in spring, while in other areas mutton is also particularly
appreciated and consumed on the occasion of traditional holidays.
Due to laws and restrictions, milk is little consumed and is mainly used for the
production of dairy products.

Wool is used for the production of clothes and carpets and, depending on the
race, it can be more or less of great quality and value.

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2.2 The Main Sheep Breeds in The World

MILK - Frisona, Awassi, Lacaune, Churra, Manchega, Sarda.

MEAT - Merinos, Ile de France, Berrichonne du Cher, Suffolk, Texel, Dorsetdown,
Southdown.
HIGH PROLIFICACY - Finnica, Romanov, Merinos Booroola.
WOOL AND COAT - Karakul (Astrakhane), Australian Merino, Merino
Rambouillet.

Figure 3 – Autochthonous Shkoder Sheep

2.3 Goats

There are around 520 million goats raised in the world (60% Asia; 29% Africa,
7.5% Mediterranean; 3% North and Central America; 1% Oceania).
It is considered an intelligent and curious animal that adapts well in difficult
farming conditions and poor pastures. Its farming has always proved to be
precious for humans, who get meat and milk, the latter generally intended for
dairy, wool and leather.

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Figure 4 – “Has” goat

The consumption of fresh milk, happens mainly in Asia and Northern Africa
while in Europe it is consumed conserved. Meat is traditionally important in
Asia and northern Africa, while in the West it plays a marginal role.
Leather is used in Mediterranean countries mainly for the production of shoes,
while wool is used for the creation of haute couture garments

2.4 Main Goat Breeds in The World

MILK - Saanen, Alpine (Chamois Coloured Goat), Toggemburg, Maltese, Ionian,

Girgentana, Derivative of Syria, Appenzel, Poitvine, Murcia-Granada.
MEAT - Boer
RUSTIC - Garganica, Sarda
WOOL OR FIBER - Angora, Cashmir.

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Figure 5 – “Dragobia” goat

ATTENTION
Before you choose the race, you should contact a
zootechnic or a veterinary in your area. This figure can
be a big help during the evaluation of the right race to
pick based on the environmental features of your area
and on the livestock farming system you are going to
start.

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3. Basic Elements of Goat and Sheep Nutrition

Nutrition of the animals, is a fundamental aspect, both for their state of health
and for the level of productivity of the farm. Goats and sheep are ruminants
with ingestion capacity (i.e the ability to take food) superior to cattle, in terms
of percentage of live weight. A goat can ingest about 6% of its live weight,
therefore a 50 kg exemplary can take up to 3 kg of food per day. Sheep have
a slightly lower ingestion capacity. In general, it can be observed that goats
have greater food flexibility than sheep and adapt more easily to different
types of vegetables.
Given the ingestion capacity of small ruminants, it is extremely important that
food portions are adequate in variety and quantity, according to the different
stages of the farming cycle. In order to deal with this subject, it is necessary to
introduce the concept of Forage Unit.

3.1 The Concept of Forage Unit (F.U.)

The concept of Forage Unit (F.U.) is used in the breeding field to describe the
nutritional properties of nutrition and to establish the composition of food
portions, i.e. the amount of energy that a certain nutrition provides.
By agreement, it was decided that 1 F.U. corresponds to 1 Kg of barley (and is
equivalent to about 1750 KCalories).

The table below shows the F.U. for different types of food.
It is worth underlining, that a distinction is usually made between milk forage
units and meat forage units, but in this case a generic average value of Forage
Unit is proposed. Next to each food it is indicated how many F.U. are there in a
kg, how many F.U. are there in a quintal (100 kg), how many kilograms of that
food are needed to have a F.U. and the amount of protein contained in one kg
of food.

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 Feed F.U. F.U. per Kg of feed Grams of
per kg quintal for 1 F.U. protein/kg
Barley 1 100 1,00 120
Corn 1,09 109 0,92 100
Wheat 1,04 104 0,96 160
Cereals
Rye 0,93 93 1,08 120
Oats 0,82 82 1,22 150
Triticale 0,24 24 4,17 150
Alfalfa 0,24 24 4,17 150
Fresh Mixed Lawn 0,24 24 4,17 100
Forage Clover 0,18 18 5,56 150
Lolium 0,16 16 6,25 90
Alfalfa 0,70 70 1,42 130
Lolium 0,58 58 1,72 100
Hay
Mixed lawn 0,56 56 1,79 90
Clover 0,43 43 2,33 100
Broad bean 0,97 97 1,03 260
Legume Lupin bean 1 100 1,00 350
seeds and
other seeds Peas 0,99 99 1,01 200
Soy 1,14 114 0,88 350
Sugar beet
0,18 18 5,56 40
(fresh)
Forage beet
0,95 95 1,05 90
(dry pulp)
Sugar beet
Other 0,9 90 1,11 40
(dry)
Potatoes 0,96 96 1,04 700
Cabbage
0,15 15 6,67 27
leaves
Bran 0,71 71 1,41 160

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In this way, if we know that an animal, in a particular period, needs 1.5 F.U. per
day we can calculate that for example it can be fed with 1.7 kg of alfalfa hay
which has 0.75 F.U. per kg and 200 gr. of barley which is equivalent to 0.2 F.U.,
thus reaching a total of 1.5 F.U.

If the same animal is out in the pasture, we know that with about 4 kg of fresh
alfalfa it takes 1 F.U. and to get to cover its needs, we should supplement with
500 gr of barley which has half a F.U. or with 700 gr of bran which is about the
equivalent.

ATTENTION
Even if it sounds like a very technical approach, gaining
some confidence with this concept is fundamental:
• Not feeding the animals properly means having
non-productive and economically unprofitable
animals.
• Overfeeding the animals and giving the same
amount of food for the whole year means to waste
food and therefore an economic loss.

Once you use the table to elaborate rations for each

period of the year, it will be possible to keep them
unchanged, and it will not be necessary to calculate a
new ration every time.

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3.2 Stages of Farming and Animal Needs

Depending on the present period of the farming cycle, the animal will need
a different diet. Intuitively the females will need a specific diet when they
are lactating or pregnant and the males will need special precautions when
approaching the period of reproduction. Apart from changes of energy amount
(which we calculate using the F.U. introduced in the previous paragraph), it
must also be taken into consideration, the amount of proteins that each food
contains. These are shown in the last column of the previous table.

ATTENTION
Not varying the diet according to the stages of the
breeding cycle can lead to overfeeding the animals in
some periods and feeding them too little in others: in
this way the resources are used inefficiently, therefore
there is a risk of higher costs and limited productivity.

First of all, it is necessary to understand what are the subsistence nutrition

needs, that is the basic nutrition needs of the animal when it’s not engaged
in any productive activities and does not make large movements to pastures,
i.e. the amount of food the animal needs to survive in good conditions. The
subsistence requirement is based on the live weight (p.v.) of the animal and is
calculated as follows:

The protein amount needed (in grams) is calculated as follows:

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To simplify the procedure, consider the following table, which shows the F.U.
and grams of proteins needed for different live weight values.

Live weight (Kg) F.U. for subsistence Protein needed in gr.

10 0,21 19
20 0,35 25,2
30 0,48 31,4
40 0,59 37,6
50 0,70 43,8
60 0,80 50,0
70 0,90 56,2

For example, for a goat of 50 kg, the subsistence requirement, that is the
food needed to live, without being engaged in productive activities, is 0.70
F.U., which must contain about 38 grams of protein. Referring to the above
table, it is easy to calculate that it needs about 2 kg of regular lawn grass, that
make 0.48 F.U. (0.24 per kg of food), and 200 grams of corn, that make 0.22
F.U.. (1.09 FU per kg of food), obtaining in total exactly 0.70 F.U.. In the same
way, it is possible to check the quantity of proteins that corresponds to what
is reported in the table.

ATTENTION
The maintenance does not involve particular activities
for the animals. If the animals graze freely they will have
higher needs and a higher consumption depending on
the type of pasture.

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If the animals graze freely during the day on a fairly flat ground, the quantities
in the previous table must be increased by about 25%; if the terrain is
mountainous, the increase can reach 50%.

You will then have the following values:

With mountain
Without pasture With flat pasture
pasture
Live F.U. for Protein F.U. for Protein F.U. for Protein
weight subsistence needed in subsistence needed in subsistence needed in
(Kg) gr. gr gr

10 0,2 19,0 0,3 23,8 0,3 28,5

20 0,4 25,2 0,4 31,5 0,5 37,8
30 0,5 31,4 0,6 39,3 0,7 47,1
40 0,6 37,6 0,7 47,0 0,9 56,4
50 0,7 43,8 0,9 54,8 1,0 65,7
60 0,8 50,0 1,0 62,5 1,2 75,0
70 0,9 56,2 1,1 70,3 1,3 84,3

Once the subsistence nutrition needs have been established, we can identify
three phases in which particular attention must be paid.

Lactation. Milk production requires greater energy consumption; therefore, it

is essential to have proper nutrition in order to maximize the production. In
general, we can consider, that for every kg of milk, are needed 0.41 F.U. and
50 grams of added protein. A goat in a farm weighing 50 kg, will need 1.52
F.U. and about 140 grams of protein to produce two kgs of milk, while a goat
grazing in the mountains will need 1.82 F.U. and about 160 grams of proteins.

Coupling. As the reproduction season approaches, it is essential that the

animals are in good physical condition. It is therefore advisable to increase
the food portions by 25% for both males and females.

Gestation. Gestation involves a greater use of energy and it is essential that

the animals reach the end of this phase in good condition in order to be able
to face delivery and lactation. Therefore, it is necessary to pay particular
attention to the fact that in mountain areas, the animals spend most of this

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period in the barns without grazing outside, so the food they will have access
to, will only be that provided by the farmer.
In the first three months of gestation, the need is roughly the same as that of
subsistence, then it begins to increase significantly by about 15% per month.
As always, taking a 50 kg goat as an example and considering the subsistence
requirement as a starting point, in the fourth month it will need about 0.8 F.U.
and in the fifth month 0.92 F.U. It must also be kept in mind that in the fourth
and fifth month, the ingestion capacity decreases, so it is necessary to provide
the animals with the best, well digestible and palatable forages.

ATTENTION
Especially in the breeding season, it is necessary to
pay attention to spoiled or moldy foods, as they cause
enormous damage to the flock.

3.3 Concentrates

In general, sheep and goat farming can be done in two ways:

- External farming that uses only pastures and forage, and is characterized by
low management costs but provides limited production;
- Internal farming: that requires the use of integrations of cereals and other
concentrates, therefore it has higher costs but allows more consistent
productions.

However, the increase in productivity requires the use of cereals and

concentrates.

ATTENTION
The concentrate is simply a mix of cereals with the
possible addition of vitamins and minerals: it does
not in any way compromise the genuineness and
naturalness of meat, milk, and its derivatives.

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For example, a type of concentrate suitable for mountain areas could
be composed as follows: 45% corn, 20% soy, 22% barley, 10% bran, 3%
supplements with vitamin and mineral integration. The result is a mixture that
provides about 100 F.U. per quintal.
This type of concentrate is an excellent integration of the food based on pasture
and forage, and it would be advisable to use it throughout the year, in variable
quantities as described above. If this is not possible, it is recommended to use
it at least in some periods, such as in the last two months of gestation and
during lactation (200 - 500 gr per animal).

A good solution to provide the concentrate during the milking period, could be
to use a self-locking barrier with manger and distribute it during the morning
and/or evening milking periods: in this way the food could be individually
given to each animal in appropriately measured quantities, avoiding conflicts
for food and that some animals might be excluded.

3.4 Some Examples of Food Portions

Here are some examples of food portions for different phases of the production
cycle.

Situation: Goat weighing about 50 kg at the 4th month of

gestation - Need 0.8 F.U.
Options: 1 kg of pure 1.2 kg of natural 1.6 kg of clover
alfalfa hay meadow hay hay
+ 100 grams of + 150 grams of + 150 grams of
concentrate corn and peas corn
Note: The quantities must be progressively and gradually
increased over the days.

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Situation: Goat weighing about 50 kg at the 5th month of
gestation - Need 0.92 F.U.
Options: 1 kg of pure 1.3 kg of natural 1.7 kg of clover
alfalfa hay meadow hay hay
+ 200 grams of + 170 grams of + 170 grams of
concentrate corn and peas corn.
Note: The quantities must be progressively and gradually in-
creased over the days.

Situation: Goat of about 50 kg in preparation for the breeding

that grazes in a valley - Need 1.12 F.U.
Options: Free grazing on Free grazing on If it stays in the
mixed grass: mixed grass: barn:
0.5 kg of alfalfa 1 kg of clover hay
1.2 kg of alfalfa
hay + 400 grams of hay
+ 400 grams of corn + 300 grams of
concentrate concentrate or
corn
Note: The quantities must be stored a week before the start of
the breeding until the end of it.

Situation: Billy goat of about 70 kg in preparation for the

breeding that grazes in a valley - Need 1.38 F.U.
Options: Free grazing on Free grazing on If it stays in the
mixed grass: mixed grass: barn:
0.5 kg of alfalfa 1.5 kg of clover 1.5 kg of pure
hay hay alfalfa hay
+ 500 grams of + 500 grams of + 2-300 grams of
concentrate corn concentrate
Note: The quantities must be stored a week before the start of
the breeding until the end of it.

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3.5 Integration of Vitamins and Minerals

Throughout the year, but especially when the animals are closed in the barn
and in preparation for delivery (giving birth), it is essential that they have a
correct provision of vitamins and mineral salts. This can be guaranteed by
purchasing blocks of mineral salts and vitamins, paying particular attention,
that they must contain A, D and E vitamins and that they must not contain
copper, which is toxic to small ruminants. The animals, take the necessary
amount of salts and vitamins independently, so if they feel the shortage
of such, they will consume the block very quickly, while they will use more
moderately if they do not particularly need it. Such blocks should always be
present in the barns.
When grazing on high landscape, it is advisable to give the animals Sodium
Chloride (normal table salt) as a supplement.

