UNIT.

SOIL ORGANIC MATTER

INTRODUCTION

Soil organic matter is the organic component of the soil and it includes all parts of living and
dead plants and animals, micro-and macro-organisms and products of decaying processes that occur in
the soil. In addition to clay minerals in the soil, organic matter is a major source of plant nutrient
elements. The organic matter of most soils ranges between 1-5% mostly in the top 25cm of soil, and the
concentration reduces with depth except, relatively in cases in which deep ploughing is being used to
incorporate organic materials into the soil.

Definition: Soil organic matter (SOM) could be defined as any material produced originally by living
organisms (plant or animal) that is returned to the soil and goes through the decomposition process.

Composition of Soil Organic Matter

About 75% of green tissue is made up of water while 90% of the remaining dry matter is made up of
carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Nitrogen and other mineral elements constitute the remainder of organic
matter. The major source of soil organic matter (plant tissue) is made of very complex substances such
as carbohydrates (Sugar, starch, hemicellulose, cellulose, pectiles, muscilages) lignins, proteins (soluble
proteins and crude proteins), fats (oil), waxes, tannin, resins, pigments and organo-mineral compounds.

Sources of Soil Organic Matter There are two main sources of organic matter in soils and these include:
(i) Plant sources: These are the most prevalent and they include dead and decayed plant roots, leaf
droppings, crop residues, green manures and dead and decayed “above ground” parts of plants.

(ii) Animal sources: They include all residues of animals and micro-organisms, domestic wastes, animal
faeces, animal feeds, and animal manures.

Importance of Soil Organic Matter

Organic matter is so important to the soil that it has been described as the life blood of the soil. Its
importance is enumerated as follows:

(1) It is a storehouse of plant nutrients.

(2) The stable organic fraction (humus) adsorbs and holds nutrients in a plant available form. Hence, it
contributes to the cation exchange capacity of the soil.
(3) It improves soil physical conditions.

(4) It provides medium for microbial growth and activities.

(5) Humus adds substantially to the buffering capacity of soils making it less amenable to pH changes by
bases or acids.

(6) Organic acids released during decomposition of the soil organic matter aid in the process of rock
mineral weathering.

Decomposition of Soil Organic Matter

When plant residues are returned to the soil, various organic compounds undergo decomposition.

Decomposition is a biological process that includes the physical breakdown and biochemical
transformation of complex organic molecules of dead material into simpler organic and
inorganic molecules by the activities of microorganisms

Humic substances are series of relatively high-molecular-weight, brown to black colored substances
formed by secondary synthesis reactions. It comprises of humic acid, fluvic acid and
humins.

Nonhumic substances are compounds belonging to known classes of biochemistry, such as

carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Organic Matter Decomposition

(i) The quality of organic material such as the type of plant material, age of the plant and the
chemical composition
(ii) The physical environment which could be categorized into two: a) Soil factors such as
aeration, temperature, moisture, pH, and fertility status b) Climatic factors such as rainfall
and temperature
(iii) Population of soil microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and protozoa

Mineralization of Organic Matter: This is the process involved in the release of plant nutrients from
organic matter. Mineralization of organic matter to release mineral nutrients is a two step process,
namely:
 i. Aminization which is the decomposition of organic matter by heterotrophic bacteria to
release amino acids and amides.
ii. Amonification which is the release of ammonium ion from amino acids and amides. Amino
acids + amides heterotrophic bacteria NH4 +

Maintenance of Soil Organic Matter

The maintenance of the organic matter in soils used for agricultural production is an important practice.
The practices involved in the maintenance of soil organic matter include:

i) Addition of new organic materials

ii) Sound cropping system that reduces the intensity of cultivations and keeps the soil
protected e.g. cover cropping and good crop rotation.
iii) Green manuring
iv) Management of crop residues: Crop residues provide varying amounts of organic carbon
when incorporated into the soil or used as mulch.

