2017 Scientific Consensus Statement Summary Chap02

1
Citation:
Bartley, R., Waters, D., Turner, R., Kroon, F., Wilkinson, S., Garzon-Garcia, A., Kuhnert, P., Lewis, S.,
Smith, R., Bainbridge, Z., Olley, J., Brooks, A., Burton, J., Brodie, J., Waterhouse, J., 2017.
Scientific Consensus Statement 2017: A synthesis of the science of land-based water quality
impacts on the Great Barrier Reef, Chapter 2: Sources of sediment, nutrients, pesticides and
other pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef. State of Queensland, 2017.
© State of Queensland, 2017
The Queensland Government supports and encourages the dissemination and exchange of its
information. The copyright in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Australia (CC BY) licence. Under this licence you are free, without having to seek our permission, to
use this publication in accordance with the licence terms. You must keep intact the copyright notice
and attribute the State of Queensland as the source of this publication. For more information on this
licence, visit creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/deed.en.
This document was prepared by a panel of scientists with expertise in Great Barrier Reef water
quality. This document does not represent government policy.
Scientific Consensus Statement 2017—Chapter 2
Contents
Acronyms, units and definitions ...................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................ iii
Executive summary ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 5
Synthesis process...................................................................................................................................5
The questions this chapter addresses ...................................................................................................7
Definitions and clarifications ...............................................................................................................10
2. Sources of pollutants—an update of research from 2013 to 2016 ........................................................... 14
Sediments ............................................................................................................................................14
Where are the sediments coming from? ........................................................................................14
How does the source of sediments vary over time and space? ......................................................23
What processes are responsible for the excess sediment? ............................................................26
What are the drivers and land uses delivering the anthropogenic sediment loss? ........................29
Nutrients ..............................................................................................................................................34
Where are the nutrients coming from? ..........................................................................................34
What are the drivers and land uses delivering the anthropogenic nutrient loss? ..........................49
How does the source of nutrients vary over time and space? ........................................................53
What processes are responsible for the excess nutrients? .............................................................55
Pesticides and other pollutants ...........................................................................................................56
Where are the pesticides coming from? .........................................................................................56
What are the drivers and land uses delivering the pesticide loss? .................................................61
Other pollutants ..............................................................................................................................63
New approaches to estimating catchment loads and water quality trends........................................66
Validating modelled load estimates ................................................................................................66
Data assimilation and estimating confidence .................................................................................66
3. Synthesis of key findings .......................................................................................................................... 67
4. Research gaps and areas of further research ........................................................................................... 76
5. Reference list ........................................................................................................................................... 78
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................................... 94
Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef i

Acronyms, units and definitions

Acronyms
DIN = dissolved inorganic nitrogen
DIP = dissolved inorganic phosphorus
DON = dissolved organic nitrogen
GBR = Great Barrier Reef
NPI = National Pollutant Inventory
NRM = natural resource management
PN = particulate nitrogen
PP = particulate phosphorus
PSII = Photosystem II
TN = total nitrogen
TP = total phosphorus
TSS = total suspended sediment
Units
d-eq. kg = diuron-equivalent in kilograms

kg = kilograms
km = kilometres
kt/yr = kilotonnes per year
mg/L = milligrams per litre
t = tonnes
t/ha = tonnes per hectare
t/km2/yr = tonnes per square kilometre per year
t/km2 = tonnes per square kilometre
t/yr = tonnes per year
µm = micrometres (microns)
Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef ii

Definitions
Basin: There are 35 basins that drain into the Great Barrier Reef. A basin can be made up of a single or
multiple rivers (e.g. North and South Johnstone is one basin). Basins are primarily used here when
discussing the relative delivery of a pollutant to the marine system.
Catchment: The natural drainage area upstream of a point that is generally on the coast. It generally
refers to the ‘hydrological’ boundary and is the term used when referring to modelling in this document.
There may be multiple catchments in a basin.
Management unit: There are 47 management units in the Great Barrier Reef catchment, which
incorporate the 35 basins that drain directly to the Great Barrier Reef including additional internal
catchments or management units within the Burdekin (7 management units) and Fitzroy (7 management
units) basins.
Pollutants: Pollution means the introduction by humans, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy
into the environment resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources, hazards to human
health, hindrance to aquatic activities including fishing, impairment of quality for use of water and
reduction of amenities (GESAMP, 2001). This document refers to suspended (fine) sediments, nutrients
(nitrogen, phosphorus) and pesticides as ‘pollutants’. Within this chapter we explicitly mean enhanced
concentrations of or exposures to these pollutants, which are derived from (directly or indirectly) human
activities in the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem or adjoining systems (e.g. river catchments). Suspended
sediments and nutrients naturally occur in the environment; all living things in ecosystems of the Great
Barrier Reef require nutrients, and many have evolved to live in or on sediment.
Region: There are six natural resource management (NRM) regions covering the Great Barrier Reef
catchments. Each region groups and represents catchments with similar climate and bioregional setting.
The regions include Cape York, Wet Tropics, Burdekin, Mackay Whitsunday and Burnett Mary.
Sub-catchment: An internal drainage area within a catchment.
Acknowledgements
This chapter was led by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) with
contributions from several representatives from the Department of Natural Resources and Mines (DNRM)
(Queensland), Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation (Queensland) (DSITI),
Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS), James Cook University (JCU) and Griffith University (GU).
We would like to thank Dr Andrew Ash (CSIRO), for his contribution to Section 2.1.4, and Dr Christian Roth
and Dr David Post (CSIRO), for formal reviews on earlier versions of this document. We would also like to
thank Reiner Mann and Rohan Wallace (DSITI), John Bennett and Nyssa Henry (OGBR) and several of the
catchment modelling team (Rob Ellis) for comments on previous versions. Finally, we thank ISP members
Dr Bronwyn Harch (QUT), Dr Jenny Stauber (CSIRO), Dr Graham Bonnet (CSIRO) and Dr Roger Shaw (ISP
Independent Chair) for constructive comments on earlier versions.
The chapter was prepared with the support of funding from the Office of the Great Barrier Reef within the
Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection and from the Department of the
Environment and Energy and in-kind support from the organisations of the authors.
Thank you to Jane Mellors (TropWATER JCU) for final editing.
Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef iii

Executive summary
This chapter provides an up-to-date review of the state of knowledge relating to the source of
sediment and nutrients as well as pesticides and other pollutants delivered to the Great Barrier Reef
from adjacent catchments. The strengths and limitations of the various datasets are also discussed.
Collectively, sediment, nutrients, pesticides and other pollutants (e.g. petroleum hydrocarbons,
pharmaceuticals) are described as ‘pollutants’. This chapter is focused on defining the major source
areas of these pollutants across the Great Barrier Reef, how these sources have varied in space and
time, the major processes (e.g. hillslope, gully and streambank erosion) delivering these pollutants,
their relative loads to the Great Barrier Reef and a summary of the main drivers in terms of land use,
land condition and agricultural practices. Plot- and paddock-scale studies, including the effectiveness
of remediation approaches, are summarised in Chapter 4.
Acknowledging that all forms of data used to estimate pollutant loads to the Great Barrier Reef have
constraints and limitations, this review uses a ‘multiple lines of evidence’ approach and draws on
data from three main sources. These include the Queensland Government load monitoring data, the
latest Queensland Government whole of Great Barrier Reef Source Catchments modelling results
(which underpin the Report Card 2015) as well as a summary of the numerous individual research
projects and synthesis reports published over the last four years. Data and information are included
that was published, publicly available and that had undergone a peer review process. In a few cases,
grey literature (e.g. consulting reports) and journal publications currently in review are included.
A synthesis of the broad findings of this chapter are outlined below and in Table 1. A detailed
description of what has changed since the last Scientific Consensus Statement is provided in Table
20.
Summary of findings
Sediment
• Catchment modelling predicts that ~9900 kt/yr of fine (silt and clay) sediment is delivered to the
Great Barrier Reef, of which 7930 kt/yr is estimated to be anthropogenic and due to changes in
land use and management. Compared to pre-European conditions, the modelled mean annual
river fine sediment loads to the Great Barrier Reef lagoon have increased ~5-fold for the entire
Great Barrier Reef catchment, ranging between 3- and 8-fold depending on the region.
• Fine sediment (under 16 µm) is the fraction most likely to reach the Great Barrier Reef lagoon
and is the dominant proportion in monitored fine sediment loads across most regions.
• The Burdekin catchment contributes ~40% of the anthropogenic total suspended sediments load
to the Great Barrier Reef lagoon, with the Wet Tropics (~15%), Fitzroy (~18%) and Burnett Mary
(~15%) the other dominant regions. Within these regions, the top five sediment-contributing
basins are the Burdekin, Fitzroy, Mary, Burnett and Herbert. Within these basins, approximately
two-thirds of the specific sediment yield (t/km2/yr) is coming from the top quartile of
management units (i.e. 12 out of the 47 management units) when assessed using both modelling
and monitoring data.
• Grazing lands are the dominant land-use contributing sediment, although parts of the Wet
Tropics and Mackay Whitsunday regions have high specific yields (t/km2/yr).
• Tracing studies suggest that sub-surface erosion (gully, streambank and deep rill erosion on
hillslopes) is the primary source of sediment, contributing ~90% to the end-of-catchment loads.
Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 1

