Accepted Manuscript

Title: Microwave-induced shape-memory effect of silicon

carbide/poly(vinyl alcohol) composite

Author: Haiyan Du Zhen Song Jingjing Wang Zhenhai Liang

Yinghua Shen Feng You

PII: S0924-4247(15)00014-X
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.sna.2015.01.012
Reference: SNA 9029

To appear in: Sensors and Actuators A

Received date: 31-10-2014

Revised date: 10-1-2015
Accepted date: 11-1-2015

Please cite this article as: H. Du, Z. Song, J. Wang, Z. Liang, Y. Shen, F. You, Microwave-
induced shape-memory effect of silicon carbide/poly(vinyl alcohol) composite, Sensors
and Actuators: A Physical (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2015.01.012

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 Microwave-induced shape-memory effect of silicon carbide/poly(vinyl alcohol)
composite

Haiyan Du1*, Zhen Song1, Jingjing Wang1, Zhenhai Liang1, Yinghua Shen1, and Feng
You2
1
College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology,

t
Taiyuan 030024, China

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2
Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Material and

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Engineering, Wuhan Institute of Technology, 430073
* Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

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Abstract
Microwave (MW) induced shape-memory composites based on poly(vinyl alchohol)
an
(SM-PVA) are prepared by introducing silicon carbide (SiC, a strong MW absorbing
material) into polymer matrix. Silane coupling agent 3-triethoxysilylpropylamine is
M
used to modify inorganic particles in order to improve SiC dispersion in PVA matrix.
Fourier transform infrared reveals the successful surface modification of SiC.
Bending test is carried out to quantitatively characterize shape-memory effect, which
ed

is affected by SiC content and the applied MW output power. Apart from the expected
good MW-induced shape memory effect, SM-PVA composites also have good
pt

mechanical properties. On the basis of the wide medical applications of PVA and MW,
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the present studied composites have great potential applications in the field where fast
shape recovery but indirect heating is required.
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Keywords: Microwave-induced, Shape-memory composite, Poly(vinyl alcohol),

Silicon carbide

Page 1 of 31
1. Introduction
Shape-memory polymers (SMPs) can recover to its original shape from deformed
shape after being exposed to external stimulus, e.g., heat, light, electric and magnetic
field, or moisture [1-5]. It is one important class of stimuli-responsive materials.
Structurally, SMPs are elastic material consisting of networks and reversible
switching segments. The networks determining the permanent shape can be physical

t
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entanglements or chemical crosslinking. The switching segments, which fixe the
temporary shape can be amorphous polymer chains [6, 7].

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Despite shape memory effect (SME) of various polymers have been extensively

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explored, reports about SMPs based on poly(vinyl alchohol) (SM-PVA) are still
few[8-12]. In a previous study, our group studied multi-sensitive SM-PVA, which can
respond to four triggers (direct heating, ultraviolet light, solvent, and microwave). We
an
concluded that PVA has a great application potential for SMPs since different stimuli
induced PVA could present excellent shape change. Although we have found
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microwave (MW)-induced moist PVA could present fast recovery (recovery time < 1
min) and high shape recovery ratio, some shortcomings have yet to be overcome [10].
ed

For instance, the small amounts of water in polymer matrix decrease the mechanical
strength. Moreover, water molecules in SM-PVA are unstable and volatile if samples
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are stored in relatively dry environment. In order to overcome these problems, we

intend to improve the properties and composition of MW-induced SM-PVA by
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introducing solid materials to prepare shape memory composite. Herein, silicon

carbide (SiC) is filled into PVA polymer matrix after hydrophilic treatment using
Ac

3-triethoxysilylpropylamine (KH-550) (Scheme 1).