TYPES AND ACTIVITIES OF SOIL ORGANISMS

INTRODUCTION

All the organisms living within the soil are collectively termed soil life or soil biota. Soil organism is any
organism inhabiting the soil during part or all of its life. Soil organisms range in size from microscopic
cells that digest decaying organic material to small mammals that live primarily on other soil organisms.
They play an important role in maintaining fertility, structure, drainage, and aeration of soil. They also
break down plant and animal tissues, releasing stored nutrients and converting them into forms usable
by plants

Classification of Soil Organisms

The soil organisms are classified into two broad groups, these include:

1. Soil flora – subdivided into: (a) microflora size range 1-100 micrometres, e.g. bacteria, actinomycetes,
fungi and algae (b) macroflora: size range 20 mm upwards, e.g. roots of higher plants

2. Soil fauna – subdivided into: (a) Megafauna: size range 20 mm upwards, e.g. moles, rabbits, and
rodents. (b) Macrofauna: size range 2–20 mm, e.g. woodlice, earthworm, beetles, centipedes, slugs,
snails and ants. (c) Mesofauna: size range 100 micrometer - 2 mm, e.g. tardigrades, mites and
springtails. (d) Microfauna: size range 1-100 micrometres, e.g. protozoa, nematodes and rotifers.

Bacteria: Bacteria are single-celled microbes that are so abundant that a square inch of soil contains
millions of these microorganisms. Bacteria primarily act as decomposing agents and usually break down
organic material in its initial stage of decomposition due to high moisture levels conducive for their
growth. Some common soil bacteria are the species of Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter, Achromobacter,
Bacillus, Clostridium, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, Chromobacterium and Mycobacterium.
Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria present in the soil are the species of Thiobacillus, Ferrobacillus,
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.

Fungi: Fungi are microscopic cells made up of spores, hyphae and gills. They are aerobic and largely
distributed in forests. These organisms benefit the soil as they function as decomposers and also act as
soil binders, making the earth’s water retention more efficient. Some important soil inhabiting
microfungi are the species of Aspergillus, Botrytis, Cephalosporium, Penicillium, Alternaria, Monilia,
Fusarium, Verticillium, Mucor, Rhizopus, Pythium, Cunninghamella, Chaetomium and Rhizoctonica.
Some microfungi, such as species of Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium and Dematium, are helpful,
are helpful in the preservation of organic materials in the soil.

Actinomycetes: A large number of actinomycetes are particularly abundant in the soil rich in
decomposed organic materials; species .of Streptomyces, Micromonospora and Nocardia are some
common actinomycetes occurring in soils. They are responsible for the characteristic musty or earthy
smell of a freshly ploughed field. They are capable of degrading many complex chemical substances and
thus play an important role.

Algae: Many microalgal forms occur on the surface of moist soils, where sufficient light is available. The
growth of microalgae is helpful for soil conservation and in improving soil structure. In paddy fields,
blue-green algae play a significant role in nitrogen fixation. Species of Chlorella, Chlorococcum,
Protosiphon, Aphanocapsa, Anabaena, Chroococcus, Nostoc and Scytonema are some common
microalgae present in the soil

Protozoa: Protozoans are single-organisms slightly larger than microbes that are organized into three
general categories: cilliates, amoebas and flagellates. Protozoans are helpful in maintaining equilibrium
of the microbial flora in the soil. Some important protozoans present in the soil are species of Allantion,
Biomyxa, Nuclearia, Trinema, Balantiophorus,Colpoda, etc.
Nematodes: Nematodes are a group of tiny roundworms that demonstrate the wide diversity and the
inextricable food web that exists in a healthy soil. Most soil nematodes eat bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and
other nematodes, making them important in nutrient cycling. Others are plant parasites and cause
disease symptoms such as malformed or dwarfed plants, or root structures with deformities such as
galls and cysts.

Activities of Soil Organisms

Healthy soil is a jungle of rapacious organisms devouring everything in sight (including each other),
processing their prey or food through their innards, and then excreting it. The activities of these
organisms have been categorized into two, namely, beneficial and detrimental activities.

