ESSENTIAL OIL CROPS

Production guidelines for lemongrass

Lemongrass production

agriculture,
forestry & fisheries
Department:
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA
Lemongrass production

February 2012

Department of Agriculture, FORESTRY AND FISHERIES

Directorate: Plant Production
2012 Second print
2009 First print
Compiled by Directorate Plant Production in collaboration with
members of SAEOPA and KARWIL Consultancy
Obtainable from
Resource Centre
Directorate Communication Services
Private Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa
The web: www.daff.gov.za/publications
Published by
Directorate Communication Services
Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Private Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa

Further information or contacts

Directorate Plant Production, Division Industrial Crops
Tel: 012 319 6079/6072
Fax: 012 319 6372
E-mail: [email protected]
Contents

Part I: General aspects ............................................................................ 1

1. Classification .................................................................................. 1

2. Origin and distribution..................................................................... 2

3. Production levels and areas ........................................................... 2

4. Major production areas in South Africa........................................... 3

5. Description of the plant ................................................................... 4

6. Cultivars/varieties ........................................................................... 5

7. Climatic requirements ..................................................................... 5

8. Soil requirements............................................................................ 5

Part II: Cultivation practices .................................................................... 6

1. Propagation .................................................................................... 6

2. Soil preparation .............................................................................. 7

3. Planting .......................................................................................... 7

4. Fertilisation...................................................................................... 8

5. Irrigation.......................................................................................... 9

6. Weed control................................................................................... 9

7. Pest control..................................................................................... 10

8. Disease control ............................................................................... 11

9. Other cultivation practices .............................................................. 13

10. Harvesting....................................................................................... 13

iii
Part III: Post-harvest handling .................................................................. 14

1. Sorting and distillation..................................................................... 14

2. Grading ........................................................................................... 14

3. Packaging ....................................................................................... 15

4. Storage ........................................................................................... 15

5. Marketing ........................................................................................ 15

Part IV: Production schedules .................................................................. 16

Part V: Utilisation ...................................................................................... 18

1. Cosmetics........................................................................................ 18

2. Pharmaceutical and therapeutic ..................................................... 18

3. Food and flavouring ........................................................................ 18

4. Industrial ......................................................................................... 19

5. Perfumery uses .............................................................................. 19

6. Safety data ..................................................................................... 19

References..................................................................................................... 19

iv
 Part I: General aspects

1. Classification

Scientific name: Cymbopogon flexuosus and Cymbopogon citratus

Common names: (C. citratus) West Indian lemongrass and Madagascar

lemongrass, (C. flexuosus) East Indian lemongrass,
Cochin lemongrass, France Indian verbena and Malabar
lemongrass

Family: Gramineae

1
2. Origin and distribution
Lemongrass is widely cultivated in the tropics and subtropics. The two species
that are mostly cultivated in South Africa are:
66 East Indian lemongrass, Cymbopogon flexuosus, which is also known as
Cochin or Malabar grass, and is native to India and Sri Lanka.
66 West Indian lemongrass Cymbopogon citratus, which is native to southern
India and Ceylon, Indonesia and Malaysia.

3. Production levels and areas

South Africa
Lemongrass is cultivated in the frost-free areas of South Africa. The South African
production figures are not readily available. Owing to the unstable price, the total
estimated area is 300 ha.
The yield of oil is less during the first year of establishment and increases in the
second year and reaches a maximum in the third and fourth years, after which
it declines. For economy, the plantation is maintained only for 6 years. On aver-
age, 30 to 50 metric tons of fresh herbage is harvested per hectare per annum,
which will yield 100 to 250 kg of oil at an oil yield ranging between 0,2 to 0,5 %.
Under irrigated conditions and better management with increased herbage, an
oil yield up to 500 kg/ha can be achieved.

(Photo: W.G. Alberts)

2
Internationally
Lemongrass is grown throughout Africa, in the Democratic Republic of the Con-
go (DRC), Angola, Madagascar and Comoros islands. Guatemala is known to
be the leading exporter with about 250 000 kg per year. China produces 80 000
to 100 000 kg per year. The United States of America (USA) and former Union of
Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) import approximately 70 000 kg per year each,
the United Kingdom 65 000 kg, France and Japan 35 000 kg each, and West
Germany around 20 000 kg per year.