SiC is chemically inert and strong MW absorbing material. Moreover, it has
strongly high temperature stability and low thermal expansion coefficient [13, 14].
Because of these special properties, SiC has been reported using as reactors for
microwave-assisted organic synthesis [14]. SiC molecules in SM-PVA composites act
as the dielectric and exhibit a dipole movement under the alternating electric field.
The dipole movement generates friction heating, which is dissipated subsequently as

Page 2 of 31
heat energy that required for shape recovery as shown in Figure 1.
Recently, growing attention has been paid to fabricate shape memory composites [7,
15-19]. Leng, Hu and Zhou et al. have done several excellent works to study SMPs
composites in order to improve the properties or fabricate SMPs sensitive to
electricity, magnetic, light etc. [1, 20-24]. However, there have been few reports on
shape-memory materials using MW as the driving force, which is efficient and

t
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environmentally friendly. The highlight of present work is combining the mechanism
of SMPs and MW heating to prepare MW induced SM-PVA composite. Using MW

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as the driving force of SMPs does not need preheating, and the deformation recovery

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could finish rapidly in a few seconds. MW heating has many advantages compared to
conventional heating, including non-contact heating, rapid heating and low cost.
Furthermore, MW and PVA have extensive applications in medical field [10, 25].
an
These will make MW-induced SM-PVA composite very promising applications,
especially in the field where the direct contact between heated material and heating
M
source is not allowed, such as MW responsive sensors, implantable devices, and other
medical devices [26-28].
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-------Scheme 1------
-------Figure 1 -------
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2. Experimental part
2.1. Materials and samples preparation
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2.1.1 Materials
PVA-1799 with a polymerization degree of 1700 and 99% of saponification was
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purchased from Shanxi vinylon works, China. Glutaraldehyde (GA, 25 wt%) was
obtained from Chengdu Reagent Factory. SiC with averaged diameter of 60 nm was
provided by Kaier Nano. Energy and Technology Co. Ltd., China. Dimethyl sulfoxide
(DMSO) and ethanol were used as received, Silane coupling agent
triethoxysilylpropylamine was purchased from Aladdin.
2.1.2 Sample preparation
Surface modification of SiC

Page 3 of 31
 SiC particles were treated in MW oven for 1 min before modification to get rid
of physically and weakly chemically absorbed species. 50 ml toluene and 10 g SiC
were added into four mouth flask, heating the mixture at 90 ºC for 1 h. After that
KH–550 was dropped, the reaction was carried out for 6 h, the product was washed
with acetone and deionized water, respectively, followed by driving under vacuum at
105 ºC for 12 h.

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Preparation of SM-PVA composite
SM-PVA composite was prepared by solution casting method. 8 wt% PVA

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solution was prepared by dissolving PVA in water at 98 ºC for 6 h. pH was adjusted

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to 4 with HCl when the solution cooled to room temperature (RT, 25 ºC). 5 ml SiC
water suspension was mixed with 100 ml PVA solution, mixing slowly at RT followed
by adding 1 ml GA. After that the homogeneous mixture was injected into certain
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shaped glass tubes with a diameter of 5 mm, which was designed in our lab. The
crosslinking reaction was conducted at RT for 36 h. The samples were dried at RT for
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48 h under vacuum after washed with deionized water to neutral.
2.2 Measurements
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2.2.1 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)

FTIR spectra were obtained on Bruker IFS 55 Equinox FTIR spectrometer using
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transmission mode from. SiC was evenly dispersed in compressed KBr.

2.2.2 Zeta potential measurement
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Zeta potential of powder surface was carried out on Zeta Pals instrument
(Brookfield, Britain). 0.5 mg/ml SiC water suspension was prepared followed by
Ac

ultrasonicateing and stirring for 30 min before test to make sure good dispersibility.
pH value was adjusted using HCl and NaOH.
2.2.3 Dielectric Property Measurements at 2450 MHz
The MW irradiation is related to dielectric properties of the heated material. The
dielectric property of SM-PVA composite, including dielectric constant (εˊ) and loss
factor (ε") was measured using automatic network analyzer (ANA, Aglient E8362B,
Agilent Technologies, Inc., Santa Clara) at 2450 MHz, RT.
4

Page 4 of 31
2.2.4 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

DSC analysis was conducted on a NETZSCH DSC 204 under nitrogen

atmosphere. Measurements were carried out from -30 to 230 ºC at a heating rate of 10
ºC/min with 5-10 mg sample.

2.2.5 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

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TGA was carried out from 20 to 500 ºC using Dupont 2100 thermal analysis

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apparatus. Thermograms were recorded under nitrogen atmosphere at a heating rate of

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5 ºC /min.