3.6 Water Needs

It has been noted that the water needs of the animals are often underestimated
in farming practices. It is actually a fundamental element of high importance
both for the health and well-being, and for the productivity of the animals.
Considering that water represents about 82% of sheep’s milk and 87% of
goat’s milk, it is clear that animals with insufficient access to water will hardly
deliver significant production. This does not mean, that the abundance of
water alone, is sufficient to increase milk production, but still it remains a
fundamental factor. The data shown in the table below, are indicative and may
vary depending on various factors. However, they represent a good point of
reference to determine the water quantity the farm needs.

Winter Summer
Goats 4-5 liters per day 7-8 liters per day
Sheep 5-6 liters per day 8-10 liters per day

26
Having defined these parameters, we can now make some observations:

- All animals should have access to water at least twice a day, but it would be
better if they had free access to water at any time, at least when they are in
the barn or in the surrounding areas. It would therefore be advisable to set
up drinking troughs inside the stable or withing the outdoor fence.

- The water should be as fresh and clean as possible and regularly changed.

- If free drinking trough are set up, it is necessary to diminish as much as

possible the formation of mud in the barn areas, as this increases the
presence of bacteria and contributes to creating an environment not
suitable for farming.

27
3.7 Equipment to Improve Nutrition Manners

This paragraph introduces a series of equipment that help improve the

nutrition procedures, easily made in the farm or ordered by the local artisans.
As for the mangers, it is advisable to use structures that allow both the
administration of hay and concentrates or grains, such as those presented in
the images below.

Figure 6 – Manger (prospective)

Figure 7 – Manger (sizes)

The mangers are equipped with a grid on it, where it is possible to place the
forage and hay, and with a trough underneath.

28
The trough is useful both because it allows you to collect the food that falls
from the top, preventing it from falling on the ground in contact with the
manure, and also because it can be used to distribute concentrates and grains.
For the latter use, the trough must be deep enough to allow the animals eat
without risking to drop the food on the ground. It is important that there is
sufficient space for animals to have access to food without fights and pushing
one another that leads to the exclusion of the weak. For this purpose, it is
advisable to provide at least 30 cm linear of manger for each animal.
As for the construction materials, it should be highlighted, that instead of
wood, it is preferable to use galvanized metal, since it is easier to clean and
accumulates less bacteria. The same is valid for drinking troughs: wood,
especially with high humidity, could be unhygienic.

Figure 8 – Drinking trough (sizes)

Figure 9 – Drinking trough (prospective)

29
The installation of a tap connected to a tube in the end part of the trough
allows you to empty it without creating mud in the lower area and to change
the water easily. In this case, it is recommended to ensure a minimum space
of about 10 cm linear per animal.
Regarding the use of a milking space and delivering of concentrates, please
refer to the figure below:

Figure 10 – Self-locking barrier

Since the animals are blocked with a trough in front of them, it will be possible
to give each one an equal quantity of concentrates immediately before
milking. This will avoid the exclusion of the animals from eating this type of
food and will adapt the animals to arrange themselves more easily on the
milking platform. Regarding this model, more details are available at the end
of this manual, in a dedicated section.

3.8 Food Production

Farmers are quite often confronted with problems regarding the provision of
food for the animals, despite large uncultivated areas close to them.
Below, we will discuss some relevant forage cultures.

3.8.1 Alfalfa
Alfalfa is a central component of forage production. The cultivation system
is well known, but it is important to highlight some specific elements.
Alfalfa is a perennial herb, so the soil must be worked at an appropriate
depth. It is recommended the use of chemical fertilization, which must be
abundant and based on superphosphates, 60-70 kg/daa (daa is the symbol

30
that indicates the decare; 1 daa = 1,000 square meters), of which about two
thirds (40-45 kg/daa) are distributed during plowing and the rest before
millingc.
Sowing in cold areas is done with 4-5 kg of seeds per 0.1 ha in the period
from March 20 to April 15, however it varies from area to area. The seeds
are placed at a depth of 2-3 cm, that is 1-2 cm deeper than in warmer areas.
The first mowing should be done very carefully, preferably 4-5 cm above
the ground. Usually, it is not recommended to fertilize with nitrate or urea
during germination, as legumes (which include alfalfa) supply nitrogen
from the roots themselves. Nitrogen fertilizer can be used in 4-5 years of
subsequent production.

3.8.2 Corn
Corn represents a basic element for the production of animal food.
Basic agrotechnical measures to achieve high and stable corn yields begin
with tillage: corn requires soils that are deeply worked, well-leveled and
clayey. It is equally important that the land is properly irrigated. A well-
decomposed organic fertilizer, in the amount of at least 40 quintals/daa,
can be used as a basic fertilizer.
50 kg of superphosphate or 30 kg of DAP (di-ammonium phosphate) or 25
kg of complex fertilizer NPK (nitogen phosphorus potassium), can be added
(always per daa).
Corn is planted from April, 20th to May, 10th. Sowing is carried out in rows
of 70 cm apart, with an amount of 4-5 kg/daa. The seeds are then placed at
a depth of 4-5 cm and well covered with soil.
After germination, the plants are thinned out, leaving one plant every 20-
30 cm. Excess plants are used to fill gaps where there are fewer plants.
Thinning out must happen very quickly, when the first or second pair of
leaves have just sprouted. If thinning out is done after the third or fourth
pair of leaves have sprouted, production decreases by 15-20%.
Additional fertilization: immediately after thinning out, an amount of 15
kg/daa of nitrate is added in and after three weeks, 15 kg/hectare of urea.
If DAP is used in supplementary fertilization, the first layer of nitrate is not
necessary.
Soil improvement is also done by preventing weed growth by hoeing. This
also ensures loosening of the soil and aeration of the plant.
The first hoeing is done superficially (5-7 cm) and immediately after
thinning out, the second one is done two weeks later at a depth of 10-12
cm and then others, if necessary, at a depth of 12-15 cm.

31
During hoeing, the loose soil must be accumulated near the plants, in order
to form channels that act as guides for irrigation.
For the protection of plants, the main problem is usually fighting the corn
worm. This is done by spraying insecticides when the plant is up to 80 cm
tall, or using is as powder mixed with fine sand, sparkled on the leaf sheath.
Irrigation: Corn is well known as a crop with significant need for irrigation.
Usually 6-7 irrigations with abundant amounts of water are needed,
depending on the weather situation. Sprinkle or furrow irrigation is
preferred, avoiding the flooding of the plant. Irrigation starts generally in
July and it stops 2 weeks before harvest.

3.8.3 Forage Beet

Figure 11 – Lot with forage root – Puka, 2018

Forage beet is an important crop with a good yield, suitable for the climatic
and soil conditions of flat, hilly and mountainous areas. Beet can produce
40-60 quintals of good quality beetroot and about 5-7 quintals of leaf per
daa.
As part of a balanced diet, beet increases milk production and improves
animal health. It is also very well stored during the winter season.

32
Here are the main steps of the cultivation process.

Soil preparation: forage beet requires well-tilled, leveled and clayey soils,
with good availability of water for irrigation.

Basic fertilization: it is used well decomposed organic fertilizer, at least

30 quintals/daa, in addition to which 20-25 kg/daa of NPK fertilizer is
distributed (with a ratio of 15:15:15 or 12:11:15).
Beets are usually planted in early spring and it is important to avoid the risk
of soil freezing. Sowing is conducted in rows of 40-50 cm of distance and
the seeds are placed at a depth of 2-3 cm. Before sowing, the seeds must be
soaked in water for 10-12 hours.
After germination, the plants are thinned out, leaving one plant every 20
cm. Additional plants are used to fill gaps where there are fewer plants.
Thinning out must happen very quickly, when the first or second pair of
leaves have just sprouted. If thinning out is done after the third or fourth
pair of leaves have sprouted, production decreases by 15-20%.
Removing weeds helps loosen the soil and aerate the plants. The first hoeing
is done superficially (5-7 cm) immediately after thinning out, whereas the
second is done two weeks later, at a depth of 10-12 cm and then others if
necessary at a depth of 12-15 cm. During hoeing, the loose soil approaches
the plants in order to form the water channels for irrigation.
Usually, beet requires 4-5 irrigations, with plenty of water, depending
on the weather. Sprinkler or furrow irrigation is preferred, avoiding the
flooding of the plant. Irrigation usually starts in July and stops 2-3 weeks
before harvest.

Harvest: it begins when the plant has reached the maximum root size and
yellowing of the leaves starts. Damaged plants are selected and cleaned
in order to be used immediately for animal nutrition. Healthy and clean
plants are placed on trestles and stored, covering them with plant debris,
taking care for their ventilation and aeration.
Generally, forage beets are cut and given as food for animals. They can
provide up to 40% of the animals’ daily needs when combined with other
food such as concentrates, dried alfalfa (hay), dried oak leaves, etc.
To achieve this objective, it is very important to cut the tubers well, otherwise
they could harm the animals, especially when they are very hungry.

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3.8.4 Forage Mix
This manual offers an example of the cultivation of a mixture of forage,
according to a formula well studied for countries with a continental climate,
consisting of gramineous (about 65%) and leguminous (about 35%) plants.

This meets the following needs:

1. Be consistent with the biological needs of animals for specific foods,
divided into energy, proteins, carbohydrates, mineral salts, vitamins,
etc.
2 Make effective use of all soil layers, as some plants have a robust root
system, while others root at a shallower depth. Furthermore, since the
plants included in the mix have different needs in terms of nutritional
elements (for example: gramineous plants need more nitrogen,
leguminous plants need more phosphorus), altogether they allow
maximum production of forage per unit of surface.
3. Adapt as much as possible the biological requirements of the plants,
depending on the category of soil in which they are grown. The plants
that adapt faster will have a more successful development. The risk of
failure is minimal, regardless of the conditions of the terrain, technology
or climate.

I. Sowing period: it is preferable to sow within the end of April, 30th, for
the spring sowing, and until October 15th, for the autumn sowing. It is
very important that the period of summer drought or winter frosts find the
plants with strong roots.

II. Soil preparation and sowing: this phase requires special attention.
The soil must be cleaned of weeds. Since we have very small seeds, the
soil must be well prepared. The proposed mixture includes a perennial
vegetation with a well-developed root system for some plants (alfalfa,
clover, lupine, etc.), therefore the land must be tilled twice, in order to
ensure that the prepared soil is at least 35 cm deep. The time of tillage is
also very important. It is not advisable to work in a soil that is too wet but
not even too dry. One of the most common mistakes made, is to over mill,
a process that gives the impression of good tillage, but makes the soil lose
moisture and makes germination difficult. In this case, it is recommended
to compress the soil in order to move moisture above the surface.

34
Figure 12 – Forage mix

35
III. Basic fertilization: before tillage, it is necessary to fertilize with well-
decomposed manure in the amount of 30-40 quintals/daa. The manure is
well dispersed and instantly turned over through a deep plow, over 30 cm.
In addition, 50 - 60 kg of DAP per daa are used, of which 30 - 40 kg dispersed
before plowing and 20 kg before the last milling

IV. Sowing: the seeds are usually dispersed by hand. On well-prepared

soils, the norm is 4-5 kg per daa. The seed is covered with a wooden harrow
to a depth of 5 - 10 mm. Harrowing not only covers the seed but also helps
soil compression and leveling to conserve soil moisture.
If the soil is dry at the time of sowing, it will be necessary to work the
surface immediately after sowing with a light wooden harrow or irrigate by
sprinkling.

V. Services: splay an important role in increasing grass production and

extending the life of the meadow. One of the first services is the opening of
drainage lines, since the main enemy of plants is the excessive humidity. If
the soil forms the so-called crust before germination, it is necessary to carry
out harrowing. If any weeds sprout on the ground, they must be pulled out.
When the infestation is bigger, however, the entire soil is mowed before
these plants bloom and bear fruit. Particular attention should be paid to
the fight against the Cuscuta, by mowing the areas, carefully collecting and
burying the Cuscuta, burning and working the affected area thoroughly or
treating it with herbicide. Usually, no additional fertilization is applied, but
in case of poor vegetation, fertilization is carried out twice, with ammonium
nitrate in the amount of 8-10 kg/daa. The distribution of nitrate is done after
mowing and is repeated 4 weeks after finding an optimal soil moisture.

VI. Irrigation: it is one of the main services for obtaining abundant

products, especially in dry areas. During the summer, irrigation is carried
out whenever the plants need it. The most suitable system for irrigating
alfalfa is the sprinkler system, making sure that the soil is wet throughout
the depth of the root system. The plant does not need to be irrigated before
mowing. Irrigation and nitrate application can be done after mowing.

VII. First mowing: it must be done 4-5 cm from the surface of the soil, in
order to allow the lump form for the stem. Mowed plants are used as fresh
grass or hay.

36
 The next mowing should be done at the beginning of flowering, 3-4 cm
from the surface of the soil. Mowing should be done with sharp blades that
make clean cuts.
During hay collection, special care is needed in order to avoid trembling
of leaves. This is done by turning the cut mass as little as possible, which
is laid in the sun for a few hours. Then, strips of grass are collected two by
two with a pitchfork and placed in a dry place to help drying. For the drying
of the grass in the summer, it is enough to turn it once, while in the early
and late mowing it is turned several times until it dries without losing its
color. When the grass is dry, it is carefully transported to the storage place
(haystack or barn). The hay must be constantly checked during storage,
because the risk of mold and rot is high, especially when the hay is wet or
not properly dried.

3.9 Food Preservation

Livestock food storage should be done in well-ventilated places with no

humidity. If a concentrate, flour or cereal has been exposed to humidity, it
must be immediately exposed to the sun, spreading it on cloths or blankets
and mixing it from time to time. Food should be checked every 5-7 days.
The corn cob is usually stored in special warehouses, with a wooden base,
generally raised 30-50 cm from the ground level and ventilated on all sides.
Under such conditions, corn can be stored even if the humidity is 30-40%, as
long as the width of the warehouse is not more than 2 m.