The models show similar ratios for the Burdekin, Fitzroy and Burnett Mary regions and for the
Normanby Basin.
Nutrients
• Catchment modelling estimates that there is ~55 kt/yr of total nitrogen and ~13.4 kt/yr total
phosphorus delivered to the Great Barrier Reef. Approximately, 29 kt/yr of total nitrogen and
8.8 kt/yr of total phosphorus is estimated to be anthropogenic and due to changes in land use
and management. This is a 2.1-fold increase for total nitrogen (range between 1.2 and 4.7 times
depending on the region) and 2.9-fold increase for total phosphorus (range between 1.2 and 5.3
times).
• Modelled dissolved inorganic nitrogen load to the Great Barrier Reef is ~12 kt/yr, which is a 2.0-
fold increase from pre-development conditions (ranging between 1.2 and 6.0, with the exception
of Cape York). For particulate nitrogen the modelled load is ~25 kt/yr, a 1.5-fold increase
(ranging between 1.2 and 2.2). For particulate phosphorus the modelled load is ~10 kt/yr, which
is a 2.9-fold increase (ranging between 1.2 and 5.3) from pre-development conditions.
• Total nitrogen delivery to the Great Barrier Reef is dominated by the Wet Tropics (30%) and
Fitzroy (20%) regions; dissolved inorganic nitrogen is dominated by the Wet Tropics (46%) and
Burdekin (21%) regions; particulate nitrogen is dominated by the Wet Tropics (27%) and Fitzroy
(20%) regions; particulate phosphorus is dominated by the Fitzroy (33%) and the Burdekin (22%)
regions.
• Within these regions, hotspot areas exist. The top five basins contributing to the dissolved
inorganic nitrogen load are the Herbert, Burdekin, Johnstone, Haughton and Mulgrave-Russell.
The top five basins contributing to the particulate nitrogen load are the Fitzroy, Mary, Burdekin,
Johnstone and Herbert. The top quartile of management units (i.e. 12 out of the 47 management
units) contribute ~67% of the total nitrogen, ~87% of the dissolved inorganic nitrogen, 69% of
particulate nitrogen, 69% of the total phosphate and 72% of particulate phosphorus based on
the specific nutrient yields (t/km2/y).
• Sugarcane farming dominates dissolved inorganic nitrogen river loads, and grazing dominates
the source of particulate nitrogen in river loads. In the grazing lands, sub-surface soil erosion
(based primarily on studies undertaken on gullies) may contribute low concentrations but
potentially high loads of bioavailable nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon depending on the soil
type. Although the spatial location of bioavailable particulate nitrogen sources may differ from
total suspended solids, the management strategies for mitigating export of particulate nitrogen
and total suspended solids are similar.
• Dissolved and particulate nutrient loads from urban land uses, particularly wastewater
discharges, can be important at local scales, but generally represent <7% overall.
Pesticides and other pollutants

• Mean annual loads of photosystem II–inhibiting herbicides, namely ametryn, atrazine, diuron,
hexazinone, tebuthiuron and simazine, are estimated to be ~12,000 kg per year across the Great
Barrier Reef.
• The measured pesticide data suggest that most pesticides are found in all regions, even though
some are in very small quantities. The results from the end-of-system water quality monitoring
suggest that the measured pesticide loads are generally lower than modelled estimates.

• The dominant source of pesticides does change between years and locations. However, in terms
of toxic equivalent load, the Wet Tropics, Mackay Whitsunday and Burdekin regions dominate
delivery to the Great Barrier Reef.
• The toxic equivalent loads for pesticides are highest from sugarcane for all regions, except the
Fitzroy, where grazing dominates. Total toxic equivalent loads are highest in Plane Creek and
Haughton management units.
• Other sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef lagoon include point sources such as
intensive animal production, manufacturing and industrial, mining, rural and urban residential,
transport and communication, waste treatment and disposal, ports/marine harbour, military
areas and shipping. Compared to diffuse sources, most contributions of such point sources are
relatively small but could be significant locally and over short time periods. Point sources are
generally regulated activities; however, monitoring and permit information is not always
available. In some cases, no monitoring data exist.
Research recommendations
• Explicit estimates of confidence are required to highlight where we have high, medium or low
confidence in the various datasets.
• A more robust framework for incorporating new knowledge into Source Catchment modelling
and reporting would improve transparency and knowledge integration.
• We need improved knowledge on sediments with respect to (i) particle size, (ii) bioavailable
nutrient status, and (iii) long-term or pre-agricultural erosion rates. This would allow for more
robust targeting of the ecologically threatening anthropogenic sediment.
• We need improved knowledge on nutrient sources evaluated as whole-of-catchment nutrient
budgets. This should include sources (land uses, surface and groundwater), transformations and
losses. To date, most studies have worked on components of the nutrient budget, but not on all
elements in a single multi-land-use catchment.
• There is a need for improved knowledge on the on-farm application rates and usage of
pesticides and farm chemicals and an understanding of the types, concentrations and sources of
a range of new pollutants.

Table 1: A synthesis of the broad findings presented in this chapter
Questions Sediments Nutrients Pesticides Other contaminants

Where are the Total sediment delivery is dominated Dissolved inorganic nitrogen delivery to the The dominant source of Pollutants are derived from a range of
pollutants by the Burdekin catchment (primarily Great Barrier Reef is dominated by catchments pesticides does change between diffuse and point sources including
coming from? the Bowen Bogie) and grazing land with a large proportion of sugarcane (e.g. years and locations. However, in agriculture (including intensive animal
more generally (~70%). Unit area Herbert, Burdekin and Johnstone). Intensive terms of toxic equivalent load, production), manufacturing and industrial,
anthropogenic loads (t/km2/yr) are cropping generally exports higher unit area loads sugarcane areas in the Wet mining, rural and urban residential,
also high in the Wet Tropics (e.g. of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (e.g. sugarcane Tropics, Mackay Whitsunday and transport and communication, waste
Johnstone, Mulgrave-Russell) and and bananas). Particulate nitrogen is highest Burdekin regions dominate treatment and disposal, ports/marine
Mackay Whitsunday (O’Connell and from the Fitzroy, Mary and Burdekin basins. delivery to the Great Barrier harbour, coastal/marine tourism, military
Pioneer, Cattle Creek). Reef. areas and shipping.
How do the There has been a quantified Particulate and dissolved organic nutrients Pesticides are not naturally Compared to diffuse sources, most
sources of the anthropogenic increase in erosion from comprise the majority of the end of catchment occurring in the environment and contributions of point sources are
pollutant vary the Bowen Bogie and Upper Burdekin loads to the Great Barrier Reef but very little is therefore any variability is relatively small but could be highly
management units compared with known of their sources, losses or transformation generally due to human use significant locally and over short time
in space and
long-term (>1000 year) rates. Nuclide as they are transported from terrestrial to (rather than factors such as periods.
time?
tracers suggest that some parts of the marine systems. Dissolved forms of nutrients geology or soil type). The
Wet Tropics have high natural may move via surface and sub-surface pathways. variation in loads is generally
sediment loads. proportional to application rates.
What Gully erosion and to a lesser extent Fertilised crops are directly responsible for Diffuse load losses were highest The processes contributing pollutants are
processes are riverbank erosion are the dominant increased dissolved inorganic nitrogen loads; from intensive agriculture. The highly variable and depend on the source.
responsible erosion sources. Scald or rill erosion however, erosion processes (hillslope, gully and total and toxic equivalent loads
can also contribute sediment when streambank) in grazing lands are likely to be for pesticides are greatest from
for the excess
ground cover is low. contributing higher bioavailable nutrient loads sugarcane for all regions.
pollutant?
than currently estimated using models.
What are the Poor land cover and surface condition Fertiliser application rates and the timing of Excessive use of chemicals Point sources are generally regulated
drivers of the within grazing areas lead to high run- application and lateral drainage of irrigation (application rates) drives activities; however, monitoring and permit
anthropogenic off and erosion. Poor land cover is also water are important drivers of dissolved pesticides losses, particularly information is not always available. Data
a strong driver of gully erosion, inorganic nitrogen loss. Management of prior to run-off or irrigation for most pollutants are poor.
pollutant?
although factors such as soil type are particulate sources by reducing both surface and events (which relates to the
also important. Poor or low riparian sub-surface erosion may be more important than timing of application).
vegetation cover is the main initially estimated. This will require a
anthropogenic or management lever combination of direct (gully stabilisation) and
contributing to bank erosion. indirect (cover and run-off management)
techniques.