2.2.6 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)

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Test specimens (30 (length) × 1 (width) × 0.6 mm (thickness)) were prepared by
casting of PVA water solution containing GA. Dynamic mechanical properties
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(storage modulus, E0 and loss tangent delta, tan δ) were determined using a DMA
Q800 V7.1 instrument in tensile mode at a frequency of 1 Hz under nitrogen gas
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purging. The temperature ranged from 20 to 170 ºC with a heating rate of 2 ºC/min.
2.2.7 Mechanical test.
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Tensile tests were carried out using Universal testing Machine model 1121 (Instron,
USA) at a crosshead rate of 5 mm/min, RT. Five specimens were tested in each case.
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2.2.8 SEM Characterization

The morphology of SM-PVA SiC composites were observed on a JSM-5610LV

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scanning electron microscope. For clear observation, fractured surfaces of the samples
were coated with thin gold layers of about 100 A˚.
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2.2.9 MW-induced shape recovery of SM-PVA composite

Samples with original rod shape were used to observe the macroscopic shape
recovery. The straight rod sample changes soft after being MW irradiated under 600
W, it was folded with an external forces rapidly. The temporary shape can be
successfully fixed at RT. The fixed sample started to recover after irradiation, using
digital camera to record the shape recovery process. The output power could be
continuously varied from 0 to 1000 W. Bending test was conducted to describe the

Page 5 of 31
shape-memory behavior quantitatively. The straight rod specimen was bent to an
angle (θ0) after MW irradiation, and then it was cooled down to RT with external
force to maintain the deformation (θi). The changes of angle (θf) with time under MW
irradiation were recorded. The recovery ratio Rr was defined as (θ i-θf)/θi × 100%, and
the fixity ratio Rf was defined as θ i/θ0 × 100%, respectively [29, 30]. It is important to
note that MW oven must be placed in dry and ventilated place. Keep at least 1 m

t
ip
away from oven to protect the manipulator, and do not work for long time in front of
it. In addition, make magnetic materials away from MW oven to avoid disturbing the

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magnetic field balance of magnetron.

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3. Results and discussion

3.1 FTIR

an
The SiC powder surface consists of oxide film and Si-OH groups, which could
covalently bond with silane coupling agent. The -NH2 group of KH-550 is employed
M
to introduce hydrophilic functional groups on the surface of nanoparticles. Infrared
spectrum is used to observe the chemical structure of modified SiC. Figure 2 shows
the strong bands in region of 900 ~ 500 cm-1 correspond to Si-C stretching vibration.
ed

The band observed at 1250 cm-1 is considered to be Si-C bending vibration. The band
observed at 1110 cm-1 is designed to Si-O bond stretching vibration [31]. The
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presence of NH2 for modified SiC is confirmed by the bands at 3500-3400 cm-1 and
ce

1650-1590 cm-1, which are attributed to the C-N stretching vibration and N-H bending
vibration of primary amine, respectively. It suggests the successful surface
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modification of SiC using KH-550.

-------Figure 2-------
3.3 The dispersed stability of SiC in water
Zeta potential is used to judge the dispersed stability about SiC particles. It well
knows that the dispersion of nanoparticles suspension has a closer relationship with
Zeta potential value: the higher absolute value is, the better the suspension stability is
[32]. The Zeta potential result (Figure 3) shows the absolute value of modified SiC is
higher than that of original SiC, indicating the chemical modification improves the
6

Page 6 of 31
dispersion of SiC. Moreover, the sedimentation experiment also shows that the
dispersion of modified SiC in water is better than that of original one.

-------Figure 3 -------
3.4 SEM of SM-PVA composite
Figure 4 shows the microphotographs of SM-PVA with and without SiC,
respectively. One can see, compared with SM-PVA, there was a clear presence of

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nanoparticles for SM-PVA/SiC composite. Moreover, there is no obvious
agglomeration. The particles are homogeneously dispersed in polymer matrix.