Figure 13 – Corn’s warehouse (Albania); forage traditional conservation (Atakora)

37
The weight of 1 m³ of pealed corn, with 25-30% humidity, is 630 kg and it is
estimated that dry grains, if the standard humidity is 14%, weighs about 400
kg. Warehouses however should not be full, at least 20% of the volume must
be left empty for air to circulate.
The storage of other products is carried out in bags that should not be placed
directly on the ground, but on an elevated wooden floor or other material 20
cm above the ground. It is not recommended to place the stack of bags on the
perimeter walls of buildings. It is recommended to place them in stacks of 6-7
bags on top of each other and no more than two rows attached.
In hilly and mountainous terrain, the forage ripening is expected in June, July
and August. Alfalfa and clover can be mowed 3-4 times per year (if there is
enough water even more). Harvesting must be done at the right time. Grass,
alfalfa, lawns, etc. are harvested at technical maturity, usually at the peak of
flowering, but also related to weather conditions, avoiding periods in which
precipitation is expected.

3.10 Preparation of Leaves for the Winter.

To meet the nutritional needs of livestock for the winter period, it is often
necessary to provide dried leaves from trees and shrubs. In areas with a
Mediterranean and/or continental climate, are collected mainly leaves of oak,
chestnut, shrub, cherry, pear, etc.
The cutting of the branches is always carried out with the permission of
forestry technicians, which is tree pruning at the same time.
During the operation, fallen leaves are collected and stored also.
The best time to cut the branches is August-September, when the young
sprouts are well matured and have started to turn yellow.
After trimming, the oak branches are left to dry out for 1-2 days, until 25-30%
of the humidity is removed (i.e. until the foliage begins to shrivel). They are
then tied in small bundles and allowed to dry again until they have lost more
than 50-55% of their humidity. At this stage, the leaves are transported and
added to the rick. The collection of the leaves not only serves to satisfy the
vital needs of the animals in winter, but also it integrates other food such as
concentrate, alfalfa, etc. After feeding the livestock, the remaining branches
can be used as burning material.

38
Between October and December, can be harvested oak material also. This is
dried and given directly to the animals or stored in holes in the ground, lightly
covered with branches and a layer of soil. Pine leaves can also be harvested,
but it is best to boil them for 3-4 minutes before use to remove the tannin that
gives them a bitter taste.

Determining the weight of the dry material is very important, as it sets the
conditions for the programming of animal feeds. In practice, the weight of dry
grass is defined by finding its volume.
How to calculate the volume of sheaves? When the sheaf has a regular shape,
the perimeter is measured with a string, usually at the base, just above the
ground surface. If the sheaf is pear-shaped, the perimeter is measured at the
base and top and is calculated the average. The arc is also measured, i.e. the
distance from one side of the base of the sheaf to the other passing through
the top. The volume is found with a simple calculation: the length of the circle
is divided by 6. The resulting figure is multiplied by itself. The result obtained
is multiplied by half of the arc.

Figure 14 - Sheaf measures: perimeter (red) and arc (blue)

39
Example: suppose the perimeter of the sheaf is 12 meters and the arc is 18 m.
The volume turns out to be:

12/6 = 2; 2 x 2 = 4; 4 x (18/2) = 36 m3;

If the hay is placed in the form of a trestle, the following measurements are
made: the width of the trestle, the length and the arc (that is, the distance
from one side of the trestle to the other, the string should pass over it).

Figure 15 - Dimensions of a trestle - Length (blue), width (red), arc (green)

The volume is calculated as follows: the figure of the width (red) is added to
that of the arch (green) and the sum is divided by 4. The result is multiplied by
itself and multiplied by the length of the trestle (blue). For example, suppose
the width is 5m, the arch is 15m, and the length of the trestle is 12m.
The volume is:

(15 + 5) / 4 = 20/4 = 5; 5 x 5 = 25; 25 x 12 = 300 m3.

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Weight of 1 m³ of dry grass in kg:

Instantly After 3 months After a few

Type of grass/hay
deposited (Kg) (Kg) months (Kg)
Forest grass 40-50 55-60 60-65
Grass of tilled
45-50 60-65 65-70
meadow
Good meadow hay 55-60 70-75 75-80
Clover hay 60-70 75-80 85-90
Alfalfa hay 60-70 70-75 75-80

41
4. Pastures:
Importance, Criteria for Use and Improvement

4.1 Importance of Pastures

Sheep and goats are able to graze in any type of pasture, preferring it more
compared to the food supply in the barn where they obtain more than two
thirds of the average nutritional requirement. In fact, sheep and goats can
stay on a good pasture even 8-9 hours a day. Sheep consume a wide variety of
herbs, roots, leaves, sprouts, etc., while goats make better use of coarse food
such as cellulose and timber material than other animals.
Pasture has a high nutritional value and the animals that are mainly fed on
pasture, tend to be in good health, as they benefit from the outdoors air and
sunlight. This has an impact on the quantity and quality of production, and on
the health and fertility of the animals.
Grazing is also very economical and you don’t need to invest much in
preparation. If grazing areas are constantly renewed and improved, it can
have a very positive impact on the quality of the expanse of the grass.
The nutritional value of the pasture is influenced by the botanical composition,
the stage of development of the plants, the type and quality of the soil, the
climate and the technology in use (type of exploitation, fertilization, etc.).
The type of turf varies according to the climatic zones and according to the
altitude above the sea level. The nutritional value is better if the presence of
leguminous plants is higher than that of grass. In some cases, however, young
grass can approach legumes in nutritional value. Grass has a high energy
value, while legumes also contain proteins. In the meadows and mountain
pastures there are over 2000 of grass species. The perennial plants not only
improve the nutritional value of the green mass, but also enrich the soil.

Poa alpina Phleum sp. Fustuca sp. Dactylus sp. Lolium sp.

42
 Clover Fenugreek Wild Alfalfa Vetches

Oak Fraxinus ornus Hornbeam Alder Hazelnut tree Juniper

Figure 16 - Exemples of plants in Mediterranean and Alpine pastures

4.2 Poisonous Herbs in the Pastures

In meadows and pastures, poisonous grass is also found. They are particularly
high in number since the animals usually do not eat (tasteless to them),
therefore they grow and spread abundantly. However, when other plants are
missing and animals are hungry, they can eat them and poison themselves,
risking death.

Some plants have up to 20 types of toxins. Usually those that grow in the shade
are more poisonous than those that grow in the sun and, in some, the amount
of poison accumulated in the morning is more dangerous than in the evening.
In periods of rain, the risk of poisoning decreases.

43
4.3 Use, Maintenance and Improvement of Pasture

We have three ways of utilizing the pastures:

- Free grazing. This is the oldest and most widespread way. However, it is
uneconomical and harmful system. The animals are released without any
plan and remain for a long time in the entire surface of the pasture. In this
way they choose the best herbs available and root them out.
- Semi-free grazing. The animals are kept in one part of the pasture until they
graze over the entire surface and are then moved to another part of the
pasture. This is more sustainable than free grazing, but even in this case,
part of the quality vegetation is destroyed or damaged.
- Grazing on plots or by rotation. This is the best and most advanced method.
The grazing land is exploited with a predefined plan, in a controlled
and uniform way, allowing a better nutritional value of the pasture and
improving the regeneration of vegetation.

It is not possible, anywhere, to have a successful farming, if no special

attention is given to pastures. The sustainable and controlled exploitation of
pastures is one of the main channels to increase the productivity of the farm
and it is essential to protect the biodiversity of these areas. Despite this, these
territories are often subject of inadequate care and attention.

ATTENTION
The greatest damage to the heirloom coat comes from
free grazing. Especially in moist soils, free grazing,
particularly of sheep and goats, destroys the soil
structure and damages irreversibly the regeneration of
plants.

Some basic measures used to improve grazing areas are:

- Cleaning from stones, which can be accumulated and arranged as anti-
erosion rows, helping to protect the soil. They can also be placed in the
beds of streams to slow down the flow speed.

44
- Cleaning of poor-quality plants and shrubs, weeds and poisonous plants. In
practice, poisonous/noxious plants are removed before the seeds ripe, i.e.
uprooted in the hot period, so that they are no longer able to regenerate and
the seeds cannot be scattered. The uprooted plants can be placed against
the slopes together with the stones, creating a “belt” for the protection of
sloping surfaces. Weed cleaning can also be achieved with the use of total
herbicides, by spraying, at the peak of the plants’ vegetation cycle, in good
weather and without wind. Special care should be taken to keep animals
away from treated areas, for at least 15 days.
- Construction of water collection basins. Animals generally require drinking
water every 3-4 km and no more than 300 m of height difference from the
grazing area. If water is further away, they lose a lot of energy finding it,
which can negatively affect their health and reduce their productivity. The
construction of basins, help use unexploited grazing areas due to lack of
water.

Figure 17 – Water collection basins

45
- Cleaning and placing wooden drinking troughs to feed livestock, is another
measure that improves the condition of pastures. It is advisable to fertilize
different places with animal manure, usually for 5-10 days in each area, to
allow the fertilization of the pastures. In places with thick vegetation, it is
recommended to open paths of about 0.6-1 m in width, in order to facilitate
movement outside the main paths.
- Planting quality vegetation. During the autumn period, quality plant seeds
can be collected and then dispersed by covering them with a little soil.
Especially in forests that are degraded and massively affected by fire this
can be accompanied by other interventions, for example by placing pieces
of wood in a row horizontally and blocking them with stones in order to
create protected spaces in which to place the seeds. However, it is advisable
to avoid grazing in these areas until the vegetation has grown again.

46
5. Health and Veterinary Treatments

When a disease affects a farm and is not diagnosed and stopped in time, it
poses a major problem for the farmer causing loss of income. This is not only
due to the loss of milk and animals, but also the cost of treatment.

Vaccinations, treatments and prevention for the main diseases present in an

area and/or for those considered particularly dangerous should be priorities
for all farms. Some vaccines are subsidized by the state, so you should be well
informed about any financial contributions before proceeding.

47
5.1 Some of the Major Goat and Sheep Diseases in the World

5.1.1 Contagious Agalactia

Contagious agalactia is a particularly widespread infectious disease.

ATTENTION
The symptoms through which the presence of the
disease inside the farm can be deduced are:
- Arthritis;
- Keratoconjunctivitis
(see image on the side);
- Abortions;
- Neonatal mortality;
- Mastitis;
- Reduction or cancellation
of milk production.

It is transmitted through the introduction of infected animals and/or

contaminated material into the farms, therefore it is essential to proceed
as below:
- when introducing new animals to the flock, inquire about the veterinary
treatments and vaccines they have been treated with, and provide
quarantine periods in which the new animals are kept separate from
others to see if any symptoms are manifested;
- avoid using pastures, ponds and/or drinking troughs used by potentially
infected flocks and / or wildlife.

If these symptoms occur, contact a veterinarian as soon as possible to

ascertain the presence of the disease. When it occurs within a flock,
antibiotics can be used to alleviate symptoms and reduce the damage
caused by the disease. However, treatments usually do not heal the animals.
Therefore, it is necessary to apply preventive and continuous vaccination
for the flock. The agalactia vaccine has multiple repetitions and is effective
only if the procedure is done correctly. The first administration should
be made to baby goats at least one month old, between March and April,
and the second in November/December to pregnant females in the fourth

48
month of gestation, together with the males for copulation. The vaccine is
injected via a subcutaneous puncture in the neck or under the tail.
The treatment must be repeated every six months.

ATTENTION
During gestation, vaccination should be done twice, at
4-week intervals. Always consult your veterinarian. Any
treatment received must be recorded in the Veterinary
Care Register and must be notified to the veterinarian
before each visit to the farm.

5.1.2 Mastitis
Mastitis are breast infections that can occur through changes in milk and/
or the udder, which appears enlarged, red and sore when milking. If left
untreated, clinical mastitis can become chronic, making affected animals
permanently unproductive. Some types of acute mastitis lead to the death
of the animal and cause septicemia in baby goats that drink the infected
milk.

Figure 18- Udder with mastitis signs

49
These infections mainly occur where the hygienic conditions of the milking
rooms are scarce. Also, the incorrect use of the milking system is a factor
affecting the start and spread of mastitis on farms. They can also develop
as a result of udder injuries due to trauma, unbalanced nutrition or as a
result of other specific diseases contracted by the animal.
Once you have identified the sick animal, measure the fever with a normal
mercury thermometer. The measurement must be made in the rectum,
taking care to keep the instrument tilted so it is in contact with the walls
of the intestine and not with the feces. If the temperature is above 38.5 °C,
the treatment must be started immediately. Mastitis should be treated with
an antibiotic, such as penistrepto, observing the withdrawal period and
eliminating the milk of the animals under treatment, since the residues are
dangerous for the consumers health. It would be advisable to separate the
animal from the rest of the flock to avoid any contagion and stress for the
animal itself and to allow easier access to food.
The antibiotic should be taken in quantities of 1 ml per 10 kg of the animal’s
weight. The weight of an average goat is around 50 kg, so the standard
dose is 5 ml. The first injection should be double, i.e. 10 ml. Then proceed
with injections of the standard dose every 24 hours, unless the animal’s
condition is particularly critical, case in which the following doses can be
repeated every 12 hours. An effective antibiotic treatment must be rapid
and prolonged, from 3 days to a week or even longer if deemed necessary.
If the fever persists for several days, the veterinarian should be contacted. It
is essential to start the antibiotic treatment as soon as possible. A prolonged
feverish condition could lead to permanent damage to the animal and
serious repercussions on its productivity.
Antibiotics alone are not sufficient to treat mastitis if they are not
accompanied by correct farm management practices. To reduce the
possibility of mastitis it is necessary to carry out the milking operations in
the most hygienic way possible, paying attention to correct cleaning of the
milking machine and periodically disinfecting all areas around with lime.

ATTENTION
The mastitis not detected in time and not treated can
reduce the animal’s productive capacity forever.

50
To quickly diagnose possible mastitis, a method called California Mastitis
Test is used which can allow you to identify the disease when it is still at
a sub-clinical level, i.e. the main symptoms are not yet evident. The test
can be purchased at veterinary pharmacies and carried out by farmers
themselves. It is an instrument with some containers (see photo) and a
reagent. The milk is placed in the containers, then the reagent is added.
If mastitis is present, the mix of the two liquids will take on a gel-like
consistency and will not have a uniform color.
If there are traces of blood in the milk, frequently daily milking must be
done and the udders must be thoroughly washed with a cloth and fresh
water. Milk should not be used and should be disposed of in a safe place to
avoid contamination of the environment.