1. Introduction
Suspended sediments and nutrients play an important role in freshwater and marine biogeochemical
processes and food webs (Krumins et al., 2013; Wood and Armitage, 1997). However, there is
general agreement that excessive amounts of sediments, nutrients, pesticides and other pollutants
are impacting on the ecological health of the Great Barrier Reef (De’ath et al., 2012; McCulloch et al.,
2003a) and other adjacent habitats such as seagrass beds (Waycott et al., 2005). Collectively, these
excess sediments, nutrients, pesticides and other pollutants (e.g. petroleum hydrocarbons,
pharmaceuticals) are described as ‘pollutants’.
The Great Barrier Reef has changed considerably in the past (8500-year record) independently of
anthropogenic impact (Browne et al., 2012) and many reefs have coexisted with poor water quality
conditions such as high turbidity for millennia (Larcombe et al., 1995). Therefore, quantifying the
source and amount of excess or anthropogenic pollutant delivered from agricultural land-use change
since European settlement, against the high variability of natural loads in tropical rivers, is
challenging. It is easier to identify the anthropogenic source of some pollutants (e.g. pesticides) that
did not exist prior to human settlement, than for other pollutants (e.g. sediments and particulate
nutrients) that naturally occur in the landscape. Few studies have been able to trace single pollutants
from the catchment source through to the marine receiving waters, accounting for all erosion,
deposition and transformation processes, particularly in large (>100,000 km2) catchments (Douglas et
al., 2006a; Takesue et al., 2009). Generally, a range of approaches and techniques are required to
understand how pollutants move from their source to the marine system (Bartley et al., 2014a). A
‘multiple lines of evidence’ approach is needed to help understand and represent the numerous
complex processes.
Previous Scientific Consensus Statements (e.g. Kroon et al., 2013) provided a review of the various
studies that have contributed to the multiple lines of evidence approach. Since the 2013 Scientific
Consensus Statement, additional published literature and synthesis reports have become available.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an up-to-date review of available information published
since 2013. The chapter reviews information on the pollutants of relevance in the Reef Water Quality
Protection Plan targets, namely fine or total suspended sediments (TSS), dissolved inorganic nitrogen
(DIN), particulate nitrogen (PN), particulate phosphorus (PP), and photosystem II inhibiting herbicides
(PSII herbicides). The chapter also reviews information on other pollutants (e.g. petroleum
hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals). This chapter is broken into four sections. Firstly, the synthesis
process and questions to be answered are outlined in the remainder of Section 1. Section 2 provides
a synthesis of the most recent research. Section 3 and Table 20 summarise the overall findings, and
Section 4 provides a discussion of key research needs.
Synthesis process
The studies, data and information included in this chapter can be broadly broken into three groups:
1. Catchment loads monitoring: The Department of Natural Resources and Mines (DNRM) loads
monitoring program has up to nine years of measured data (starting from 2006) from ~32 gauging
stations across the Great Barrier Reef catchments. It is acknowledged that water quality and
pollutant load data are available for some sites prior to 2006; however, these data were not
included due to issues related to data access and measurement consistency. It is important to
point out that monitoring load estimates are also a form of modelling as they use relationships (or
models) between intermittent pollutant concentration samples and flow to calculate a pollutant
load upstream of the sampling point. The variability or error associated with these estimates can
be formally quantified (using standard deviation or standard error), and the processes that
contribute to that error are generally known (Harmel et al., 2006). Therefore, there is

considerable confidence in these data. As such, they are often considered the point of truth for
quantifying pollutant fluxes. Monitoring is, however, expensive and currently has several
limitations. These include (i) that it can take many years to capture the flow and pollutant
concentration variability at a site. It is estimated that a ~25-year flow period is suitable for
measuring changes in run-off (Chiew and McMahon, 1993), and up to 50 years is needed for
pollutant loads (Darnell et al., 2012), (ii) it is often difficult to isolate the effects of land use (as
discussed in Bartley et al., 2012), (iii) it is difficult to differentiate the contribution from natural
and anthropogenic sources using pollutant loads alone; however, when used in conjunction with
different isotope and geochemical approaches it can provide important insights into the relative
ratios (e.g. Bartley et al., 2015a; Verburg et al., 2011), and (iv) it is challenging to monitor the
smaller coastal catchments due to the influence of tides and pollutant transformations (Tappin,
2002), and therefore it is difficult to measure the true loads reaching marine waters. There will
never be sufficient measured data and information to estimate the loads and sources of
pollutants across the entire Great Barrier Reef; however, there is a need for a consistent
approach to estimating end-of-catchment loads and their sources so that decisions can be made
regarding remediation investments. For the reasons outlined above, modelling is the primary tool
used to estimate end-of-catchment loads to the Great Barrier Reef.
2. Catchment modelling: The Source Catchments model applies algorithms that represent processes
(e.g. hillslope, gully or bank erosion) across the entire Great Barrier Reef region using site-specific
input data (e.g. terrain, soil type, run-off). The strength of catchment modelling is that it can
provide an estimate of the constitute load for all of the 35 catchments along the Great Barrier
Reef coast and also at smaller scales if required (although predictive confidence generally
decreases with decreasing scale) (Wilkinson, 2008). The models utilise all available flow-gauging
data and can therefore estimate loads over longer time periods (~28 years). They can also
estimate loads from different land uses and provide estimates of the proportion of the load that
has come from the current land use, compared to natural or pre-development conditions. The
main challenge with the modelling data is the difficulty in undertaking a rigorous quantification of
the error or uncertainty associated with many of the data inputs. Therefore, our confidence in the
model output is hard to measure, and thus confidence in the modelling output is generally lower
than for the monitoring data. The 2015 external modelling review (Bosomworth and Cowie, 2016)
DNRM, 2015) identified that ‘only a few of the many sources of uncertainty can be formally
quantified’ and therefore recommended that qualitative terms be used to describe levels of
confidence in results. Performance indices outlined by Moriasi et al. (2015) were used to quantify
model performance against the measured end-of-catchment discharge and pollutant load
estimates and are described in McCloskey et al. (2017a, 2017b). Evaluation of the confidence in all
of the input data against independent datasets (e.g. tracing and dating data) has been undertaken
where appropriate. In Waters et al. (2014) monitored-loads data were used for validation but not
for calibration. However, in the most recent modelling the increased monitoring record allowed
some, but not all, of the model’s parameters (e.g. delivery ratios and gully cross-sectional area) to
be adjusted to better align with monitored loads. The model results will be the key datasets used
to estimate pollutant delivery to the Great Barrier Reef; however, the model results are most
robust when used to compare results from the 35 basins in relative terms (e.g. Waters et al.,
2013).
3. Research project data were collected at a range of sites across the Great Barrier Reef using
various techniques (e.g. isotopes, geochemical analysis, optically stimulated luminescence dating,
run-off flumes and laboratory and field analysis). These studies provide insights into the processes
or sources of a particular pollutant in that area. A brief description of the influence of pasture and
trees on pollutant loads is also presented.
This report attempts to find consensus between the various datasets. Where conflict does occur, it
will be noted as a potential area of further research. In this report, information is included that was

published, publicly available and that had undergone a peer review process. Peer review means that
someone other than an author, who has domain or discipline knowledge, has read and commented
on the report to check for accuracy in terms of the methods, results and interpretation of the data.
Detailed descriptions of the methods and results are not included; only a summary of the findings is
presented. Readers are encouraged to access the cited literature for specific details. The review
focused on new literature or studies published since 2013; however, where earlier (pre-2013) work
was important for answering the questions outlined below, it was included. In some cases, relevant
research published outside of the Great Barrier Reef area was also incorporated.
The questions this chapter addresses

By the end of this chapter, readers should be able to answer the following questions:
• Where are the pollutants coming from (between and within catchments)?
• How do the pollutant sources vary in both space and time?
• What are major processes (e.g. hillslope, gully and streambank erosion) delivering these
pollutants?
• What are the dominant drivers of the processes (land use, climate, etc.)?
This chapter does not:
• provide a detailed critique of any of the methods used in this report, including the modelling
approach. Recent reviews of the Source Catchments models have been undertaken by an
independent panel of experts (see the response from the Queensland Government in
Bosomworth and Cowie, 2016). A full description of the Source Catchments model can be found
in Waters et al. (2014) and the more recent changes and updates can be found in McCloskey et
al. (2017a, 2017b). The strengths and weaknesses of the Reef Programme have been discussed
elsewhere (Queensland Audit Office, 2015)
• provide a thorough comparison of modelled and measured datasets. This is not the role of the
Scientific Consensus Statement. It will, however, attempt to highlight where there is common
overlap and where there are differences. In many cases it is difficult to directly compare
modelled and measured pollutant flux as the modelled outputs represent net pollutant delivery
to the coast which includes trapping in dams and floodplains
• replace the information presented in the Regional Water Quality Improvement Plans and
supporting study documents (see Burnett Mary NRM Group 2015; Cape York NRM and South
Cape York Catchments, 2016; Fitzroy Basin Association Inc., 2015; Folkers et al., 2014; NQ Dry
Tropics, 2016; Terrain NRM, 2015). The Water Quality Improvement Plans describe priorities at
a finer spatial scale and include detailed regionally specific information that will not be
repeated here. Instead, this chapter will present a whole of Great Barrier Reef synthesis of the
most recent information related to understanding the source of pollutants delivered to the
Great Barrier Reef
• evaluate changes in pollutant yield due to changes in land-use management. These changes are
presented in Chapter 4.

Figure 1: Location of monitoring sites presented in this Chapter.

Figure 2: Location of Great Barrier Reef regions, the basins within the regions and the 47 management units
used in the modelling.

