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A review on photonics and its applications

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DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.05.184

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

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A review on photonics and its applications

Kirubel Amsalu, Sivaprakasam Palani ⇑
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Photonics technology plays a vital role in various fields, such as manufacturing, biomedical, alternate
Received 17 April 2020 energy sector, aerospace, telecommunications, etc. It generates and controls light in the form of radiant
Accepted 7 May 2020 energy as photon. The light can be manipulated or molded using band gaps in photonic crystals. There are
Available online xxxx
many materials that can be integrated to further the application of photonics. The common material is
Graphene, which is a single atom carbon. Application areas of the technology include LEDs, photo detec-
Keywords: tors, photovoltaic devices, etc. This article presents the review of state of the art of photonics and its
Photonics
application.
Photonic Crystals
Graphene
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Photonics Sensing Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
Photonic Applications ence on Nanotechnology: Ideas, Innovation and Industries.

1. Introduction this two terms was discussed as electronics involves the control
of electric-charge flow (in vacuum or in matter) while Photonics
The term photonics was obtained from the word photon, involves the control of photons (in free space or in matter) [23].
denoted by tiniest entity of light. Photonics involves generation, This description clearly shows that there exists an overlap between
detection and manipulation of the signal [8]. It is a technology the disciplines. This could be electron controls the flow of photons
for generating and control of light as well as radiant energy in and vice versa. It also reflects the importance of the photon nature
the form of quantum unit as photon. of light for relating the many optical devices’ operation [19]. The
Semiconductor technology has vital role in technology develop- photonic technologies having great potential for economic impact
ment for miniaturization and high speed performance of integrated for next decades and the predicted growth rate of 25% approxi-
circuits. Unfortunately, miniaturization of components / parts in mately by various industrial organizations. It has 650 ($CDN) bil-
circuits needs high level of power dissipation, resistance, and lion global industry according to a study by CPIC [22] and
higher speeds. This could be directed to a greater sensitivity to sig- projected to have market value of more than €600 billion in 2020.
nal synchronization. In an effort to further the progress of high- Photonics technology was widely used for different applications
density integration and system performance, scientists are now such as laser, optics, fiber-optics, opto-electrical devices, alterna-
returning to light instead of electrons as the information carrier tive energy, healthcare, telecommunication, aerospace and many
[9,10]). Refs. [9,10] highlighted the advantages of light over elec- more. The crucial parameter in the application of nanophotonic
trons; it has the ability to move faster in dielectric materials com- devices is the source of power. Ref. [23], suggested that solar based
pared to electrons moves in metallic wire, which leads to transmit source power has promising devices for cheaper and large scale
the information at large amounts per second. The dielectric mate- energy conversion in solar cells. It is also possible to incorporate
rials have higher bandwidth compared to metals. The bandwidth of the miniaturized version into nanophotonic systems as integrated
fiber-optic communication systems is about one terahertz, how- power sources to form a self-powered system. The nano scale pho-
ever electronic systems such as telephones are only few hundreds tonic devices can effectively focus the optical field into a
kilohertz. In addition, photons are not as interacting as electrons, nanometer-sized volume have many application requires the tight
which help reduce energy losses. Ref. [19], mentioned that the field confinement of optical fields including information and communi-
of photonics is at its young stage, stated that the term ‘‘photonics” cation technologies, sensors, and enhanced solar cells and lighting
itself was coined in analogy to electronics. The main difference in [21]. The photonics technologies lead to discovery of new optoelec-
tronics devices, which is energy efficient, better performances and
⇑ Corresponding author. low cost. This could be achieving by manipulation of photons in
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Palani). semiconductor and bulk crystals in LED and Lasers. Now a day’s

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.05.184
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Nanotechnology: Ideas, Innovation and Industries.