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-------Figure 4 -------

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3.5 MW-induced shape-memory effect of SM-PVA composite
Figure 5 shows sample could recover from temporary shape to its original rod

an
within 1 min under 600 W MW, indicating MW is one effective driving force for
SM-PVA composite. Herein, we study the mechanism of this interesting phenomenon.
In fact, MW is an alternating electric field, MW oven generally operate at a frequency
M
of 2.45 GHz for heating. However, not all materials can be heated rapidly by MW. On
the basis of the interaction with microwaves, materials may be divided three groups,
ed

namely conductors, insulators and absorbers. Materials that absorb MW are called
dielectrics. MW is absorbed because of its value of the dielectric loss factor. Two
pt

fundamental properties of material govern its interaction with electromagnetic fields

in the area of microwave heating. One is the real part of dielectric (dielectric constant,
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ε'), which measures the ability of a dielectric material to store electrical potential
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energy. The other is the imaginary part of dielectric (dielectric loss factor, ε〃), which

measures the efficiency of conversing electromagnetic energy into heat [14, 16]. It is
well known that SiC is a high loss material, it can strongly absorb MW so as to be
heated to high temperatures in a short time. One can see from Table 1 that increasing

SiC content brings about obvious increase in ε' and ε〃. According to the mechanism

of SME, If SMPs are deformed to temporary shape under extra force, Brownian
motion and stress are frozen [33]. And the frozen stress will release when SMPs is
7

Page 7 of 31
expose to heating source or other external stimuli. Thus if SM-PVA composite is
expose to MW, the heating generated from SiC increases chain segments flexibility
and results in recovery of polymer chains to original stress-free state at a molecular
level [34]. So macroscopic microwave induced shape recovery could be observed.

-------Figure 5 -------

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-------Table 1 -------

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3.6 Effect of SiC content on dielectric properties of SM-PVA composite

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For SM-PVA composite, under a given MW irradiation frequency, the capacity
of absorbing electromagnetic MW irradiation and converting it into heat intimately

an
associated with the loss tangent (tan σ), which is the ratio of ε' and ε〃, namely tan

σ = ε〃/ε'. Figure 6 shows tanσ increases with SiC content, indicating the more SiC
M
is filled in polymer, the more heat is generated. So SM-PVA composite with 1.5%
SiC has the shortest recovery time. Composition affects not only dielectric properties
ed

but also the thermal and mechanical properties, which will be studied using DSC,
DMA, and tensile test in the following section.
pt

-------Figure 6 -------
3.7 Effect of SiC content on the thermal properties of SM-PVA composite
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As shown in Figure 7, filling SiC in polymer matrix slightly increases melting

temperature of composite. Because PVA is one typical partly crystal polymer, the
Ac

filled SiC acts as the nucleating agent [35, 36], which is helpful for the crystallinity of
macromolecular chains. However, filling too much SiC will disturb the crystallinity of
polymer chains, thus the melting point shifts to low temperature and melting peaks
decrease for sample with 1.5% SiC.
-------Figure 7 -------
3.8 DMA
Figure 8 shows the temperature dependence of storage modulus (E0) and loss

Page 8 of 31
tangent (tan θ) with different SiC contents. One can see all curves exhibit about two
orders of decrease in E0 when temperature increased around Tg. The decreasing E0
with temperature indicates SM-PVA composite has shape-memory characteristics just
as macroscopic shape recovery result shows. Storage modulus of polymer below Tg
was mainly attributed to the potential elasticity in crystalline region and the glass state
in amorphous region [37]. Furthermore, E0 increases with SiC content, which is

t
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considered as the result of the increasing crystallinity and stiffness caused by the
introduction of inorganic particles. The tensile test (Table 1) also shows that SiC

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improves the tensile strength of PVA to some extent.

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-------Figure 8 -------
3.9 Effect of SiC content on thermal stability of SM-PVA composite

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Figure 9 shows the thermo-gravimetric curves of SM-PVA composite with different
SiC contents. The degradation occurring at about 100-200 ºC is mainly attributed to
the removal of side hydroxyl from PVA polymer chain. The carbonization degradation
M
of polymer main chains takes place in the range of 250-400 ºC [38, 39]. One can see
that composite degrades slightly slower than sample without SiC, indicating the
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introduction of SiC slightly improves the thermal stability of PVA. Thermal induced
SM-PVA composite has good thermal stability is what we expect.
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-------Figure 9 -------
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3.10 Effect of SiC content on shape recovery properties of SM-PVA composite

All samples can be deformed after MW irradiation, and the fixity ratio is over 99%.
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Figure 10 shows SiC filled SM-PVA composites could present good SME with over
90% recovery value. Moreover, SiC content has strongly affected the recovery time.
The required shape recovery time decreases with SiC content. SM-PVA composites
with 1.5% of SiC could recover its original shape within 1 min under 300 W
irradiation, however, the shape recovery of sample having 0.3% SiC requires about 2
min. It indicates the more SiC is filled in composite the more heat generated, which
leading to the fast recovery under the same irradiation condition. However, when the
content of SiC exceeds 1.5%, the sample will become brittle and easily broken, it is
9