Figure 19 –California Test

5.1.3 Pulmonary and Gastrointestinal Parasites

Parasites can cause pathologies that can lead to the death of the animals
or to a decrease in productivity, with a consequent increase in food and
medical expenses.

51
The risk of parasites increases as the number of animals in the flock
increases and is more dangerous for smaller and pregnant animals.
Deworming is performed with a drug based on Albendazole, in the form of a
solution to be ingested by animals or to be injected through subcutaneous
puncture. Males and females must be dewormed three to four days after
giving birth, between January and February. The young must instead be
dewormed 3 or 4 days before weaning.
After the deworming treatment, the animals must be taken to graze in
different places for at least three days, to avoid contact with the larvae
expelled with the feces. The stable must be cleaned, collecting all the
manure in one place so that the fermentation kills the parasite eggs.
If the deworming is done following these guidelines, it will be sufficient to
deworm the flock once a year.

5.1.4 Febrile Conditions and Pneumonia

Sheep and goats are particularly sensitive to febrile conditions, diseases
and respiratory infections. Pneumonia and bronchopneumonia are caused
by bacteria, parasites or viruses. Pulmonary diseases, in particular, manifest
themselves with fever, general fatigue of the animal, breathing difficulties
and cough, at first dry and then greasy. Especially in young animals,
respiratory infections quickly lead to death or chronicity, permanently
decreasing the animal’s productivity.
Pneumonia treatment will vary depending on the cause, but antibiotics,
such as Penistrepto, are recommended to be used as soon as a fever
develops.
It is advisable for the breeder to develop a good habit of measuring animals
for fever whenever they show fatigue when moving around, and/or low
attraction for food (for the measurement see the paragraph on Mastitis). If
the temperature is higher than 38.5 °C, the intake of the Penistrepto-based
antibiotic should initiate (for intakes see the section on Mastitis).
However, it is possible, to intervene on favoring factors of pneumonia:
1) improving hygiene inside the stable by lowering humidity. It is the later
that facilitates the spread of germs and viruses; 2) avoiding the presence of
too many animals in the same room; 3) strengthening the immune defenses
of the animals by maintaining a balanced diet in terms of vitamins, proteins,
energy and fiber.
Furthermore, to prevent pneumonia of parasitic origin it will be necessary
to follow the protocol of deworming treatments as previously suggested in
this chapter.

52
5.1.5 Brucellosis
Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by a number of bacteria that
affect most mammals and can also cause chronic fever in humans.
Brucellosis in sheep and goats can cause miscarriages, neonatal mortality,
orchiepididymitis and mastitis. Newborns can also be infected during
delivery by contact with the mother’s droppings or blood or later on
through breastfeeding.
The disease is spread from one animal to another, being exposed to a pasture
contaminated with infected animals or through breeding. Humans get sick
from drinking raw milk or eating dairy products made of unprocessed milk.
If the presence of brucellosis is suspected or if the herd has been affected
by this disease in the past, the milk will only be usable after pasteurization,
which destroys the bacteria that causes the brucellosis.
If following the symptoms and tests, cases of brucellosis in the flock are
identified, it is necessary to proceed with the elimination of the infected
animals and apply partial vaccination of the rest of the flock. The vaccine is
divided into two doses: the first is given to newborns between the third and
fourth months of life, while the second is given four months apart.
As with agalactia, this disease is mainly prevented by making sure the newly
introduced animals come from a healthy herd. It is therefore important to
buy animals from farms that are known above all for their veterinary care.

5.1.6 Enterotoxemia
Enterotoxemia is caused by bacteria that produce toxins in the intestine.
These bacteria are contracted by the animal orally through contaminated
food. However, only in cases of sudden changes in food portions,
overfeeding, lack of fiber, excess of cereals or fresh fodder, it will be possible
to create favorable conditions for the development of these bacteria with
high toxin production. In most cases, these diseases are deadly and tend
to affect the best shaped and best fed animals. Sudden death often occurs
without symptoms. If symptoms are present, the animals fall to the ground
with uncoordinated movements and manifestations of abdominal pain.
It is impossible to have a timely therapy. However, in case of suspected
enterotoxemia, it is suggested to give a broad-spectrum antibiotic.
The vaccine must be repeated several times to be effective. The first dose is
given to pregnant goats, one and a half months before farrowing, and the
second dose 15 days after the first. Once the baby animals are born, they
will be vaccinated in the second month of life. The second dose for them
will be given 21 days after the first.

53
5.1.7 Listeriosis
Listeriosis is an infectious disease caused by a bacterium (Listeria
monocytogenes) that can cause encephalitis, abortion, septicemia or
mastitis in sheep and goats. This bacterium is also normally present in the
intestines of healthy animals and reaches the environment with the feces,
surviving in the soil and on plants for weeks and months. The main course
of transmission for sheep and goats is the consumption of contaminated
forage.
Listeriosis is a disease characterized by neurotic symptoms in sheep and
goats of both sexes. The most common form is cerebral listeriosis that
causes high fever, followed by motor disturbances and paralysis. The
most characteristic symptom is circling in one direction, associated with
blindness and conjunctivitis. In pregnant females, miscarriage occurs in
the last period of pregnancy. Abortion and neurotic symptoms are almost
never concomitant. In the final stages, the animal lies in lateral decubitus
and shows pedaling movements, grinding of the teeth and empty chewing.
The disease is dangerous to humans and can cause meningitis, septicemia
and skin lesions in the hands and arms after touching infected materials.
To prevent this disease, it is important to pay attention to the hygiene and
conservation of the forage, especially if ensiled, and to administer only
safe and sufficiently acidified forage. Furthermore, as with brucellosis,
the bacterium that causes listeriosis is destroyed during pasteurization
processes. This is necessary if the farmer wants to process milk from a flock
with suspected presence of listeriosis.
Currently there are no vaccines to prevent listeriosis. However, if the disease
is known and diagnosed in its early stage, it can be treated with penicillin or
tetracycline and anti-inflammatory associated with intravenous fluid and
electrolyte intake. Symptoms usually last for almost 10 days, but the intake
of adequate medications, can improve the animal health until normalizing
around the thirteenth day.

5.1.8 Blue Tongue

Blue tongue is an infectious, transmissible, non-contagious disease
caused by a virus transmitted by insect bite (Culicodes) that can spread
the infection from sick to healthy animals. The first symptom is a febrile
condition (up to 42 °C) which isolates the affected animal from the rest
of the flock. At the same time or immediately afterwards, redness occurs
around the lips, between the nostrils, inside the mouth, on the gums and
inside the ears. The tongue gets dark colored, towards blue. Mucus with

54
traces of blood may come out of the nose and widespread swellings in the
mouth may appear. The veterinary service should be notified, in case these
symptoms appear.

Figura 20 – A case of blue tongue

To prevent the inception of the disease, farmers should vaccinate their

flock (the live attenuated vaccine is the only vaccine currently available
commercially for all viral serotypes, easy to produce and relatively
economical) and actively engage to hinder the reproduction and growth
of the insect whose sting transmits the disease. This insect reproduces in
humid places rich in decaying organic substances. Therefore, eliminate
puddles of water, mud and manure inside the stable and carry out a
complete disinfestation of the barn (floor and walls) with lime at least once
a year. For any further residues of mud or sewage outside the stable, it is
recommended to flip over the surface layer of the sewage by about 20-30
cm to dry it, thus causing the death of insect eggs and larvae. If this is not
possible, treat the mud with liquid lime, clay or insecticides.

5.1.9 Caseous Lymphadenitis or Pseudotuberculosis

It is a chronic, highly contagious disease with a ubiquitous distribution
caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis. It causes localized
abscess at lymph nodes and/or pulmonary abscesses in the adult animal
causing therefore great economic loss to the sheep industry.

55
 The bacterium is usually transmitted through the skin, often through micro-
wounds caused by shearing or, more generally, during traumas of various
kinds. The typical lesion is manifested as a necrotic-caseous locus, defined
by a fibrous capsule, with greenish pus often in layers. Animals with open
abscesses should be separated to prevent the spread of the disease. The
only valid method to diminish the effects of the disease is to isolate and have
the abscesses in affected animals surgically treated by the veterinarian,
paying attention to avoid the contamination the environment.

ATTENTION
Before administering any treatment, it is essential to
read the package leaflet carefully and consult your
veterinarian.

5.2 Summary of Recommended Veterinary Treatments

Treatment Product Administration Notes

Vaccine VVaccine with 2 ml/per animal by Withdrawal
against the active subcutaneous injection. period: 0 days
Contagious substance
Agalactia Mycoplasma In healthy flocks, the
agalactiae vaccine should be
administered to all animals
over three months old,
every six months.

In high-risk flocks, a
second dose after the
first administration is
recommended after 2-4
weeks; and then carried on
every six months.

56
Treatment Product It is taken orally according Avoid intake
against with active to the doses indicated in the during
internal ingredient product leaflet. gestation.
parasites Albendazole
To be completed preferably In the three
in spring, 10/15 days after days following
the animals are taken out of intake, take
the stable. the animals
to pasture
in different
areas, clean
and disinfect
the stable at
the end of the
three days.

Withdrawal
period: varies
depending
on the
product, see
the package
leaflet.

Enterotoxe- Vaccine The first dose is given to Withdrawal

mia against pregnant goats one and a period: 0 days
enterotoxe- half months before the birth
mia and the second dose 15
days after the first. Once the
baby goats are born, they
will be vaccinated in the
second month of life. The
second dose for the baby
goats, will be given 21 days
after the first.

57
5.3 Disinfestation and Cleaning of the Stable

In order to prevent diseases and infections from parasites, it is essential to

maintain the hygiene and cleanness of the stable.
For this reason, lime is used to disinfect livestock premises. It is a natural
disinfectant with a very low cost. Quicklime has little disinfectant activity if
used without water, so it must be diluted. Quicklime can be found in any well-
stocked or building supply store.
The ground or floor of the stable should be disinfected whenever a disease
appears, in order to prevent the spread of bacteria (e.g. brucellosis) or after a
deworming treatment, to ensure that the larvae/eggs of parasites removed as
a result of the treatment, do not survive.
Depending on the type of the stable surface for disinfection, the following
treatments should be used:

- Surface of the stable in rammed earth: 1) brush the ground removing sewage
and manure; 2) distribute the lime until the ground is completely covered
(about 500 g of lime per 1 m²); 3) distribute 0.5 liters of water per m² of soil
to make the lime react; 4) leave it act for 24 hours; 4) brush and remove
treatment residues which can then be used as fertilizer;
- Surface of the stable in concrete: 1) wash the surface with running water; 2)
distribute lime until the surface is completely covered (about 1 kg of lime
per 1 m²); 3) pour water on the surface until the lime reacts (about 1.5 liters
of water per 1 m²); 4) leave it act for at least 2 hours; 5) brush and remove
treatment residues that can be used as fertilizer.

At least once a year, the walls of all the premises of the breeding, must be
disinfected with a solution based on water and hydrated lime, always available
in shops that sell building materials.
For a stable of about 150-200 m², follow the application: 1) mix 35 liters (about
25 kg) of hydrated lime and 50 liters of water; 2) leave the mixture to rest for
12 hours; 3) eventually add two liters of lime; 4) mix everything and spray it on
the walls or use a brush or broom to spread it uniformly on the walls.
During this operation, pay particular attention to sprinkle also the lower part
of the walls and if necessary. Use it abundantly in this area.

58
 ATTENTION
The mixture of water and lime can create a violent
chemical reaction as the water begins to boil. It is
therefore recommended to protect the eyes, mouth,
nose, and hands during work. It is also important to
remember to carry out all treatments in the absence of
the animals inside the stable and properly ventilate the
stable before bringing the animals back: it is therefore
recommended to carry out the procedure during the
summer season.

5.4 Farm Biosecurity and Quarantine

Pathologies and infections can be caused by adding into the flock animals from
other farms. To limit this risk, it is necessary to adopt some good practices.
First of all, it would be advisable to know well the farm where animals come
from and check the register of vaccines and veterinary treatments carried
out. Furthermore, it is essential to adapt to a quarantine period when new
animals are isolated from the rest of the flock. It is therefore necessary to set
up a special space, separate from the rest of the stable, so that there is no
contamination between the new animal and the rest of the flock.
The quarantine period should be at least 30 days, during which it is advisable:
a) to observe whether any signs of disease, injury or abrasions are present or
appear in the animals;
b) deworming of the animals.

This system also allows the new animals to overcome the tension caused by
transfers, and to adapt to the nutrition in the new farm in a more gradual way.

59
6. Reproduction of Goats and Sheep

6.1 Breeding

It is advisable to keep a minimum male/female ratio of 1/25 to 1/30-35 within

the flock, in case the males are of good breed. The pregnancy of small ruminants
lasts on average 150 days (about 5 months). It would be better to favor the
breeding of the females in late summer-early autumn, so that they give birth
in January-February. Such time periods, allow mothers reach pasture as soon
as possible, which will be of benefit not only for milk production but also the
development of the new born. In fact, it would be optimal for the babies to
arrive in summer months of the pasture already weaned, so as to grow faster
and be ready for the breeding in autumn. The autumn breeding also allows
for greater fertility and multiple births. In addition, synchronized breeding
permits births in a limited period of time.
To synchronize heat in females it is recommended to:
- Provide to males and females particular food (flushing), such as oats or
even barley, containing phytohormones that help stimulate the renewal of
sexual and ovulatory activity. The intake of such food should be started 15-
20 days before the estrus (heat) starts, continuing for 15-20 days after the
start of the heat. This supplement must be from 150 to 250 g/head/day.
- Take advantage of the male effect, i.e. the physiological response of the
female to the sudden re-introduction of males into the herd at the beginning
of the breeding season. To profit from this effect, it is necessary to organize
the visual, olfactory and auditory isolation of the males from the rest of the
flock for at least 1 month. This favors the renewal of ovarian activity that
occurs about 15-25 days after the re-introduction of males, when females
are more likely to become pregnant.
It is possible to recognize the heat of the females observing some signs: a)
movement of the tail; b) attempts to breed other animals; c) search for males;
d) continuous and insistent bleating; e) increased secretions.
To keep the flock sustainable after the replacement of the culled animals, it
is necessary to prepare at least 20% of the newborns for breeding. If, on the
other hand, the aim is to expand the flock, at least 30% of the new born are
needed for breeding. In the months following the birth, it will be necessary
to select the young ones that appear stronger and more robust in order to
keep them for breeding and to send the others for slaughter or sale in order to
maintain and strengthen the positive characteristics of the flock.