Definitions and clarifications
Modelling
• The modelling results presented in this chapter are based on the most recent Report Card 2015
baseline modelling predictions (State of Queensland 2016). These data represent average
annual pollutant delivery to the Great Barrier Reef for the 1986–2014 (28-year record) period.
The land-use and land-management data are for the 2012–2013 period. A static land-use layer
was used over the model run period, which was based on the latest available Queensland Land
Use Mapping Program data in each natural resource management (NRM) region (McCloskey et
al., 2017a; McCloskey et al., 2017b).
• The modelling results presented in this chapter represent pollutant delivery to the coast only. It
is important to highlight that pollutant generation (or erosion) and delivery are very different
processes, as are transformations in estuarine and marine environments. The modelling
calculates erosion, deposition, transformation and delivery of pollutants from river catchments.
Only the delivery estimates are presented in this report. A full budget that describes the
modelled source, deposition and transformation of each of the pollutants can be found in
McCloskey et al. (2017a).
• The data presented in this chapter may be used to (i) inform marine risk assessment and
receiving water models (see Chapters 3 and 5), (ii) identify hotspot areas to guide on-ground
investment prioritisation (e.g. Water Quality Improvement Plans, Reef Trust), (iii) compare the
relative ratios of different data types and so on. Due to the various uses for the data and
information, the results have been presented using a range of units, and explanation of these
terms is given in Table 2.
• In this chapter, 35 basins that drain to the Great Barrier Reef are described. Within a basin
there may be several streams or rivers (e.g. the Johnstone Basin includes the North Johnstone
and South Johnstone rivers). When evaluating delivery to the coast, using data from the 35
basins is sufficient. However, this is not necessarily suitable for identifying hotspots, particularly
in the larger Fitzroy and Burdekin basins (>130,000 km2). To provide a more equitable spatial
resolution for comparing hotspot areas, the modelling data were broken into 47 management
units (Figure 3Error! Reference source not found.). The additional management units include
seven areas in the Burdekin basin and seven in the Fitzroy basin. Noting that the Haughton and
Lower Burdekin have been merged for this analysis. Using the language adopted in the Water
Quality Improvement Plans, these 47 areas will be termed ‘management units’ for the
remainder of this report. Note there are some slight variations in the load numbers when
evaluating loads according to the 35 basins compared to the 47 management units (mainly in
the Burdekin). This is due to slight variations in catchment boundaries, dam trapping and
extractions. The differences are generally <3%. The load estimates from the 47 management
units are also based on their load contribution to the coast.
Monitoring
• The gauging and monitoring stations are generally above the tidal influence, and in many basins
this is also upstream of large areas of agricultural land (mainly sugarcane). This means that in
places like the Wet Tropics and Mackay Whitsunday, the load data do not represent the
complete delivery of pollutants to the marine system (McCloskey et al., 2017b). The agricultural
areas along the coastal fringe are not directly captured using monitoring. This makes direct
comparison of monitoring and modelling data inappropriate in many areas, as the modelling
has been adjusted to accommodate the ungauged area.

Definition of sub-surface material

• In this chapter the term ‘sub-surface’ is used to represent the source of material that is not
from the grassed hillslope or paddock surfaces. Sub-surface material may be from gullies
(hillslope or alluvial), streambanks, cane drains or deep rills on the hillslope. The term relates to
the fallout radionuclide methods used to distinguish between different erosion sources. A more
detailed discussion of the results using these methods is given in Section 2.1.3.
Particle size
• Throughout this document various terms are used to describe the particle size of sediment. Not
all sediment or particle size fractions present the same risk to the Great Barrier Reef, with fine
(<16 µm) sediment moving furthest into the marine environment (Bainbridge et al., 2012).
• The particle size characteristics of rivers are highly variable in both time and space (Walling and
Moorehead, 1989). A stream’s dissolved load is generally the material that is transported in
solution and is <0.02 µm. It is driven by the chemical weathering of rocks and can include sea
salts dissolved in rainwater and organic acids from vegetation (Gordon et al., 1992). Suspended
sediment (sometimes referred to as ‘wash load’), is primarily the product of erosion and
comprises clays, silts and fine sands. In many rivers, ~95% of the suspended sediment is <63 µm
which is the clay and silt component (Walling et al., 2000); however, this can vary considerably
with discharge and soil type. ‘Bed load’ is the material that moves along the bed but can be
transported in suspension, depending on flow conditions.
• Amos et al. (2004) determined that for a large event on the lower Burdekin River the sediment
moving during a flood event as suspended material included clay; very fine, fine and medium
silt; and some medium and coarse sand. In a more recent study Bainbridge et al. (2014) found
that >70% of the suspended sediment collected at the end of the major sub-catchments in the
Burdekin was <16 µm, acknowledging that sand-sized fractions may have been under-
represented using their approach. Packett et al. (2009) found that for 10 flood events in the
Fitzroy, 90% of samples had particle sizes <14 µm, and Turner et al. (2013) found that all event
samples collected comprised 90% silt and clay (i.e. <63 µm).
• Between the last freshwater gauge and the coastal zone, most of the sand-sized sediment is
deposited and only the very fine clay and silt fractions (<16 µm) are transported more than
3 km offshore (Bainbridge et al., 2012; Webster and Ford, 2010).
• Based on the above data, as well as the soil property data used to model soil erosion, the
catchment models conceptually estimate the particle size of their fine or TSS load to be <20 µm
(Waters et al., 2014). All discussions relating to modelled sediment loads in this document
represent TSS. Coarse or bed load fractions are not included in the end-of-catchment load
estimates.
• Sediment tracing studies generally focus on the <10 µm material.

Figure 4: Description of the size grades of particles based on soil science (The National Committee on Soil and
Terrain, 2009) and sedimentology (Leeder, 1982). The transport mechanism and associated particle size are
shown in the right-hand side. Modelled TSS load refers to the Source Catchments model.

Table 2: A description of the various formats and units used to represent the modelled pollutant loads.
Term Units Description Comments Application

Total load Tonnes (t) The 2015 modelling uses the 2012- Total loads, in some cases, can be compared Total load is most useful for estimating the
or 2013 baseline land use and with monitoring data where monitoring sites total delivery of material to the marine system.
kilograms management layer. The total load is are co-located with a management unit Using this metric, the large basins (Burdekin
(kg) equal to the sum of the pre- boundary (noting that different flow periods and Fitzroy) will generally always dominate due
development + anthropogenic load may be represented). Modelled data to their large run-off. This metric is most useful
(see below). represent delivery to the coast, so dam for linking with marine impact and risk. Total
trapping has been taken into consideration. load is the baseline run used in the eReefs
model.
Total specific t/km2 or This is the 2012-2013 baseline As above Specific load is most useful when looking for
load t/ha modelling run divided by basin or hotspot areas in the catchment. Specific load
catchment area. will highlight high delivery from small areas.
Pre- Tonnes (t) The pre-development land use The logic of using pre-development These data are not generally presented on their
development or t/km2 scenario is based on estimates of pre- conditions is to isolate where there has been own. These data are used to represent the pre-
load development vegetation cover. The a significant change in loads due to development run in the eReefs model.
pre-development run retains all water agricultural development only. To achieve
storages, weirs and water extractions this, hydrology or run-off remained the same
as represented in the post- as the baseline scenario. The only variables
development model. There is no adjusted in the pre-development scenario
change from the baseline scenario runs are ground cover (increased to 95%),
hydrology (McCloskey et al., 2017a). riparian cover (set to 100%) and gully erosion
Therefore, where dams exist, the (reduced by 90%).
model is likely to underestimate pre-
development loads.
Total Tonnes (t) This is the 2012-2013 baseline This is the total load minus the pre- Areas with a higher anthropogenic load would,
anthropogenic or t/km2 modelling run minus the pre- development load. These data cannot be in theory, have a greater load reduction
load development load. compared directly with monitoring data as potential compared to areas with high natural,
they represent the anthropogenic load only. or pre-development, loads.

2. Sources of pollutants—an update of research from 2013 to 2016
Sediments
Where are the sediments coming from?

Determining the dominant source and delivery of pollutants in a basin requires a combination of
techniques including catchment modelling, direct flux monitoring, geochemical tracing and sediment
dating. This section provides an update on the recent findings using each of these approaches.
A summary of the Great Barrier Reef measured run-off and TSS loads based on monitoring data is
presented in Table 3 and Table 4, respectively. Out of the 32 sites monitored, 29 have between three
and nine years of data. Three sites (Haughton River at Powerline, Mary River at Home Park and
Tinana Creek at Barrage Head) have only two years of data; however, they were included to provide
a complete set of end-of-system monitoring sites. There is a reasonably strong relationship between
sediment loads (t) and run-off (ML) for all monitored sites (r2 = 0.73) (data not shown). This suggests
that while land cover and condition have an important influence on erosion, rainfall and run-off have
a strong and important influence on total sediment loads delivered to the Great Barrier Reef. Based
on the end-of-sub-catchment specific loads (t/km2/yr), the monitoring results from the top quartile
(n = 8) of sites contribute 64% of the sediment load (Table 4).
Based on the 2015 Source Catchments modelling, the TSS load estimated to be delivered to the
Great Barrier Reef lagoon for the 1986–2014 modelling period is ~9900 kt, of which ~80%, or ~7900
kt, is considered to be due to land-use change (Table 5). The delivery of sediment is not uniform
across the catchments but varies across the different regions, basins and management units in the
Great Barrier Reef (Table 5; Figure 5). The models predict that there has been a 3–8-fold increase in
TSS across the Great Barrier Reef depending on the region. The Burdekin region delivers more than
double the TSS load of any other region. The Wet Tropics, Fitzroy and Burnett Mary basins deliver
similar total suspended sediment amounts; however, the Wet Tropics Basin has the highest per unit
area delivery (t/km2/yr). Based on the specific loads (t/km2/yr), the modelling results from the top
quartile (n = 12) of management units contribute 60–64% of the TSS load (Table 5).
There is a reasonable degree of consistency between modelling and monitoring in terms of

identifying the management units with higher specific loads (t/km2/yr), despite the different time
frames between modelling (28 years) and monitoring (typically 3–9 years) data. While monitoring
and modelling of catchment loads provide multiple lines of evidence, some of the catchment model
parameters are adjusted to align with monitored loads.