4. Major production areas in South Africa

Lemongrass is mainly grown in the Lowveld of Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and
Limpopo provinces. Limited plantings occur in Gauteng, North West, Eastern
Cape and Western Cape wherever the growing conditions are suitable.

Cymbopogon flexuosus grows best at an altitude of up to 2 200 m above sea level.

Cymbopogon citratus grows best at altitude of up to 750 m above sea level.

Cymbopogon citratus Cymbopogon flexuosus

(Photo: W.G. Alberts) (Photo: W.G. Alberts)

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 (Photo: http://www.hippyshopper.com)

5. Description of the plant

Leaves and stem

Cymbopogon flexuosus is a tall, fast-growing, lemon-scented, perennial grass
reaching a height of 1,5 m. It has distinct, dark-green foliage and also produces
seed.

Cymbopogon citratus is a fast-growing, lemon-scented, perennial grass reaching

a height of 1 m. It has distinct bluish-green leaves and usually does not produce
seed. Both these grasses produce many bulbous stems that increase the clump
diameter as the plants mature.

Essential part
Stalks and leaves. The essential oil is extracted from fresh plant material by
means of steam distillation.

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6. Cultivars/varieties
There are no registered cultivars for lemongrass in South Africa.

There are two known types of C. flexuosus: The red-stemmed grass, which is
known as the true lemongrass and is recommended for higher oil yields, and the
white-stemmed (C. flexuosus var. albiscens) yields oil of lower citral content.

There are also a few types of C. citratus of which some do not yield enough es-
sential oil. Therefore, care must be taken to buy from approved growers.

When selecting suitable plant material for cultivation, the following have to be
considered. Select plants that are adapted to a particular area in terms of cli-
mate, topography, soil and drainage, and also select the type that will provide
the desired chemical properties for a specific crop. Select plants that are proven
to be, to some extent, resistant to diseases and pests.

7. Climatic requirements

Temperature

Lemongrass prefers tropical or subtropical climates. It grows well at a tempera-

ture range of 10 to 33 C, and it needs enough sunshine for the development
of oil in the plant. The grass is sensitive to cold weather and cannot withstand
frost.

Rainfall

The favourable rainfall for dryland growing of lemongrass should range from 700
to 3 000 mm uniformly distributed throughout the year. In the areas where rainfall
is less, it can be grown with supplemental irrigation.

8. Soil requirements

Lemongrass is widely adapted to a range of soils and performs well on sandy to

clay loam soils with a pH range of 5,0 to 8,4 and good drainage. The lower the

5
altitude and more alkaline the soil has, the higher is the citral content of the oil.
The variety with high citrates is in demand. Drier and loamier soil yields a higher
citral content.
Lemongrass can be an option for consideration in poor soils, alkaline soils, steep
slopes, and degraded forests and rehabilitation of nonforest mining and indus-
trial wastelands.

Part II: Cultivation practices

1. Propagation
For better quality and yield of oil, it is
recommended to grow lemongrass by
slips obtained by dividing well-grown
clumps. Tops of clumps should be
cut off within 20 to 25 cm of the root.
The latter should be divided into slips
and the lower brown sheath should
be removed to expose young roots.
Propagation can be done by seed as
well for C. flexuosus. Lemongrass slips ready to be planted
(Photo: W.G. Alberts)
Seeds
C. flexuosus plants are left in the field without harvesting, for collection of seeds,
as the yield of seeds from plants subjected to regular harvest is lower. On average,
a healthy plant gives about 100 to 200 g of seeds. Seeds germinate in 5 to 6 days
if temperature and moisture levels are correct and the seedlings are ready for
transplanting when they are about 60 days old.

Raising of seedlings in the nursery

It is advantageous to raise seedlings in a nursery whenever there is not an as-
sured source of irrigation water available. The transplanting of nursery-raised
seedlings is better compared to direct sowing of seeds in the land.

6
2. Soil preparation
Herbal and essential oil crops grown on natural soils yield products that are of
high quality and in demand globally.