60
 ATTENTION
Consanguinity (mating between animals with direct
parental ties) represents a serious threat to the health
of the flock.
Several studies have shown that as the level of
consanguinity increases, we have:
- increase in the number of abortions;
- more difficult deliveries;
- birth of smaller and weaker kids and lambs;
- reduction in the ability to produce milk and reproduce;
- higher incidence of certain diseases.
All this has negative effects on-farm productivity, and
therefore on income, which tends to worsen from year
to year.
To avoid this phenomenon, attention must be paid to
some elements:
- Males can be purchased from farms outside the area
where you work, making sure they are healthy and
vaccinated.
- Goats/lambs can be exchanged between farms to
keep them for breeding purposes.

6.2 Good Practices for the Maintenance of Animals during Pregnancy

Small ruminants give birth, in most cases, without problems. In cases where
birth is really problematic, the animal is helped out.
The most important aspects to consider in preparing for calving is the feeding
of the mothers and the adequacy of the stable structures to prevent pregnant
females from suffering trauma that could compromise the pregnancy. During
the months of pregnancy, the food portions should be increased, not only to
facilitate the birth, but also to prepare the animals for lactation. Particular
attention should be paid to the fourth and fifth months. Preferably, the farmer
should give pregnant females supplemented food containing corn, soy, barley
and a mixture of vitamins and minerals.

61
If it is not possible to purchase food, pregnant animals should be provided
with approximately 2 kg of hay and 0.5 kg of corn per day. For more details,
see the chapter dedicated to nutrition. However, this regime must be properly
integrated with mineral salts and vitamins - especially A, D and E - which can
be taken through blocks of mineral salts enriched with vitamins, hanged inside
the stable. There is no precise dosage of mineral salts to be administered:
the animals regulate themselves. So, if animals are lacking mineral salts, it is
possible they will quickly consume the blocks located in the stable for the first
time. Subsequently, with the rebalancing of the animal’s nutritional situation,
they will last longer.
If this diet is not possible to be provided during the entire the pregnancy, it is
essential that at least the intake of vitamins and minerals through the blocks
is given during the last month before giving birth. During this month, it is
particularly recommended to provide blocks of mineral salts, enriched with
vitamins A, D and E. When purchasing the blocks of mineral salts, make sure
the ingredients do not contain copper, which is harmful to small ruminants.
It is also important that the size and number of mangers are proportionate to
the number of animals in order to allow simultaneous feeding of all animals.
A disproportionate ratio between available space and number of animals
encourages the creation of hierarchies within the flock, characterized by
subordinate animals that could suffer physical trauma during access to the
manger and that gradually reject food due to its difficult supply.
Another factor to consider in order to avoid trauma, is to organize the moving
in and out of the flock inside the stable. In fact, it often happens, to have
abortions, especially in the late phase of pregnancy, caused by bumps, crushes
and kicks due to direct contact with other animals.
Structural measures, advisable to be adopted are:
i) setting up a central corridor to allow the orderly movements of the animals;
ii) creating a space, for example, an infirmary stall, where it is possible to direct
and isolate animals in particular conditions or requiring treatments related to
childbirth;
iii) construction of doors that are at least 1.5 meters wide, to allow facilitated
entry and exit for animal;
iv) if the stable is divided into boxes, equipping the stalls with movable gates
and/or barriers to allow moving of the flock in or out.

62
6.3 Weaning

For those who want to use the flock for milk production, the following weaning
scheme is recommended:
- For the first 60 days, the baby animals should be left in the stall with their
mothers.
- Then, for 10 days, they must be separated from their mothers during the
night. In the morning, mothers will be milked and the baby animals will be
left with them again all day to be then separated in the evening.
- Finally, for 20 days, the baby animals will be completely separated from
their mothers and fed separately. After these days, they will no longer look
for mothers and can be reintegrated into the rest of the flock.
It is important to remember to deworm the baby animals three days before
reintegrating them into the flock and to disinfect the stable in order to
eliminate possible parasite eggs.

Scheme for the Weaning of Baby Animals in Dairy Herds

From birth to 60 days The baby animals are always left with their
after birth mothers.
Baby animals are separated from their
mothers during the night (in a suitable stall);
From day 61 to day
the mothers are milked in the morning and
70
then baby animals are left with the mothers
all day.
The baby animals are completely separated
from their mothers and fed separately (in the
From day 70 to day stable or in the pasture). Three days before
90 the end of this period, it is necessary to
deworm the baby animals and disinfect the
stall.
The baby animals are reintegrated into the
After day 90
flock.

For flocks mainly dedicated to meat production, it is advisable to leave the

baby animals with their mothers as much as possible.

63
SECTION II:
FARMING STRUCTURES

64
Ensuring better structural conditions, has a significant impact on animal
wellbeing, and consequently on their productivity and income resulting from
them. At the same time, it’s important to keep in mind, that many areas of the
world are often characterized by limited financial opportunities, infrastructure
problems and a lack of specialized suppliers. In this chapter, we will try to
define the basic parameters for the construction and use of structures that
meet the minimum standards and some solutions and best practices will be
illustrated.

7. Legal Aspects for Structures of Agricultural use

To construct new buildings for agricultural usage, as well as to make changes

to existing buildings, interested farmers must make sure they have all the
necessary documentation needed. Moreover, it is advisable to inquire well
in advance about the legal aspects and practices to be undertaken and the
relative timing.

8. Structural Aspects for the Construction of a Stable

for Small Ruminants

The construction of a new stable or the renovation of an existing building

to be used as a shelter for animals, must respect some fundamental criteria
to ensure a good organizing of breeding and minimum standards of animal
wellbeing: both of these aspects, have a direct impact on the productivity of
the flock and therefore on the yield in economic terms.
Some basic minimum criteria are proposed below

8.1 Location of the Stable

It is important to select a proper place for the construction of the new stable.
The basic criteria to be considered in this regard are:
- The stable is recommended to be built, as far away as possible from the
houses. A stable should not be located above houses, since polluted waters
infiltrate courtyards, wells and can cause hygiene and health problems.

65
- The soil must be dry and there should be no flaky aquifers near the surface
to avoid muddy soils. The soil must be drained and bordered by drainage
channels in the upper side of the slope.
- The stable should not be located near the roads and animals should not
have direct exit on the road. It is also necessary to provide running water
inside and near the stable.
- The stable should have easy access for vehicles transporting food, milk or
other.
- The base of the stable should be raised 20 cm above ground level to avoid
humidity where the animals are accommodated.

8.2 Space of the Stable

In order to ensure adequate conditions for the flock, allow animals to move
freely and avoid excessive collisions, it is necessary to provide a minimum
area available to each animal. The bigger the space, the greater the well-being
of the animals.
Generally, at least 1.5 m² for each adult female should be considered as
minimum parameters, from 0.8 to 1.5 m² for each young animal and 3 m² for
each breeding billy goat. Starting from these criteria, once you have decided
what your goal is, you can calculate the size of a suitable stable. However,
spaces not available to animals must also be taken into consideration, such
as a central corridor for the operators to pass through.
Regarding the latter, unless you plan to access the stable by mechanical
vehicles such as tractors and walking tractors, it is recommended to have a
minimum distance of 1.5 meters.

8.3 Height of the Stable

This is a fundamental parameter as it is necessary to guarantee a minimum

volume of air to each animal. It also avoids gas entry and too much humidity.
The same measures apply to the well-being of the operators working in the
farm. Take into account, that an adult animal, needs at least 5 m³ of air, while
a young animal needs, at least, 3 m³.
The height of the stable must be calculated on the basis of these parameters,
or with a good approximation and if the criteria relating to the space are

66
respected, it can be said that in a stable without a floor, the minimum height
of the walls must be 2.2 m, while in a barn with attic and attic space dedicated
to the conservation of forage or other things, the minimum height of the walls
must be 2.8 m.

8.4 Windows

The number, size and location of windows are key to creating good conditions
inside a stable, with particular emphasis on air circulation, humidity reduction,
indoor temperature control and lighting. All these factors directly affect the
welfare of animals and consequently their productivity.
The windows should correspond to at least 5-8% of the stable wall area. The
windows should be positioned in pairs, facing each other in order to facilitate
air circulation and exchange. They should also be positioned high, so that the
air currents do not hit the animals directly.
Goats are especially sensitive in terms of conditions inside the stable, so
special attention should be paid to the ventilation direction in the room. In an
unventilated environment, air and humid layers greatly influence diseases of
the respiratory system, especially to the little ones.

Figure 21 – Windows position

67
8.5 Roof of the Stable

Obviously, the roof is built with an appropriate sloping that takes into account
the risk of snow in the area where the stable is located. In cold areas, the angle
of slope is 45 ºC or even more. This means that in these zones, the roof area
must be calculated 1.6-2 times larger than the stable area. In other zones, with
less risk of snow, this indicator turns out to be 1.3-1.5.
The cover can be made of tiles, metal sheet or wood.

Figure 22 – Scheme on the creation of ice in the roof

In practice, stables with metal sheet covers have faced a problem. If the stable
is isolated during the winter, the animal’s vapor condenses on the internal
roof and turns to ice. During the day it melts causing humidity in the stable,
damage to the wood and food inside the stable.
To avoid this, building chimneys on the roofs will ensure the flow of air from
inside out, but prevent the entry of rain or snow from the outside, guaranteeing
a sufficient ventilation of the area.
In the attic, it is possible to divide with a wooden ceiling, in order to create
a space for storing food for the animals. In case of utilizing this structure,
it should be accompanied by a good isolation of the space with suitable
materials (tar, plastic sheet, etc.), which does not allow the passage of gas to
the stable, as they spoil the quality and taste of food.
Access to this space, is usually achieved through a separate door connected
to a staircase.

68
8.6 Paddock and Fences

By paddock we mean an external structure that is fenced, completely or

partially and covered completely or partially (see image below).
It is simple to construct and fairly inexpensive item that is critically important
to animal health.

Figure 23 - Paddock

During the high temperature seasons, the doors between the stable and the
paddock can be left open and the animals are free to move between the two
environments as they prefer, reducing the density of animals inside the stable.
In rainy seasons, when the animals return wet from the grazing, they can stop
for a few hours under the paddock, so that the water on them dries out before
entering the stable.
Otherwise the water would drop inside the stable, creating mud and humidity
that could increase the presence of parasites and rheumatism to the animals.
It would be optimal if the covered part of the paddock was at least half of the
internal space of the stable.

69
8.7 Mangers and Drinking Troughs

Regarding the mangers and drinking troughs (some models have been
illustrated in paragraph 3.7) it is important that all animals have adequate
access to food and water, otherwise conflicts will arise and the stronger animals
will exclude the weaker ones. In general, for the mangers, it is advisable to
have about 30 linear cm of mangers for each adult animal and 20 linear cm for
each young animal. As for the drinking troughs 10 linear cm for each animal is
needed.

8.8 Summary Table of the Basic Parameters

Elements Size (min - optimal)

Area per adult animal
1,5 m2
(m²/animal)
Area per young/small animals
From 0,8 to 1,5 m2
(m²/animal)
Total area of box/space for
4-5 m2
medication treatment (m2)
Linear length of the manger adult
30 cm
(m/animal)
Linear length of the manger
20 cm
young (m/animal)
Linear length of drinking trough 10 cm
Corridor width (m) 1,2 – 1,5 m
Corridor height / internal stall
1,5 m
fences (m)
Windows 5% - 8 % of the total wall surface
Stable door height 1,8 – 2 m
1,5 m
Stable door width
or slightly smaller than the corridor
Air volume for young animals 3 m3
Air volume for adult animals 5 m3
Area per animal inside the At least half of the area of the stable,
paddock where possible covered by a shelter

70
8.9 Internal Organization of the Stable

Starting at the designing phase of the stable, the presence of a central corridor
is the first element to consider for the internal organization of the stable.
A central corridor, placed lengthwise, facilitates the movement of the operators
and the going in and out of the animals. The width of this corridor depends on
the width adopted for the doors of the building and on the type of vehicles,
including mechanical ones, that you want to access the stable.
To surround the corridor, different solutions can be adopted such as: 1) electro
welded net; 2) fence composed of metal profiles in square sections with
L-shaped profile, fixed to the floor and welded together by means of iron wires
(often with gates); 3) arrangement of a series of pallets. The same materials
can be used to limit the boxes in the rest of the stable, which will be equipped
with doors or barriers to allow the passage of the animals.
The fence that surrounds the service corridor, and the separators between the
different stalls, should be at least 150 cm high. The service corridor should be
approximately 150 cm wide.
The second element to consider in the internal design phase of the stable, is
the number of boxes/functional spaces to divide the area.
First, it is necessary to keep the different species separate. It is not recommended
to keep ruminants, cows, pigs and poultry in the same environment. In such
cases, the separation is made with walls or boards and the entrance and
exit doors are different. The number of boxes influences various aspects of
stable management including temperature values, environmental conditions,
animal wellbeing and optimal operating conditions for workers. The number
of boxes may vary depending on the number of animals and the production
direction that the farmer wishes to give to his farm.
It is advisable to organize at least the following boxes:
1. a box for adult females, pregnant and non-pregnant, and for the young
after weaning. This box will occupy most of the stable area;
2. a male box to keep them separated from the rest of the female animals in
order to speed up the heat and the copulation after their reintegration into
the flock;
3. a box for the little ones. An area dedicated to the weaning and growth of
baby goats / lambs until they are placed in the adult group when they have
acquired a certain nutritional independence. This solution, in addition to
having advantages on the health condition of baby goats/lambs, would
also allow to use the mother’s milk at an earlier time.