Table 3: Gauged flow data used to generate average loads for each of the 32 sites in the Great Barrier Reef basins. Data managed and supplied by Queensland
Government (Garzon-Garcia et al., 2015; Joo et al., 2011; Turner et al., 2013; Turner et al., 2012; Wallace et al., 2015; Wallace et al., 2014).
NRM region Basin Basin % Gauging River and site name Monitored Flow period Average annual Start of Long-term annual
area captured station catchment represented in discharge for the flow gauge average
(km2) by area (km2) load monitored record discharge for the
monitoring calculations period (ML) (used up to entire gauge
2015) record (ML)
Cape York Normanby 24,408 62 105107A Normanby River at Kalpowar Crossing 15,030 2006-2015 2,600,000 2005 2,700,000
Wet Tropics Barron 2,188 89 110001D Barron River at Myola 1,945 2006-2015 810,000 1957 760,000
110002A Barron River at Mareeba 836 2006-2009 380,000 1915 340,000
110003A Barron River at Picnic Crossing 228 2006-2009 150,000 1925 140,000
Johnstone 2,325 41 1120049 North Johnstone River at old Bruce Highway 959 2006-2015 2,000,000 1966 1,800,000
Bridge (Goondi)*
112101B South Johnstone River at Upstream Central 400 2006-2015 870,000 1974 790,000
Tully 1,683 86 113006A Tully River at Euramo 1,450 2006-2015 3,600,000 1972 3,100,000
113015A Tully River at Tully Gorge National Park 482 2010-2015 1,000,000 2009 1,000,000
Herbert 9,844 87 116001F Hebert River at Ingham 8,581 2006-2015 4,800,000 1915 3,400,000
Burdekin Haughton 4,051 44 119003A Haughton River at Powerline 1,773 2013-2015 140,000 1970 390,000
19 119101A Barratta Creek at Northcote 753 2009-2015 250,000 1974 160,000
Burdekin 130,120 99 120001A Burdekin River at Home Hill 129,939 2006-2015 15,000,000 1973 9,500,000
120002C Burdekin River at Sellheim 36,290 2006-2015 6,700,000 1968 4,600,000
120302B Cape River at Taemas 16,074 2006-2013 1,400,000 1968 650,000
120301B Belyando River at Gregory Development 35,411 2006-2013 1,300,000 1976 620,000
Road
120310A Suttor River at Bowen Development Road 50,291 2006-2013 740,000 2006 630,000
120205A Bowen River at Myuna 7,104 2012-2015 600,000 1960 960,000
Mackay O’Connell 850 97 1240062 O’Connell River at Caravan Park 825 2007-2009 310,000 1976 720,000
Whitsunday
2013-2015
124001B O’Connell River at Stafford’s Crossing 340 2006-2009 210,000 2005 190,000
Pioneer 1,572 94 125013A Pioneer River at Dumbleton Pump Station 1,485 2006-2015 1,200,000 1977 760,000
125004B Cattle Creek at Gargett 326 2006-2009 500,000 1967 310,000

NRM region Basin Basin % Gauging River and site name Monitored Flow period Average annual Start of Long-term annual
area captured station catchment represented in discharge for the flow gauge average
(km2) by area (km2) load monitored record discharge for the
monitoring calculations period (ML) (used up to entire gauge
2015) record (ML)
Plane 2,539 13 126001A Sandy Creek at Homebush 325 2009-2015 290,000 1966 170,000
Fitzroy Fitzroy 142,552 98 1300000 Fitzroy River at Rockhampton 139,159 2006-2015 9,500,000 1964 4,900,000
130302A Dawson River at Taroom 15,846 2010-2015 1,300,000 1911 400,000
130206A Theresa Creek at Gregory Highway 8,500 2007-2012 480,000 1956 260,000
2014-2015
130504B Comet River at Comet Weir 16,450 2007-2015 1,300,000 2002 810,000
Burnett Burnett^ 33,207 99 136014A Burnett River at Ben Anderson Barrage 32,891 2006-2015 2,100,000 1910 1,400,000
Mary
136106A Burnett River at Eidsvold 7,117 2007-2013 790,000 1960 170,000
136094A Burnett River at Jones Weir Tail Water 21,700 2006-2013 1,600,000 1981 360,000
136002D Burnett River at Mt Lawless 29,395 2006-2015 1,900,000 1909 1,000,000
Mary 9,466 72 138014A Mary River at Home Park 6,845 2013-2015 830,000 1982 1,500,000
138008A Tinana Creek at Barrage Head 1,284 2013-2015 150,000 1970 270,000
* Combination site, North Johnstone River at Tung Oil North 2006-2013 moved downstream to Johnstone River at Old Bruce Highway Bridge (Goondi) 2013-2015; area increase <4% of monitored catchment.
^ No discharge occurred in the Burnett River between 2006 and 2009.

Table 4: Average annual monitored total suspended sediment (TSS) loads for each of the 32 sites in the Great Barrier Reef basins. (Garzon-Garcia et al., 2015; Joo et al.,
2011; Turner et al., 2013; Turner et al., 2012; Wallace et al., 2016; Wallace et al., 2015; Wallace et al., 2014). The datasets were measured during events over three–nine
years; sites with an * are based on two years only. Catchments highlighted in blue are in the top quartile (n = 8) for measured specific TSS delivery (t/km2/y). Standard
deviation (SD) in brackets.
NRM region Basin Gauging River and site name Years of data Number of samples Annual average TSS loads Sediment load
station (tonnes) with SD in (t/km2/y)
brackets
Cape York Normanby 105107A Normanby River at Kalpowar Crossing 9 264 130,000 (± 75,000) 8.6
110001D Barron River at Myola 9 590 190,000 (± 120,000) 98
Barron 110002A Barron River at Mareeba 3 60 39,000 (± 29,000) 47
110003A Barron River at Picnic Crossing 3 371 8,300 (± 6,300) 36
1120049 North Johnstone River at Tung Oil 9 306 170,000 (± 120,000) 177
Wet Tropics Johnstone
112101B South Johnstone River at Upstream Central Mill 9 492 72,000 (± 53,000) 180
113006A Tully River at Euramo 9 1,491 100,000 (± 60,000) 69
Tully
113015A Tully River at Tully Gorge National Park 5 311 20,000 (± 20,000) 42
Herbert 116001F Herbert River at Ingham 9 420 400,000 (± 460,000) 47
119003A Haughton River at Powerline* 2 37 17,000 (± 16,000) 9.6
Haughton
119101A Barratta Creek at Northcote 6 649 39,000 (± 65,000) 52
120001A Burdekin River at Home Hill 9 436 4,870,000 (± 4,010,000) 38
120002C Burdekin River at Sellheim 9 171 4,340,000 (± 4,230,000) 120
Burdekin
120302B Cape River at Taemas 7 367 350,000 (± 240,000) 22
Burdekin
120301B Belyando River at Gregory Development Road 7 452 160,000 (± 120,000) 4.5
120310A Suttor River at Bowen Development Road 7 182 120,000 (± 60,000) 2.4
120205A Bowen River at Myuna 3 112 990,000 (± 950,000) 139
1240062 O’Connell River at Caravan Park 4 86 80,000 (± 70,000) 97
O’Connell
124001B O’Connell River at Stafford’s Crossing 3 55 37,000 (± 12,000) 109
Mackay Whitsunday 125013A Pioneer River at Dumbleton Pump Station 9 657 230,000 (± 230,000) 155
Pioneer
125004B Cattle Creek at Gargett 3 39 130,000 (± 83,000) 399
Plane 126001A Sandy Creek at Homebush 6 262 27,000 (± 20,000) 83
Fitzroy Fitzroy 1300000 Fitzroy River at Rockhampton 9 338 2,300,000 (± 2,300,000) 17

NRM region Basin Gauging River and site name Years of data Number of samples Annual average TSS loads Sediment load
station (tonnes) with SD in (t/km2/y)
brackets
130206A Theresa Creek at Gregory Highway 6 75 340,000 (± 400,000) 40
130504B Comet River at Comet Weir 6 104 770,000 (± 500,000) 47
130302A Dawson River at Taroom 4 109 300,000 (± 410,000) 19
136014A Burnett River at Ben Anderson Barrage HW 9 457 729,000 (± 1,320,000) 22
136002D Burnett River at Mt Lawless 6 396 660,000 (± 1,200,000) 23
Burnett
136094A Burnett River at Jones Weir Tail Water 6 297 340,000 (± 580,000) 16
Burnett Mary
136106A Burnett River at Eidsvold 5 220 73,000 (± 130,000) 10
138014A Mary River at Home Park* 2 176 160,000 (± 190,000) 23
Mary
138008A Tinana Creek at Barrage Head* 2 146 4,000 (± 200) 3.1