General soil preparation guidelines

Soil sampling and analysis

66 Take soil samples according to correct guidelines.
66 Have the soil analysed at a laboratory that will be able to check for mineral
deficiencies and excesses, organic status and carbon ratios.
66 A soil analysis will guide the producer in correcting the nutrient status of the
soil in order to provide the crop with optimum growing conditions such as a
balanced mineral status and correct pH.
66 Soil fertility levels have to be within acceptable ranges before a soil-building
programme is started.
66 Correct the soil pH according to analysis and soil type.
66 Fertiliser use has to be planned according to whether the crop will be grown
inorganically or organically.
66 Soil preparation has to be done according to good cultivation practices.
66 Follow suitable soil preparation practices according to the farming operation.
(rip, plough, disc, harrow, contour, etc.)
66 If mechanical harvesting and weed control is envisaged, prepare row widths
adapted to the machinery to be used.
66 Use cover crops to suppress weed growth and promote soil moisture capture.
Producers who treat their soil correctly will have the benefit of producing crops of
high value with less input in terms of weed, pest and disease control.

3. Planting

Slope
Plants should receive the maximum sunshine for better oil yield, and rows should
run east-west if possible, and be planted on the western and northern slopes of
hilly areas.

7
Young lemongrass with organic mulch Lemongrass and green beans intercropped
(Photo: W.G. Alberts) (Photo: W.G. Alberts)

Planting density/spacing
Generally, a row spacing of 20 cm with a row width of 40 cm, that will give a total of
125 000 plants per ha in a high rainfall area or under irrigation, is recommended.
In areas with lower rainfall, 60 000 plants per ha is an advisable density.
An initial high planting rate can be used and as the plants mature, every second
plant can be taken out and divided again for new slips. The space created in this
way can then be filled with remaining plants as they mature.

Planting season
Planting of slips can be done as soon as the active growing season commences
and during most times of the year when soil moisture is sufficient. Avoid planting
during very hot times of the year and during winter when plants are usually dormant.

Planting depth
Slips should be planted at a suitable depth to cover the root zone properly and
the soil should be firmed around the plant to remove trapped air pockets.

4. Fertilisation
Application of fertiliser should be dependent on soil analysis.

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Nutrients

All lemongrass plants have a very high potassium (K) requirement compared to
phosphate, in some areas exceeding the total nitrogen (N) necessary to produce
optimum oil yield.

Research findings in India and Sri Lanka have shown that 50 to 120 kg K/ha
applied once a year give good results. Nitrogen usually has no effect on leaf oil
content, oil characteristics or composition, however, it has an influence on the
citral content from some cultivars and will enhance vegetal growth.

Determining the citral content of lemon grass in fertiliser trails is important be-
cause quality is determined by high citral percentage. Phosphate at planting
gives a higher stand and healthier plants, which are then able to make maximum
use of nitrogenous topdressing.

Application of compost made of refuse, obtained after distillation and mixed with
wood-ash, is also beneficial. Organic compost applied as a mulch or at rec
ommended rate according to soil analysis has excellent results. Lemon grass
reacts very positively to the application of kraal manure.

Intercropping lemongrass with green beans when the plants are still small will
provide the crop with nitrogen, and will assist in weed control. The beans can
be cut at ground level during harvesting, leaving the old roots in the soil and the
tops as mulch.

5. Irrigation

Lemongrass has a high water requirement. Where annual rainfall exceeds

650 mm, irrigation is not necessary. C. citratus is more drought tolerant than
C. flexuosus. Overhead, flood and drip irrigation can be used. Where rust is a
problem, overhead irrigation might not be a good option.

6. Weed control

Hand-weeding and hoeing are very important as weeds affect the yield and qual-
ity of the oil. Generally, 2 to 3 weedings are necessary during the year. Inter-row
cultivation can be done by a tractor-drawn cultivator or hand hoe.

9
Distillation waste of this crop applied as organic mulch at 3 000 kg/ha is more
effective for controlling weeds in the crop. Exclusion of sunlight is one of the best
weeding practices. Therefore lemongrass should be planted so that it forms a
canopy quickly.

Weed control guidelines

66 Do not allow weeds to seed in the land.
66 Shade out weeds by plant canopy, high plant density, closer row width, if
moisture content of soil and crop specification allow for it.
66 Use manual or mechanical control.
66 Organic control measures such as flame weeding and UV radiation can be
used where applicable, and if the crop can tolerate the method.