71
 This area, must be equipped with a small mangers and portable drinking
troughs. If possible, it would be better to pave the baby goats box, with a
concrete layer, as it would be more hygienic, washable and would make it
more difficult for the parasite eggs to multiply once they are removed from
the baby goats;
4. an infirmary box, that will be used to ensure that goats in need of care, remain
there until they are cured. They stay in a space separated from the rest of
the flock without being disturbed, especially during the administration of
food and treatments. For this box, a space from 3 to 4 m² will be sufficient,
fenced and equipped with a drinking trough and manger. This box can also
be used for goats that are about to give birth.

8.10 Creation of a Milking Area

For both manual and mechanical milking, it is necessary to dedicate a

special space so that the procedures are carried out in compliance with some
fundamental hygiene rules. The ideal milking station should be built in a
closed environment, separated from other rooms, especially those dedicated
to breeding, with wall surfaces and floors made of materials that are easily
washed.
However, milking areas of this type are particularly expensive and not very
sustainable for small family-run farms, especially in mountain areas. Even
in the absence of such facilities, it is still possible to equip a milking station
suitable to meet minimum standards. In particular, a platform and a self-
locking barrier, such as those shown in the illustrations below, are required.
For hygienic reasons, it is essential that milking operations are not carried out
inside the stable, where the animals are housed; the ideal place would be a
completely closed adjacent space, or at least one covered that protects from
the weather.

ATTENTION
It is important that milking is not taken inside the barn
but in a designated area.

72
The self-locking barrier is a metal system for a variable number of animals,
each of which has its own place to stand. When the animal begins to eat from
the manger put in front of the barrier, a mechanism automatically blocks it so
that the operator can proceed with milking from the rear. It can be purchased
from specialized dealers in the sector or handcrafted (technical drawings are
available at the end of this manual).

Figure 24 – Self-locking barrier for six animals

The platform can be made of simple materials. It must be equipped with two
ramps to allow animals to get on and off easily and two gates.
The self-locking barrier must be mounted and fixed on it.

Figure 25 - Milking platform

The complete system is represented in the next figure.

When the operator opens the door (1), the animals go up the ramp (2) and
position themselves on the platform. When they start to eat from the manger
placed on the self-locking barrier (3), they will activate the mechanism that

73
blocks them. Initially, it will be necessary to accompany the animals, but in
few days they will learn the procedure and place themselves in the boxes
independently. From the rear area (4), the operator can proceed with milking
(manually or with the milking machine) of the animals. Once milking is
finished, the operator unlocks the mechanism and opens the exit door (5), so
that the animals can get off the ramp (6) and make room for the next group.

Figure 26 – Milking station

What are the advantages of this system?

1. After a few days, the animals get used to move to their positions and there
is no need to capture every single animal.
2. The process becomes faster.
3. It is possible give food supplements to each individual animal using the
manger in front of the structure during the milking procedure.
4. The farmer can milk standing, in a more comfortable position.
5. During milking, the farmer can check more easily the health of the udders.
6. Since milking does not take place on the ground and the platform can be
easily cleaned, the milk results cleaner.
7. Once you get to the last animal in the row, you can “re-pass” all the animals
for a second quick milking which allows you to collect about 5-10% of
additional milk before letting the animals go free.

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 ATTENTION
It is important to consider that not all milk is released
by the time you start milking. For this reason, once the
animal has been milked, it is recommended to make a
second round after a few minutes.

8.11 Stable Model for Mountain Areas

Based on the parameters defined above, a simple 120 m² stable model

has been developed, in which approximately 80 animals can find space in
compliance with the minimum standards.
The stable is a rectangular structure measuring 15 m x 8 m, with the foundation
made of stone. It is advisable to put some tar isolation between the foundations
and the walls in order to prevent moisture from rising from the ground along
the walls. The walls should be 2.5 m high and made of building blocks.
The roof is made up of wooden trusses on which 0.5 mm metal sheet is
mounted. The windows are arranged in pairs, facing each other, to facilitate
air circulation and positioned at least 1.5 m above ground level to prevent the
air currents to hit the animals directly.

ATTENTION
To ensure greater barn insulation, in relation to the
outside temperatures, it is better to coat the mortar
walls and build the roof with combined insulating
panels of metal sheet and polyurethane.

75
Figure 27 – Stable – outdoor a

Figure 28 – stable - outdoor b

In the inside, the stable is organized with a central corridor 1.6 m wide, so as
to make the work of operators easier either with wheelbarrows or with small
walking tractors equipped with a cart. On the sides of the corridor there are
several boxes. In order minimize the costs, it was decided to make the division
using wooden pallets, but it is possible to use iron profiles fixed in the ground
and metal nets.

ATTENTION
To use the internal space of the stable as efficiently
as possible, it would be advisable to plan the division
into the box. The distribution of the space can be
modified according to the needs and the period of the
production cycle.

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Figure 29 – Planimetry

Figure 30 – stable - indoor

Outside the stable, on the long side, there is a 60 m² paddock, fenced by a net
and covered with a metal sheet. On the long side is located the milking station:
if it is not possible to create the milking area in a closed space separated from
the stable, this area at least needs to be covered. In the presented model, the

77
animals pass through the central corridor, arrive at the milking station and
after being milked are released into the paddock, making the process quicker,
more orderly and more hygienic.

Figure 31 - Paddock

Figure 32 – Milking platform

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SECTION III:
MILK AND CASEATION
PROCEDURES

79
9. Legal Aspects of Food Safety

Before proceeding with the sale of milk and derivatives, it is advisable to

inform yourself about the regulations in vigor in your home state regarding
food safety for dairy products.

9.1 Sanitary Conditions of the Flock

Raw milk must come from animals:

1. that show no symptoms of infectious diseases transmissible to humans,
such as brucellosis and tuberculosis.
2. that generally are of good health and are not affected by udder infections
(mastitis).
3. for which, in case of administration of vaccines or authorized medicines,
the suspension time provided for these products have been respected.
In particular, regarding the tuberculosis and brucellosis, raw milk can only
be used if it comes from officially unaffected flocks, regularly controlled or
specifically vaccinated for these diseases.
If the vaccinations of the flock have been appropriately recorded on the farm
register, then the milk is suitable for consumption and can be processed. If there
are both cows and goats on a farm and there have been cases of tuberculosis
in cattle, small ruminants should also be tested for this disease before starting
milk production and processing.
If the flock has cases of tuberculosis or brucellosis, the infected animals should
immediately be separated from the rest of the flock.
The milk from these animals is not suitable for human consumption or
processing unless treated with one of the following methods:

- Fast pasteurization at elevated temperatures for at least 15 seconds at a

temperature of 72 °C; or
- Low temperature pasteurization for a longer period of time, at least 63 °C
for 30 minutes; or
- UHT processing at ultra-high temperatures, a minimum of 135 °C for a time
ranging from one to four seconds.

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Finally, regarding the brucellosis, if the milk does not come from an officially
unaffected flock and which has been vaccinated, it is still possible to use it
for processing of cheese types that require a seasoning period of at least two
months.

9.2 Hygienic Requirements for Milk Processing Premises and

Equipment

The equipment in the milk processing, cooling and storage rooms must be
constructed such as to minimize the risk of milk contamination. In particular,
the rooms for storing milk must be suitably protected from animals and the
possible presence of parasites and therefore be separated from the rooms
where the animals stay.
The internal surfaces of equipment intended to come into contact with milk
(tools, milking tanks, containers for milk collection or its transport) must be
smooth, non-porous and non-toxic, so as to be easily washed and disinfected.
After milking, the equipment must be washed and, if necessary, disinfected.
The milk transport tanks or containers must be washed and disinfected after
every transport. The materials used for the transport of milk cannot be used
for the transport of other substances. For the disinfection of equipment, use
solutions indicated by competent authorities and machinery manufacturers.

9.3 Hygienic Conditions to Be Respected for Milking, Collection, and

Transportation of Milk

Milking must be performed in compliance with the following hygiene rules:

1. Check that the udder and adjacent parts are clean before starting.
2. Make sure that the milk does not present physical-organoleptic and
chemical anomalies.
3. If the milk comes from an animal affected by clinical udder diseases, it can
only be used with the authorization of the veterinarian.
4. If the milk comes from animals that take antibiotics, respect the suspension
period before using it.
Immediately after milking, the milk must be stored in a suitable and clean place

81
and must be cooled to a temperature that does not exceed 8 °C, in case it is
processed or transported for processing the same day, or at a temperature that
does not exceed 6 °C, if the milk is not processed or transported on the same
day as milking. During transport, it is necessary to ensure constant cooling of
the product and upon arrival at the processing point, the temperature of the
milk must not exceed 10 °C. The only exception to the transport temperature
requirements listed above, is when the milk is processed within two hours of
milking, or when it is necessary to store milk at a higher temperature due to
the production requirements of some products. In the latter case, exceptions
due to a specific production method, must be authorized by the competent
authorities.
The means of transporting milk must meet the following conditions:
1. The floor of the vehicles must be easy to wash and clean, with a smooth and
inclined surface so that the water flows easily through it.
2. Must be protected from atmospheric agents and dust.
3. Must be equipped with a ventilation system and refrigeration equipment,
and a system for maintaining constant temperature during transport.
4. Milk transport tanks must be thermally insulated and easy to clean and
disinfect. The inner surface must be smooth.
Finally, regarding the hygiene of operators in the dairy sector, it is mandatory
that the premises used are equipped with suitable spaces and equipment for
washing and disinfecting hands, so that before and after raw milk processing
it is possible to wash and disinfect arms and hands.

10. Milking

Milking is a phase of great importance both for the health of the animals
and for the production of quality cheese. If the milking is done by hand, or
by a milking machine, it is essential to adopt some precautions to avoid milk
contamination. Especially in the mountain areas, where the technological
conditions are not the same as those of large lowland farms, special attention
must be paid to milking and storage of the milk.
ATTENTION
Improper milking can lead to limited production, udder
infections, and low quality cheese.

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The presence of a special place for milking, is of fundamental importance, in
order to diminish, as much as possible, the contamination of the milk. If it is
not possible to have a completely isolated environment, it is advisable at least
to set up a covered space separated from the stable with a milking station like
the one illustrated in Chapter 8.

10.1 Best Practices for Milking

In order to milk properly, ensuring milk quality and animal wellbeing, it is

recommended to follow the following good practices:
- Before starting milking, the operator must wash their hands with soap and
water.
- Wear clean footwear when entering the milking area.
- Avoid involvement in milking if you have infectious diseases or hand
injuries.
- Do not cough and sneeze in the direction of the milk container.
- Check each animal’s first milk flow, in a separate container.
- Sick animals are always milked last and the milk goes into a separate
container.
- Before milking each animal, it is advisable to wash the udders with
lukewarm water (and possibly with disinfectant “pre-dipping”) and then
dry them with a clean cloth.
- All milking tools should be made of stainless steel, and copper should be
avoided.
- Do not smoke while milking.

ATTENTION
Milk containers must not have cracks or rust as dirt can
pollute the milk, must have a wide neck to facilitate
cleaning, and should be used exclusively for milk.

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Figure 33 – Stainless steel milk container

10.2 Using the Milking Machine

The use of the milking machine is a good solution for farms that have at least
one hundred animals. The advantages of mechanical milking are evident in
terms of time and in the hygienic characteristics of the milk, which will have a
much lower bacterial load. However, if milking is not done properly or is done
with a malfunctioning or unclean machinery, it can facilitate the establishment
and transmission of mastitis among animals.
The first thing to check is the size of the mouth of the nipple-catcher sheath
(see photo, the transparent side). It must not be too narrow or too wide. The
sheath must fit well to the nipple, leaving only the end free, so that the vacuum
can act on the tip. Narrow opening of the sheath causes pain in the nipple and
could cause udder pathologies. Before attaching the milking machine, it is
advisable to clean the udders with a cloth or absorbent paper.

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Figure 34 - Nipple catcher formed by a rigid part that contains the sheath destined to come into contact
with the nipple.

In the absence of systems for automatic removal of the nipple catcher group,
promptly remove the nipple catcher after closing the proper vacuum valve.
Before this operation, massage the udders with nipple catcher group still
attached, so as to obtain an additional quantity of milk after its spontaneous
emission has ended and avoid trauma. Within the shortest possible time from
the detachment of the group, a post-milking “postdipping” product must be
applied to the entire surface of the nipples. Its function, is to isolate the nipple,
still dilated from environmental bacteria, thus limiting the outbreak of udder
pathologies.
As soon as you finish milking, after about 5 minutes, fill a bucket with clean,
cold water, about 10-15 liters, and run the milking machine until the water
runs out. After this operation, empty the containers of the milking machine.
Then repeat this operation with hot water, if needed twice, emptying the
milking machine bins, reusing the same water.
If after these steps the water inside the bin is still dirty, wash it again with cold
water.
During this operation pay particular attention to any changes in diameter and
bends of the pipes, which are the points where dirt accumulates most.
Once the parts have been disassembled, clean with the brush in both directions.
Carefully clean the collector (component number 3 in the following image),
where there is a tendency to create deposits, which apart from favoring the
proliferation of bacteria, can cause difficulties in the disposal/passage of milk.

85
Figure 35 – Nipple-catcher group consisting of nipple-catcher (1), tubes (2) and milk collector (3) (connection
device that connects the short and long milk tubes)

Perform this operation with hot water and specific detergent about 4-5 times.
Finally, repeat the procedure one last time with cold water.
In any case, it is always advisable to wash the mechanical milking machine
observing the times, frequency and specific detergents indicated by the
manufacturer. It would also be advisable, to monitor the quality of the water
used for washing the milking machine.

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11. Mini Dairy Model for Mountain Areas

For demonstration purposes and as an example of good practice, a model of a

mountain mini-dairy has been developed that complies with some basic good
standards and that can be done for a relatively low investment.