Table 5: Modelled end-of-basin annual average total suspended sediment (TSS) loads for each of the 35
Great Barrier Reef basins including the 14 sub-catchments in the Burdekin and Fitzroy basins (in grey text).
The modelling represents an annual average based on the 1986-2014 flow period. Note that the * and **
highlight that the sub-catchment totals for the Burdekin and Fitzroy are within 3% and 1% of the basin loads.
The data in this table are Queensland Government modelling outputs. The data were rounded to the nearest
10. Catchments highlighted in red are in the top quartile (n = 12) for anthropogenic total load (kt/yr) of TSS.
Catchments highlighted in pink are in the top quartile (n = 12) for anthropogenic specific load of TSS (t/km2/yr).
Region Basin Basin/Catchment Basin Total TSS Total Anthropogenic Total specific
# name area load specific load TSS export to Anthropogenic
(km2) exported to exported to the coast (kt/yr) TSS export to
the coast the coast the coast
(kt/yr) (t/km2/yr) (t/km2/yr)
Cape York 101 Jacky Jacky 2,990 50 20 40 10
102 Olive Pascoe 4,172 70 20 50 10
103 Lockhart 2,873 70 20 50 20
104 Stewart 2,770 50 20 40 10
105 Normanby 24,380 190 10 150 10
106 Jeannie 3,637 40 10 30 10
107 Endeavour 2,186 60 30 30 10
REGIONAL TOTAL 43,008 530 400
Wet Tropics 108 Daintree 2,105 100 50 30 10
109 Mossman 477 20 40 10 10
110 Barron 2,188 60 30 30 10
111 Mulgrave-Russell 1,975 250 130 160 80
112 Johnstone 2,317 380 160 260 110
113 Tully 1,668 160 90 80 50
114 Murray 1,125 70 70 40 30
116 Herbert 9,852 480 50 330 30
REGIONAL TOTAL 21,707 1,520 940
Burdekin Upper Burdekin 40,413 950 20 830 20
Cape Campaspe 20,255 40 0 40 0
Belyando 35,352 60 0 50 0
Suttor 18,577 90 5 80 0
Bowen Bogie 11,718 1,660 140 1,400 120
East Burdekin 3,299 290 90 240 70
Subtotal
(Burdekin)* 130,120 3,090 2640
120 Burdekin 130,120 3,260 30 2,790 20
117 Black 1,057 60 60 30 30
118 Ross 1,707 60 40 50 30
119 Haughton (Lower
Burdekin) 4,051 180 50 160 40
121 Don 3,736 210 60 180 50
REGIONAL TOTAL 140,671 3,780 3,210
122 Proserpine 2,513 130 50 80 30

Region Basin Basin/Catchment Basin Total TSS Total Anthropogenic Total specific
# name area load specific load TSS export to Anthropogenic
(km2) exported to exported to the coast (kt/yr) TSS export to
the coast the coast the coast
(kt/yr) (t/km2/yr) (t/km2/yr)
Mackay 124 O’Connell 2,305 310 140 240 100
Whitsunday
125 Pioneer 1,664 230 140 170 100
126 Plane 2,547 150 60 100 40
Fitzroy Comet 17,290 70 <5 60 <5
Dawson 50,734 340 10 300 10
Isaac 22,226 170 10 140 10
Mackenzie 13,128 190 10 160 10
Nogoa 19,196 20 <5 20 <5
Theresa Creek 8,473 40 <5 30 <5
Fitzroy River –
lower 11,339 690 60 620 50
Subtotal
(Fitzroy)** 142,387 1,510 1,330
130 Fitzroy 142,144 1,510 10 1,330 10
127 Styx 2,997 100 30 100 30
128 Shoalwater 3,614 70 20 60 20
129 Water Park 1,846 60 40 60 30
132 Calliope 2,416 60 20 50 20
133 Boyne 2,498 20 10 20 10
REGIONAL TOTAL 155,515 1,820 1,610
Burnett 134 Baffle 4,101 80 20 50 10
Mary
135 Kolan 2,891 40 10 30 10
136 Burnett 33,274 550 20 430 10
137 Burrum 3,346 30 10 20 10
138 Mary 9,420 770 80 670 70
REGIONAL TOTAL 53,031 1,460 1,190
TOTAL Great
Barrier Reef 422,961 9,930 7,940


Figure 5: Ranking of the modelled end-of-basin annual average total suspended (fine) sediment (TSS) delivery (kt/yr) for each of the 35 Great Barrier Reef basins (in
blue) plus the additional 14 sub-catchments in the Burdekin and Fitzroy (in green). The modelling represents an annual average based on the 1986-2014 flow period.

How does the source of sediments vary over time and space?
Bainbridge et al. (2012) determined that it is only the fine (<16 µm) and organic-rich suspended
sediment that is transported long distances in riverine flood plumes, with coarser fractions being
deposited closer to the river mouth. This fine material also influences water clarity on the inshore
and mid-shelf of the Great Barrier Reef (Lewis et al., 2015a; Lewis et al., 2015b; Lewis et al., 2014a).
Recent research using paired optical and radiocarbon dating on sediment cores from key
depositional areas off the Burdekin River showed that most fine sediment is held within 20 km of the
river mouth and is not transported as far offshore as previously thought (Lewis et al., 2014a). This
finding has been subsequently supported by 3D modelling of river discharges, sediment transport
and deposition (Delandmeter et al., 2015). A re-examination of sediment budgets from the Fitzroy
River and adjacent Keppel Bay (Brooke et al., 2006) also indicate that the majority of sediment
delivered from the Fitzroy River is largely retained near the river mouth (Lewis et al., 2015b).
Identifying the source of the excess fine sediment requires new and innovative approaches that
evaluate how sediment sources have changed over time and space. Terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides
are increasingly being used in other parts of the world to quantify the contribution of human activity
against the natural variability of landscape sediment yields (e.g. Hewawasam et al., 2003) and have
recently been applied in the Barron (Nichols et al., 2014) and Burdekin Basin (Croke et al., 2015). In
the Burdekin Basin the data were also used to benchmark short-term (~5 year) measurements of
contemporary sediment yield against the natural geological erosion rates (~100 to >10,000 years)
(Bartley et al., 2015a). In the Barron catchment study, the data indicate that the pre-European or
long-term sediment yields (43 t/km2/y) are similar to the current or contemporary rates (45 t/km2/y).
In the Burdekin catchment, however, two of the five major sub-catchments in the Burdekin (Bowen
and Upper Burdekin) were found to have accelerated erosion rates 7.5 and 3.6 times the long-term
natural geological erosion rates (Bartley et al., 2015a).
Techniques to identify the spatial sources of sediment have been applied in the Burdekin, Fitzroy and
Normanby catchments. In the Burdekin Basin, monitoring of the TSS export from the five main sub-
catchments (Upper Burdekin, Cape, Belyando, Suttor and Bowen), the Burdekin Falls Dam overflow
and end of basin (Clare gauge) suggests that the Upper Burdekin, Bowen and Lower Burdekin/Bogie
sub-catchments dominate the TSS load and deliver ~27%, 45% and 26% of the annual fine (<63 µm)
sediment load over a five-year study period (Bainbridge et al., 2014). The same sub-catchments are
also the dominant source of the clay and fine silt <16 µm sediment fraction based on sediment
geochemistry (Furuichi et al., 2016) and clay mineralogy (Bainbridge et al., 2016). The clay mineral
tracing data suggest that the expandable clay group sourced to basaltic terrains travels furthest in
the marine environment (Bainbridge et al., 2016; Douglas et al., 2006b; McCulloch et al., 2003b). The
clay data suggest that the expandable clays group becomes further enriched in the sediments further
offshore, although it is unclear which geological source (and sub-catchment) has produced these
clays (Bainbridge et al., 2016). A similar finding has been observed in the Fitzroy Basin where it was
found that smectite clays (part of the expandable group) were preferentially transported in the
Great Barrier Reef (Douglas et al., 2006b). Smectite clays are commonly abundant as a weathering
process of basaltic rocks. The science on the preferential transport of clay minerals in the marine
environment is currently unresolved and complicated in field settings. For example, laboratory-based
studies which can isolate different processes show that the relatively higher cation exchange
capacity of smectite clays should result in them settling out preferentially compared to most other
clay minerals (Hillier, 1995). However, other properties of smectites such as a finer particle size and a
lower charge density ratio are favourable for them to travel further in the marine environment
(Hillier, 1995). Other biological factors including terrestrial organic matter and plume-related
production also appear to play a key role in sediment aggradation/flocculation. Hence in a field
setting where all these processes are occurring it is difficult to determine the dominant process that
drives the transport of sediments in the marine environment. Further work is required to classify the