Use the publication* A guide to the use of herbicides 2004, compiled by Hermien
Grobler, J.B. Vermeulen & Kathy van Zyl.

7. Pest control

Pests that may attack lemongrass

Stem-boring caterpillar

In South East Asia, Chilotrea is the most important species infecting lemongrass.
The caterpillar is white in colour with a black head and black spots on the body.

Damage

It bores into the stem and remains there, feeding on the shoot. It is usually found
at the bottom of the stem. The first symptom of the attack is the drying up of the
central leaf. Subsequently, the entire shoot dies, resulting in a significant reduc-
tion in the yield of the grass.

* Obtainable from the Resource Centre, Directorate Communication Services,

Private Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001. Tel: 012 319 7141/7085. Fax: 012 319 7260

10
Control methods

66 Burning of the dry stubble during the off-season in summer. The caterpillars
lurking inside the stubble are therefore destroyed.
66 The affected shoots are pulled out and destroyed.
66 When attacks are severe, chemical control is needed. Instruction for spraying,
etc., should be followed as prescribed by the manufacturer.

Nematodes
Tylenchorhynchus vulgaris (Stunt), Rotylenchulus renifomis (Reniform), Helicoty
lenchus (Spiral) spp. and Pratylenchus (Lesion) spp. also infect the lemongrass
in producing countries.

Control methods
Organic compost and mulching has advantages to incorporate soil organisms
that are natural enemies of nematodes.
66 Soil solarisation can be achieved by placing a clear sheet of plastic over the
soil and leaving it for few days so that the heat of the sun kills the nematodes.
66 Crops such as Tagetes can also control nematodes.
66 Nematicidal chemical control should be used as last option owing to its
toxicity.
Extension officers from the Department of Agriculture and researchers from agri-
cultural institutes should be contacted for further information on the identification
of insects and for recommended control measures.
Use the publication* A guide for the control of plant pests 2002, compiled by
Annette Nel, Mareli Krause, Neervana Ramautar & Kathy van Zyl.

8. Disease control
Producers must rely on early recognition and use of cultivation practices such
as the use of windbreaks and rain shelters to prevent and manage diseases.

* Obtainable from the Resource Centre, Directorate Communication Services,

Private Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001. Tel: 012 319 7141/7085. Fax: 012 319 7260

11
By recognising the first symptoms of disease, producers can remove diseased
plants and continuously monitor fields for signs of pathogen recurrence or spread
of disease.

Source: Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI), 2007.

Long smut
As observed in India, all flowers in the inflorescence are transformed into a slen-
der, tubular to conical cream-coloured mould which peels off at maturity, starting
from the tip and hangs in shreds.

Control: Prolific spraying with a recommended fungicide chemical before flower-

ing.

Treat the seeds with fungicides before spraying.

Red leaf spot

The lower surface of the leaves develop brown spots with concentric rings in the
centre.

Control: Spraying with recommended fungicide chemical.

Leaf blight
The disease appears in the form of minute, circular, reddish-brown spots mostly
on the margins and tip of the leaves. These merge to form elongated reddish-
brown necrotic lesions, resulting in premature drying of leaves; older leaves are
more susceptible to infection.

Control: Spraying with recommended fungicide chemical.

Rust
Distinct, linear brown uredinia appear on the lower surface of the leaves associ-
ated with chlorotic streaks.

Control: Spraying with a recommended fungicide.

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Use the publication* A guide for the control of plant diseases 2003, compiled by
Annette Nel, Mareli Krause, Neervana Ramautar & Kathy van Zyl.

9. Other cultivation practices

Lemongrass is sometimes planted on contours to assist in soil erosion control.

10. Harvesting

Maturing time and methods

The first harvest can take place

from 6 to 9 months after planting the
slips. The grass can then be harvest
ed frequently during the active grow- Prepared lemongrass ready for marketing
ing season, up to once every month.
Frequent cutting stimulates growth.
The oil yield will be reduced if the plant is allowed to grow too large. The grass
should be harvested early in the morning, provided it is not raining and allowing
heavy dew to evaporate in order to avoid colour loss during a hot day.