A) Beneficial Activities

1. Nutrient cycling: Cycling of nutrients involves the following transformation processes:

decomposition: turning organic compounds into other organic compounds
mineralization: turning organic matter into inorganic compounds that may be used by plants
immobilization: turning inorganic compounds into organic compounds.
mineral transformation: turning inorganic matter into other inorganic compounds.
2. Enhancing soil structure, which improves water and air movement.
3. Controlling disease and enhancing plant growth.

B) Detrimental Activities
1. Some cause plant diseases e.g. fusarium wilt caused by fungus attack.
2. Some cause root damage e.g. root knot nematode.
3. Some cause tuber destruction e.g. yam beetles in the soil.

Factors Affecting Distribution, Activity and Population of Soil Microorganisms

Soil microorganisms (Flora & Fauna), just like higher plants depends entirely on soil for their nutrition,
growth and activity. The major soil factors which influence the microbial population, distribution and
their activity in the soil are:
1. Soil fertility
2. Cultural practices
3. Soil moisture
 4. Soil temperature
5. Soil aeration
6. Light
7. Soil pH
8. Organic matter
9. Food and energy supply
10. Nature of soil and
11. Microbial associations.

ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZERS

What is a fertilizer?
A fertilizer is any material, organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, which supplies plants with one or
more of the nutrient elements required for normal growth and development. Fertilizers are of two types
namely organic and inorganic. The primary nutrients supplied by fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium. Their concentration in a fertilizer is expressed as percentage of N, P2O5 and K2O.
Inorganic (or mineral) fertilizers are fertilizers mined from mineral deposits with little processing (e.g.,
lime, potash, or phosphate rock), or industrially manufactured through chemical processes (e.g., urea).
Inorganic fertilizer could be classified into three based on the:
1. Straight fertilizers: These are fertilizers which contain and supply one or single nutrient element only.
They could be nitrogenous, phosphatic or potassic fertilizers supplying nitrogen, phosphorus or
potassium, respectively.
a) Nitrogenous fertilizers: Nitrogen is the first fertilizer element of the macronutrients usually applied in
commercial fertilizers. In the case of nitrogenous fertilizers, nitrogen may be in the ammoniacal, nitrate
(or a combination thereof) or amide form. Examples are Ammonium Sulphate, Urea, Ammonium
Chloride, Ammonium Nitrate, Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) etc.
b) Phosphatic fertilizers: Phosphorus is the second fertilizer element and it is an essential constituent of
every living cell and for the nutrition of plant and animal. Examples are Single Superphosphate, Double
Superphosphate, Triple Superphosphate, Basic Slag, Dicalcium Phosphate and Rock Phosphate.
c) Potassic fertilizers: Potassium is the third fertilizer element. Potassium acts as a chemical traffic
policeman, root booster, stalk strengthener, food former, sugar and starch transporter, protein builder,
breathing regulator, water stretcher and as a disease retarder but it is not effective without its
conutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Examples are Murate of potash and Potassium sulphate.
2. Complex/Compound fertilizers: These are fertilizers which contain two or more nutrient elements
usually combined in a homogeneous mixture by chemical interaction. Examples are Ammonium
Phosphate, Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate, Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate Nitrate, Nitrophosphate,
Urea Ammonium Phosphate, Mono Potassium Phosphate etc.
3. Fertilizer blends or mixed fertilizers: These are fertilizers formed by physically blending mineral
fertilizers to obtain desired nutrient ratios. Two or more of the separate fertilizer carriers or straight
fertilizers are mixed to obtain the desired nutrient ratios. Examples are NPK 15-15-15, NPK 20-10-10 etc.

