PSYC1001

Lecture 3 & 4
Claudine Anderson-Atkinson, Ph.D
 Dendrite: RECEIVES signals

REVIEW Axon: SENDS signals

Soma: cell body, it integrates

information.
 TYPES OF NEURONS

1) Sensory neurons

2) Interneurons (take the messages from sensory neurons and relay them up
to the brain)

3) Motor neurons
__________________ is the main EXCITATORY neurotransmitter in the nervous
system; participates in the relay of sensory information and enhanced learning.

Two kinds of drugs that interact with this neurotransmitter include _________ and
_______

________ is the main INHIBITORY neurotransmitter in the nervous system. It

dampens neural activity

TRIVIA
 __________ Plays a role in Muscle
contraction (PNS), and Cortical
arousal (CNS).

It plays a role in arousal, selective

attention, sleep, and memory. These
TRIVIA neurons are destroyed in persons
with Alzheimers.

Nicotine, Memory enhancers,

Insecticides and Botox interact with
this neurochemical.
 ______ is associated with brain
arousal and other functions like mood,
hunger, and sleep. Amphetamine and
methamphetamine (Adderall) increase
levels of this neurotransmitter.
TRIVIA
______ plays roles in mood,
temperature regulation, aggression,
and sleep cycles. Drugs that interact
with this neurotransmitter are used
to treat depression.
 TRIVIA

• ______ plays a critical role in the rewarding

experiences related to goal directed activity
(i.e sex, a good meal, or gambling jackpot). -It is
used to treat Parkinson's disease and
schizophrenia
• What is the chemical in the brain that plays a
specialized role in pain reduction?
• What are some man made drugs that interact
with this chemical?
 T H E B R A I N C A N C H A N G E T H RO U G H O U T
D E V E L O P M E N T:

• 1. Growth - of dendrites and axons

2. Synaptogenesis - formation of new
synapses
3. Pruning - death of certain neurons and
the retraction of axons to remove
connections that aren't useful
4. Myelination - the insulation of axons with
a myelin sheath
 • 1. New synapses

2. Potentiation can occur = existing

HOW DOES synapses can be strengthened -
OUR BRAIN neurotransmitters produce a
CHANGE AS stronger and more prolonged
WE LEARN?
response.

3. Structural plasticity - change in the

shape of neurons
 • Which of the 3 regions of the
brain is most "primitive" in
function and which are
associated with being a higher
TRIVIA
order animal with processing
capabilities?

A) Midbrain
B) Hindbrain
C) Forebrain (Cerebrum)
 BRAIN
REGIONS
 Hindbrain - very basic,
primitive part of our brain.
Responsible : heartbeat,
survival, hunting, mating.
TRIVIA
Forebrain (Cerebrum) :
forward part of the brain that
allows advanced intellectual
abilities and includes the Four
lobes
motor cortex part of the frontal lobe responsible for body movement

prefrontal cortex part of the frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning
and language, responsible for behavior

Broca's area ; language area in the prefrontal cortex that helps to control
speech production

- Wernicke's area (also responsible for language & speech) comes after in the
Temporal lobe
MIDBRAIN
• _______ is the emotional centre of the brain that also plays roles in smell, motivation and
memory. It processes info about our INTERNAL states such as blood pressure, heart rate,
respiration, perspiration and emotions.

• _______ is the gateway from the sense organs to the primary sensory cortex. It is also called
the 'sensory relay system’ because the vast majority of sensory info first passes through its
doors undergoing some INITIAL processing before traveling on to the cortex

• ________ is the part of the brain responsible for maintaining a constant internal state. It
regulates hunger, thirst, sexual motivation, or other emotional behaviors; controls body
temperature

• ________ is the part of the limbic system that plays key roles in fear, excitement and arousal.
Activated when playing violent video games, plays a role in fear conditioning