clay components within the expandables group (i.e. pure smectite, montmorillonite,
mixed/interstratified layer/mineralogy clays, etc.) as these can have vastly different properties which
strongly influence dispersion and flocculation (see Shaw, 1995). Furuichi et al. (2016) found an
additional contribution of fine sediment from the Belyando sub-catchment during the 2012 water
year, which is currently the focus of further geochemical investigation. The estimates made in the
Burdekin account for the dam trapping influence of the Burdekin Falls Dam, which was determined
to be between 50% and 85% of fine sediment delivered annually to the dam (Cooper et al., 2016;
Lewis et al., 2013). Overall, it is estimated that the Burdekin Dam has reduced the TSS load from the
Burdekin River by ~35% compared to pre-dam conditions (Lewis et al., 2009).
In the northern Great Barrier Reef catchment area draining to Princess Charlotte Bay, Brooks et al.
(2013) used sediment geochemistry to show that the sediments deposited in the bay are dominated
by three components: marine-derived carbonates, quartz silt/sand and terrestrially derived silt-clays.
The terrestrially derived silt-clays constitute about 46% of the sediments in the bay. A geochemical
mixing model incorporating all of the major terrestrial sources indicates that the terrestrial
component is dominated (81 ± 1%) by sediment derived from the coastal plain and the Bizant River.
From the data presented they concluded that erosion of the coastal plain is the dominant source of
terrestrial sediments deposited in the bay over long (geological) timescales. This largely reflects tidal
sources. However, Brooks et al. (2013) noted that these percentages do not necessarily represent
the relative proportion or variability of sediment sources transported in flood plumes delivering
sediment to the reefs surrounding Princess Charlotte Bay. Analysis of the terrestrial contributions
from flood plumes over the 2011-2012 and 2012-2013 wet season is ongoing but suggests the source
of sediment is from the upper catchment. More research is required to unravel the interaction
between sediment delivered to the nearshore zone in Princess Charlotte Bay by tidal currents and
sediment delivered to reefs in flood plumes.
Most of the sediment source tracing in the Fitzroy Basin has been captured in previous consensus
statements; however, a recent review of the evidence from the Fitzroy Basin (Lewis et al., 2015a)
revealed conflicting contributing sources between geochemical tracing results (Douglas et al., 2006a;
Douglas et al., 2006b; Douglas et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2008), catchment monitoring (Packett et al.,
2009) and modelling data (Dougall et al., 2014). The Fitzroy Basin is particularly challenging to assess
due to the large catchment area, relatively flat terrain and large number of weirs and dams in the
catchment. There are estimated to be ~57 unregulated and 39 regulated impoundments in the
Fitzroy (Sinclair Knight Mertz, 2012) that can interrupt sediment erosion and delivery pathways. The
2015 modelling data indicates a smaller load from the Fitzroy Basin and less sediment delivery from
management units further upstream within the basin relative to previous analyses. This is a result of
accounting for these impoundments more thoroughly than in previous modelling. The latest
available data suggest the average ‘current’ suspended sediment load exported from the Fitzroy
River is between 1.5 and 2.0 million tonnes per year (Lewis et al., 2015b). Consistent with earlier
geochemical tracing results (Douglas et al., 2008), recent studies have identified that the dominant
source of the fine sediment and nutrients are the cropping areas on basalt lithology. In contrast,
catchment modelling continues to identify grazing land as the largest sediment source in the Fitzroy
region (Table 9). Broadscale cropping occurs on large areas in the Theresa Creek, Nogoa and Comet
management units and to a lesser degree (based on area contribution) in the Callide and Dawson
sub-catchments. Cropping also occurs on the floodplains of most streams in the Fitzroy where black
soil alluvium is found (Lewis et al., 2015b). The Connors management unit also contributes a high
number of large floods on a long-term annual average basis, and maintaining and improving ground
cover should be a priority for this area (Lewis et al., 2015b).
Understanding how rivers have adjusted to variations in past climate and associated sediment supply
is critical for understanding and predicting how these systems may respond to future changes in
climate and rainfall. Alluvial terraces provide information on how catchments have adjusted over

time. Hughes et al. (2015) described the spatial preservation of terraces in five catchments in the
Wet Tropics. Leonard and Nott (2015a) used optically stimulated luminescence chronologies
combined with a detailed sedimentary analysis to determine that floodplain stripping is a major, and
relatively unrecognised, source of sediment on the Daintree River. Rates of floodplain accretion are
far greater than has been previously estimated, and much higher volumes of sediment are being
redistributed within the catchment than previously considered. Similar sediment dating studies on
the Normanby (Pietsch et al., 2015) and Fitzroy Rivers (Hughes et al., 2009a; Hughes et al., 2009b;
Hughes et al., 2009c) have determined that within stream sediment, storage of fine sediment can be
considerable (up to 55% by volume of bench material) in some areas. Pietsch et al. (2015) also
demonstrated that in-channel storage of fine sediment within benches can exceed deposition on
floodplains, with sediment residence time typically greater than a century. The Source Catchments
model can account for fine sediment storage within channels, and this functionality is represented in
a number of regional models where relevant data were available to constrain the model (e.g.
Fitzroy). As new research data become available across the Great Barrier Reef, models will be
updated and refined to provide more reliable long-term estimates of fine sediment deposition and
re-entrainment.
Recent studies using annual luminescent lines derived from mid-shelf coral cores were used to
reconstruct the Burdekin River flow from 1648 to 2011 (see Figure 5; Lough et al., 2015). The
reconstruction showed a shift to higher flows and increased run-off variability in the latter half of the
19th century. This change occurred from around 1860, which also coincided with early European
settlement in the region. A change in climate, as well as changes to land use, may therefore be
responsible for the increase in sediment yields delivered to coral reefs (McCulloch et al., 2003a).
Recent work by Lewis et al. (in review) shows a stronger correlation with freshwater discharge than
sediment load, which suggests that the Ba/Ca (Barium/Calcium) ratios in coral cores that were used
to provide evidence of an increase in sediment due to land use may in fact be partially due to
changes in climate and run-off. A number of studies were undertaken in Queensland following
catastrophic flooding in 2011 and 2013 that also highlighted that much of the sediment erosion, and
delivery, occurs during large events (Simon, 2014; Thompson and Croke, 2013).

Figure 6: Reconstructed Burdekin River flow as anomalies from 1648 to 2011 average. Dark blue line is 10-
year Gaussian filter. Horizontal grey lines are 90th percentile, median and 10th percentile relative to whole
record length (Reproduced with permission from Lough et al., 2015).
What processes are responsible for the excess sediment?

Following the identification of the major geographic sources of sediment, it is important to
determine which erosion process is responsible for the sediment loss so that appropriate restoration
strategies can be implemented. In the simplest terms, sediment can be eroded from hillslopes or
paddocks, which is known as surface erosion. Sediment can also be eroded from deep rills, gullies or
riverbanks, which, when combined, is considered as sub-surface erosion. Following the erosion of
sediment, there are numerous opportunities for sediment to be deposited within the catchment
before a small proportion of the eroded material is delivered to the marine system. Contributions
from wind erosion have not been considered here.
Sheetwash or hillslope erosion generally dominates sediment budgets in cultivated areas (Hughes et
al., 2009b). Visser et al. (2007) measured sediment loss within a sugarcane floodplain setting and
demonstrated that plant cane and water furrows are a sediment source, while water headlands and
minor cane drains generally act as a sediment sink or trap. Sediment loss from cultivated floodplains
can be between 2 and 5 t/ha/yr (Visser et al., 2007). Although hillslope erosion can dominate fine
sediment loads in rangeland areas during drought years when ground cover is low (Bartley et al.,
2014b; Bartley et al., 2006; Karfs et al., 2009; Roth, 2004; Silburn et al., 2011), sub-surface erosion
dominates sediment yields in the longer term (see below). Hillslope erosion rates, and contributions
to end-of-catchment sediment flux, have been demonstrated to be low in the Normanby catchment
(Brooks et al., 2014a; Brooks et al., 2014b). The addition of gully mapping data (Brooks et al., 2014a)
for the Normanby catchment into the catchment models indicates that gully and streambank erosion
contribute over 80% of the total sediment export from the Normanby Basin.
Fallout radionuclides (137Cs and 210Pbex) have been widely used to determine the relative
contributions of surface and sub-surface erosion (Table 6). Fallout radionuclides are concentrated in
the surface soil, therefore sediments derived from sheet and rill erosion will have high
concentrations of nuclides. Sediment eroded from gullies or riverbanks have little or no fallout
nuclides present. By measuring the concentration in suspended sediments moving down the river,
and comparing them with concentrations in sediments produced by the different erosion processes,
the erosion process generating the sediment can be determined.
In a study by Hughes et al. (2009b) in a headwater catchment of the Fitzroy River in the dry tropics of
central Queensland, surface soil erosion was found to produce less than 20% of the river sediment in
non-cultivated parts of the catchment. Catchment modelling showed good agreement with this
study, indicating that surface soil erosion contributes approximately 20% of the total export load
from the Fitzroy River (Table 6).
In the wet/dry tropical Herbert River catchment in central Queensland, Bartley et al. (2004) used
137
Cs to determine that about 50% of the sediment in the lower river originated from surface soils.
The Bartley et al. (2004) estimate was not corroborated by Tims et al. (2010), who did a follow-up
study in the same catchment using 239Pu. Like 137Cs, 239Pu is a product of atmospheric testing of
nuclear weapons, but it can be measured with greater sensitivity. They sampled the Herbert River
catchment after a greater than one-in-five-year flood, and their results showed that surface soils
were the minor contributor to river sediment everywhere except in some sugarcane cultivation and
forested areas. Catchment modelling suggests that surface soil erosion contributes approximately
30% of the total export load from the Herbert Basin (Table 6). Similarly, Wilkinson et al. (2013)
showed that subsoils were also the dominant source of the sediments in the Bowen and Upper
Burdekin. In a follow-up study Wilkinson et al. (2015a) showed that subsoils were also the dominant