Please cite this article as: K. Amsalu and S. Palani, A review on photonics and its applications, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2020.05.184
2 K. Amsalu, S. Palani / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

optical computers, computers use the crystals and meta-materials. extent of design interest [9,10]. Micro cavity, wave guide and per-
The control of pulse and light could at sub micrometer volumes fect mirror can be obtained by point defect, line defect and line
achieved by nano wire photonics. The graphene photonics devices defect respectively. Photonic defects can provide the chance to
are more efficient in transparent conductors than semiconducting shape and mold the flow of light for photonic information technol-
materials due to low sheet resistance and high transparency. ogy. Intricate structures of photonic crystals could be fabricated by
Another application of photonics in medical imaging, Optical lithography techniques such as electron beam lithography and X-
Coherence Tomography (OCT) techniques has high resolution of ray lithography [9,10].
three dimensional images with non-invasive treatment for brain
tumors. Photonic sensors and systems are used for intelligence, 2.1. Photonic bandgap
surveillance, and reconnaissance. The photonic communication
was used for transporting terabits of information. Most of indus- In theoretical perspective, the explanation of light must involve
trial machine application especially computer numerical control the solution of Maxwell’s equation, Eq. (2), in a periodic dielectric
machine could equipped with online monitoring and inspection medium. Normally photons do not interact with each other hence;
and measurement. This paper was addressed much industrial the equation will be a standard single particle problem. This
application of photonics. Hence comprehensive of review needed inferred that the theoretical computations can give very precise
for application of photonics in various fields such as manufactur- predictions and descriptions of photons. Morales [14] discussed
ing, biomedical, alternate energy sector, aerospace, telecommuni- that Maxwell’s equation, in the absence of external currents and
cations. This paper focused on comprehensive review of sources, can be cast in a form which is reminiscent of the Schrodin-
photonics, advancement in photonics and its application. ger equation that is
 
1 x2
2. Photonic crystals r r HðrÞ ¼ 2 HðrÞ ð2Þ
2 ð rÞ c

Photonics utilize the advantages of photonic energy. Photon where H(r) is the magnetic field of the photon, r is the photon’s fre-
energy defined as the energy carried by a single photon. This quency, c is the speed of light and 2 ðr Þ is the macroscopic dielectric
energy can be calculated using Eq. (1). The higher energy of pho- function. For constructing a periodic array of macroscopic dielectric
tons depends on photons frequency whereas lower energy can be atoms, the photons in this crystal can be expressed in terms of a
with longer photons wavelength. band structure [9,10].