• ________ is the part of the brain that plays a role in spatial memory. Damage causes problems
with forming NEW memories, but leaves the old ones in tact. Larger in taxi drivers and people
who juggle.
• Limbic system
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• amygdala
• hippocampus
 H I ND B R AI N

• Hindbrain: region below the

midbrain that contains the
Cerebellum, Pons, and Medulla (
and reticular formation, brain
stem)
 TRIVIA

______ is brain structure responsible for our sense of balance

______ is part of the brain stem involved in basic functions such as heartbeat
and breathing. also controls nausea and vomiting. Serious damage can cause
brain death

_____ brain area that plays a key role in arousal-

_____ thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain
and the body
 somatic nervous system: controlling and coordinating
VOLUNTARY movement

autonomic nervous system: controlling involuntary /

AUTOMATIC actions of our internal organs and glands;
along with the limbic system, it participates in emotion
regulation
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
______ is the division of the autonomic NS engaged
during a crisis or after actions requiring fight or flight.
Responsible for 'SPEEDING UP’ the system

_______ division of autonomic nervous system that

controls rest and digestion. 'SLOW DOWN'
MAPPING THE BRAIN
 MAPPING THE MIND

• There have been many

Phrenology was one of the
earliest attempts to map the
mind onto the brain.
• Discredited by the mid-1800s,
mainly due to early
neuropsychological studies of
persons with brain damage.
 How did contemporary
neuroscientists study the brain
QUESTION
vs how do neuroscientists
study the brain NOW?
- Neuroscientists would purposely damage areas of the brain in
experimental animals using techniques that allowed them to
pinpoint the location of specific brain areas using coordinates.

-Today, neuropsychologists rely on sophisticated psychological tests

like measures of reasoning, attention, and verbal and spatial ability to
INFER the location of brain dysfunction in humans
 MAPPING THE MIND

• Electroencephalograph
• Measures electrical
activity via electrodes
placed on skull
• Can tell which regions of
the brain are active during
specific tasks
 MAPPING THE MIND

• Neuroimaging techniques allow us to see

brain structure, function, or both.
• Computed tomography (CT) uses multiple
X-rays to construct three-dimensional images.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses
magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain
structure.
 MAPPING THE MIND

• Positron emission tomography (PET) measures

consumption of glucose-like molecules to give a picture of
neural activity.
• Functional MRI (fMRI) uses magnetic fields to visualize
brain activity.
• These both measure structure and function.
 MAPPING THE MIND

• Transcranial magnetic
stimulation (TMS) applies
strong and quickly changing
magnetic fields to the surface of
the skull that can either
enhance or interrupt brain
function.
• Allows causal determination
of functioning
 Magnetoencephal
ography (MEG)
MAPPING THE MIND measures tiny
magnetic fields
generated by the
brain.
 .

WHICH AREA FOR WHAT TASK?

• Many areas of the brain are associated with a particular

function (localization of function).
• Complex tasks often require numerous parts working together.
• Each region participates in many functions, so coordination
across multiple brain regions contributes to each function.
 WHICH SIDE DO WE USE FOR WHAT ?

• Many brain functions show lateralization.

LEFT HEMISPHERE RIGHT HEMISPHERE

• Fine-tuned language skills • Course language skills

• Speech comprehension • Simple speech
• Speech production • Simple writing
• Phonology • Tone of voice
• Syntax • Visuospatial skills
• Reading • Perceptual grouping
• Writing • Face perception
• Actions
• Making facial expressions
• Motion detection
 We have Humans have
chromosomes inside 46
chromosomes,
each cell's nucleus that 23 from each
carry genes. parent.
HOW WE COME TO
BE WHO WE ARE
Our genotype is the
set of genes we have, Genes can be
dominant or
while our phenotype recessive.
is our observable traits.
 • Some organisms have adaptations that
make them better suited to their
BEHAVIORAL environment.
ADAPTATION
• They survive and reproduce at higher
rates than other organisms (fitness).
• Those adaptations then have a higher
frequency in the population (evolution
by natural selection).
 BRAIN EVOLUTION

human brains have tripled in size, with the greatest increase in the
cerebral cortex.