The plants are harvested mechanically or by hand. Cut the grass 10 to 15 cm

above ground level. Avoid cutting too low as it will delay regrowth. Prevent split-
ting of cutting edges by using sharp tools and machinery that make a clear cut.
Oil quantity is optimal in the upper parts of the plant. Should the grass be cut
too low, there will be less oil in the leaves. Up to three harvests can be obtained
in the first year and up to 5 to 10 harvests during each of the 3 to 5 succeeding
years, depending on soil moisture status, management and weather.

It is a good practice to let the plants grow out to maturity just before winter to en-
sure that root reserves are built up. The foliage will also protect the growth points
in case of frost in winter. After winter, the grass can be harvested and distilled or
used as compost or mulch.

* Obtainable from the Resource Centre, Directorate Communication Services,

Private Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001. Tel: 012 319 7141/7085. Fax: 012 319 7260

13
The bulbous part of C. citratus, which is used for culinary purposes, can be
harvested as it reaches the correct length and diameter.
Lemongrass can be dried and marketed as health tea or in blends. This niche
market is increasing and shortages are currently experienced in South East
Asia.
The dried grass should have a good green colour and be free of mould. Drying
should therefore take place as quickly as possible or a conventional dryer can be
used. Prolonged drying in the sun will cause loss of colour and quality of aroma.
Currently, dried lemongrass for the health tea industry is imported into South
Africa from Zambia. Members of SAEOPA have provided the dried lemongrass
at times when the oil price was very low.

Part III: Post-harvest handling

1. Sorting and distillation

The harvested leaves can be distilled fresh or stored under shade for 3 days
without too adverse effects on the yield or quality of oil. Wilting reduces the mois-
ture content and allows a larger quantity of grass to be
packed into the still, thereby economising the fuel use.
The mixture of vapours of water and lemongrass oil
passes into the condenser. As the distillation pro-
ceeds, the distillate collects in the separator. The oil
being insoluble and lighter than water, floats on the
top of the separator and is continuously drawn off.
The oil is then poured out and filtered manually or
by using chemicals.

2. Grading
The quality of lemongrass oil is determined
by the content of citral, a terpene aldehyde,
which is mainly used for the manufacturing of Yellow colour of lemongrass oil
vitamin A. (Photo: http:// www.dkimages.com)

14
 Lemongrass on the fresh market

Lemongrass oil is a yellow or amber, somewhat viscous liquid with a very strong,
fresh, grassy, Iemon-type, herbaceous or tea-like odour.

3. Packaging
Essential oils are volatile and as such have to be handled with care. The grass
should be packed firmly as this prevents the formation of steam channels. If the
grass is too long it can be cut into smaller lengths to ensure firm packaging.

4. Storage
Lemongrass oil should be stored in dark, air-tight, glass bottles. Do not expose
it to heat or heavy metals. Once opened, refrigeration and tightly closing the cap
will prolong its shelf-life. Deterioration begins if the liquid is much darker or more
viscous than normal. Lemongrass oil is very acidic and will destroy plastic and
rubber in a short time.

5. Marketing
The price for lemongrass oil can vary considerably, depending on the supplies
on the international market. The international price is dependent on the foreign

15
exchange rate at the time of sale, and the global supply, which can fluctuate be-
tween high demand and oversupply. Although it is bulk oil, it is still grown locally
because of its versatility in various applications, both as flavour and fragrance. It
is also one of the easier crops to grow.

Essential oil market

The market of essential oils in South Africa is divided into local buyers and in-
ternational buyers. The local buyers include marketing agents and companies
from chemical and pharmaceutical, as well as food and flavouring industries.
The international buyers are divided into flavour and fragrance houses, cosmet-
ics and personal health care, aromatherapy and food manufacturers who buy in
large quantities.

The major market in the world for essential oils is the United States, followed by
Japan and Europe. However, production continues to be concentrated in Eur
ope, with seven of the worlds largest essential-oil-processing firms.

In the United States, the major users of essential oils are the soft drink com-
panies. Japan accounts for 10 % of the world demand. The Canadian market
is dominated by the United States perfume and flavouring industry. France is
dominating the world perfumery market, and Switzerland is one of the leaders
in the pharmaceutical field. Britain and India are known to feature strongly in the
flavouring sector.