E ¼ hc=k ð1Þ 2.2. Photonic cavity

where h is the Planck constant, c is the speed of light in vacuum and
As discussed above, it is possible to trap light at a point within
k is the photons wavelength. Therefore, after realizing the concept
the crystal. One of the methods involves changing the dielectric
of light energy it is a must to know how light energy is manipulated
medium in some local region of the crystal. For instance, a change
and controlled. Photonic crystals are the solutions. In simple terms,
can be made to a single ‘dielectric atom’ by modifying its dielectric
the idea of photonic crystal is to design materials so that they can
constant, by modifying its size or simply removing it from the crys-
affect the properties of photons, which has similar affect in ordinary
tal. Fig. 1 shows the consequence of creating a vacancy; where a
semiconductor crystals for electron properties [9,10]. The orthodox
vacancy is a defect with radius of r = 0. Hence, by removing a rod
way of manipulating optical photons has relied on the mechanism
from the lattice, a cavity was created which is enclosed by reflect-
of total internal reflection. Ref. [24] stated that when light come
ing walls.
across an interface in lower index of refraction, the light gets
If the defect involves the removal of dielectric (an ‘air defect’ as
refracted to some extent due to the angle of incidence and beyond
in the case of the vacancy) as shown in Fig. 1, then the cavity mode
a certain critical angle. This helps in total internal reflection (TIR).
progress from the dielectric band leads to sweep across the gap by
Light pipes, optical waveguides and fiber optics depends on this
changing the amount of dielectric removed. Similarly, if the defect
phenomenon could efficiently transport light with minimal loss.
gets the addition of extra dielectric material (a ‘dielectric defect’)
Ref. [9,10] stated that light propagating through high-dielectric
then the cavity mode drops from the air band. Apart from tuning
material can be reflected at the boundary with a low-dielectric
the frequency, it is also possible to control localized photonic state
material. This could limit miniaturization of optical components.
at symmetry level. For instance, Fig. 2 shows the symmetries of the
Miniaturization of optical components must have smooth interface
localized photon mode for three different values of defect radius.
regarding to wave length of the light. Photonic crystals use the con-
cept of bandgap to defeat this problem. Similarity on the analogy
between electronic bandgap of semiconductors and photonic
bandgap can be driven.
In a semiconductor, the atomic lattice represents a periodic
potential to an electron propagating through the electronic crystal.
In photonic crystals, the periodic ‘‘potential” is due to a lattice of
macroscopic dielectric media instead of atoms [9,10]. In addition
to that photonic crystals are materials patterned through dielectric
constant, which can make a range of banned frequencies called a
photonic bandgap the optical analogue of electronic bandgap in
semiconductors.
The photons cannot propagate the medium due to bandgap. A
defect could lead to localized photonic states in the gap. Based
on the nature of defect the photonic shapes and its properties
can be determined. Using any dielectric constant the defect in pho-
tonic crystal can be achieved in any shape, size. Thus, photonics Fig. 1. Air defect and Dielectric defect. Figure reproduced with permission from:
defect states in band gap could change to any frequency and spatial ref. [3], Ó 2019 Springer Nature.

Please cite this article as: K. Amsalu and S. Palani, A review on photonics and its applications, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2020.05.184
 K. Amsalu, S. Palani / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 3

deposition techniques (chemical vapor transport and deposition,

and metal-catalyzed molecular beam epitaxy). These techniques
could be effectively used for production of wide range of inorganic
nanowire compositions such as Si, Ge, ZnO, CdS, GaN, GaAs and InP.
When developing optical computers, computers which utilize crys-
tals and meta-materials to control light and manipulate pluses
within sub micrometer volumes are more important [23]. In addi-
tion, nanowires represent an important class of photonic building
blocks. They can be processed either by chemically synthesizing
or using latest lithography techniques. Although nanowires fabri-
cated using lithography techniques have their own features, chem-
ically grown nanowires possess unique advantages of being single
crystalline, relatively defect free, having atomically smooth sur-
faces and being able to accommodate large atomic mismatches.