Figure 36 – Mini dairy for mountain areas - plant

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Figure 37 – Mini dairy – indoor a

Figure 38 – Mini dairy – indoor b

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The fundamental elements of this model are easily identified from the figures
and are mainly related to:
a) the division of spaces;
b) the plant;
c) the presence of equipment suitable for the correct processing and storage
of products awaiting transport and / or sale.

Regarding the internal division (a), it is mandatory to have toilets and changing
rooms available to operators. It is also necessary, to ensure that there is no
direct connection between the toilet and the processing room, as well as
between outdoor spaces and the processing room. An essential requirement
for the internal division of the premises, is that sufficient space is guaranteed
so that the staff can easily perform all the operations required for production.

Regarding the plant (b), the structure must guarantee the presence of toilets
equipped with drinking and hot running water, for proper staff hygiene.
The drinking water supply, should not be at risk of contamination by waste
water, so there must be an independent drainage system functional to
maintaining hygiene in all work spaces. Similarly, plants, clothing, furniture,
doors and windows must be made of easily washable and non-porous
materials and must be located in such a way as to allow easy sanitization and
prevent the accumulation of impurities and the infiltration of agents (animals,
insects etc.) which may contaminate the products. Adequate brightness and
sufficient ventilation must also be ensured to prevent excessive steam build-
up, which is particularly important during high-temperature processing.
It is also recommended to pay attention to the location of electrical sockets
and additional places of access to water, especially in the processing room.
In particular, it is advisable to provide a water tap near the boiler (to fill it with
water and for washing). Also, the presence of electrical sockets (possibly with
a protective cover) should be planned in such a way as to avoid risks of contact
with water, for example by providing an appropriate height from the ground.

Regarding the work tools (c) (especially the boiler, table and other containers),
they must be made of sanitizable material, such as stainless steel, which allows
the pasteurization treatment and does not involve any risk of contamination
during the processing at high temperatures. The model, mentioned above,
envisages the use of a wood-fired boiler, for which it is absolutely necessary to
set up an external feed entry, which can be obtained through a hole in the walls.

89
This avoids the accumulation of dirt and impurities in the processing room. In
the event that gas or electric boilers are used, the precautions to be adopted
will be different, but always aiming at eliminating the risk of contamination.

Finally, it is recommended to have refrigerated spaces with controlled

and adjustable temperature (e.g. cold room), which allow the storage of
the products without causing the decay of the products due to unsuitable
temperatures for conservation and that prevent contamination by external
agents. (e.g. animals and insects).

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SECTION IV:
MEAT AND SLAUGHTER

91
The sheep and goat production chain has always played a strategic role for the
development of disadvantaged areas and for the social and environmental role
that the grazing activity guarantees in terms of safeguarding marginal land
and protecting biodiversity. As already mentioned, sheep and goat farming
generally has a mixed production and is characterized by high seasonality. In
richer countries, the main product is milk, while meat is a secondary product.
On the contrary, in most developing countries, the sheep and goat meat
production chain plays a more important role, especially at the local level.
The quality of the meat is defined as “the set of characteristics capable of
satisfying the expressed or not expressed demand by the consumer”.
Achieving full satisfaction of this demand is therefore extremely complex and
linked to health, nutritional, technological and organoleptic components,
which are difficult to define and variable in time and space, with a general
tendency to require standardized products, especially due to the influence
of advertising. Animals that have higher quality carcasses tend to receive a
“prize” in the market while those with lower quality carcasses are depreciated.
Through labeling of meat, consumers can recognize the meat they buy and
generally are willing to pay higher prices for higher quality.

12. Farming Factors that Influence the Quality of Goat

and Sheep Meat

Genetic type: Very important for both the qualitative and quantitative aspects
of production. For example, the meat races of central and northern Europe have
very compact carcasses with less skeletal development and greater muscle
development, while those of southern Europe have greater development of
bone tissue and less fat.
Age of slaughter: With increasing of age, the fat content of the meat increases,
the protein content remains constant and the saturated fatty acids increase
compared to the unsaturated ones. The tenderness of the meat also decreases,
but the differences are clearly evident only between animals slaughtered
earlier compared to other more mature ones.
Sex: Females produce clearer, more tender and more aromatic meat, due to
a fat deposit richer in unsaturated fatty acids. The rate of growth and muscle
development in females is faster, so there is an early start of fattening phase
combined with a higher rate of fat deposition leading to earlier slaughter than

92
males. The uncastrated males demonstrate, better daily increases, better food
conversion indexes and less fatty carcasses, compared to the castrated ones.
But they have meat with particular flavor and smell; the castrated ones on the
other hand, provide fatter carcasses, with more succulent, juicy and odorless
meat.
Farming system: The typical and/or prevalent production changes depending
on the farming system. The indoor housing system, allows both sanitary control
of the animal and qualitative-quantitative production and reproductive
control. In the semi-wild and free-range systems, health control is more
complicated, but taking place outdoors allow greater movement of the animal
which results in darker meat and lower fat percentages.
Nutrition: An early weaning causes food stress with subsequent loss of weight
and quality of the meat. Sometimes it is convenient to continue breastfeeding
with access to hay and grains until the age of slaughter. Depending on the
genetic type, the productive aptitude and the farming system considered,
we can observe variations in the values of nutritional requirements. Often a
certain period of the year has a strong availability of a food that the animal
does not need in such a large surplus. This occurs mainly with grazing animals,
when the availability of food can vary greatly in quantity and quality. This can
lead to phenomena of deficiency or excess. Good nutrition also results in a
high and normal concentration of glycogen in muscle tissue and reduces the
risk that the slaughtered animals develop high pH meat. To guarantee good
glycogen reserves, aim for a weight gain of at least 100 g/day for cross-bred
lambs.
Pre-slaughter stress: There are many environmental conditions that can cause
stress in animals before slaughter, which negatively affects the quality of the
meat. These can include temperature, humidity, light, sound and confinement.
Other stress factors are excitement, fatigue, pain, hunger and thirst.
To understand the effects of stress on the final quality of meat, it is important
to understand the relationship between glycogen and lactic acid and the pH
drop in the meat after slaughter. The energy required for muscle activity in a
living animal is obtained from the sugar (glycogen) present in the muscle. In a
relaxed and healthy animal, the glycogen content of the muscle is high. After
the animal is slaughtered, the glycogen in the muscle turns to lactic acid, and
the muscle and carcass become rigid (rigor mortis). This lactic acid is necessary
to produce tasty, tender, well-preserved and good color meat.
If the animal is under stress, especially immediately before slaughter, glycogen

93
reserves deplete earlier and the amount of lactic acid in meat decreases. Thus
the pH, which decreases as the lactic acid increases, cannot reach low enough
values and the meat is presented as “worn-out” or DFD, that is, dark, compact
and dry. This meat has a lower quality due to the less pronounced taste and
the dark color which is less acceptable for the consumer. It has a shorter shelf
life due to very high pH value of the meat (6.4-6.8), which at normal values (5.5
- 6.0) helps to delay the growth of bacteria. Having DFD meat means that the
carcass came from an animal that was stressed, injured or sick before being
slaughtered.

The muscle glycogen has been Muscle glycogen is not A rapid drop in meat pH while
used up during the preslaugh- depleted prior to slaughter meat temperature is still high
ter period, thus after slaughter, and a slow drop in pH occurs usually causing a breakdown
there is little lactic acid produc- postmortem as glycogen is of muscle protein and the meat
tion, which results in DFD meat. metabolized into lactic acid. becoming very pale with
This meat is of inferior quality The pH eventually drops pronounced acidity (pH values
as the less pronounced taste 6.0 - 6.2 (depending upon the of 5.4 - 5.6 immediately after
and the dark color is less meat species) which is the slaughter) and poor flavor.
acceptable to the consumer optimal range for water This type of meat is difficult to
and has a shorter shelf life due binding. use or cannot be used at all by
to the abnormally high pH-val- butchers or meat processors
ue of the meat (6.4 - 6.8). and is wasted in extreme cases.

Figure 39 - Modifications in the pH of meat

13. Cleaning
The animals soiled with mud, manure and with humid or wet fleeces are
difficult to manage at the time of slaughter and increase the likelihood
of bacterial contamination of the carcass. Manure contamination causes
irreparable damage to the skin resulting in significant loss of value. Having
clean sheep and goats at the time of slaughter minimizes the potential risk to
human health, contributes to the safe production of the meat and improves
its shelf life, and also ensures better economic efficiency.

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Slaughtering dirty animals can involve: additional costs, especially if they are
kept in the waiting area to be cleaned at the slaughterhouse; reduction of the
slaughtering speed as for each dirty animal it is necessary to be more careful
and proceed slowly with the skinning in order to avoid contamination of the
carcass; reduction in the value of the carcass due to excessive trimming (lower
carcass weight = less profit) and in the value of by-products, for example
sheepskin; loss of the entire carcass (zero gain).
Some examples that can cause contamination and related steps to take:
• Bacteria can spread in a dirty environment: check the bedding in the
stable, in the market, during transport and in the waiting stables, and
keep the floor and surfaces as clean and disinfected as possible.
• The wet fleeces increase the spread of bacteria: keep animals clean and
dry, if possible, for at least 24 hours before slaughter.
• Harmful bacteria in food and water will be eliminated with feces: when
possible use dividers between different groups of animals in finishing,
let the pasture rest, keep the water clean and avoid direct transport
from the pasture to the slaughter point.

Category A: Satisfactory Category B: Acceptable Category C: Unacceptable

Figure 40 - Examples of classification of animal cleanness

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14. Transportation

Livestock transport is arguably the most stressful stage in the chain of operations
between farm and slaughterhouse and it can significantly contribute to poor
animal welfare and a loss of quality and production. Incorrect transport and
handling can cause: stress; bruises; trampling; suffocation; heart failure; heat
stroke; burns; poisonings; predation; dehydration; injuries; fights among
animals; localized swelling; exhaustion. This can lead to a depreciation of
the carcasses due both to a lower quality of the meat and to the removal of
real sections of muscle (carcass weighs less = is paid less) or the death of the
animal itself which will not be slaughtered, but disposed of as waste (disposal
is often paid for by the farmer). However, sheep and goats are among the
easiest animals to transport, because they can travel without problems on
foot, by rail (train) or road (one or two-story trucks).
All vehicles used for the transport of the animals must have adequate
ventilation, a non-slip floor with adequate drainage and provide protection
from sun and rain. Vehicles transporting animals and meat must be properly
cleaned and disinfected. The ramps must not have a slope of more than 50%.
They must be clean and disinfected, equipped with protective barriers and
good lighting, and must not be slippery.

Figure 41 - Example of ramp and open transport with anti-slip flooring

96
The space required for sheep and goats inside the transportation vehicles
is approximately 0.4 m² per animal. Having a space that is too loose, could
cause trauma due to vehicle jolts. The side surfaces must be smooth without
protrusions or sharp edges and if possible, with adjustable openings. The
presence of a cover is not always necessary, as long as the animals are not
exposed to bad weather or the sun for too many hours.
Journeys longer than 8 hours require a bedding that is uniformly and
adequately arranged to allow adequate absorption of manure. Water must be
present in the tanks at every moment of the trip and in all seasons.
It is not recommended to mix animals of different species, mutually hostile,
with and without horns, sexually mature males and females, of significantly
different sizes and ages, bound and unbound animals, unless there are
dividing walls (partitions).
There are some categories of animals to which transport is generally prohibited:
• pregnant females that have exceeded 90% of the gestation period (135
days for sheep; 139 days for goats);
• animals that are unable to move independently or have severe open
wounds or prolapse;
• females who gave birth in the previous week;
• sheep and goats less than a week old or with a not completely healed
umbilicus.

15. Slaughter

Everywhere in the world, slaughtering is regulated by a series of very specific

sanitary and legislative regulations, because many characteristics of the
meat, its safety and suitability for human consumption depend on the good
execution of this operation (and on the sanitary controls performed). Normally
the operations must be performed in an authorized establishment, but in some
countries home slaughter is allowed. Before going to the slaughterhouse,
it is advisable to inquire about the required documentation and the timing
required for the operations.

In the case of home slaughtering, it is first of all necessary to ensure that the
regulations in vigor allow this practice. In most cases, this is only allowed for
sheep and goats under the age of 6 months and only for self-consumption.

97
If slaughtering at home or on the farm is allowed, it is necessary to identify a
suitable place for slaughtering, respecting at least the minimum standards.
It is preferable to have a dedicated room with the following characteristics:
washable and disinfectable floor with a well for collecting waste water; walls
covered with clear washable material that can be disinfected on the entire
surface, or up to a height of at least three meters; washbasin with hot and cold
water with opening that is not manual and disposable towels; sterilizers for the
knives; container for the collection of slaughtering leftovers; authorized drain
or a collection tank for disposal via waste water system. During the slaughtering
process it is appropriate to have a veterinarian for the identification of the
unsuitable animals and/or meat that is harmful for consumption.
The veterinarians working in slaughterhouses must perform a sanitary check
before and after slaughter to certify the health of the animals and the sanitary-
hygienic quality of the carcasses, even by analysis. It is not recommended to
consume any part of the animal, besides blood and liver, before veterinarian
or laboratory approval. However, in the meantime, the meat can be processed.
It is forbidden the entry of strangers into the slaughterhouse during the
slaughter process and the doors must always remain closed. The use of showers
must be limited as much as possible but washing of the carcass at the end
of slaughter is allowed. It is necessary to progressively eliminate processing
waste from the slaughterhouses and it is forbidden to clean and empty
stomachs and intestines. Freshly slaughtered carcasses must be transported
in a hygienic way, using suitable food containers or suitable protective wraps,
to the kitchen or other authorized area for further processing. The splitting/
quartering of carcasses in the slaughter room must be avoided so the meat is
not contaminated.