Relative brain size appears to be associated with intelligent behavior

 LO 3.11 Explain the concept of heritability and the misconceptions surrounding it.

BEHAVIORAL GENETICS

• Studies the relative impact of nature and nurture on psychological traits

• Estimates heritability—percentage of the variability in a trait across individuals
that is due to genes
• Some traits are highly heritable (height), while others are not (religious
affiliation).
 WHAT ARE 3 WAYS THAT
HERITABILITY CAN BE STUDIED
TO TRACK THE PRESENCE OR
ABSENCE OF A TRAIT AMONG
RELATIVES?
 BEHAVIORAL GENETIC DESIGNS

Family studies
Scientists use three types of designs Twin studies
to estimate heritability of traits: Adoption studies

Determine how much both genes and environment contribute to a

particular trait
 QUIZ

1 2 3
______ Analysis of how _______ Analysis of how _______ Analysis of how
characteristics run in traits differ in identical traits vary in individuals
intact families versus fraternal twins raised apart from their
biological relatives
SENSATION & PERCEPTION
 Sensation is the detection of
physical energy by our sense
organs, which send that
information to the brain.
SENSATION AND
PERCEPTION

Perception is the brain's

interpretation of raw sensory
data.
 All our senses rely on a handful of
principles.

SENSATION The external stimulus is converted

by a sense receptor into neural
activity via transduction.

Activation is highest when stimulus

is first detected, then sensory
adaptation occurs.
SENSATION & PERCEPTION PROCESSES
 PSYCHOPHYSICS

• Study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on their physical

characteristics
 ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD

• The smallest quantity of physical energy that can

be reliably detected by an observer.
 TRIVIA

• What is the farthest that a human eye can detect a

single candle flame on a dark, clear night
• What is the farthest that a human can detect the
tick of a in total quiet?
• What is the smallest amount of sugar that humans
can detect in a 2 gal. water?
 ABSOLUTE SENSORY THRESHOLDS
• Vision:
• A single candle flame from 30 miles on a dark, clear night
• Hearing:
• The tick of a watch from 20 feet in total quiet
• Smell:
• 1 drop of perfume in a 6-room apartment
• Touch:
• The wing of a bee on your cheek, dropped from 1 cm
• Taste:
• 1 tsp. Sugar in 2 gal. water
 • The just noticeable difference is the smallest
PSYCHOPHYSICS amount of stimulus change we can detect.
• Follows Weber's law—the stronger the stimulus,
the greater the change necessary for the detection
of a difference.
 SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY

• Theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different

conditions

RESPOND RESPOND
"YES" "NO"
Stimulus True Positive False Negative
present
Stimulus False Positive True Negative
absent
 C ROSS- MODAL
E FFE CT S

• Crossmodal sensation
involves interactions
between two or more
different sensory
modalities.
• Phosphenes, the McGurk
effect
• synesthesia—the
experience of cross-
modal sensations, like
hearing sounds when one
sees colors.
 ACTIVITY: MCGURK EFFECT &
SYNESTHESIA

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-lN8vWm3m0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Ccnu-1Hkuc
 T H E ROL E OF
AT T E NT I ON

• Selective attention allows us to

choose which sensory inputs to
focus on and which to "turn down."
• The other "channels" are still being
processed at some level, though.
• Cocktail party effect
THE ROLE OF ATTENTION
 One of the great mysteries of
psychology is just how our brains
combine all the various stimuli
around us into a coherent whole.
BLINDING
PROBLEM
. The look, feel, smell, and taste of
an apple all rely on different areas
of the brain to process, but we
just see an apple!
 LIGHT

• The human visible spectrum is a narrow band of light that we

respond to.
• Other animals may have a more restricted or broader
spectrum.
 FIGURE 4.6 THE
VISIBLE SPECTRUM IS A
SUBSET OF THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM. HUMANS ARE
S E N S I T I V E TO
WAV E L E N G T H S R A N G I N G
F R O M S L I G H T LY L E S S
THAN 400 NANOMETERS
( V I O L E T ) TO S L I G H T LY
MORE THAN 700
NANOMETERS (RED).
 We perceive brightness
(intensity) and hue (color).

LIGHT Mixing lights produces white

. (additive).

Mixing pigments produces

black (subtractive).
 F I G UR E 4 . 7 AD D I TIV E AN D S UB T R AC T IVE C O L O R
M I X IN G. AD D I T I V E C OL OR MI X I NG OF L I G H T D I F FE R S FROM
SU B T R AC T I V E C OL OR MI X I NG OF PAI NT.
ACTIVITY: THE EYE
 AN EYE ON THE
WORLD

• Cornea
• Protects eye and bends light toward lens.
• Lens
• Focuses on objects by changing shape.
• Iris
• Controls amount of light that gets into
eye.
• Pupil
• Widens or dilates to let in more light.
 AN EYE ON THE WORLD

• Retina
• Neural tissue lining the back of the eyeball’s interior, which contains the receptors
for vision.
• Rods
• Visual receptors that respond to dim light.
• Cones
• Visual receptors involved in colour vision. Most humans have 3 types of cones.
Cornea contains transparent
cells that focus light on the
back of the eye

The lens changes curvature

THE EYE
(accommodation) to retract
light onto back of eye.

Glasses change the way light

enters the eye to help correct
myopia or hyperopia.
 THE EYE

• The optic nerve exits the back of the eye and is composed of
the axons of the ganglion cells.
• Most of the axons go to the thalamus and then the visual
cortex.
F i g u re 4 . 1 0 Pe rc e p t i o n
and the Visual Cortex

V i s u a l i n f o r m a t i o n f ro m t h e
re t i n a t r ave l s t o t h e

visual thalamus.
inputs to the primary visual
cortex,
secondary visual cortex.
O n e p a t h w ay l e a d s t o t h e
parietal lobe, which
p ro c e s s e s v i s u a l f o r m ,
position, and motion;
and one to the temporal
l o b e , w h i c h p ro c e s s e s v i s u a l
form and color .
 Different cortical cells respond
maximally to different types of
stimuli.

P E R CEIV IN G S H APE Feature detector cells allow us to

A N D C ON TOU R
detect lines and edges.

• Simple cells—detect orientation-specific

slits of light in a particular location
• Complex cells—also orientation-specific,
but less dependent on location than simple
cells
 COLOR PERCEPTION

• Different theories of color perception

explain different aspects of our ability to
detect color.
• Trichromatic theory says color vision is
based on our sensitivity to three primary
colors
• color is received via waves of light entering red, blue, and
green cones in the eye
 Opponent process theory sees color vision
as a function of complementary, opposing
colors: red v. green or blue vs. yellow.
COLOR
PERCEPTION
.
As an example, stare at the white dot in the
middle of the flag on the next slide see what
happens.
 FIGURE 4.13 OPPONENT PROCESSES IN ACTION. FIND A PATCH OF BLANK WHITE
WALL OR PLACE A BLANK SHEET OF WHITE PAPER NEARBY BEFORE YOU BEGIN. THEN
RELAX YOUR EYES AND FIX YOUR GAZE ON THE WHITE DOT IN THE IMAGE ABOVE FOR AT
LEAST 30 SECONDS WITHOUT LOOKING AROUND OR AWAY. AFTERWARD, STARE AT THE
WHITE WALL OR PAPER FOR A FEW SECONDS. WHAT DO YOU SEE?
 Blindness—results in heightened
touch, reorganization of visual
cortex

WHEN WE Blindsight—above-chance visual

CAN'T SEE performance of cortically blind
individuals with damage to area V1

Visual agnosia—object
recognition deficit; damage to
higher visual cortical areas
 Audition (our sense of
hearing) is the sense we rely on
most after sight.

HEARING AND Sound is simply vibration

SOUND traveling through a medium
(usually air) and has:
• Pitch—wave frequency (Hz)
• Loudness—amplitude of the sound
waves (dB)
• Timbre—complexity of sound
 THE EAR
.

• The outer, middle, and inner ear do different jobs to transduce

sound into neural activity.
• The outer ear (pinna and ear canal) tunnels sound waves onto
the eardrum.
• On the other side of the eardrum, the ossicles (hammer,
anvil, stirrup) vibrate and transmit sound to the inner ear.
 THE EAR

• In the inner ear, the cochlea converts vibration into neural

activity.
• The organ of Corti and basilar membrane convert auditory
information into action potentials.
 FIGURE 4.16 THE
HUMAN EAR AND ITS
PA R T S . A C U TAWAY
S E C T I O N T H RO U G H T H E
HUMAN EAR AND A
CL O SE - UP D I AG RA M O F
THE HAIR CELLS.
 • Place theory – Different tones excite
P I TC H different areas of the basilar membrane
PERCEPTION and primary auditory cortex.
• Explains perception of high-pitched tones
 PITCH PERCEPTION

• Frequency theory and volley theory – Neurons' rate of

firing reproduces the frequency of the sound.
• Explains perception of low and middle pitches
 SMELL AND TASTE

• Olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste) work hand in hand.

• Work together to enhance liking or disliking of some foods
• Described as the "chemical senses"
 ODORS AND FLAVORS

• Odors are airborne chemicals that interact with lining in our

nasal passages.
• We are sensitive to five basic tastes:
• Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami
• There is some evidence for a "fatty" taste as well.
 SMELL AND TASTE SENSE RECEPTORS

• Each olfactory neuron contains a single type of receptor, which

recognizes odorants based on their shape.
• The tongue contains separate taste buds for each basic taste.
• 25% of people are supertasters, with more taste buds.
 OLFACTORY AND GUSTATORY
PERCEPTION

• Although they take different paths, our smell and taste senses
converge in the orbitofrontal cortex.
 FIGURE 4.20 SMELL AND TASTE. OUR
SENSES OF SMELL AND TASTE ENTER THE
BRAIN BY DIFFERENT ROUTES BUT CONVERGE
IN THE ORBITOFRONTAL CORTEX.
 OUR BODY SENSES

• Three body systems that work in tandem:

• Somatosensory (touch and pain)
• Proprioception (kinesthetic sense – body position)
• Vestibular sense (equilibrium and balance)
 SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM

• Responds to pressure, temperature, and injury

• We sense these with specialized nerve endings in the skin and
with free nerve endings.
FIGURE 4.21 THE SENSE
OF TOUCH. THE SKIN
CONTAINS MANY
SPECIALIZED AND FREE
NERVE ENDINGS THAT
DETECT MECHANICAL
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE,
AND PAIN.
SOMATOSENSORY PATHWAYS

Somatic nerves carry info to spinal cord

Spinal reflexes may be activated

Connects in brain stem, thalamus

Touch: somatosensory, association cortices

OR

Pain: somatosensory cortex, limbic areas

 Pain comes in many types, usually
related to the pain-causing stimulus.

PAIN Gate control model – pain is

SENSATIONS blocked from consciousness by
neural mechanisms in the spinal cord.

Pain is influenced by emotional and

cultural factors.
 QUIZ

• Absolute threshold refers to the point that the change in a stimulus can be
detected.
• The amount of change required to notice the change in a stimulus is called
the just noticeable difference.
• Sensory adaptation helps us push unchanging sensory material to the
background therefore freeing up our senses for stimuli that is changing.
THE SKIN SENSES
 TOUCH AND PRESSURE

• Sensory receptors in skin fire when skin surface is

touched
• Active touching

• Some areas of the body are more sensitive

• Nerve endings are more densely packed
• More sensory cortex is devoted to perception of sensations
 TEMPERATURE

• Receptors are located just beneath the skin

• Skin temperature increases – receptors for warmth fire
• Skin temperature decreases – receptors for cold fire

• Sensations for temperature are relative

 PAIN

• receptors in skin are stimulated

• Pain is usually sharpest where nerve endings are densely packed
• Pain can be felt deep within body
• No nerve endings for pain in the brain
 PAIN

• Prostaglandins
• Facilitate transmission of pain message
• Heighten circulation to injured area (inflammation)
• Pain-relieving drugs inhibit production of prostaglandins
• Emotional response and response to stress affect degree of pain
 PHANTOM LIMB PAIN

• 2 out of 3 combat veterans with amputated limbs

report phantom limb pain
• May involve activation of nerves in the stump of missing limb
• May also involve reorganization of motor and somatosensory cortex
 GATE THEORY OF PAIN

• Nervous system can only process a limited amount of

stimulation
• Rubbing the pained area competes for neural attention
• Closes the “gate” on pain messages to the brain
 ACUPUNCTURE

• Ancient Chinese method of pain control

• Research shows it stimulates nerves to the hypothalamus releasing endorphins
• Endorphins are similar in structure and effect to morphine
TOUCH

 Skin Sensations
 pressure
 only skin sensation with
identifiable receptors
 warmth
 cold
 pain
 ACTIVITY: TOUCH LOCALIZATION
DEMONSTRATION

• Concentrate on where the sensations of touch are felt:

• Touch two index fingers together
• Touch finger to bottom lip, light taps,
• Touch ankle

• Touch localization depends on the relative lengths of the

pathways from the stimulated parts to the brain
 Proprioception, our kinesthetic
sense, helps us keep track of where
we are, allowing us to move
BODY POSITION AND efficiently.
BALANCE

Muscle stretch receptors vs. tendon

force detectors
 Vestibular sense, our sense of
equilibrium, enables us to sense and
maintain our balance as we move
about.

BODY POSITION Due to three fluid-filled

AND BALANCE semicircular canals in the inner
ear

Our awareness of this sense is

limited.
 ACTIVITY: VIDEO

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKxyJfE831Q
 Human factors – field that
optimizes technology to better
suit our sensory and
E R GON OM IC S: perceptual capabilities
HUMAN
E N GIN EER IN G
Uses what we know about
psychology and sensory
systems to build more
ergonomic gadgets and tools
 After being transduced, our
brains then organize the sensory
data into meaningful concepts.
WHEN SENSES
MEET THE BRAIN
Our brains piece together:

• What's in our sensory field

• What was there a moment ago
• What we remember from our past
 We attend to multiple
senses at once, called
parallel processing.
T H E M U LT I TAS KIN G
BR A IN
Bottom-up vs. top-
down processing
• Perception depends on sensory
data and beliefs/expectations.
 F I G U R E 4 . 2 3 W H AT D O YO U S E E ? D U E TO
T H E I N F L U E N C E O F TO P - D OW N P RO C E S S I N G ,
R E A D I N G T H E C A P T I O N " S A X O P H O N E P L AY E R "
B E N E AT H T H I S A M B I G U O U S F I G U R E T E N D S TO
P RO D U C E A D I F F E R E N T P E R C E P T I O N T H A N
R E A D I N G T H E C A P T I O N " WO M A N . "
 PERCEPTUAL HYPOTHESES
.

• Perceptual sets occur when our expectations influence our

perceptions.
 PERCEPTUAL HYPOTHESES

• H or A?
PERCEPTUAL
H Y P OT H E S E S

Old or young?
 Perceptual constancy allows us
to perceive stimuli consistency
across conditions.

PERCEPTUAL We don't see the size, shape, or

HYPOTHESES color of an object changing despite
the objective fact that they do.

Color perception in particular

derives from context.
FIGURE 4.26 SHAPE
C O N S TA N C Y. W E
PERCEIVE A DOOR AS A
DOOR WHETHER IT
APPEARS AS A
R E C TA N G L E O R A
T R A P E Z O I D.
 FIGURE 4.27 THE
C H E C K E R - S H A D OW
ILLUSION. WE PERCEIVE
A C H E C K E R B OA R D
PAT T E R N O F B L A C K A N D
W H I T E A LT E R N AT I N G
SQUARES, AND BEC AUSE
O F C O L O R C O N S TA N C Y,
WE IGNORE THE
D R A M AT I C C H A N G E D U E
TO T H E S H A D OW C A S T
BY THE GREEN
CYLINDER. BELIEVE IT
O R N OT, T H E A A N D B
SQUARES ARE
IDENTICAL. (SOURCE: ©
1 9 9 5 E DWA R D H .
ADELSON)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0i8ZKTyIaQc
 FIGURE 4.28 COLOR
PERCEPTION
DEPENDS ON
C O N T E X T. G R AY C A N
APPEAR LIKE A COLOR
DEPENDING ON
S U R RO U N D I N G C O L O R S .
THE BLUE-COLORED
S Q U A R E S O N T H E TO P O F
T H E C U B E AT T H E L E F T
A R E AC T U A L LY G R AY
( S E E M A P B E L OW T H E
C U B E ) . S I M I L A R LY, T H E
Y E L L OW- C O L O R E D
S Q U A R E S O N T H E TO P O F
T H E C U B E AT T H E R I G H T
A R E AC T U A L LY G R AY
( S E E M A P B E L OW T H E
C U B E ) . ( S O U R C E : © DA L E
P U RV E S A N D R . B E A U
L OT TO, 2 0 0 2 )
 GESTALT PRINCIPLES

• Rules that govern how we perceive objects as wholes within

their overall context
 3. GESTALT RULES FOR
PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

• Common Fate
• Elements moving together are grouped together (runners)
• Closure
• Fit bits of information into familiar patterns;
• Perception of a complete figure, even when there are gaps in sensory information
• Proximity
• Nearness of objects
• Similarity
• Similarity of objects
• Continuity
• Series of points having unity
 2. PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

• Figure – Ground Perception

• Ambiguous, unstable figures, we shift back & forth
GESTALT RULES FOR PERCEPTUAL
ORGANIZATION
 3. GESTALT RULES FOR
PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

• Common Fate
• Elements moving together are grouped together (runners)
• Closure
• Fit bits of information into familiar patterns;
• Perception of a complete figure, even when there are gaps in sensory information
• Proximity
• Nearness of objects
• Similarity
• Similarity of objects
• Continuity
• Series of points having unity
 4. PERCEPTION OF MOTION

• Visual perception of motion is based on change of

position relative to other objects
• Illusions of movement
• Stroboscopic motion (how do we know that a train moves?)
 5. DEPTH PERCEPTION

• Monocular Cues
• Perspective
• Clearness
• Overlapping
• Shadows
• Texture gradient
• Motion parallax
• Binocular Cues
• Retinal disparity
• Convergence
 6. PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES

• Acquired through experience; creates stability

• Size Constancy
• Color Constancy
• Brightness Constancy
• Shape Constancy
 SIZE
CONSTANCY
 7. VISUAL ILLUSIONS

• Hering-Hemlholtz Illusion
• Perceive drawing as three-dimensional

• Müller-Lyer Illusion
• Interpret length of lines based on experience
FIGURE 4.30 GESTALT PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION. AS
G E S TA LT P S Y C H O L O G I S T S D I S C O V E R E D , W E U S E A VA R I E T Y
OF PRINCIPLES TO HELP US ORGANIZE THE WORLD.
 FACE PERCEPTION

• Depends on neurons in the lower part of the temporal lobe and in the
hippocampus
• Though some neurons respond selectively to specific faces, face
perception depends on broad neural networks.
 MOTION PERCEPTION

• To determine motion, the brain compares visual frames of

what is to what was.
• Phi phenomenon
• Motion blindness—inability to perceive seamless motion
M OT I O N P E R C E P T I O N

Image from Wikimedia

Commons
 LOCALIZING SOUND

• We rely on binaural cues to tell us where sounds are coming

from.
• These cues include differences between the two ears in the
timing and intensity of sound waves.
 Monocular depth
cues rely on one eye.
• Relative size, texture
gradient, interposition,
DEPTH linear perspective, height
PERCEPTION in plane, light and shadow

Binocular depth cues

require both eyes.
• Binocular disparity and
binocular convergence
 We often misperceive information
around us and understanding why
provides insight into how we make
sense of our surroundings.
WHEN PERCEPTION
DECEIVES US

Examples of such misperception include

the moon illusion; the Ames room;
and the Muller-Lyer, Ponzo, vertical-
horizontal, and Ebbinghaus illusions.
FIGURE 4.35 HOW WELL CAN YOU
JUDGE RELATIVE SIZE?
 We process many sensory inputs
unconsciously and many of our
actions occur with little to no
forethought or deliberation.
SUBLIMINAL
PERCEPTION
If we can detect stimuli without
knowing it, does that change our
behavior?
 The processing of sensory
information that occurs below the
level of conscious awareness

SUBLIMINAL
Can have a brief, short-term
PERCEPTION impact on behaviors and attitudes

Effect disappears when subjects

are aware of or suspect subliminal
influences
 SUBLIMINAL PERSUASION

• Fairly unlikely to produce large-scale or enduring changes in

attitudes or decisions
• Subliminal self-help tapes have been shown to be ineffective.
• Reversed subliminal messages are also ineffective.
 EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION

• The perception of events outside the known channels of sensation

• According to parapsychologists, there are three major types:
• Precognition
• Telepathy
• Clairvoyance
 EVIDENCE FOR ESP
L O 4 . 1 5 A N A LY Z E T H E S C I E N T I F I C E V I D E N C E F O R A N D A G A I N S T
T H E E X I S T E N C E O F E S P.

• Early studies by Rhine (1934) using Zener cards reported

positive results.
• But, methodological problems plagued the study and no one
could replicate his results.
 EVIDENCE FOR ESP
L O 4 . 1 5 A N A LY Z E T H E S C I E N T I F I C E V I D E N C E F O R A N D A G A I N S T
T H E E X I S T E N C E O F E S P.

• Photo 4.27 Zener cards

 EVIDENCE FOR ESP
L O 4 . 1 5 A N A LY Z E T H E S C I E N T I F I C E V I D E N C E F O R A N D A G A I N S T
T H E E X I S T E N C E O F E S P.

• Ganzfield technique studies, fMRI studies, and others all fail to

find positive effects for ESP.
• ESP proponents explain away negative findings, citing such
factors as experimenter effects.
• These are ad-hoc explanations, though.
 WHY PEOPLE BELIEVE

• Over 40% of American adults believe in ESP.

• Why?
• Illusory correlations
• Not understanding chance events
• underestimating the likelihood of coincidences
 FIGURE 4.36 THE "BIRTHDAY PARADOX." AS WE REACH A GROUP SIZE OF 23 PEOPLE, THE
PROBABILITY THAT AT LEAST TWO PEOPLE SHARE THE SAME BIRTHDAY EXCEEDS 0.5, OR 50 PERCENT.
RESEARCH DEMONSTRATES THAT MOST PEOPLE MARKEDLY UNDERESTIMATE THE LIKELIHOOD OF THIS
AND OTHER COINCIDENCES, SOMETIMES LEADING THEM TO ATTRIBUTE THESE COINCIDENCES TO
PARANORMAL EVENTS.
 FAILED PSYCHIC PREDICTIONS

• Specific predictions ("Nazi flag found on moon!") do not come true.

• So "psychics" use other methods to make it seem as if they are
accurate.
• Multiple end points
• Cold reading techniques