Page 9 of 31
hard for shape deformation.
-------Figure 10 -------
3.11 Effect of MW power on shape-memory behavior of SM-PVA composite
In the present work MW oven generator with continuously varied output power is
applied, thus, one question is proposed whether recovery ratio will be adjusted by
adjusting output power. Herein, the shape recovery of sample with 1.5% SiC under

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different power MW irradiation is mainly studied. The results showed that no
recovery behavior can be observed when output power is less than 200 W. However,

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300 W is sufficient to trigger sample to recover, Rr is about 98% after 2 min

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irradiation, as shown in Figure 11. Rr increases with the increasing applied output
power. The result indicates MW can be used to adjust shape recovery speed, it is
helpful for exploring the applications of MW induced SMPs applications.
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-------Figure 11 -------
3.12 Effect of MW irradiation on thermal sability of SM-PVA composite
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TGA thermograms of samples through different recovery cycles (1, 3 and 5)
have been used to show whether MW irradiation has effect on thermal stability of
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polymer matrix or whether shape recovery is attributed to the polymer degradation

caused by MW irradiation. As one sees from Figure 12 there is no obvious difference
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between the three samples. It indicates the thermal stability of SM-PVA composite
has not been affected although after 5 cycles. And the shape recovery is caused by
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MW heating rather than polymer degradation.

-------Figure 12 -------
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4. Conclusion

SiC, one strong microwave absorber, has been filled into PVA matrix to fabricate
microwave induced shape memory polymer composite. Hydrophiphic modification of
SiC has been done with respect to improve the dispersion of inorganic nanoparticles
in water and the compatibility in polymer matrix. SM-PVA composite could show
good shape recovery within 1 min under MW irradiation. MW is proved to be an
effective driving force for SMPs. The rapid recovery can be attributed to the MW
10

Page 10 of 31
heating caused by the dielectric properties of SiC. The SiC content and the applied
MW output power have effect on the recovery property. At a certain power output,
samples with more SiC content will return to original shape in a shorter time. And for
samples with the same SiC content, increasing applied MW power will bring about
rapid recovery. Moreover, thermal and mechanical test show inorganic particles
contribute to the increased thermal stability and enhanced tensile strength. MW

t
ip
induced actuation of SMPs is limited demonstrated in the field, so various polymers
are waiting to be explored as MW-induced SMPs due to the great advantages of

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microwave.

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Acknowledgments
The work has been supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(NNSFC, No. 21304065), The Foundation for Young Scientists of Shanxi Province
an
(No. 201302012-1). Further thanks are due to the Innovation Project of Higher
Education (No. 2013109)
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behavior of composites with shape memory polymer, Composites Part A 35 (2004)
1065-1703
[38] P. Zheng, X. K. Ling, A thermal degradation mechanism of polyvinyl
alcohol/silica, Nanocomposites Polym.Degrad.Stab. 92 (2007) 1061-1071
[39] B. J. Holland, J. N. Hay, The thermal degradation of poly(vinal alcohol),

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Polymer 42 (2001) 6775-6783

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 Biography

Haiyan Du studied at Sichuan University in the State Key Laboratory of Polymer

Materials and Engineering of China, and received her PhD degree in 2011. She joined
the Taiyuan University of Technology in July 2011 and was promoted to associate
professor in 2013. Du’s research interests are in the structure-property relationships of

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environment induced functional polymer materials, especially shape memory

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polymers. Specific research areas are in the crosslinked elastomers, nanocomposites,

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photosensitive polymer, the synthesis and characterization poly (ionic liquid). A range
of synthetic techniques including basic organic or macromolecular synthesis,

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post-polymerization modification, controlled free radical polymerization are used to
prepare well-defined polymer materials.
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 Table 1 The dielectric, mechanical and recovery properties of SM-PVA
composites with different SiC contents

Run SiC ε' ε'' tan σ Recovery time Recovery ratio EBa TSb
[%] [s] [%] [%] [MPa]
1 0.0 4.615 ± 0.137 0.588 ± 0.056 0.12 ± 0.003 —c — 313.3 19.5