Part IV: Production schedules

Because farming enterprises are so diverse, a very basic schedule is proposed.

Producers have to adapt the schedule to their own needs.

As lemongrass is such a vigorous grower, weed control will be a limited operation,

usually confined to hand hoeing or pulling out broad-leaf weeds that may occur.

16
 General crop schedule lemon balm

Activity Jan Feb Mrt Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Field preparation

Rip and plough

Disking

Prepare seedbed

Planting, cultivation and harvesting

17
Plant and transplant

Weed control

Pest control

Disease control

Irrigate

Harvest
 Part V: Utilisation

Citral, an ingredient of lemongrass oil, has numerous uses, and can be further
processed to possess a violet-like fragrance for perfumery, and as a source of
vitamins A and E. Lemongrass oil is also used for deodorants, waxes, polishes,
detergents and insecticides where its low cost is attractive.

1. Cosmetics
Lemongrass oil is used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, and cos-
metics. It is also used in aromatherapy, and it improves circulation and muscle
tone. Astringent and toning, a lemongrass facial is administered through steam
inhalation. It tightens, refines and firms a sluggish, lacklustre, oily skin. In aroma-
therapy it is used as tissue toner.

2. Pharmaceutical and therapeutic

The grass is considered a diuretic, tonic, antiseptic and stimulant. It promotes
good digestion, and a preparation of lemongrass with pepper is used for relief
of menstrual troubles and nausea. It induces perspiration, cools the body and
reduces a fever. It is used to treat diarrhoea, stomach-ache, headaches, fevers,
and flu. It is helpful in treating muscular pain, poor circulation, and muscle tone
and slack tissue. The antiseptic oil treats athletes foot and acne.
Lemongrass fights airborne bacteria when used in a vaporiser for relief of symp-
toms of colds and flu. A lemongrass foot bath scent refreshes sweaty feet while
its antibacterial properties prevent fungal infections. Dilute lemongrass oil and
apply directly on topical areas affected by ringworm. In veterinary use it appears
in dog and cat shampoos as repellent for fleas, lice and ticks.

3. Food and flavouring

Fresh
The bulbous stem and leaf are used in oriental cooking. With the distinct lemon
flavour it is in great demand for a variety of dishes.

18
Dried
Tea made from the leaf can be used pure, but is mostly used as a blend with
Indian and other teas.

4. Industrial
66 Insect repellents, candles and waxes.
66 Constituent of organic pesticides.
66 Vitamins A and E are extracted from it.

5. Perfumery uses
Bath salts, soap basis, blends well with attar of rose, rose geranium or palma-
rosa, citrus, lime and orange.

6. Safety data
Because of sensitising potential, pure undiluted lemongrass essential oil should
not be used on any part of the body. Lemongrass can be very acidic in contain-
ers with plastic lids as well as on any material in contact. The oil can be harmful
if swallowed and should be kept out of childrens reach. Essential oils remain
potent for 6 months to 2 years with proper care, and if freshness is suspect the
oil should be discarded.

References*

Area development project for promotion of lemon grass. 20042005.

Online: http://www.nabard.org/roles/ms/ph/lemongrass.htm.

Aromatherapy and essential oils. 19962007. Green Valley aromatherapy.

Online: www.57aromas.com.

* Further information on references could be obtained from members of SAEOPA and

KARWYL Consultancy.

19
ASNAPP Agribusiness in sustainable natural African products (South Africa), Newsletter.
2008. Online: www.asnapp.org.

AZTEC International, available at: www.aztexonline.com.

GERNOT, K. 2002. Franzez Karl Universitt G K spice pages.

Healthline. 20052007. Healthline networks, Inc., available at: www.ang-kfunigraz.ac.

Henriettes herbal home page. 19952007. Henriette Kress, available at:

www.henriettesherbal.com.

Simon, J.E., Chadwick, A.F. & Craker L.E. 1984. Herbs: An indexed bibliography.
19711980. The scientific literature on selected herbs and aromatic and med
icinal plants of the temperate zone. Archon Books, 770 pp., Handem CT. Online:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/LEMONGRASS.html.

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