4. Graphene photonics and optoelectronics

Graphene is two dimensional, thinnest and strongest materials

in the universe [4,5]. In addition, its charge carriers show giant
inherent mobility, optical transparent, zero effective mass, and
can travel for micrometers without scattering at room tempera-
ture. It has high electrical current, intrinsic property, lower resis-
tivity than any other material known at room temperature. It is
also stronger than diamond with a weight of less than a paper. It
Fig. 2. Localized states in the gap for a defect formed by varying the radius r of a
single rod. Figure reproduced with permission from: ref. [3], Ó 2019 Springer represents a theoretically new class of materials that are only
Nature. one atom thick [5]. Due to these fascinating properties, graphene
has earned the title ‘‘Wonder Material”. True potential of graphene
can utilize in photonics and optoelectronics application and mainly
3. Nanowire photonics-application combination of its optical and electronic properties can fully be
exploited [1]. All optical circuits yet to be commercialized at large
Yan [23], explained the development of semiconductor nanos- scale due to abundant advantages of photons. Some hybrid opto-
tructures which is known as nanowire. Another well-known semi- electronic circuits have produced with significant improvement
conductor microstructure, with tunable optical properties, is in performance of electronic circuits. The main difficulty for
quantum dots. When the quantum dot size decreases, quantum designing a multipurpose optical component analogous has lim-
confinement leads to increased band gap. This could help blue ited development of all optical systems [9,10]. Localization proper-
shifted light emission which is emission of light with shorter wave ties of defects creates the photonics crystal very attractive medium
length or increased energy. However, the development of nanos- for design of novel type filter couplers, lasers and light - emitting
tructures with cross sections of 2–200 nm allowed confinement diodes. In the case of laser or LED cavities, photonic crystals pro-
to 2D, therefore, electron and photons can freely propagate along vide a particularly unique capability- the control of spontaneous
the third dimension (Fig. 3). emission [9,10]. Spontaneous emission, as in Fig. 4, is the natural
Nanowire semiconductor microstructures are prepared by bot- tendency for an excited atom to ‘‘fall” to a state of lower energy
tom up approach and this process may require highly controlled while releasing its energy in the form of emitted radiation [9,10].
synthesis of 1D structure, single-crystalline, high-optical-quality It is also an emission where an excited atom or molecule decays
materials. Vapors–liquid–solid (VLS), process promotes the seeding to the ground state and emits a photon. This process is found in
and growth by introduced catalytic liquid alloy phase could adsorb every light emitting device used in the optoelectronic industry.
a vapor to super saturation levels. The large quantity of various LEDs, for example, emit light from the radiative recombination
nanowires for semiconductor can be produced by VLS. Further- of electrons and holes in a forward-biased p-n junction. Moreover,
more, Morales and Lieber [14] discussed recent advances in both by increasing the applied voltage, the number of electron-hole
physical (laser ablation and thermal evaporation) and chemical pairs in the junction region can become sufficiently large for

Fig. 3. (a) TEMimage of a GaN/AlGaN core– sheath nanowire. (b) TEM image of an InP super-lattice nanowire. (c) SEM image of highly branched PbS nanowires.
Figure reproduced with permission from: ref. [5], Ó 2019 Springer Nature.

Please cite this article as: K. Amsalu and S. Palani, A review on photonics and its applications, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2020.05.184
4 K. Amsalu, S. Palani / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

with doped semiconductors on parameters such as low sheet resis-

tance and high transparency relative to thickness and wavelength
show in Fig. 6.

4.2. Photovoltaic (PV) devices

Chapin [3] described photovoltaic (PV) cell converts light into

electricity. The fraction of absorbed photons converted to current
defines the internal photocurrent efficiency (IPCE). While current
PV technology is dominated by Si cells, Fig. 7a, Green et al. [6], sta-
ted the efficiency to be up to 25%. Different types of photovoltaic
devices shown in Fig. 7(a–e). Hoppe and Sariciftci [7], highlighted
Organic Photovoltaic cells (OPVs), Fig. 7b, which have lower effi-
ciency than Si cells, rely on polymers for light absorption and
Fig. 4. Decay of an atom while releasing a photon of energy. charge transport. And Krebs [12] discussed the manufacturing
technique using roll-to-roll process. Fig. 7c represents Dye-
synthesized solar cells (DSSC). According to Oregan [15]. DSSCs
use a liquid electrolyte as a charge transport medium. In addition,
stimulated emission i.e. emission stimulated by other photons
it consists of a high porosity nano-crystalline photo anode, com-
[9,10]. The rate of spontaneous emission of a given initial state is
prising TiO2, and dye molecules deposited on a transparent con-
proportional to the density of the final states available at the tran-
ductors (TC). When illuminated, the dye molecules capture the
sition frequency, and to the square of a matrix [9,10]. In other ways
incident photon generating electron/holes pairs. The electrons are
it is affected by changing the density of allowed states [8], which is
injected into the conduction band of the TiO2 and transported to
shown in Fig. 5. The free-photon Density of States (DoS) per unit
the counter electrode, the cathode. Regeneration of dye molecules
volume, Df, can be expressed as Eq. (3). Where xthe frequency of
is accomplished by capturing electrons from a liquid electrolyte.
the transition and k is is the wavelength of light.
Dfx1 1 ð3Þ
k3
4.3. Light-emitting devices

4.1. Transparent conductors Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) Fig. 7d consists of an

electroluminescent layer between the charge injecting electrodes
Most optoelectronic devices such as display touch screens, light and one electrode should be transparent. OLEDs used for ultrathin
emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar cells require materials with low television, display screen because of image quality, ultrathin device
sheet resistance and high transparency. Graphene is compared structure and lower power consumption [2].

