The Impacts of Shrimp Farming on Mangrove Forests

Michele Vincelli

ENVS 190A - Environmental Policy Thesis

December 14, 2015

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 Table of Contents

Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………pg. 5

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..pg. 5

Mangrove definitions ………………………………………………………………………………………pg. 5

Mangrove Mechanisms, Structures, and Adaptations …………………………………………pg. 6

Mangrove Forests Zones, Range, and Distribution ……………………………………...….…..pg. 8

Shrimp Farming History, Growth, and System Types ……….………………………….……pg. 10

Goal of this Review ………………………………………………………………………………………..pg. 14

Mangrove Forests; Ecological Functions and Socio-Economic Benefits ……………...………pg. 15

Habitat for species and Resources for Mankind ………….……………………………………pg. 16

Nursery Function ………………………………………………………………………………………….pg. 17

Water Purification ……………..…………………………………………………………………………pg. 19

Coastal Protection ……………………………………………………………………………….………..pg. 20

Shoreline Stabilization ……………………………………………….……………………………….…pg. 22

Land Building …………………………………………………………………….……………………..…..pg. 22

Carbon Storage …………………………………………………………….………………………………pg. 24

Shrimp farming; Ecological and Socio-Economic Impacts ………………..………………………..pg. 25

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 Reduced Area of Habitat for Thousands of Species ………….……………………………….pg. 26

Reduced Availability of Land and Forest Goods ……………………………………..…………pg. 27

Nursery and Fishery Collapse …………………………………………………………………………pg. 28

Decreased Water Quality ………………………….……………………………………………………pg. 29

Loss of Protective Coastal Barrier …………….…………………………………………………….pg. 33

Decreased Shoreline Stabilization and Land Building …………………………..…………..pg. 34

Decreased Carbon Sequestration and Storage …………………………………………………pg. 35

Impacts to Coastal Communities ……………………….……………………………………………pg. 37

Solutions to Protect Forests …………………………………….………………………………………………pg. 39

Discussion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………pg. 41

Tables and Figures ……………………………………………………..…………………………………………...pg. 46

Figure 1 ……………………….………………………………………………………………………………pg. 46

Figure 2 ……………………………………….………………………………………………………………pg. 46

Figure 3 ………………………………………………….……………………………………………………pg. 47

Table 1 ………………………………………………………..……………………………………………….pg. 47

Figure 4 ………………………………………………………...……………………………………………..pg. 48

Table 2 ………………….……………………………………………………………………………………..pg. 49

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 Figure 5 …………………………………………………………………………………………………...…..pg. 49

Table 3 ……………………………..………………………………………………………………………….pg. 50

Figure 6 …………...…………………………………………………………………………………………..pg. 50

Figure 7 ……………………………………………….………………………………………………………pg. 51

Figure 8 …………………………………………………….…………………………………………………pg. 51

Figure 9 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….pg. 52

References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…pg. 53

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Abstract

Mangrove forests are one of the most productive and biologically diverse

ecosystems on the planet. They occur in the tropics on shorelines and provide wildlife and

humans with resources and ecological services such as habitat, forest products, water

purification, shoreline stabilization, coastal protection, and carbon sequestration. Despite

the overwhelming importance and value of these ecosystems, many have been damaged or

destroyed by industry, with development of shrimp farms posing the greatest threat.

Current shrimp farming methods remove mangroves and alter waterways to construct

ponds to rear shrimp. The development and runoff of waste and chemicals from ponds

negatively impacts mangrove forest ecosystems, which results in loss of mangrove

resources and services. Traditional communities that depend on mangroves for sustenance

suffer from these activities and become marginalized into heavily degraded environments.

Turmoil arises between local peoples and shrimp farmers, which leads to protests, bombs,

and killings. Policies, laws, and sustainable farming methods are needed to regulate shrimp

farm development in mangrove forests and reduce negative impacts to the system. Local

communities need to be involved in the regulatory process and benefit from the industry.

Introduction

Mangrove Definitions

Mangrove forests are among the most productive, complex, and biologically diverse

ecosystems in the world. These unique systems are present on coastlines in tropical and

subtropical areas, mostly between 30 degrees North and South of the equator (McKee,

2007). Mangroves are shrubs and trees that are generally taller than a half meter and

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occur in areas where shore meets land (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007). The

mosaic of tropical trees and shrubs combined with surrounding flora and fauna is referred

to as mangrove forest (mangal), whereas mangrove ecosystem includes all biotic and

abiotic components of the system (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007).

Mangrove Mechanisms, Structures, and Adaptations

Mangroves have some of the most highly developed adaptations of any group of

plants due to the extreme conditions where they occur (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001).

These plants grow in protected tropical estuaries at the mouth of rivers, meaning water is

brackish, temperatures are high (above 16 C), soils are muddy and anaerobic, winds are

strong, and plants are exposed to large fluctuations in salinity and tides (Kathiresan and

Bingham, 2001). There are 70 different mangrove species that belong to 16 families, all

displaying traits of woody halophytes (salt-tolerant plants) (McKee, 2007, Queiroz et. al.,

2013). Plants in these families display self or cross-pollination, vivipary (embryo

development while attached to parent), hydrochory (dispersal of seeds by water), and

extensive mechanisms to deal with poor, waterlogged soils and high salinity. Pollination is

completed by wind or animals; animal pollinators include insects, birds, and mammals (e.g.,

bats) (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007). Vivipary in mangroves refers to

germination, maturation, and growth of embryo while still attached to the parent tree.

These embryos, referred to as propagules, grow on parent trees for about 4-6 months until

they are mature, reaching a size of 25-35 cm (Figure 1) (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001,

McKee, 2007). Once mature, propagules fall off parent trees and display hydrochory; that

is, they disperse using water and tides and, for many species, can remain viable in the

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water for several months. Specific maturation time and size of propagules are highly

dependent on the type of mangrove species as well as environmental conditions

(temperature, salinity, wind, tide, etc.) (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007).

Both vivipary and hydrochory are important adaptations since most mangroves are

inundated for at least some portion their lifetime. Yet the most impressive and highly

developed adaptations mangroves have are their many specialized roots and mechanisms

for salt-exclusion, accretion, and accumulation (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee,

2007).

Several specialized roots may be present depending on the species of mangrove and

location of the tree. Types of roots include pneumatophores, prop roots, and buttresses.

Pneumatophores (aerial roots) are pencil like roots with large lenticels that originate

underground and grow vertically from hypoxic (anaerobic) soils to aid plants in gas

exchange (Figure 2) (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Prop roots (also referred to as stilt

roots) are lateral roots that arise from stems and trunks above ground and help support

plants since underground roots are unable to penetrate deeply enough into clay soils and

sandy soils provide poor support (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). These roots usually

grow out from the middle section of trees and descend towards the ground, anchoring into

muddy soils to help support plants (Figure 1) (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Buttress

roots also grow laterally from trunks, but are usually near the bottom of the tree and much

thicker and sturdier than prop roots. These roots help stabilize trees by providing

mechanical support (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007).

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 Mangroves need specialized mechanisms to deal with large fluctuations in salinity.

Mangroves usually display one of three traits to deal with varying levels of salt; salt

exclusion, salt excretion, and salt accumulation (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee,

2007). Salt exclusion happens in the root systems of mangroves, where ultrafilters exclude

salts while extracting water from soils. Salt excretion is a mechanism where salt is taken in

with water, then excreted through specialized glands in leaves. Salt is then removed from

the surface of leaves by wind or rainfall (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Salt

accumulation is another mechanism that involves the uptake of salty waters; however,

instead of excreting salt through specialized glands, the trees accumulate and store salts in

vacuoles of leaves, as well as twigs, wood, and bark. When the vacuoles of leaves reach

their salt-carrying capacity, they are shed from trees, which rids them of excess salts

(Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007). In addition to these highly specialized

adaptations to saline environments, most mangroves have the ability to conserve water by

regulating the amount taken in when salinity is too high. The leaves of mangroves also

have thick cuticles, which aids them in water retention by decreasing rates of

evapotranspiration (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007). It is important to note

that the types of adaptations mangroves have are highly dependent on the species of the

tree, as well as its location (Ewel et. al., 1998, McKee, 2007).

Mangrove Forests Zones, Range, and Distribution

Mangrove species are distributed between land and ocean, which can be split into

separate zones; the coastal (fringe) zone, the middle (riverine) zone, and the inland (basin)

zone. Environmental conditions in each of these zones are quite different in terms of

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elevation, inundation, and salinity, which influence tree morphology, anatomy,

productivity, and function (i.e., goods and services)(Table 1)(Ewel et. al., 1998, McKee,

2007). The fringe zone occurs on exposed coasts where water levels and salinity are high

and trees bear the brunt of tides, acting as a protective barrier to land. All types of roots

occur here, with pneumatophores being the most abundant to aid tree respiration (McKee,

2007). Salt secretion is the mechanism most heavily used in this zone. The riverine zone

occurs in brackish estuaries, where salinity is moderate due to water inputs from river and

tides (Figure 2a) (Ewel et. al., 1998, Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Trees in this zone are

the most productive and have intricate, interlocking root systems (prop roots) that work to

trap sediments that would otherwise flow into bays and oceans. Salt exclusion and

accumulation are used by trees that grow here (McKee, 2007). The basin zone occurs at

higher elevations, where inundation of trees happens occasionally with the fluctuation of

tides (Ewel et. al., 1998). Soil salinity is high due to salt accumulation through increased

evapotranspiration rates. Trees in this zone have large buttress roots and intercept water

flowing overland, which aids in filtrating toxins and sediments, therefore improving water

quality (Ewel et. al., 1998, McKee, 2007). The complexity of these forests provides habitat

to thousands of species and numerous goods and services to humans; therefore, mangrove

forests are vitally important to both wildlife and human communities worldwide (Kelly,

2012, Lee et. al., 2014, McKee, 2007).

Mangrove forests occur in large ranges across the world and have been documented

and revered by human civilizations for thousands of years (Giri et. al., 2011, Kathiresan and

Bingham, 2001). These unique forests provide habitat for thousands of species, prevent

coastal erosion, improve water quality, and trap sediments that would otherwise flow into

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bays and oceans (Islam et. al., 2005). Mangrove forests also protect wildlife and human

communities from large waves, tides, and storm surges (Paul et. al., 2010). The first

appearance of mangrove species from genera Avicennia and Rhizophora evolved around

what is now known as China some 114 million years ago (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001).

In 2005, it was found that mangrove forests were present in 123 countries, covering an

area of approximately 18 million hectares (Figure 3) (Giri et. al., 2011, McKee, 2007,

Queiroz et. al., 2013). Historically, 75% of the world’s coastlines were dominated by

mangrove forests, with the majority occurring in areas around SE Asia and Indonesia

(Figure 4) (Giri et. al., 2011, Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007).

Due to increasing pressures from human activities and population growth, an

estimated 38% of mangrove forests have been lost over the past two decades - a rate that

exceeds the loss of both coral reefs and tropical rainforest ecosystems (Islam et. al., 2005,

Tenorio et. al., 2015, Valiela et. al., 2001), making mangrove forests the most threatened

ecosystems in the world (Kelly, 2012). Destruction of mangrove forests can be largely

attributed to the fact that most of the world’s populous (over 50%) reside in areas near

coasts, and therefore influence them greatly (Lee et. al., 2014). Human activities such as

deforestation for aquaculture and agriculture, harvesting of forest products, and coastal

development cause serious damage to and loss of these systems, with construction of

shrimp farms posing the greatest threats (Table 2) (Ewel et. al., 1998, Islam et. al., 2005,

Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, Paul et. al., 2010, Tenorio et. al., 2015, Valiela et. al., 2001).

Shrimp Farming History, Growth, and System Types

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 Shrimp farming has rapidly expanded over the last four decades as demands

increase with increasing human population size (Queiroz et. al., 2013, Stokstad, 2010).

Traditionally, global shrimp fisheries supplied most of the world’s market with wild-caught

shrimp of different species and size. However, over-fishing of the world’s oceans led to

global fishery collapses, which devastated many countries relying on export revenues for

economic stability (Islam et. al., 2005, Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003). Some regions experienced

a 30% decline in wild fish and shrimp populations (Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003). In addition to

reduction of natural populations, concerns were also being raised about ecosystem damage

caused by various fishery practices. These issues led to the creation and enforcement of

regulations by many countries, which put further pressure on fisheries since catch

limitations and use of more advanced technologies can be quite costly. As human

population and demand for shrimp and other fishery products rose, many investors started

looking for alternative ways to supply the masses, and the development of aquaculture,

especially shrimp farming, rapidly expanded in a very short period of time (Paez-Osuna et.

al., 2003).

Traditional marine shrimp farming began in Asia some 4000 years ago, but in 1970

became a global industry that now takes place in regions across the globe, a phenomenon

referred to as the Blue Revolution (Ewel et. al., 1998, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Stokstad, 2012).

About 90% of farmed shrimp come from developing countries with the three largest

exporters being Thailand, China, and Vietnam (Paul et. al., 2010). China is the leading

producer, contributing 62.3% of farmed shrimp to world production (Paul et. al., 2010)

although Thailand is the number one exporter (Kelly, 2012). Countries in Latin America

such as Ecuador, Brazil, and Mexico as well as regions in Africa have also undertaken

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shrimp farming as a way of economic stimulation and growth (Islam et. al., 2005, Queiroz

et. al., 2013). The highest demand for shrimp comes from the United States, Japan, and

Europe (Paul et. al., 2010). When fisheries worldwide began to collapse from reduced

population sizes due to overfishing, there was incentive to find alternative methods to raise

production, and shrimp farming was seen as a solution (Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003).

Conditions for shrimp farming are optimal where mangrove forests occur due to climate,

hypersaline environment, and occurrence of wild populations of shrimp larvae (Tenorio et.

al., 2015) and construction of shrimp farms in mangrove forest environments results in

high production and high profitability with low costs (Islam et. al., 2005, Tenorio et. al.,

2015). The world’s mangrove forests are mainly present in undeveloped and developing

countries and people residing in these countries saw development of shrimp farms as an

opportunity to alleviate food scarcity and poverty as well as stimulate employment and the

local economy (Queiroz et. al., 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). These assumptions were based

on the notion that exporting shrimp, which are the largest marine commodity in terms of

value (15% of total international trade value for fish products), would allow for economic

growth as well as decrease pressures on wild shrimp populations (Paul et. al., 2010,

Queiroz et. al., 2013, Stokstad, 2010). Beginning in the 1970’s, political and economic

support from both private and public sectors allowed regions in Asia, Africa, and Latin

America to rapidly transform mangrove forests into areas for shrimp cultivation (Queiroz

et. al., 2013). For example, in 1970, Brazil produced less than 9,000 tons of shrimp

although by 2007 production had risen to 3.2 million tons (Tenorio et. al., 2015). While a

massive jump in shrimp production was occurring worldwide (Figure 5), large portions of

mangrove forests were being cleared to make it possible. In 2015, it was estimated that

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approximately 1.5 million hectares of global mangrove forests had been converted to

shrimp farms (Tenorio et. al., 2015). Rapid conversion of mangrove forests to shrimp

farms has taken a huge toll on the once productive and biologically diverse ecosystems,

especially due to lack of laws and regulations in countries where production is the highest

(Tenorio et. al., 2015). Since most of the world’s shrimp supply comes from developing

countries, methods of shrimp farming, as well as their impacts, are an important area of

focus (Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012).

In general, the first step to developing a shrimp farm is clearing areas near coasts

and waterways (i.e., mangrove forests) for construction of ponds to rear shrimp. Basin

mangrove areas (inland zone) are sometimes targeted for development of farms because a

constant water supply is needed to maintain water quality within ponds (Islam et. al.,

2005); however, many times ponds are built in the fringe zone of mangrove forests, which

is much more destructive to the system. The width, length, and depth of ponds depend on

the intensity of the farming system, but usually fall within a range of 1.5-3.5 meters deep

(Ewel et. al., 1998). Once dug, ponds are filled with saline water and stocked with post-

larvae shrimp either from estuaries or hatcheries; next, depending on the intensity of the

system, ponds are supplemented with feed, fertilizers, and in some cases antibiotics,

disinfectants, preservatives, and pesticides (Islam et. al., 2005). Farmers that use large

amounts of feed, fertilizers, and antibiotics must abandon their ponds after approximately

five years due to severe water pollution and then either move to other areas to construct

new ponds or go out of business (Kelly, 2012). For example, in 1990, 50% of mangrove

forests in Thailand had been converted to shrimp farms and, by 1995, 24% of those farms

had been abandoned due to poor water quality and disease (Ewel et. al., 1998).

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 Methods for shrimp farming can be classified into four different categories:

traditional, extensive, semi-intensive, and intensive (Paul et. al., 2010). These categories

are based on intensity of the operation, such as pond size, stocking densities, inputs of feed

and fertilizers, and water quality management (Paul et. al., 2010). In general, traditional

and extensive farming operations use natural water systems to maintain water quality and

recruit natural stocks of post-shrimp larvae (Table 3). Stocking densities are usually low as

are inputs of food and fertilizers. Semi-intensive and intensive operations use water

systems that are separate from the natural environment, have high stocking densities, high

amounts of chemical inputs and feed, and mechanical aeration systems (Table 3) (Joffre et.

al., 2015). Due to the cost and maintenance of supplies and technology in intensive

systems, they are used very rarely in developing countries, especially by native and local

peoples (Joffre et. al., 2015). For example, 90% of the shrimp farms in Vietnam use

traditional or extensive farming methods, with only 10% using semi-intensive or intensive

operations (Joffre et. al., 2015). Each of these methods impacts surrounding environments

(i.e., mangrove forests) differently and are, therefore, important to identify.

Goal of this Review

The ecological goods and services provided by mangrove forests have been heavily

documented (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Paul et. al., 2010, Queiroz et. al., 2013).

Local and native peoples living among the world’s mangrove forests have depended on

these goods and services for generations (Queiroz et. al., 2013). Starting in 1970’s, a need

for higher production of fishery products, especially shrimp, to meet demands at a time

when natural populations were in decline prompted the boom of aquaculture, and

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development of shrimp farms rapidly expanded across the globe in a very short period of

time. While fisheries and aquaculture help alleviate socio-economic hardships, such as

food insecurity and poverty, by stimulating economic growth, negative impacts from the

loss of mangrove forests have been witnessed as well (Paul et. al., 2010, Queiroz et. al.,

2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). This review characterizes the ecological functions and socio-

economic benefits provided by mangrove forests, evaluate ecological and socio-economic

impacts that arise from removal of mangrove forests for shrimp farming, and identifies

possible solutions to protect forests. This assessment will help determine whether the

short-term benefits of shrimp farming are outweighed by the long-term benefits provided

by mangrove forests.

Mangrove Forests; Ecological Functions and Socio-Economic Benefits

The most important ecological functions (i.e., services) of mangrove forests are

providing habitat for thousands of species and goods for millions of people, providing

nursery and feeding grounds for aquatic and marine organisms, water purification (i.e.,

mechanisms to desalinize water; nutrient and sediment trapping via roots), coastal

protection from wave energy, tides, and storm surges (i.e., storm barrier), shoreline

stabilization and land building (i.e., roots prevent coastal erosion, stabilize shorelines, and

trap nutrients, sediments, and detritus), and carbon storage (Alongi, 2002, Ewel et. al.,

1998, Islam et. al., 2005, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, Paul et. al., 2010). Each of these

services is vital to protecting and maintaining ecological, social, and economic stability in

areas where mangrove forests occur (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Paul et. al., 2010,

Queiroz et. al., 2013).

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 Habitat for species and Resources for Mankind

Mangrove forests provide habitat to a large number of important species, from

microbes present on prop roots in fringe zones to Bengal Tigers in basin forests (Islam et.

al., 2005, Valiela et. al., 2001). These unique ecosystems support plant and animal

populations in forests (basin zone) and offshore areas (riverine and fringe) (Ewel et. al.,

1998). For instance, in the Sundarbans (the largest continuous stretch of mangrove forest

in the world) of India and Bangladesh, mangrove forests harbor 330 plant species, 400 fish

species, 40 crustacean species, 35 reptile species, 270 bird species, and 42 mammal

species, including threatened and endangered species, such as the Estuarine Crocodile and

Royal Bengal Tiger (Islam et. al., 2005). Mangrove forests also provide habitat to many

migratory species, such as fish, birds, and mammals. For example, the vegetated tidelands

of mangrove forests (fringe and riverine zones) are important nesting and feeding sites for

many species of migratory birds (Alongi, 2002, Valiela et. al., 2001). Florida and Australia

have reported sightings of over 200 different migratory bird species in their mangrove

forests at some point every year (Ewel et. al., 1998). In addition, mangrove forests harbor

many endemic species. For example, mammals such as the Australian crab-eating rat, the

Malaysian leaf monkey, and the Proboscis monkey of Borneo (Ewel et. al., 1998).

The ability of an ecosystem to function properly and provide goods and services is

highly dependent on its composition of flora and fauna; that is, each species has its niche

(job) within each zone of the mangal and is important to the food web and ecosystem

functioning (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007). Food webs are complex and

require different species (i.e., producers, consumers) at each stage to maintain balance of

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populations through different types of controls (i.e., bottom-up/top-down control). As a

result, species diversity and abundance within mangrove forests determines how well the

system can function and provide services to human populations (McKee, 2007).

Humans harvest several forest products that are important for sustenance and

survival as well as economic growth (Alongi, 2002, Islam et. al., 2005, Lee et. al., 2014,

Thampanya et. al. 2006, Valiela et. al., 2001). For example, in the Sundarbans of India and

Bangladesh, ten million people depend on mangrove forests for food and shelter (Islam et.

al., 2005). Timber is harvested for fuelwood, firewood, and building materials, such as

stakes for fishing, tools for agriculture, lumber for housing and household items (i.e.,

furniture), wood to build boats and bridges, and to make paper and matches (Alongi, 2002,

Ewel et. al., 1998, Islam et. al., 2005, Valiela et. al., 2001). Mangrove forests also harbor

plant species that are an important source of food, fiber, and medicine (Alongi, 2002, Ewel

et. al., 1998, Islam et. al., 2005, Valiela et. al., 2001). Tannins, honey, and wax are other

major products harvested from mangrove forests. For example, some 200 metric tons of

honey and 55 metric tons of wax are collected in coastal regions of the Sundarbans

mangrove forest every year (Islam et. al., 2005). In addition to providing sustenance to

millions of people, forestry products (timber, food, fiber, and medicine) from mangrove

forests have high commercial value, and therefore promote economic growth and viability

(Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001).

Nursery Function

Mangrove forests provide ideal conditions for nurseries and feeding grounds for

aquatic and marine organisms due to their coastal positioning, productivity, and root

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structure (Lee et. al., 2014). Most of these forests occur on coasts near mouths of rivers

and creeks, providing estuarine environments to the many species they harbor (Alongi,

2002). Crustaceans and vertebrate species utilize the fringe and riverine zones of

mangrove forests, where many prop roots are present (Ewel et. al., 1998). These zones are

crucial areas for young marine organisms and it has been found that juvenile fish actively

seek out mangrove estuaries using olfactory and other cues (Lee et. al., 2014). Shallow

waters with entanglements of aerial, prop, and buttress roots provide protection from

larger predators, and abundances of detritus, phytoplankton, and zooplankton provide

juvenile organisms with great quantities of food, allowing individuals to grow rapidly,

therefore reducing risk of predation and permitting populations to grow (Islam et. al.,

2005). Larger populations have greater genetic diversity, which reduces risks of disease,

death, and ultimately extinction (Alongi, 2002). This, in turn, provides benefits to humans

in the form of food (i.e., sustenance and commercial) and economic growth.

The nursery function of mangrove forests is one of the largest direct benefits

humans extract from them. Most of world’s mangrove forests occur along coastlines in

Asia, Latin America, and Africa (i.e., underdeveloped or developing countries); therefore,

millions of people living in rural communities near mangrove forests directly rely on them

for sustenance (Queiroz et. al., 2013). Fishing has been a big part of coastal communities’

culture for centuries, providing food and economic stimulation both locally and nationally

(Islam et. al., 2005). Large populations of crustaceans and vertebrates have been utilized

by native and foreign peoples for generations, making mangrove forests extremely valuable

to sustenance farmers, small-scale fisheries, and large-scale commercial fisheries. In fact,

90% of marine organisms that humans harvest spend some portion of their life cycle in a

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mangrove estuary, making these systems highly valuable to coastal fisheries across the

globe (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007). In addition, a positive correlation

was made between total area of mangrove forest and commercial fish and shrimp catches

in regions of India and Bangladesh (Islam et. al., 2005). Humans depend on fishing for

sustenance and economic growth, which are dependent on population sizes, and

population sizes are directly related to size and health of nursery and feeding grounds (i.e.,

mangrove forests).

Water Purification

Mangrove forests are wetlands known to function as a water filter (Kathiresan and

Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007). The thick, entangled aerial, prop, and buttress roots present

in different species of mangroves help maintain water quality in and around the forest

(Islam et. al., 2005, Valiela et. al., 2001). This mainly occurs in basin zones where roots

intercept and filter water-borne debris such as sediments and pollutants from inland water

systems, which keeps them from washing into estuaries and oceans (Alongi, 2002, Kelly,

2012, Valiela et. al., 2001). In addition, these systems have been shown to mitigate

eutrophication by lowering export rates of nutrients to estuaries (Valiela et. al., 2001). Salt

intrusion is also mitigated by mangroves since they have highly advanced mechanisms to

accumulate and excrete salts from water, thus reducing water salinity (Valiela et. al., 2001).

Water purification provides great benefits to people in coastal communities since

clean drinking water is essential to live and thrive. Most mangrove forests are present in

underdeveloped or developing countries, which already struggle with water quality issues

due to lack of sewer systems, water treatment facilities, and/or water regulations/laws

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(Islam et. al., 2005). In addition, maintenance of water quality within the forest is

important to sustain natural balance and therefore proper system functioning (Kathiresan

and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007).

Coastal Protection

Mangrove forests are composed of thick stands of trees and vegetation on the

coastlines of many countries and continents worldwide (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001,

McKee, 2007). These stands act as barriers against strong winds, waves, tides, and storms,

providing protection to inland areas (Alongi, 2008, Islam et. al., 2005, Kathiresan and

Bingham, 2001, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, McKee, 2007). Mangrove forests serve as sea

walls when storm surges and tsunamis reach coastlines (Kelly, 2012) and have even been

noted in the literature to attenuate energy from waves and storms more effectively than

manmade structures (Alongi, 2008, Lee et. al., 2014). This is possible because mangrove

stands are large and dense and presence of prop and buttress roots keeps them tightly

bound together. In addition, mangroves can live over 100 years and grow over 60 meters

tall, which helps protect coastlines from intense winds and precipitation (Kathiresan and

Bingham, 2001). Therefore, when strong storm surges hit coastal areas, a large portion of

energy is diffused by the thick stands, reducing the degree of impact to surrounding areas

(Lee et. al. 2014). During tropical storm events, a 100 meter area of fully grown tropical

mangrove forest can reduce energy by 20%, thereby protecting shorelines (Lee et. al.

2014). This is a very important ecological service because damage that could otherwise be

catastrophic is minimized, allowing biotic and abiotic components of the system to persist

20
and thrive. This function is also of great importance to human societies, since most of the

population resides in coastal areas worldwide (Lee et. al. 2014).

Protection from wind, waves, tides, and storms has great socio-economic benefits

(Alongi, 2008, Islam et. al., 2005, Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al.,

2014, McKee, 2007). Strong storm surges have the ability to devastate coastal communities

by flooding streets and homes and destroying structures, which can lead to death for many

humans, especially in underdeveloped or developing countries, where technological

advances are low and population numbers are high. For instance, there was a significant

reduction in the number of human deaths in areas where mangrove stands were present

compared to areas where they had been removed during a tropical cyclone event that hit

the east coast of India in 1999 (McKee, 2007). Another example of the protective role

mangroves play can be seen from the tsunami that occurred in December 2004 in the

Indian Ocean. A huge earthquake (the largest in 40 years) created the most devastating

tsunami in history, killing approximately 283,000 people. It was found that the impact of

the tsunami was significantly reduced in areas where mangrove forests were present and

intact, providing evidence of mangroves defensive role against storm surges (Alongi, 2008).

If impacts of waves, wind, and storm surges are reduced, then medical and building costs

decrease, which provides socio-economic benefits to communities in coastal areas (Alongi,

2008, Islam et. al., 2005, Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014,

McKee, 2007). In addition to coastal protection, mangrove forests help reduce erosion of

shorelines and accrete soils vertically, which increases coastal elevations over time (Alongi,

2002, Kelly, 2012, McKee, 2007, Thampanya et. al., 2006).

21
 Shoreline Stabilization

The intricate entanglement of aerial, prop, and buttress roots in mangrove forests

work to preserve and stabilize existing coastlines by retaining soils and reducing rates of

erosion (Alongi, 2002, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, McKee, 2007, Thampanya et. al., 2006).

A study that took place Southern Thailand compared rates of erosion between coastlines

with and without mangrove forests and found that presence of mangrove forests

substantially reduced rates of erosion (Thampanya et. al., 2006). This ecological function

has been documented in mangrove forests worldwide (Alongi, 2002, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al.,

2014, McKee, 2007). The dense, tangled roots of mangroves serve as nets that hold soils

together and in addition, these thick, woody structures reduce water flow, which helps

reduce erosion (i.e., faster water works to break soils apart more quickly) (Thampanya et.

al., 2006).

This ecological function provides a great socio-economic benefit in the form of

security. As sea levels continue to rise from global climate change, and as the human

population continues to grow, reduced erosion of shorelines can provide protection to

coastal communities worldwide (Lee et. al., 2014, Thampanya et. al., 2006). In fact, several

studies have found that in addition to stabilizing shorelines by reducing rates of erosion,

mangrove forests have the ability to accrete soils vertically, which increases coastal

elevations over time (Alongi, 2002, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, McKee, 2007, Thampanya

et. al., 2006, Valiela et. al., 2001).

Land Building

22
 The complex root systems of mangroves in riverine and fringe zones not only retain

existing soils but form soils by trapping nutrients, sediments, and detritus (i.e., plant litter)

that either flow from inland water systems or originate in the forest (Lee et. al., 2014). Soil

accretion occurs from sediment trapping, organic matter accumulation, and compaction via

tidal energy and waves (Lee et. al., 2014, McKee, 2007). The majority of organic matter

additions come from detritus of mangrove trees in the form of leaves, twigs, branches, and

seeds (i.e., propagules), which contributes nutrients to otherwise muddy, anaerobic soils

(Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Since there is little oxygen present in these water-logged

soils, decomposition rates are very slow, which causes plant litter to build up; therefore,

creating peat (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, Lee et. al., 2014). This in-situ peat formation

leads to vertical and horizontal development of land in intertidal areas, which allows

mangrove forests to expand seaward by outcompeting other plants since they are highly

adapted to coastal environments (i.e., inundation and salinity) (Figure 6) (Lee et. al., 2014,

McKee, 2007, Thampanya et. al., 2006, Valiela et. al., 2001). Lee et. al, 2014 found that

accumulation of detritus produced within mangrove forests contributed to both soil and

peat formation, and thus vertical land development, which was supported by measured

elevation gains in both Florida and Belize. In Belize, mangrove peat accumulation was

measured to be over 10 meters thick, which was estimated to have taken around 7,000

years (Lee et. al., 2014). Mangrove forests in Southern Thailand were shown to expand

land in a seaward direction, especially near the mouths of rivers and sheltered bays

(Thampanya et. al., 2006). Another study by McKee, 2007 estimated that the roots of

mangroves in riverine and fringe zones are capable of retaining over 90% of river load

sediments, substantially contributing to vertical land development. It has been found that

23
mangrove forests add organic matter to soil and trap sediments at a rate similar to global

sea level rise (Lee et. al., 2014, Lovelock et. al., 2015). Land development is an ecological

function that helps ensure all other mangrove system services can be provided by allowing

growth and expansion of forests over time (Lee et. al., 2014, Lovelock et. al., 2015).

Vertical and horizontal land building provides great socio-economic benefits to

coastal communities since sea-level rise threatens many of the largest and most populated

cities worldwide (Lee et. al. 2014). Mangrove forests are starting to be recognized for their

land development ability, which is very important in terms of mitigating global sea-level

rise (Lee et. al., 2014, Lovelock et. al., 2015). For example, when water levels and volumes

increase near shorelines, it causes impacts from storm surges to be greater, meaning more

damage to structures and higher loss of lives. In addition, as ocean levels increase, salt

intrusion occurs, which negatively affects the system and humans (i.e., reduced amounts of

readily available freshwater). Vertical land development on tropical coastlines could be

crucial in the near future as global sea levels continue to rise (Lee et. al., 2014, Lovelock et.

al., 2015, McKee, 2007, Thampanya et. al., 2006, Valiela et. al., 2001).

Carbon Storage

Tropical mangrove forests are more productive than terrestrial forests and

therefore store more carbon (Bournazel et. al., 2015, Ewel et. al., 1998, Lee et. al., 2014).

High productivity rates are related to large amounts of insolation, nutrients, and water

availability due to climatic conditions present in the tropics (Ewel et. al., 1998). Mangrove

forests are one of the largest carbon sinks in the world due to high rates of carbon

sequestration and large carbon stocks (Bournazel et. al., 2015, Lee et. al., 2014). Carbon

24
sequestration rates are approximately 10 times greater in coastal mangrove forests than

forests that grow inland (Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014) due to dense stands of trees and

thick peat formations within mangrove forests, which both store large amounts of carbon

(Ewel et. al., 1998, Lee et. al., 2014).

This function provides socio-economic benefits in terms of climate change

mitigation (Bournazel et. al., 2015, Lee et. al., 2014). These systems take in and store

carbon at much faster rates than terrestrial systems, which helps offset anthropogenic

carbon emissions in a shorter period of time (Bournazel et. al., 2015, Ewel et. al., 1998, Lee

et. al., 2014); however, mangrove forests have not received much attention or credit for

this function (Lee et. al., 2014).

Shrimp farming; Ecological and Socio-Economic Impacts

Countries present in tropical areas have climatic conditions that are ideal for shrimp

farming (Joffre et. al., 2015, Paul et. al., 2010). Many of these countries are undeveloped or

developing and view shrimp farming as a means to better their quality of life (Islam et. al.,

2005). Increased quality of life in these areas refers to decreased poverty and increased

food security, as shrimp farming provides employment and economic gains can be used to

purchase food and goods (Joffre et. al., 2015, Paul et. al., 2010). However, shortly after the

Blue Revolution took off, impacts of shrimp farming on both lands (i.e., mangrove forests)

and people became apparent worldwide (Joffre et. al., 2015, Queiroz et. al., 2013). These

impacts include reduced area of habitat for thousands of species, reduced availability of

land and forest goods (i.e., agriculture, food, fuel, medicine, etc.), nursery and fishery

collapse, decreased water quality, loss of protective coastal barrier, decreased shoreline

25
stabilization and land building (i.e., increased rates of erosion), and decreased carbon

sequestration and storage (i.e., increased carbon export) (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al.,

2015, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Thampanya et. al., 2006, Valiela et.

al., 2001). In addition, local and native peoples have been greatly impacted by

development of shrimp farms and will therefore be included here (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre

et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012, Pierez et. al., 2003, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015).

Reduced Area of Habitat for Thousands of Species

Mangrove forests are extremely complex and unique due to their tropical shoreline

locations and adaptive mechanisms, such as root structures and desalination processes;

therefore, many of the species that occur in these forests are endemic to them (Ewel et. al.,

1998). Shrimp farming requires removal of mangrove trees to build ponds to raise shrimp,

which results in reduced or fragmented habitat for animals (Lee et. al., 2014). In Thailand,

between 50-60% of original mangrove forests have been removed to construct shrimp

farms (Kelly, 2012). Rapid deforestation of mangroves has even resulted in some species

becoming threatened or endangered, such as the Bengal Tiger and Proboscis Monkey (Ewel

et. al., 1998, Lee et. al., 2014). Reduced population sizes also lower genetic diversity, which

leads to increased susceptibility to environmental hazards and diseases, placing further

pressures on already threatened species (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Migratory

species that depend on these wetland habitats for food, water, and nesting sites are

decreasing in numbers, such as the Black Swan in Australia (Alongi, 2002). Biodiversity in

mangrove forests has decreased substantially, which affects the health and functioning of

the entire system (Alongi, 2002, Ewel et. al., 1998, Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001).

26
 Reduced Availability of Land and Forest Goods

Loss of mangrove forests has resulted in loss of land and forest goods for millions of

people that depend on them for survival (Islam et. al., 2005, Tenorio et. al., 2015,

Thampanya et. al., 2006). Forest materials such as honey, tannins, medicine, wax,

fuelwood, and timber for building agriculture tools, fishing poles, furniture, houses,

bridges, and boats, are much more scarce, and increasing human population size places

even further pressure on the forests that remain (i.e., higher demand for goods since there

are more people, reduced availability of goods due to deforestation) (Islam et. al., 2005, Lee

et. al., 2014, Pierez et. al., 2003). In addition, traditional communities in Bangladesh

formerly used lands surrounding mangroves to grow crops and raise livestock; however,

these small farmers are displaced when investors come in and purchase land from the

government to build shrimp farms (Islam et. al., 2005). This has also happened in areas of

Brazil, especially in NE regions, where legislative permissiveness allows the rural poor to

be marginalized (Queiroz et. al., 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). Traditional communities in

many of the areas where shrimp farms have been developed (i.e., SE Asia and Latin

America) are being pushed out by large companies that come in and destroy mangrove

forests and surrounding land. Since small villages on shorelines depend on mangroves for

food and shelter, food scarcity increases, resulting in increased cases of malnutrition,

migration, and even death (Islam et. al., 2005, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). In

addition to forests goods and lands to grow crops and raise livestock, fishing has

historically been a large part of coastal community culture, which is also being impacted by

shrimp farming (Islam et. al., 2005, Lee et. al., 2014, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Tenorio et. al.,

2015).

27
 Nursery and Fishery Collapse

Mangrove forests have been targeted for development of shrimp farms because the

tropical conditions and natural populations of shrimp larvae make production costs very

low and profitability very high (Islam et. al., 2005, Tenorio et. al., 2015). However, removal

of mangrove forests has threatened wild populations of shrimp and fish because they need

mangrove forests (fringe and riverine zones) for part of their life-cycle (i.e., larval and post-

larval stages) (Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003). Riverine and fringe zones of mangrove forests

provide food (i.e., algae and plankton), protection, and breeding grounds (i.e., aerial and

prop roots) to many marine organisms (i.e., shrimp and fish), which allows populations to

grow, providing wildlife and humans with food (Ewel et. al., 1998). Removal of mangroves

results in habitat loss for marine organisms, including important commercial species,

which leads to population collapse (Islam et. al., 2005, Lee et. al., 2014, Valiela et. al., 2001).

The majority of shrimp farms (90%) are in developing countries where the most common

practices are traditional and extensive farming, which both rely on catches of wild post-

larvae shrimp from mangrove estuaries to stock ponds, placing an enormous pressure on

natural populations (Table 3) (Figure 7) (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., ,Paul et. al., 2010).

These systems connect directly to mangrove estuaries through open structures or small

canals, which transfers post-larvae shrimp directly to ponds (Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003). In

addition, many farmers use fishmeal pellets as feed in shrimp ponds, which creates even

greater fishery pressures (Islam et. al., 2005, Valiela et. al., 2001). During fry catchment, a

large number of other species are killed, reducing biodiversity and causing large

disturbances to community structure and food webs (Islam et. al., 2005). In Bangladesh,

the availability of shrimp fry in mangrove estuaries is declining each year, which has

28
resulted in abandoned farms (Islam et. al., 2005). Impacts from deforestation (i.e., habitat

loss) of mangroves to build shrimp farms and overharvesting of wild shrimp larvae to stock

ponds are so severe that shrimp farming itself is under threat (Islam et. al., 2005, Lee et. al.,

2014, Valiela et. al., 2001).

The reduction of natural shrimp and fish populations poses great threats to

sustenance fishers, family fisheries, and commercial fisheries worldwide (Islam et. al.,

2005, Lee et. al., 2014, Valiela et. al., 2001). As previously mentioned, traditional coastal

communities have relied on fishing as a food source for generations; however, shrimp

farming has reduced the amount of marine organisms available, which has created more

food insecurity among the poorest strata of society (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015,

Thampanya et. al., 2006, Queiroz et. al., 2013). In addition, many fisheries in developing

countries are in decline or have already collapsed due to reduced size of marine

populations, which creates huge economic losses and devastates many lives (Islam et. al.,

2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Thampanya et. al., 2006, Queiroz et. al., 2013). Once wild

populations collapse, farmers abandon ponds or import shrimp from other countries and

hatcheries, which has led to the spread of many viral and bacterial diseases, such as the

White Spot Syndrome (WSS), Infectious Hypodermic Necrosis, and Taura Syndrome (Paez-

Osuna et. al., 2003). The ponds are then treated with antibiotics and pesticides in hopes of

reducing the spread of diseases, which has devastating affects to surrounding areas and

water systems (Islam et. al., 2005, Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003).

Decreased Water Quality

29
 There are four types of shrimp farming, ranging from traditional to intensive, and

each type uses different methods to rear shrimp, creating different impacts on the

environment (Table 3) ( (Islam et. al., 2005, Paul et. al., 2010). All ponds need a constant

supply of freshwater, which is achieved through alteration of inland water systems and

extraction of groundwater (Lee et. al., 2014, Islam et. al., 2005). When shrimp farming

began to rapidly expand in the 1970’s, traditional and extensive methods used wild shrimp

larvae to stock ponds and therefore did not need pesticides and antibiotics to reduce the

spread of disease; however, with the decline of natural populations, these farms used

imported and hatchery shrimp, which carry many viral and bacterial diseases (Islam et. al.,

2005). This has led to greater usage of pellet feed, pesticides, and antibiotics among

smaller, less intensive operations, which is problematic due to the constant water exchange

with surrounding environments (Joffre et. al., 2015). In addition to pellet feed, pesticides,

and antibiotics, intensive operations use synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, preservatives, and

disinfectants that ultimately end up in the mangrove forest environment (Islam et. al.,

2005, Kelly, 2012). All farming methods eventually discharge wastewater from ponds into

surrounding waterways, which heavily pollutes systems and causes detrimental impacts,

such as eutrophication, toxicity, and spread of disease (Lee et. al., 2014, Paez-Osuna et. al.,

2003). In short, shrimp farms use large amounts of fresh water from mangrove

environments to fill and replenish ponds, then discharge polluted pond water

contaminated with feces, leftover feed, synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides,

antibiotics, and diseases, which causes eutrophication, algal blooms, reduced dissolved

oxygen (DO), spread of pathogens and disease, changes to community structure, and death

30
of biota (Ewel et. al., 1998, Islam et. al., 2005, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, Queiroz et. al,.

2013, Valiela et. al., 2001).

Water quality is also impacted by deforestation of mangroves for construction of

shrimp farms through increased sediment loads and rates of sediment discharge, which

further reduce DO, negatively impacting aquatic and marine organisms (Islam et. al., 2005,

Lee et. al., 2014). In addition, deforestation of mangroves results in increased water

salinity from increased rates of evaporation (50%) and salt intrusion, which causes many

organisms to migrate further inland or die (Ewel et. al., 1998, Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003,

Queiroz et. al,. 2013, Valiela et. al., 2001). Decreased water quality from polluted pond

water discharges, increased sedimentation from deforestation, and increased water salinity

create negative socio-economic impacts as well (Islam et. al., 2005, Kelly, 2012).

Intensive farms are more desirable than traditional farms because their stocking

and production rates are much higher; however, so is the environmental damage they

cause (Kelly, 2012). In 2012, intensive shrimp farming operations produced 90,000 lbs. of

shrimp/acre, which is 200 times greater than production from traditional shrimp farming

(Kelly, 2012). However, ponds must be abandoned after approximately 5 years due to poor

water quality (i.e., high stocking rates leads to increased eutrophication, salinity, toxins,

and disease) (Ewel et. al., 1998, Kelly, 2012, Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003, Valiela et. al., 2001).

For instance, by 1990, 50% of mangrove forests in Thailand were converted to shrimp

farms, and by 1995, 24% of those farms had been abandoned due to high levels of water

pollution and disease, which eventually spread to India, Taiwan, Indonesia, and the

Philippines, devastating productions and thus local food security and economies (Ewel et.

31
al., 1998, Kelly, 2012). Another example of reduced production due to poor water quality

was seen in Bangladesh in 2005, when 83% of shrimp production was lost from spread of

the White Spot Syndrome disease (Islam et. al., 2005). In addition, shrimp farms in Brazil

lost 100% of their production in 2004 when the White Spot Syndrome was introduced

from imported post-larvae and spread throughout the coastal region from pond water

discharges into mangrove forest ecosystems (Queiroz et. al., 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015).

Substantial production losses negatively impact coastal communities, as many farmers are

in debt to banks for loans they took out to construct shrimp ponds (Joffre et. al., 2015,

Queiroz et. al., 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). Polluted water and disease outbreaks increase

the amount of abandoned shrimp farms, since many farmers do not have the resources

they need to continue (Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012).

Another socio-economic impact from reduced water quality is reduced fish and

shrimp populations (i.e., populations become threatened or endangered from polluted

waters and disease), which places further stress on fisheries and thus food security and

economies (Ewel et. al., 1998, Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003, Queiroz et. al,. 2013). In addition,

salination of aquifers and soils results in crop failures and livestock losses due to changes

in soil and water chemistry (i.e., reduced soil fertility), which also threatens local food

security (Islam et. al., 2005, Queiroz et. al,. 2013). Pollution discharges from shrimp farms

also reduce the amount of fresh water available to local communities, creating fresh water

crises (Islam et. al., 2005, Queiroz et. al,. 2013S).

Persistent pollutants, such as pesticides and antibiotics, that are released from

shrimp ponds work their way up the food chain, eventually reaching humans (Islam et. al.,

32
2005, Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003, Queiroz et. al,. 2013). In addition, the release of antibiotics

into mangrove forests leads to death of ecologically important bacteria and selection of

resistant bacteria, which complicates disease treatments and increases the occurrence of

infections in humans and animals (Islam et. al., 2005, Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003). Therefore,

polluted water discharges from shrimp farming negatively impact local food security and

local economies (i.e., crop and livestock loss; fishery collapse) as well as fresh water

availability and quality of life (i.e., hypersalinity and eutrophication; pathogens and

diseases) (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Paez-Osuna et. al., 2003, Queiroz et. al,.

2013).

Loss of Protective Coastal Barrier

Deforestation of mangrove forests for development of shrimp farms results in

reduced coastal protection from waves, tides, and storms (Alongi, 2008, Islam et. al., 2005,

Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, McKee, 2007, Queiroz et. al., 2013). This

occurs because forests are not able to reduce energy when they are degraded, fragmented,

or absent, which results in increased damage by storms (Lee et. al., 2014). Increased

damage from storm surges has been reported in Brazil, Thailand, India, Bangladesh, and

Vietnam (Alongi, 2008, Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012, McKee, 2007,

Queiroz et. al., 2013). Ecological damage, such as loss of plants, animals, and soils, occurs

within the forests during high energy events, and damage to lands and structures occupied

by coastal communities happens as well (Alongi, 2008, Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015,

Kelly, 2012, McKee, 2007, Queiroz et. al., 2013). Strong storm surges have the ability to

33
flood and damage villages and crops, which negatively impacts local food security,

economies, and lives (Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012, Queiroz et. al., 2013).

Decreased Shoreline Stabilization and Land Building

The highly specialized and intricate root systems present in mangrove forests are

removed for development of shrimp farms (Joffre et. al., 2015, Lee et. al., 2014, Lovelock et.

al., 2015, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Thampanya et. al., 2006). Once removed, webs of thick,

interlocking roots can no longer stabilize coastlines, prevent erosion, or trap sediments,

nutrients, and detritus (Alongi, 2008, Joffre et. al., 2015, Lee et. al., 2014, Lovelock et. al.,

2015, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Thampanya et. al., 2006). Thampanya et. al., 2006, found a

positive correlation between mangrove loss and shrimp farm development, as well as

increased rates of erosion with increased area of shrimp farms. The study also found that

erosion rates were very low in areas that still had mangroves present and very high in

areas where mangroves had been removed (Thampanya et. al., 2006). Roots systems

present in mangrove forests hold soils together and trap sediments, nutrients, and detritus,

which accumulate over time, resulting in soil accretion (Lee et. al., 2014, Lovelock et. al.,

2015, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Thampanya et. al., 2006). However, this function is being lost

with removal of mangrove forests for shrimp farms and causing rates of shoreline erosion

to increase and rates of land development to decrease (Lee et. al., 2014, Lovelock et. al.,

2015, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Thampanya et. al., 2006). Rates of coastline erosion are further

accelerated by increased impact from waves, tides, and storm surges (Lee et. al., 2014,

Lovelock et. al., 2015, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Thampanya et. al., 2006). Loss of shoreline

stabilization and land building results in sea level rise (i.e., coastline elevation loss), salt

34
intrusion, eutrophication (i.e., increased levels of nutrients in the water column), and

increased sediment and carbon export (i.e., no roots present to intercept sediments and

detritus) (Lee et. al., 2014, Lovelock et. al., 2015, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Thampanya et. al.,

2006).

Sea level rise and decreased water quality from increased rates of erosion and

decreased rates of sediment trapping (i.e., soil accretion) have negative socio-economic

impacts, since most of the world’s population lives near coastlines (Joffre et. al., 2015, Islam

et. al., 2005, Lee et. al., 2014, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Thampanya et. al., 2006). These issues

are likely to intensify with global climate change, especially since mangrove forests are

carbon sinks, and are being deforested at an alarming rate (Alongi, 2002, Alongi, 2008,

Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015,

Thampanya et. al., 2006, Valiela et. al., 2001).

Decreased Carbon Sequestration and Storage

Mangrove forests are among the most productive ecosystems in the world

(Bournazel et. al., 2015, Ewel et. al., 1998, Joffre et. al., 2015, Kathiresan and Bingham,

2001, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, McKee, 2007, Tenorio et. al., 2015, Valiela et. al., 2001).

Mangroves sequester and store carbon at rates ten times higher than terrestrial forests,

making them substantial global carbon sinks (Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014). In addition to

storing carbon in woody structures (i.e., trunks and roots), mangrove forests also store

carbon as peat, which forms from accumulations of undecomposed plant matter (i.e.,

detritus) (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007). However, deforestation of

mangroves for development of shrimp farms has substantially reduced rates of carbon

35
sequestration and storage, as well as increased rates of carbon export (Kelly, 2012, Lee et.

al., 2014). Lee et. al., (2014), found levels of carbon emissions from shrimp farms to be

much higher than any other agriculture practice in the world. In addition, Kelly, 2012,

found that farm raised shrimp have carbon footprints ten times higher than beef raised on

slash-and-burn farms in the Amazon forest. These large carbon footprints result from loss

of mangrove trees, which are no longer present to sequester carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere to store in woody structures (i.e., trunks and roots) and underground (i.e., peat

formation) (Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014). In addition, carbon exports are increased

because woody materials from deforestation (i.e., trees, roots, detritus, and sediments) are

carried offshore by waves and tides (Lee et. al., 2014). The rate of carbon exports is

dramatically increased once mangrove forests are removed because there is more carbon

available to export and greater energy from waves and tides (i.e., coastal barriers are

removed, making energy from waves, tides, and storms higher) (Bournazel et. al., 2015, Lee

et. al., 2014).

Reduced carbon sequestration and storage and increased carbon exports have

negative socio-economic impacts (Lee et. al., 2014). Global climate change affects all biotic

and abiotic elements in the world through increased average global temperatures and

unpredictable weather events (Alongi, 2008, Bournazel et. al., 2015). For instance,

increased average global temperatures increase global ocean temperatures, causing water

to expand and sea levels to rise (Alongi, 2008, Lovelock et. al., 2015). Higher sea levels

result in salt water intrusion, coastline deterioration, and increased impact from storms

(Alongi, 2008, Lee et. al., 2014, Lovelock et. al., 2015). In addition, unpredictable weather

events, such as droughts and floods, have the ability to devastate communities, especially

36
ones that depend on rain fed crops for survival (i.e., developing countries where mangroves

are being removed) (Islam et. al., 2005). Since mangrove forests are one of the largest

carbon sinks in the world, loss of sequestration and increased releases of carbon are

expected to accelerate the rate of global climate change (Alongi, 2008, Bournazel et. al.,

2015, Lee et. al., 2014, McKee, 2007). Though there is much uncertainty with this complex

issue, increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels will most likely result in negative

impacts to societies around the world (Alongi, 2008).

Impacts to Coastal Communities

Coastal communities, especially the rural poor, are negatively impacted by

deforestation of mangrove forests for development of shrimp farms (Islam et. al., 2005,

Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012, Queiroz et. al., 2013). Impacts stem from degraded

environments, economic losses, poor working conditions, and conflicts with large shrimp

farming industries (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012, Queiroz et. al., 2013).

Degraded environments, such as loss of forest resources and increased water pollution,

result in food insecurity, fresh water crises, and crop failure, which also lead to economic

losses (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Queiroz et. al., 2013). Economic losses, such as

loss of resources (i.e., timber and fish) and agriculture (i.e., crop and livestock failure), also

stem from shrimp farms, since water pollution and disease results in low production,

forcing many farmers to stop operations after five years (Islam et. al., 2005, Kelly, 2012,

Queiroz et. al., 2013). Many of these farmers (75% in Vietnam) are in debt, so once the

farm is no longer viable, they are left in a worse position than when they started, and rates

of poverty and unemployment rise (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012,

37
Queiroz et. al., 2013). This places heavy pressure on the rural poor, who are marginalized

into severely degraded environments with no means to survive (i.e., forests are gone, which

provided sustenance before development of shrimp farms) (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al.,

2015, Kelly, 2012, Queiroz et. al., 2013). This results in increased rates of migration out of

rural communities and into larger, developing cities, where farming operations are much

more intensive and compartmentalized (Islam et. al., 2005). Working conditions are very

poor at these large scale facilities; for example, labor is long, hard, and extensive and pay is

extremely low (Islam et. al., 2005, Kelly, 2012, Queiroz et. al., 2013). In addition, large scale

facilities in Thailand were found to use slave and child labor in shrimp processing plants

(Kelly, 2012). The monetary benefits from these intensive farms go overseas to a few

investors, which leaves local communities empty-handed and struggling, especially since

shrimp are exported too (Islam et. al., 2005, Kelly, 2012). Increased unemployment, food

insecurity, and degraded environments create turmoil between local communities and

shrimp farm owners, which is further exacerbated when local industries are outcompeted

by shrimp farmers and legislative permissiveness allows investors to occupy more land

(Islam et. al., 2005, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). These conflicts lead to

protests against expansion of shrimp farms, which results in human rights violations, such

as physical harm and death (Islam et. al., 2005, Queiroz et. al., 2013). For example, in

Bangladesh, shrimp farm owners hired professional terrorists to beat and kill protestors

and even arranged bomb attacks, which lead to the death of several local villagers (Islam et.

al., 2005). Incidents like these create anger and fear within local communities and result in

increased migration, increased violence, or acceptance of new conditions and demeaning

lifestyle (Islam et. al., 2005).

38
Solutions to Protect Forests

There is a strong need for creation and implementation of environmental laws and

regulations to protect remaining mangrove forests and control shrimp farm development

in coastal (fringe) zones (Ewel, 1998, Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012, Lee

et. al., 2014, Queiroz et. al., 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015, Thampanya et. al., 2006). Different

mangrove zones (fringe, riverine, and basin) can be used to determine what goods and

services are most crucial and therefore which areas are most important to protect (Ewel,

1998). Areas that have not been heavily impacted by development and still connect to

surrounding habitats should be protected and restored versus isolated and degraded

mangrove stands (Lee et. al., 2014, Tenorio et. al., 2015). Restoration should include

planting many native species that work together as a mosaic of microhabitats to increase

biodiversity and ensure success of recovery (Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014). Areas chosen

for restoration should be assessed for level of impact from development and soil nutrient

levels (Kelly, 2012, Tenorio et. al., 2015). For example, in Thailand, mitigation efforts were

failing because areas selected for restoration were heavily degraded, soils lacked nitrogen,

phosphorous, and iron, and monospecific stands were planted (Kelly, 2012). Failing

restoration efforts led to the creation of the Mangrove Action Project in Thailand, which

focuses on sustainable regrowth by balancing biodiversity and economy (Kelly, 2012). This

integrated system works towards reconciliation by promoting healthy ecosystem

functioning and stable economy, since forests cannot return to their previous states and

shrimp farming has become a large source of revenue (Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012, Lee

et. al., 2014, Tenorio et. al., 2015).

39
 Similar movements have taken place in Brazil (i.e., Marine Extractive Reserves),

where monetary values were assigned to different zones to assess where conservation of

forests and development of farms should take place (Tenorio et. al., 2015). The mean

global monetary value of fringe zone forests are $37,500/hectare/year and all zones of

mangrove forests are worth $16,100/hectare/year (Tenorio et. al., 2015). These values

prompted governments in Brazil to regulate the development of shrimp farms in mangrove

forests and have construction of ponds take place in upland areas (i.e., plateaus) that

neighbor forests instead (Tenorio et. al., 2015). The idea of building farms in

inland/upland areas has become quite popular in other regions where vast amounts of

mangrove forests have been removed, as well as implementing integrated mangrove-

shrimp production systems where farms already exist (Lee et. al., 2014, Joffre et. al., 2015,

Kelly, 2012). In Vietnam, integrated mangrove-shrimp systems have been a successful

way to promote restoration and biodiversity while still allowing economic growth (Joffre

et. al., 2015). These systems work by planting mangroves in and around ponds on bunds

(raised beds), which helps improve water quality, habitat for shrimp, and provide

additional income (i.e., timber) for farmers (Joffre et. al., 2015).

More advanced, high-tech systems are working towards reducing environmental

damage and increasing production by developing closed-system farms inland (Figure 8)

(Stokstad, 2010). Ponds are constructed with cement and built inside greenhouses, where

water is recirculated, aerated, and shrimp are fed biofloc (Stokstad, 2010). Biofloc refers to

the use of microbes in nutrient recycling; that is, bacteria and carbon are put into systems

to allow the breakdown of ammonium in shrimp feces so it can be recycled and consumed

by shrimp (Figure 9) (Stockstad, 2010). These systems have significantly reduced

40
ecosystem damage and increased production; however, small-scale farming operations in

developing countries cannot afford advanced technology, which is where the majority of

farmed shrimp come from (Stockstad, 2010). Therefore, laws and regulations to conserve

remaining forests, as well as restoration and development of integrated mangrove-shrimp

farms, are the most promising solutions to protect the world’s mangrove forests (Ewel,

1998, Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al., 2014, Queiroz et. al.,

2013, Stockstad, 2010, Tenorio et. al., 2015, Thampanya et. al., 2006).

Discussion

Mangrove forests are among the most productive, complex, and biologically diverse

ecosystems in the world (Ewel et. al., 1998, Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007).

These unique forests occur on coastlines in tropical and subtropical areas and provide

habitat for thousands of species, including nursery grounds for marine organisms (i.e., fish

and shrimp), and specialized environments for many threatened and endangered animals

(Ewel et. al., 1998, Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007). Traditional coastal

communities rely on mangrove forests for many goods, such as food (i.e., fish) and forest

products (i.e., fuelwood and building materials) (Islam et. al., 2005, Quieroz et. al. 2013,

Tenorio et. al., 2015). The roots of mangrove trees create intricate webs, which stabilize

coastlines by preventing erosion, and improve water quality by filtering contaminants and

trapping sediments and detritus that would otherwise flow into bays and oceans (Ewel et.

al., 1998, Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001, McKee, 2007). Sediments and detritus that get

trapped by root systems accumulate and build land over time, which helps mitigate sea

level rise (Lee et. al, 2014, Lovelock et. al., 2015). In addition, mangrove forests sequester

41
and store carbon at rates ten times higher than terrestrial forests, which helps mitigate

global climate change (Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al, 2014). However, despite the overwhelming

importance and value of these ecosystems, many have been damaged or destroyed by

industry, with development of shrimp farms posing the greatest threat (Ewel et. al., 1998,

Kelly, 2012, Lee et. al, 2014).

The majority of shrimp farms are in developing countries, where lack of laws,

regulations, and permits have led to devastating and irreversible ecological damage (Islam

et. al., 2005, Quieroz et. al. 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). When global fisheries collapsed in

the 1970’s from overharvesting, large-scale fishing industries turned to farming as a way to

meet world demands for seafood (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Quieroz et. al. 2013,

Tenorio et. al., 2015). Large investors went to governments in countries with mangrove

forests and promised financial redemption through economic gains from shrimp farming.

Top-down decision making in undeveloped and developing countries resulted in selling

land to investors, who rapidly transformed mangrove forests into intensive, destructive

shrimp farms, which marginalized the coastal communities who relied on them the most

(Islam et. al., 2005, Tenorio et. al., 2015). Indeed, short-term profits were high with

production rates up to 90,000 pounds/acre; however, the rural poor were unable to build

such advanced operations, and therefore practiced traditional and extensive farming

methods, which are unsustainable due to lack of resources and education (Islam et. al.,

2005, Kelly, 2012). Traditional and extensive farms construct ponds within mangrove

forests by deforesting trees, shrubs, and roots, and by building dikes and canals to get

access to water and wild post-larvae shrimp from mangrove estuaries (Joffre et. al., 2015).

Local farmers built farms in an attempt to improve their quality of life through increased

42
food security and personal. However, 90% of rural farmers must get loans to start

operations, and lack of scientific management results in collapse of ponds, which leaves

them empty-handed and in debt (Joffre et. al., 2015). Farmers must abandon the once

viable ponds after approximately five years due to poor water quality and sometimes

spread of disease, which leaves traditional communities and mangrove forests in ruins

(Kelly, 2012).

By removing mangroves, goods and services are lost, such as habitat for terrestrial,

aquatic, and marine species, which results in local fishery collapse and decreases local food

security (Islam et. al., 2005). In addition, endemic species become threatened or

endangered, forest products are lost (i.e., honey, wax, fuelwood, building materials), rates

of coastal erosion increase, land building decreases, carbon sequestration and storage

decrease, and the once protective coastal barrier is gone (Lee et. al., 2014). In addition,

water availability and quality are severely decreased, as ponds need constant supplies of

fresh water to maintain water quality, and release polluted waters into the ecosystem after

harvest (Islam et. al., 2005, Quieroz et. al. 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). The loss of these

ecological goods and services has devastating impacts on traditional coastal communities

that have been relying on mangrove forests for generations (Islam et. al., 2005, Quieroz et.

al. 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). Rates of poverty increase, food security decreases,

unemployment increases, and quality of life is reduced (Islam et. al., 2005, Quieroz et. al.

2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). In addition to food insecurity and economic losses, traditional

coastal communities are negatively impacted through poor working conditions, heavily

degraded environments, and loss of land (Islam et. al., 2005, Quieroz et. al. 2013, Tenorio

et. al., 2015. Large-scale operations continue to occupy land and push traditional

43
industries out, such as local agriculture and livestock farms, which creates turmoil between

local communities and shrimp farm owners (Islam et. al., 2005). This occurs due to great

differences in perceptions and values between traditional coastal communities and shrimp

farm investors, such as reciprocity and connectedness versus competition and

individualism (Queiroz et. al., 2013). These differences lead to exploitation of both people

and mangrove ecosystems, which creates turmoil and violence between the two distinctive

groups (Islam et. al., 2005, Quieroz et. al. 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015). Reconciliation is

greatly needed to reduce the rate of ecological and socio-economic damage, as well as keep

shrimp farming viable through sustainable practices and management, since the industry is

completely dependent on the services mangrove ecosystems provide (Islam et. al., 2005,

Joffre et. al., 2015, Quieroz et. al. 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015, Stokstad, 2010).

Protection and restoration of mangrove forests is happening in many countries,

including Brazil, Thailand, and Vietnam. Creation and implementation of laws and

regulations is crucial to protect remaining forests. Assessments of mangrove degradation

are needed to determine what areas to protect and restore, and which to develop, though

most governments now recognize that construction of shrimp farms should occur inland.

Restoration, mitigation, and management need to be scientific and community based to

ensure successful recovery and sustainability of forests. In addition, traditional coastal

populations need to benefit from these efforts socio-economically by restoring human

rights and quality of life (Islam et. al., 2005, Joffre et. al., 2015, Lee et. al., 2014, Quieroz et.

al. 2013, Tenorio et. al., 2015).

44
 Many global issues are directly or indirectly connected to the loss of mangrove

forests. Wildlife and human populations worldwide heavily depend on goods and services

provided by mangrove forests. The perceived benefits of mangrove forest removal for

shrimp farm development are far surpassed by the ecological and economic benefits they

provide. Large portions of the world’s human population directly depend on mangrove

forests for resources and services; therefore, degraded and over-exploited systems result

in extreme impacts to societies and economies worldwide. Services such as coastal

protection, soil accretion, and carbon sequestration are very difficult to quantify

monetarily; however, I believe their overall value far outweighs any benefits gained

through farming of shrimp. Innovation and ingenuity can reduce impacts to mangrove

forests by finding alternative ways to farm shrimp. Implementation of regulations and

sustainable practices is needed to protect the forests that still remain. A global policy to

protect traditional villages and communities from exploitation by large investors is also

greatly needed.

45
Tables and Figures

Figure 1: (A) Prop roots in mangrove forest. (B) Prop roots of an individual mangrove tree.
(C) Propagules of a mangrove (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001).

Figure 2: (A) Riverine zone of a mangrove forest. (B) Aerial roots (pneumatophores) of a
mangrove tree. (C) Close up view of pneumatophores (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001).

46
Figure 3: Distributions of the world’s mangrove forests in 2000 (Giri et. al., 2011).

Table 1: Different zones of mangrove forests provide different goods and services. 1=most
significant zone for that good or service (Ewel et. al., 1998).

47
Figure 4: (A) Global mangrove forest distribution and abundance. (B) Mangrove forest
distribution and abundance in Asia (Islam et. al., 2005).

48
Table 2: Loss of worlds mangrove forests, separated by human use and continent (Valiela
et. al., 2001).

Figure 5: Graph representing increase in global shrimp production 1981-1999 (Islam et. al.,
2005).

49
Table 3: Characterizations of different types of shrimp farms (Paul et. al., 2010).

Figure 6: Model displaying mechanisms for land development within mangrove forests
(Lee et. al., 2014).

50
Figure 7: Photograph of extensive shrimp farm showing development of ponds in basin
zones of mangrove forests (Valiela et. al., 2001).

Figure 8: High-tech, closed-system farm inside of a greenhouse (Stokstad, 2010).

51
.

Figure 9: Shrimp consuming biofloc (converted shrimp feces) in a closed-system farm

52
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