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15.1 Resting of the Animals

Resting is necessary to calm the animals, especially if they have traveled long
distances, and gives opportunity to identify the injured and/or sick animals
that need to be quarantined. Animals should drink water and, if necessary,
feed, although it is recommended to feed them 12-24 hours prior to slaughter
(in order to minimize the transfer of ingested bacteria from the gastrointestinal
tract to the blood). Dehydration causes a reduction in the weight of the carcass;
it is recommended to train lambs to drink from troughs so that they may be
more prone to drinking from water points in resting places.
When ready for slaughter, the animals should be brought to the stunning area
in a quiet and orderly manner without excessive confusion and noise.

15.2 Stunning

Stunning is an important step because it brings the animal to an unconscious

state before slaughter, in order to eliminate pain, discomfort and stress
because of the procedure. If an animal gets very agitated in this phase, the
other animals could also get agitated, because in the blood, saliva and urine
of very agitated animals there is a high amount of cortisol, a stress hormone,
which can be smelled by other animals and cause frenzy in the flock. If there
are restraint devices, they must guarantee the stability of the animal so that
the stunning operation can be performed correctly.
Generally stunning is required by law, with the exception of slaughter rituals
such as Halal, Kosher and Jhakta. Whatever the method of stunning, the
animal must remain unconscious long enough for the bleeding to cause
sufficient blood loss to cause death from lack of oxygen to the brain (cerebral
anoxia). The three main technologies used for stunning are: captive bolt gun,
electricity or gas. The last two are used in the most modern slaughterhouses,
equipped and with higher capacity.
The captive bolt gun is the most versatile tool, also suitable for use in other
animals. It works by firing a blank cartridge with a small bullet (metal rod)
inside the skull, causing brain damage (by concussion or increased intracranial
pressure, depending on the type of bullet). The gun must be equipped with
bullets appropriate to the species and the size of the animal and must be
positioned correctly, so it is important that the operator is well trained in its
use.

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 ATTENTION
Cranial trauma can produce contamination of edible
tissues and form emboli, which is dangerous because
it can contaminate other organs and/or parts of the
carcass, with risks for human health.

For hornless sheep, the gun is aimed perpendicularly, at the highest point of the head,
in the middle of the line connecting the ears. For horned sheep and for goats with
and without horns, the gun should be aimed at the midline, behind the bony crest of
the horns, slightly forward of the insertion of the posterior cervical ligament, directing
it parallel to the plane of the forehead, i.e. towards the language base. In sheep and
goats, the signs of correct stunning with a projectile gun are: collapse of the animal;
absence of rhythmic breathing; fixed dilated pupils; absence of the corneal reflex;
relaxed jaw; dangling tongue.

Figure 42 - Positioning of the captive bolt gun (above) and electric stun plates (below)

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15.3 Bleeding

For a correct bleeding, sheep and goats must be bled as soon as possible and in any
case within 15 seconds of stunning. The best method is to sever both the carotid arteries
and the jugular veins or to perform a deep bleeding. After excision, it is recommended
to hang the animal by the hind leg to help drain the blood (make an initial cut in the
skin around the leg to expose the tendon of the hock).

Figure 43 - Carotid arteries and jugular veins (1) or deep bleeding (2)

It takes between 3 and 4 minutes for sheep and goats to let the blood out completely.
The trachea and esophagus should remain intact. Bleeding must be done with two
different knives: the first cuts the skin and the second the large vessels.
Change the knife for each animal and sterilize the knife in a special tray with water at a
temperature of ≥ 82 °C for at least 3 minutes.

ATTENTION
If the stunning has not been effective and the animal
is not bled properly, it tends to gradually regain
consciousness. In this case, it is necessary to intervene
immediately with further stunning operation.

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15.4 Removal of the Skin, End Part of the Limbs and Head

The first thing to do is ligation of the esophagus. The trimming of the hind legs for
highlighting the Achilles tendon and the removal of the shank of the forelimbs must
be preceded by skinning. Breast removal must be done before skinning, without
affecting the organ. The skinning, or removal of the skin is a very delicate operation.
Never exchange the hand that holds the knife with the one that pulls the skin and you
must be careful not to leave any meat attached to the skin and vice versa, as it would
decrease the quality of both. It is necessary to wash your hands and knife frequently
(the handle should not be made of wood) and to clean surfaces that are accidentally
soiled. Operators and equipment that come into contact with the external surface of
the skin must not touch the meat. We then proceed with the detachment of the head.
At least one ear should be left with the ear tag.

15.5 Removal of the Viscera (Pelvis, Abdomen, Chest)

It must take place from the rectum to avoid contaminating the carcass. It is necessary
to avoid the abrupt traction of the rumen which once removed must be removed from
the meat and can be processed for other preparations. Veterinary inspection must
take place before the removal of white offal. Avoid rupture of stomachs, intestines and
bladder. During the removal of the other organs (heart, lungs, esophagus, trachea,
spleen, liver, pancreas), which must not touch the platform and must be hung up for
the veterinary examination, the gallbladder must not be torn. If the carcasses are cut
into half carcasses, saw and cleaver must be cleaned and sanitized before slaughter
and then kept clean afterwards. The spine must be cut correctly, this is done to identify
any signs of inflammation (e.g. vertebral abscesses) as well. The spinal cord must also
be removed.

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Figure 44 - Graphic representation of the intestine of the lamb (above) and of the sheep (below)

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15.6 Summary Table Based on the Age of Goats and Sheep, of the Specific Risk
Material and the Times When Necessary to Carry Out the Rapid Test for TSE

Age SRM Quik Test

Animals of all ages Spleen; Ileus -
Spleen; Ileus; Skull
12 months and / or animals that
(including the brain
have a permanent incisor tooth -
and eyes); Tonsils;
erupted
Spinal cord.
Spleen; Ileus; Skull
Regular slaughtering;
18 months and / or animals with (including the brain
Farm deaths; Dead
two incisors already erupted and eyes);Tonsils;
during transportation.
Spinal cord.

ATTENTION
The removal of the Specific Risk Material (SRM) during slaughter
is the most important human health protection precaution and
is mandatory in all contexts.
The SRM must be kept aside for handover to the veterinarian
who will arrange for its disposal. When the intestines are used to
make natural casings, the ileum must be removed. If the ileum
is removed in the slaughterhouse, it must be done after double
binding of the resection points. To ensure that all of the ileum is
removed, the last 60 cm of the jejunum should also be removed,
the caecum and about 20 cm of the spiral colon starting from
the ileo-caecal junction, upwards and disposed of as SRM (See
figure 44).
For animals that have reached 18 months of age and/or which
have two incisors erupted, they must undergo a Rapid Test for
TSE (Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies) and must be
slaughtered last.

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15.7 Grooming and Washing

Carcasses must be carefully checked. If the presence of fecal material, hair, bile, etc.
is detected, the affected area must be groomed. The area will be removed not with
a deep cut, but adequately wide to avoid contamination of the surrounding tissues
through the blade used. Non-flesh tissues must be removed.

15.8 Cooling

The main purpose of cooling is to prevent deep and superficial decay, which otherwise
develops rapidly in carcasses kept at room temperature. Cooling, or the “maturation”
through the aging process, represents the first chemical-physical stage of
transformation of the muscle into meat. The muscle, immediately after the slaughter,
is not edible because it is too stiff. During maturation, some biochemical processes
occur that modify the structure of the meat, making it edible and increasing its flavor,
with a pleasant sensory perception by the consumer.
In order to produce quality meat and in order to carry out this process safely, without
damaging the muscle fibers of the meat, excessively drying the surface or allowing
potentially harmful microorganisms to proliferate, three essential conditions are
necessary:
• Temperature between 0 and 4 °C.
• Humidity around 85-90%.
• Constant and controlled air flow.
There are two types of cooling systems:
a) continuous, i.e. with automatic or continuous movement such as cooling tunnels;
b) discontinuous, with conventional or forced ventilation such as freezer rooms.
In freezer rooms, the carcasses must not touch each other and cold air must be able to
pass through them, in order to carry away the heat and to block the grow of bacterial
colonies and molds.
For a correct procedure and successful final product, it is necessary to consider that the
carcass or the half-carcass slaughtered must gradually pass from a body temperature
of 35-38 °C to 4 °C of the storage room. Before putting it into the room, it is advisable
to let it cool and bring it to almost room temperature, so that the ‘drop’ of the carcass
temperature occurs slowly. Once in the cold room, decreasing of the temperature
begins immediately: it takes about 20 hours to complete the refrigeration, and for the
temperature to drop to around 4 °C even near the thigh bone.

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The sheep and goat carcass or half carcasses are usually left to rest for 24 hours at 4 °C
until they have reached a temperature ≤ 7 °C (for offal ≤ 3 °C). For younger animals very
short maturations are required, from 0 to 72 hours, while for ram and castrated it takes
4-5 days. Adult goat and sheep require maturation of a week or more, to be carried out
in the refrigerator at controlled temperature and humidity.
At the physical level, the decrease of the temperature brings a generalized relaxation
of the tendons and a softening of the fibers. On the other hand, at the chemical
level, various enzymes intervene which, act on the structural proteins of the muscle,
determining an increase in tenderness and juiciness, on the one hand, and on the
other they break down the fats giving the meat its typical aroma and flavor.

15.9 Dissection Cuts in Carcass

The pelvic and perirenal fat, the kidneys and possibly the testicles are removed from
the refrigerated and weighed carcass or half carcass. We then proceed to break it down
into cuts. The commercial cuts of the half carcasses of sheep and goats are: shoulder;
neck; leg; sirloin steak; flank; ribs; chest; saddle.
Once weighed, the cuts are broken down into thin, fat and bone and used for carcass
evaluation. By adding the three weights of all the cuts, we obtain that of the entire
half-carcass which gives the exact evaluation of fat and meat of the carcass.

Figure 45 - Sectioning in cuts

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16. Slaughter Yield

The carcass must be weighed within 45 minutes of slaughtering, still warm and be-
fore proceeding with the possible division into halves. The percentage ratio between
the weight of the hot carcass and the live weight of the animal (without eating for 24
hours) at slaughter is called warm yield and is expressed with the following formula:

After 24 hours of refrigeration at 4 °C the carcass or half carcasses are weighed. Cold
yield is always lower than warm yield. It is expressed with the following formula:

The difference between the weight of the warm and cold carcass is the drop in refrige-
ration and should not exceed 4-5%; usually this parameter is higher in the carcasses of
young or lean and malnourished animals. The formula is:

Yields usually range from 45-50% to 65-68% depending on the species, age, sex and
nutritional conditions of the animal.

17. BCS, Conformation and Classification of the Carcass and

Meat

The BCS (Body Condition Score): Allows to easily evaluate, with palpation, the level of
muscle mass and body fat of the live animal. It is difficult by simply observing the flock
to accurately assess the general physical condition of a flock. It is important to take
note of BCS changes as these can give a good indication of the health and nutritional
status and potential reproductive success of your flock. The BCS in sheep and goats
has a scale of values between 1 and 5, based on the evaluation of musculature and fat
storage around the vertebrae of the lumbar region (13th lumbar vertebra).

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Beyond the central spine, the lumbar vertebrae have a vertical bony protrusion (spi-
nous process) and a short horizontal protrusion on each side (transverse process).
Both protrusions must be felt and used in order to evaluate the point of the body con-
dition (for a fuller evaluation of the goat, it is advisable to palpate the breast bone or
sternum, ribs and the space between the ribs in order to feel the layer of fat present in
each area).

Figure 35 - Palpation of the lumbar area

Figure 35 - Palpation of the lumbar area

Evaluation of vertebra angularity score and muscle thickness:

1 Prominent and acute; Thin.
2 Prominent but smooth; Tending to flat.
3 Tangible but rounded; Full and round.
4 Tangible with pressure; Full and with a thin layer of fat.
5 Tangible with strong pressure; Not detectable due to grease thickness.

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The manager of an extensively farmed flock can consider an animal with a BCS of 2.5
to be in good condition (for large flocks it is sufficient to estimate the BCS on 10-20%
of the sheep).

Conformation: The status of conformation is evaluated on the basis of the develop-

ment of the carcass profiles (hindquarter, back, shoulder) according to the SEUROP
classification: S (Superior); E (Excellent); U (Very Good); R (Good); O (Fair); P (Poor).

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Fat status: It is evaluated based on the thickness of fat in the internal and external par-
ts of the carcass.
The following scoring is applied, on a scale of 1 to 5:
1 (Low); 2 (Slight); 3 (Average); 4 (High); 5 (Very High).

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Classification of suckling and light lambs: According to European standards, evaluation
criteria based on weight, color of meat and fattening status can be used for lambs
(carcass ≤13 kg). The weight is that of the carcass weighed when warm; any correction
factors are applied after cooling.
The color of the meat is determined by referring to the rectus abdominis muscle.
The fattening status has the same benchmarks as those used for carcasses of adult
sheep.
• Category A: Weight ≤ 7 kg

o Quality I: Color of the flesh “light pink”; fattening status 2-3.

o Quality II: Color of the flesh “other color” or other adipose covering.

• Category B: Weight 7.1-10 kg

o Quality I: Color of the flesh “light pink or pink”; fattening status 2-3.

o Quality II: Color of the flesh “other color” or other adipose covering.

• Category C: Weight 10.1-13 kg

o Quality I: Color of the flesh “light pink or pink”; fattening status 2-3.

o Quality II: Color of the flesh “other color” or other adipose covering.

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SECTION V:
MODELS

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 Stable Model for Mountain Areas

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115
116
117
118
 Outdoor Paddock Model for Goats and Sheep

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120
 Summer Shelter Model - large size

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122
 Summer Shelter Model - small size

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 Milking Station Model

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125
 Self-locking Barrier Model for 6 animals

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127
Mini Dairy Model

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129
During the implementation of the Project “Alliance for the Development and Promotion
of Family Farming in Northern Albania”, it was realized that the lack of information
regarding breeding practices limited the development of the supply chain, and that the
remote location of many small family farms hindered continuous veterinary support for
them. Based on these considerations, the idea of a “Practical Guide to Goat and Sheep
Farming” came about, as a support and reference to the daily activities that arise in
breeding of small ruminants. The present document is, therefore, not a veterinary or
animal husbandry manual, but rather a collection of best practices introduced during
the Project, and the result of the collaboration between different subjects, directly
involved in the development of the sector.

This guide was published with the support of: