8B Coordination in animals and plants

8B Checkpoint

8B.1 The central nervous system

1 Cerebral hemispheres associated with higher brain functions – seeing, thinking,
learning and emotions, for example. Folding of the cerebral hemispheres increases
the surface area of these regions of the brain. It is thought that greater folding, and
thus greater surface area, is associated with greater intelligence, more complex
emotions and ability to learn, etc. Humans have greater abilities than other primates
– and more folding. It is not just surface area that counts – the volume of tissue is
important too, which is a function not just of folding, but of thickness. So dolphins
have a big surface area, but less volume because the tissue layer is thinner. They
are very intelligent, but it is thought that their development does not rival humans.
2 The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid.
Brain area Function
Cerebral
Vision, sight, thinking, learning, emotions
hemispheres
Emotional responses, planning, reasoning, decision-
Frontal lobe making. Primary motor cortex controls many
movements
Sound recognition, hearing, speech, many memory
Temporal lobe
functions
Vision, shape recognition, colour vision, sense of
Occipital lobe
perspective
Coordinates smooth movements, maintains posture
Cerebellum
and balance
Coordinates autonomic nervous system, including
thermoregulation, and controls many basic drives, for
Hypothalamus
example, thirst, hunger, aggression, reproductive
behaviour
Controls reflex centres for heart rate, breathing rate,
Medulla oblongata blood pressure, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, saliva
production, peristalsis

3 The frontal lobe of the cerebrum contains the primary motor cortex of the brain,
which is involved in the control of many of the body movements. The control comes
via motor neurones that pass through the hindbrain and the spinal cord, carrying
impulses to the muscles. If this area is damaged a person is likely to lose conscious
control over their movements.
The cerebellum coordinates smooth movements. It uses information from the
muscles and the ears to control balance and maintain posture. If the cerebellum is
damaged you are likely to lose your balance, and your walking and movements will
become more jerky and less coordinated.
4 (a) The brain is a combination of grey matter, made up of neurone cell bodies,
and white matter, consisting of nerve fibres. There are areas of the human

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 brain with very specific functions concerned with the major senses and control
of basic bodily functions. There are also many regions of the brain where we
do not yet clearly understand the precise functions and interrelationships with
other areas of the brain. Scientists have estimated that there are around a
hundred thousand million neurones working together in the human brain and
that each neurone synapses with up to 10 000 other neurones. The brain
contains centres or nuclei made up of cell bodies that make
intercommunication between millions of cells possible. The great nerve tracts
from the spinal cord cross over as they enter and leave the brain, so that the
left-hand side of the brain receives information from and controls the right-
hand side of the body and vice versa.
The spinal cord is a tube made up of a core of grey matter surrounded by
white matter which runs out from the base of the brain (the medulla oblongata)
through the vertebrae. It is approximately 43–45 cm long. Impulses from
sensory receptors travel along sensory nerve fibres into the spinal cord,
through the dorsal roots, and then travel in sensory fibres up the cord to the
brain. Instructions from the brain travel as impulses down motor fibres in the
spinal cord and out in motor neurones through the ventral roots to the effector
organs. The spinal cord acts as a coordination centre for reflex reactions that
take place without conscious thought.
(b) Stimulus received by sensory receptors in skin of foot → action potential
travels along sensory neurone into spinal cord → synapse with relay neurone
in grey matter → synapse with motor neurone in grey matter → action
potential in motor neurone leaves spinal cord → reaches motor end plate in
muscle → stimulates contraction of muscle that withdraws foot from stone.

8B.2 The peripheral nervous system

1 Many continuous and/or basic functions of the body, such as control of the heart and
breathing rates, the control of gut function, etc., can take place without conscious
thought, leaving the conscious areas of the brain free to make decisions,
judgements, etc. Voluntary nervous system gives conscious control and can often
override the autonomic system if necessary.
2 (a) Parasympathetic nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system.
The neurones have long preganglionic fibres and short post-ganglionic fibres,
and the ganglions are close to the effector organs. The neurotransmitter is
usually acetylcholine. The parasympathetic nervous system slows things
down as a general rule.
Sympathetic nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system. The
neurones have short preganglionic fibres and long post-ganglionic fibres, and
the ganglions are close to the CNS. The neurotransmitter is usually
noradrenaline. The sympathetic nervous system speeds up responses as a
general rule.
(b) In some of their responses they can be seen as having the opposite effects –
sympathetic ‘fight-or-flight’, parasympathetic ‘rest and digest’. However, this is
an oversimplification – for some functions there is no antagonistic action – for
example, sympathetic stimulates secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline,
parasympathetic has no effect; parasympathetic stimulates secretion of bile,
sympathetic has no effect, etc. Also they usually work cooperatively, with
interplay between the two systems to maintain body functions at an ideal
level.

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3
Chemical coordination Electrical coordination
(hormones) (nervous system)
- Based on chemicals - Based on electrical impulses
(hormones) produced in but also needs chemical
specific glands involvement across synapses
- Produced in specific glands - Travel along specific nerve
- Travel around the body in pathways
blood - Depends on sensory receptors
- Depends on specific receptors and specific effectors
on target cell membranes - Usually involved in rapid
- Often important in slow, responses
sustained responses over - Any other sensible points
months and years, although
can be involved in rapid
responses e.g. adrenaline,
insulin
- Any other sensible points

8B.3 Investigating the human brain

1 Brain very complex, encased in the skull, ethics of investigating human brains
experimentally – imaging enables us to see inside the skull and observe the brain –
even in real time activity.
2 X-rays: pass through body, absorbed differentially by different tissues, make an
image on photographic film. Good for taking images of hard tissue, e.g. bones, but
much less useful for producing images of soft tissues such as the brain. Particularly
good for imaging water in the body. The signals are analysed by computer and used
to produce an image. Images show much finer detail than CT scans.
Computerised tomography (CT scan): thousands of tiny beams of X-rays passed
through an area of the body, e.g. head. Beams attenuated by the density of the
tissue.
The X-rays which make it through are detected and measured. A computer collates
the data to produce a cross-sectional image of a thin slice through the body. Special
dyes can make areas X-ray opaque so they show up more clearly in the scan. Can
identify major structures in the brain and detect problems such as brain tumours,
bleeding in the brain or swellings of the arteries in the brain (aneurisms). Cannot be
used to show how areas of the brain are used or change during different activities.
Can be linked to observed changes in behaviour to indicate the importance of certain
areas of the brain in particular functions.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI scan): Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to
image the soft tissues (mainly due to amount of water in tissue), so no potentially
damaging.
2D scans are usually produced – a computer can create a 3D image from these. Can
distinguish regions of the brain. Widely used to diagnose brain injuries, strokes,
tumours and infections of the brain or the spine. Can also indicate links between the
structures in the brain and patterns of behaviour.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (tMRI): monitors uptake of oxygen in
different brain areas, so indicates active areas of the brain. Can be observed in real
time, so makes it possible to watch brain response while people carry out tasks.
Gives an extremely spatially accurate image of the brain. Has to be carried out with
patient's head remaining completely still, which limits tasks that can be done. Used

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 mainly to investigate normal brain structure and function. May soon be used to
diagnose diseases such as the early signs of stroke damage and the onset of
Alzheimers.
Positive emission tomography (PET) scans: involves injecting a patient with a
radioactive tracer (radiotracer) which is similar to glucose and is carried to all the
cells. The scanner detects the radiation given off by the radiotracer and computer
analysis shows where the tracer has accumulated and where it has not. Gives
detailed, 3-dimensional images of the brain, can reveal abnormal areas in the body,
show how well different areas are working and PET scans can be combined with CT
scans and MRI scans to produce very detailed images to help with diagnosis. They
can be used to plan surgery by giving surgeons a 3D image of the areas of the brain
that are affected.

8B.4 The chemical balance of the brain

1 Neurotransmitter synthesis and storage: if a drug blocks this process, synaptic

transmission would lessen and then stop as supplies of neurotransmitter reduced.
This would mean nerves using that neurotransmitter would no longer be able to pass
impulses between them, causing loss of motor or sensory skills and processes in the
brain.
Neurotransmitter release: a drug stopping neurotransmitter release would stop
synaptic transmission as the impulse in the presynaptic fibre would not be
transmitted to the post-synaptic membrane causing loss of motor or sensory skills
and processes in the brain.
Neurotransmitter-receptor binding: a drug blocking this would stop the development
of the post-synaptic potentials which in turn would prevent the development of an
action potential in the post-synaptic fibre. Alternatively, the drug may maintain binding
so that the stimulus to the post-synaptic fibre was continuous, causing confusion and
fatigue further in the system.
Neurotransmitter reuptake: a drug blocking this would slowly reduce the intensity of
the response as less neurotransmitter would be re-synthesised and be ready for
release. This would speed up fatigue etc.
Neurotransmitter breakdown: a drug blocking this would mean that stimulation would
continue as the concentration of neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap would build up
steadily so there would be constant stimulation of the post-synaptic membrane and
fatigue.
2 Dopamine synapses: produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, the axons from them
spread through the frontal cortex, the brain stem and the spinal cord, so they are
closely involved in the control and coordination of movement.
Serotonin synapses: produce serotonin in a group of cells in the brain stem with
axons that spread throughout the brain into the cortex, the cerebellum and the
spinal cord. They have a widespread influence on cells throughout the brain so low
levels mean overall brain activity is suppressed. Particularly related to depression.
3
L-dopa Ecstasy
- Precursor of dopamine so crosses - Crosses blood–brain barrier
the blood–brain barrier
- Enables brain cells to maximise - Affects serotonin synapses in brain;
dopamine production blocks the serotonin reuptake system
so synapses flooded with serotonin
and may cause release of all the
serotonin from presynaptic knob,
flooding brain with serotonin

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 - Relieves stiffness and slowness of - Acts as stimulant to brain and
movement psychotropic
- Therapeutic - Improves mood, sense of wellbeing,
energy, etc.
- Physiological effects include
increased heart rate, change in
thermoregulation, loss of thirst
sensation, prevention of urine
production by kidney

8B.5 Chemical control systems in plants

1 Light: needed for photosynthesis, important that shoots and leaves move towards it.
Roots need to be in the soil so response away from light helps make sure they grow
in the right direction. Respond to direction, intensity and length of exposure.
Gravity: growth movements of plant parts towards or away from the pull of gravity.
Roots grow towards gravity, shoots away. This helps to orientate the young plant as
the seed germinates below ground – shoots grow up, roots down, whichever way up
the seed is planted.
Chemicals: plant roots will grow towards some chemicals and away from others.
Water: roots grow towards water – moves them into right direction in the soil.
Temperature – some plants or parts of plants respond to changes in temperature. In
some cases, there is a positive movement towards lower temperature – for example,
many roots – and sometimes parts of the plant respond to protect the cells and
tissues – for example, rhododendron leaves curl in the cold. Important in order to
help roots grow in the right direction and also to protect plant tissues from cold.
Touch – thigmotropism, plants grow around things in response to touch – for
example, runner beans curving up canes, etc.
2 Plants respond to stimuli by growth. They need to respond to light levels, direction,
etc. throughout life so it is important that they can continue to grow. Animals respond
largely by muscle contractions, etc., in response to nerves so they can continue to
respond when growth has stopped.

8B.6 Phytochrome and flowering

1 (a) A blue–green plant pigment that is sensitive to different wavelengths of red

light and that is involved in the control of flowering. Phytochromes exist in two
interconvertible forms: Pr or P660 absorbs red light; Pfr or P730 absorbs far red
light. When one form of the pigment absorbs light, it is converted reversibly
into the other form.
(b) The balance between the two forms of phytochrome is affected by varying
periods of light and dark, and the phytochrome balance in turn affects the
plant metabolism, including flowering patterns. Sunlight contains more red
light than far red light, so in daylight most of the phytochrome is in the far red
form, Pfr. If the night period is long enough, it is all converted back into the
red form, Pr.
In some cases, phytochromes have a stimulating effect on plants, in others
an inhibitory effect. The current hypothesis is that, in short-day plants, the
biologically active molecule Pfr inhibits flowering and a lack of Pfr allows
flowering to occur. During long periods of darkness, the levels of Pfr fall as it
is almost all converted to Pr. This allows flowering to take place.

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 In long-day plants it appears that high levels of Pfr stimulate flowering. The
nights are short so relatively little Pfr is converted back to Pr. As a result,
relatively high Pfr levels are maintained all the time, stimulating flowering.
2 Suggests chemical message produced in leaf exposed to periods of light and dark
which travels to the flowering apical meristem.
If it is a chemical message, takes time to be synthesised and to travel through plant
from leaf to buds – so if leaf removed immediately no time for message to be made
and moved.
Suggests chemical message moves from one plant to another to stimulate flowering
in both.
Chemical from leaf exposed to light and dark moves out into tissues of host plant –
again suggests chemical message.
3 Can be done in various ways – look for evidence that students have followed the
main points of the process and demonstrate that they understand the interaction of
phytochromes and the theoretical compound florigen (using FTmRNA).

8B.7 Phytochrome and transcription

1 Different students will approach this differently – look for the key elements of the
theory and an understanding of how the different elements interact.
2
Part of plant Effect of red light (light, Effect of far red light
affected build-up of Pfr) (dark, build-up of Pr)
Seed Stimulates germination Inhibits germination
Elongation inhibited by Elongation stimulated by
Stem
red light far red light
Exposure to far red light
gives the same effect as
etiolation
Expansion is stimulated Expansion is inhibited by
Leaf
by red light far red light
Chlorophyll formation Chlorophyll formation
stimulated inhibited
Growth of lateral roots is Growth of lateral roots is
Lateral roots
inhibited stimulated
In SDPs red light inhibits In SDPs far red light
Flowering
flowering promotes flowering
In LDPs red light In LDPs far red light
stimulates flowering inhibits flowering

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8B Exam practice
1 (a) (i) D
(ii) B
(iii)
Area of Brain Function
cerebrum conscious thoughts and movements

medulla oblongata control heart rate

hypothalamus thermoregulation

cerebellum fine control of movement

(b) B = medulla oblongata

C = cerebellum
(c) To increase surface area.
So it can contain more cells.
2 (a) A
(b)

Effect Auxins Gibberellins

Promote cell elongation  

Promote root formation in cuttings and  

calluses

Promote fruit growth  

Inhibit lateral bud development  

Promote the breaking of dormancy in seed  

3 (a) C
(b) (i) C
(ii) Phytochrome Pfr is the active form.
It inhibits flowering.
At night Pfr is converted to Pr slowly.
It takes more than 7 hours to convert enough Pfr to allow flowering.
(c) (i) The part of the leaf covered for ten hours converted its Pfr to Pr.
Inhibition of flowering was removed.
The activated chemical (FTmRNA) circulated around the plant.
(ii) E is a control.
It shows that only part of the plant needs to be covered / it shows that it is not
total light absorbed that causes flowering.

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 (d) Allows plants to flower at certain time of year.
They can flower when conditions in habitat are most suitable.
Avoid competition from other plants.
4 (a) (i) D
(ii)
stimulus receptor coordination effector response
high light cells in centres in mid circular reduce size
intensity retina brain and muscles in of pupil
oculomotor iris
nerve

(iii) In bright light the visual pigments are bleached.

Unable to respond to light.
Reducing size of pupil prevents complete bleaching so vision is retained.
(b) The autonomic nervous system is divided into two parts, the sympathetic and
the parasympathetic systems.
The sympathetic system and the parasympathetic have nerves which connect
to the pacemaker of the heart.
Impulses sent down the sympathetic nerve will speed up the heart rate.
There are also sympathetic nerves to the adrenal glands which release
adrenalin and speed the heart up.
Impulses down the parasympathetic nerves will slow down the heart rate.
5 (a) 100 × (70 − 4) ∕ 4 = 1650%
(b) The shoots treated with gibberellins already had auxin present as the apical
buds were not removed.
This means that he was investigating the effect of combining auxin and
gibberellins.
Also, the shoots treated with auxin already had auxin present so she was
investigating the effect of increasing the auxin concentration.
He did not investigate the effect of gibberellin on its own nor did she compare
auxin to no auxin.
(c) Growing plants with the apical bud intact but no gibberellins or auxin applied.
(d) To show the results are repeatable / reliable.
To enable a mean to be calculated.
To enable any anomalous results to be identified.

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