Fig. 5. Density of states (A) free space (B) a photonic crystal (C) a photonic crystal with a local defect Figure reproduced with permission from: ref. [9], Ó 2019, Solid State
Communications.

Please cite this article as: K. Amsalu and S. Palani, A review on photonics and its applications, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2020.05.184
 K. Amsalu, S. Palani / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 5

Fig. 6. Transmittance for different conductors. Figure reproduced with permission from: ref. [13], Ó 2019 Springer Nature.

Fig. 7. Schematic representation of different PV devices. Figure reproduced with permission from: ref. [13], Ó 2019 Springer Nature.

4.4. Photo detectors invasive surgeries for characterization of the human genome
[16]. In addition to that light-based technologies provide the better
Fig. 7(e) shows Photo detector, which measures the optical response to medication. This could help the minimizing side
power by converting the observed photon energy into electrical effects, reduction of health care cost and shortened stays in hospi-
current. The absorption of photons can produce electric current tal. Medical imaging is also a rapidly developing area, in which
by the excited carriers from the valence band to the conduction understanding the status of a patient and corrective action for
band. Common applications as discussed by Saleh and Teich [20], guidance and implementation. Real-time images using fluorescent
includes remote controls, TVs, DVD players etc. biomarkers that selectively bind to tumor cells provide a clear dif-
ferentiation between healthy and diseased tissue during surgery
[11]. The principal application of photonics in healthcare is the
5. Photonics in healthcare and medicine applications application of Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) in medical
imaging. This process allows the capture of a three dimensional
Photonics technology plays vital role in healthcare industry image using light to capture it in high resolution. This has excep-
focused on low cost diagnosis, drug delivery, treatment and disease tional applications in the diagnosis of solid state tumor’s, without
prevention. It also involves in elective sight correction minimally the need for invasive surgery. The progression of the disease and

Please cite this article as: K. Amsalu and S. Palani, A review on photonics and its applications, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2020.05.184
6 K. Amsalu, S. Palani / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

treatment effect on the tumors can be monitored by using these Various application of graphene in photonics such as Transpar-
techniques. In addition to that monitoring of healing, neurological ent Conductors, Photovoltaic (PV) Devices, Light-Emitting Devices,
and ophthalmic conditions diagnosis was easily carried out. Nonin- Photo detectors are presented.
vasive property and level of detection are major reason for adopt- Photonics is important in the conversion of sunlight to electri-
ing this technology for essential. Also, the speed in which images cal, thermal, and chemical energy. In addition to that it has signif-
can be produced and the obvious reduction on surgery costs, recov- icant contribution to reduction of energy consumption through
ery time in hospital and the reduced time before treatment can more efficient lighting, displays, and communications.
begin for the patient are advantageous. OCT also play in therapy, Photonics has significant contribution in healthcare and medi-
recovery stage, monitoring the weakening of the tumors, fast cine, defense and national security, sensing, lighting, and energy
detection of reoccurrence during remission. Due to high regulation sectors for monitoring and inspection, industrial emissions mea-
image the patients can be treated in a specific way and targeted surement, environmental monitoring, night vision etc.
locations. Non-invasive treatment for brain tumor’s with Cyber
knife system which works by delivering beams of high dose radia- Declaration of Competing Interest
tion to tumor’s with extreme accuracy.
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
6. Photonics in defense and national security
to influence the work reported in this paper.
The sensor systems will be the next battle ground for intelli-
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