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2 0.3 27.75 ± 0.089 4.834 ± 0.035 0.17 ± 0.004 138 ± 2 93.2 ± 0.8 283.5 23.6

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3 0.8 34.63 ± 0.043 6.658 ± 0.028 0.19 ± 0.007 115 ± 1 98.3 ± 0.9 157.3 26.0

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4 1.5 56.79 ± 0.113 12.91 ± 0.041 0.22 ± 0.003 115 ± 1 95.3 ± 0.6 123.0 32.0
a. EB: Elongation at Break b. TS : Tensile Strength c. —: No Shape Recovery

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 O
O
O Si NH2 NH2
SiC OH + O Si NH2 SiC
O
O

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Scheme 1 SiC Surface modification using silane coupling agent

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 Alternating
Electric Field

l S

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Permenate Shape Initial Shape
Removing Irradiation

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SiC particle Electric direction Heating energy

Figure 1 The mechanism of MW-induced shape memory behavior of poly(vinyl

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alcohol) composites

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 a

1635
3423

1267
b

864
T(%)

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3375

1568
3512

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cr
a Original SiC

1269
b Modified SiC

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4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

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Wavenumber/cm
-1

Figure 2 FT-IR spectra of original and modified SiC powder

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 10 Original SiC
Modified SiC
0

-10

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-20

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Zeta

-30

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-40

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-50

-60
0 2 4 6 8 10
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pH
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Figure 3 Zeta position of original and modified SiC suspensions
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 t
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Figure 4 SEM of SM-PVA without (a) and with (b) SiC

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 t
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Figure 5 MW-induced shape memory behavior of SM-PVA composites

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 0.30

0.25
tan σ

0.20

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0.15

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0.0% 0.3% 0.8% 1.5%
SiC content

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Figure 6 The relationship between loss tangent and SiC content in SM-PVA
composite
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 16
SiC content (%)
14 a 0.0 a
b 0.3
12 c 0.8
10 d 1.5
b
8
c

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6
Endotherm

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4 d

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0

-2

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-4
0 50 100 150 200

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Temperature/℃

Figure 7 DSC results of SM-PVA composite with different SiC contents

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 5000
d SiC Content (%) A
c
a 0.0
4000 b b 0.3
a
c 0.8
Storage Modulus/ MPa

d 1.5
3000

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2000

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1000

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0

-30 0 30 60 an 90
Temperature/℃
120 150 180 210
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SiC Content (%) B

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0.6 a 0.0
d
b 0.3
c c 0.8
0.5 b
d 1.5
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a
0.4
tan d

0.3
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0.2
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0.1

0.0

-30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Temperature/℃

Figure 8 DMA results of SM-PVA composites with different SiC contents

A) Storage modulus versus temperature. B) Loss tangent versus temperature

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 100

80
)
%
(
Weight loss

60

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40
SiC Content (%)

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a 0.0
20
b 0.3
c 0.8

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d 1.5
0
100 200 300 400 500
Temperature/℃
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Figure 9 TGA curves of SM-PVA composites with different contents of SiC
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 SiC Content (%)
100
0.3
0.8
80 1.5
Recovery ratio (%)

60

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20

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0

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0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Recovery time/s
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Figure 10 Effect of SiC content on shape-memory behavior of SM-PVA
composites under 300 W MW irradiation
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 The applied MW output power/W
100 300
400
600
80
Recovery ratio (%)

60

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20

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0 50 100 150 200
Recovery time/s
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Figure 11 Shape-memory behavior of SM-PVA composite under different MW power
output irradiation
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 100 The cycle number
a 1
b 3
Weight loss (%) 80 c 5

60

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0 100 200 300 400 500

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Temperature/℃

Figure 12 TGA curves of SM-PVA treated under MW with different cycle

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 Microwave-induced shape-memory effect of silicon carbide/poly(vinyl alcohol)
composite

Highlights
The present work combines the mechanism of shape memory polymers (SMPs)
and microwave (MW) heating and prepares MW induced SM-PVA composite. Using

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MW as the driving force of SMPs is efficient and environmentally friendly. Moreover,

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the deformation recovery could finish rapidly in a few seconds without preheating.

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