Common Terms used in Fertilizer

1. Fertilizer Grade: This is the numbering system of a particular element in the mixture or the
compound. It is usually written in real figures for mixed or compound fertilizers. It is often expressed in a
set of three numbers e.g. 15-15-15 indicating manufacturer’s guarantee of the percentage of N, P2O5
and K2O.
2. Fertilizer Ratio: This is the relative proportion or ratio of two or more nutrient elements in fertilizer
grade e.g. NPK 10-10-10 has a ratio of 1:1:1.
3. Fertilizer Material or Carrier: This is a material which contains at least one plant nutrient.
4. Filler: This is a material added to a mixed fertilizer to make up weight requirements in a ton (1000 kg).
Examples are sand, soil, coal powder, ground lime etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Inorganic Fertilizers

Advantages Disadvantages
Works immediately Leaching occurs beyond plant’s rooting zone
Contains all necessary nutrients that are ready for Too much may burn and kill plants
use
Affordable Some are not affordable
Convenient to use, it is easy to apply Accumulation of toxic wastes

ORGANIC FERTILIZERS
These are natural materials of either plant or animal origin, including livestock manure, green manures,
crop residues, household waste, compost, and woodland litter. Organic fertilizers include both plant and
animal bi-products. They are slow acting.

Organic fertilizers are categorized into two:

1. Bulky: This consists of the slow acting organic manures with large quantities of organic matter.
Examples are Cattle, Sheep Poultry, Pig, Goat, Horse manures, Compost, Green Manures, and Sewage
Sludge.
2. Concentrated: This consists of the quick acting organic manures with small quantity of organic matter.
Examples are Groundnut cake, Castor cake, Bone meal, Blood meal, Horn meal, Wood ash, Cotton and
Linseed Meal.

Advantages of Organic Fertilizers

(1) Organic fertilizers mobilize existing soil nutrients, so that good growth achieved with lower nutrient
densities while wasting less.
(2) They release nutrients at a slower, more consistent rate, helping to avoid a boom-and-bust pattern.
(3) They help to retain soil moisture, reducing the stress due to temporary moisture stress.
(4) They improve the soil structure.
(5) They help to prevent topsoil erosion.
(6)The necessity of reapplying artificial fertilizers regularly to maintain fertility.
(7) Extensive runoff of soluble nitrogen and phosphorus leading to eutrophication of bodies of water
(which causes fish kills).
(8) Costs are lower for if fertilizer is locally available.
(9) Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically much lower than
mineral (inorganic) fertilizers.

Disadvantages of Organic Fertilizers

Organic fertilizers have the following disadvantages:
(1) Generally require large amounts to have desired effects.
(2) As a dilute source of nutrients when compared to inorganic fertilizers, transporting large amount of
fertilizer incurs higher costs, especially with slurry and manure.
(3) The composition of organic fertilizers tends to be more complex and variable than a standardized
inorganic product.
(4) Improperly-processed organic fertilizers may contain pathogens from plant or animal matter that are
harmful to humans or plants.
(5) More labor is needed to compost organic fertilizer, increasing labor costs.
(6) Unavailability of seed for green manures is one of the major limitations. (7) Green manures must
occupy land at a time when other food crops could be grown.

Methods of Fertilizer Application: Fertilizers can be applied to soil before seeds are sown, at the time of
planting and while the plants are growing. The method of fertilizer application to be used is dependent
upon the following factors:
i) Type of plant being fertilized
ii) Type of soil,
iii) Type of fertilizer, and
iv) Size of the area that needs fertilizing.

The following methods are adopted to apply fertilizers:

A) Application of fertilizer in solid form
1. Broadcasting: This type of application method basically refers to the spreading of the fertilizer
uniformly over the entire area. This is usually done with a spreader of some sort.
2. Band Placement: This is a method in which fertilizer is placed in a band about 5 cm to the sided of the
plant.
3. Drilling: This is a method where fertilizer is applied with a drill at the same time as the seed is sown.
4. Side Dressing: This is a method in which the fertilizer is placed either in a continuous band 4-5 cm
deep near the crop or in between the plants in a row.
5. Foliar Application: This refers to the spraying on leaves of growing plants with suitable fertilizer
solutions.
6. Starter Solutions: This is a method where solutions of fertilizers, generally consisting of N, P2O5, K2O
in the ratio of 1: 2: 1 and 1: 1: 2 are applied to young vegetable plants at the time of transplanting.
7. Application through irrigation water: This is a method where fertilizers are allowed to dissolve in the
irrigation stream and the nutrients are carried into the soil in solution.