source of sediments across the entire Burdekin Basin. Olley et al. (2013) showed that this was also
the case for rivers draining into Princess Charlotte Bay on the Northern Cape.
However, traditional tracing techniques generally only discriminate between surface (grassed
hillslope) and sub-surface (riverbank, gully wall, deep rill or scald) erosion. A recent tracing study in
the Bowen River catchment of the Burdekin Basin addressed this limitation by using additional
sediment tracers (7Be) to discriminate between horizontal and vertical surfaces of subsoil. It found
that 50% of fine sediment was from vertical surfaces (gully walls and riverbanks), 40% from
horizontal surfaces of subsoil (hillslope scalds, rills and gully floors) and 10% from topsoil or grassed
hillslopes (Hancock et al., 2014). Interestingly, the proportion of sediment coming from sub-surface
erosion in the Upper Burdekin catchment appears to be similar for sites that have had minimal
grazing when compared to sites that have been severely overgrazed (Wilkinson et al., 2013). This
suggests that tracers are useful for identifying the dominant erosion process in a catchment, but on
their own they are not necessarily suitable for identifying the influence of land management on
those processes. Catchment modelling suggests that approximately three-quarters of the fine
sediment exported from the Burdekin Basin was sourced from sub-surface erosion (Table 6).
Based on the most recent 2015 Source Catchments modelling, hillslope erosion dominates sediment
sources in the Wet Tropics, Mackay Whitsunday and Cape York (with the exception of the Normanby
Basin); however, sub-surface erosion dominates end-of-basin sediment delivery in the Burdekin,
Fitzroy and Burnett Mary regions (
Table 7). The ratio of sediment sources based on tracing data (Table 6) is comparable to the
modelled estimates (
Table 7) for the Burdekin and Fitzroy. For other areas, there are still large discrepancies between the
ratio of sediment sources based on the various datasets. Previous gully mapping in the Great Barrier
Reef was based primarily on the National Land and Water Resources Audit (NLWRA) gully erosion
mapping (Hughes et al., 2001), which has been found to have large uncertainties (Kuhnert et al.,
2007) and under-predicted the amount of gully erosion to varying degrees, especially in grazed
catchments. Mapping gully location and extent is a slow and time-consuming process and has only
been completed in detail in some areas, such as the Burdekin (Tindall et al., 2014) and Normanby
(Brooks et al., 2013) basins. Improved gully mapping is ongoing in a number of regions (Darr,
unpublished data), but it will be several years before there are consistent high-resolution gully maps
incorporated into each model for all Great Barrier Reef catchments.
Table 6: Summary of erosion process studies using fallout radionuclide tracers (bold) and catchment
modelling (in grey text) estimates in the basins and catchments draining into the Great Barrier Reef.
Region Catchment Mean surface Technique/Tracer Reference

soil contribution
%
Cape Princess Charlotte Bay rivers 16 ± 2 137Cs and 210Pbex Olley et al. (2013)
York (Normanby catchment; pasture,
grazing)
Normanby catchment 15 Source Catchments McCloskey et al. (2017b)
modelling
Wet Berner Ck (Johnson catchment) 137Cs and 210Pbex Wallbrink et al. (2001)
Tropics
Cultivated cropping 79 ± 14
Non-cultivated 19 ± 5
Herbert catchment 52 137Cs Bartley et al. (2004)
Herbert catchment 20 ± 2 239Pu Tims et al. (2010)

Region Catchment Mean surface Technique/Tracer Reference

soil contribution
%
Forest 83 ± 8
Pasture 12 ± 2
Pasture 6±1
Sugarcane 31 ± 3
Sugarcane 58 ± 6
Herbert catchment 32 McCloskey et al. (2017b)
Burdekin Bowen and Upper Burdekin 13 ± 5 to 65 ± 14 137Cs, 210Pb 7Be
ex, Wilkinson et al. (2013),
(Pasture, grazing) (depending on
Hancock et al. (2014)
sub-catchment)
Burdekin (Pasture, grazing) 0 ± 1 to 14 ± 1 137Cs Wilkinson et al. (2015a)
(depending on
sub-catchment)
Bowen Bogie 24 Source Catchments McCloskey et al. (2017b)
modelling
Upper Burdekin 18 Source Catchments McCloskey et al. (2017b)
modelling
Burdekin River 24 Source Catchments McCloskey et al. (2017b)
modelling
Fitzroy Theresa Ck (Fitzroy catchment) 137Cs and 210Pbex Hughes et al. (2009c)
Cropping 43-50
Pasture 12
Theresa Ck 32 Source Catchments McCloskey et al. (2017b)
modelling
Table 7: Modelled contribution to end-of-basin total suspended sediment (TSS) export by erosion source (%)
based on the 2015 modelling results. Note: Hillslope + gully + streambank = ~100% and surface and sub-
surface = ~100%.
Region Hillslope Gully Stream bank Gully + streambank

(surface) % % (sub-surface)
% %
Cape York* 64 29 6 35
Wet Tropics 70 3 27 30
Burdekin 23 60 16 76
Mackay Whitsunday 68 2 31 33
Fitzroy 31 30 38 68
Burnett Mary 27 11 62 73
* For the Normanby Basin, NLWRA gully density data layer was replaced with data derived from gully mapping. Gully TSS
contribution for Normanby Basin is 72%.
The Great Barrier Reef catchments contain more than 87,000 km of gully erosion features (Thorburn
and Wilkinson, 2013). However, the contributions of gully erosion to fine sediment exports to the
Great Barrier Reef lagoon vary between catchments, due to different densities of gully erosion and
variable transport connectivity from catchment management units through the river network to the
Great Barrier Reef coast (Wilkinson et al., 2015b). Eight of the 4 Great Barrier Reef catchment
management units (Bowen Bogie, East Burdekin, Lower Burdekin, Don, Fitzroy, Mackenzie,
Normanby and Theresa Creek) together contain 27,000 km of gullies and contribute 54% of all the
sediment derived from gully erosion, from just 19% of the total Great Barrier Reef catchment area

(Wilkinson et al., 2015c). The area occupied by gullies is estimated to have increased ~10-fold since
European settlement in parts of northern Australia (Shellberg et al., 2010). Erosion rates have been
estimated for several alluvial gully complexes in the Normanby (Brooks et al., 2016) and Mitchell
catchments (Shellberg et al., 2016), showing that head-cut retreat can be upwards of tens of metres
per year in some areas. Significant amounts of sediment have also been shown to be coming from
the overburden piles and tailings dams that are the legacy of tin mining in the Upper Herbert
catchment (Little, 2014).
Stream bank erosion, or river channel change, is the least understood of the major erosion processes
contributing sediment to the Great Barrier Reef. Using the Shuttle Radar Terrain Mission–derived
digital elevation model, it is estimated that there are ~300,000 km of major and minor stream lines
draining to the Great Barrier Reef (Bartley et al., 2016a). The channel types, and associated erosion
processes, vary enormously. A review of streambank erosion and channel change in the Great Barrier
Reef catchments by Bartley (2016b) suggests that rates can vary from 0.01 m to 5 m/yr depending on
the size of the catchment, the method used to estimate change and the time period of the study.
High erosion rates (~5 m/yr) generally occur following major flood events such as on the Burnett
River in 2011 (Simon, 2014) and Lockyer catchment (Thompson et al., 2013). Outside of these major
events, channel erosion in the Great Barrier Reef catchments is relatively low by world standards
(0.01–0.1 m/yr) (Bainbridge, 2004; Hooke, 1980).
Brooks et al. (2014b) suggested that bank erosion was a key erosion process in most Queensland
rivers; however, Leonard and Nott (2015b) used historical maps and geomorphological techniques
and suggested that while bank erosion may look like a major source of sediment, there is little
evidence for excessive bank erosion in some areas (e.g. the Mulgrave River). Hence, bank erosion is
likely to be a significant sediment source in some, but not all, catchments. Identifying where there
has been an increase in bank erosion is important for helping prioritise remediation investment, and
areas without riparian vegetation should be a priority. Bartley et al. (2015b) identified the dominant
controls of bank erosion as stream power, riparian vegetation, bank material and channel
confinement. The Source Catchments streambank erosion model incorporates all of these variables.
Based on a study of three Queensland rivers (Brisbane, O’Connell and Normanby), Brooks et al.
(2014c) concluded that there was a poor relationship between bank erosion and both stream power
and bend curvature, and that in-channel deposition (of coarse bed load) is a better predictor of bank
erosion. This suggests that the current bank erosion rule used within the Source Catchments
modelling may not accurately reflect bank erosion rates for some stream types (e.g. the
anastomosing stream types found in the Fitzroy as studied by Amos et al., 2008). Brooks et al.
(2014c) also showed that having >30% woody vegetation within the channel zone can reduce erosion
rates by an order of magnitude. The key gap in our understanding is knowledge of the best place for
returning riparian vegetation in the landscape. A review of the literature from other parts of the
world suggests that the timescales and magnitude of water quality effectiveness following the
revegetation of riparian zones can vary significantly and may take many decades (Bartley et al.,
2015b).
What are the drivers and land uses delivering the anthropogenic sediment loss?
After identifying the major geographical sources of sediment, and the erosion process contributing
that sediment, it is useful to identify the causes or drivers of the erosion. Factors such as geology and
soil type, landscape gradient and climate are all important drivers of erosion. These factors are,
however, generally not considered to be within our immediate control. The main contemporary
factors that govern sediment erosion that are within our control are land use and land condition.
Importantly, however, it is largely the landscape and climatic factors that govern sediment delivery.

Modelling estimates that the land uses that deliver most of the sediment to the Great Barrier Reef
are grazing in the Burdekin, Fitzroy and Burnett Mary regions; sugarcane in the Wet Tropics and
Mackay Whitsunday regions; and nature conservation areas on Cape York region (Figure 7; Table 8).
For the Cape York region, most of the nature conservation areas were grazed historically and still
carry large numbers of feral cattle.
Event mean concentration data derived from water quality measurements taken in the Great Barrier
Reef catchments as well as other parts of Australia suggest that the highest median TSS
concentrations are generally from mining (~50,000 mg/L), horticulture (~3000 mg/L), dryland
cropping (~2000 mg/L), cotton (~600 mg/L) and grazing on native pastures (~300 mg/L) (Bartley et
al., 2012). It is important to point out that these are median values, and concentrations can vary
considerably at any given location. For example, TSS concentrations measured in the Bowen
catchment are commonly greater than 5000 mg/L, and this is dominated by grazing on native
pastures (Wilkinson et al., 2013). A study of erosion from unsealed roads in Cape York (Gleeson,
2012) indicated that the average event mean concentration from unsealed roads was around 1800
mg/L, and that unsealed roads and other linear disturbance features were the largest intensive land
use in the Cape (Spencer et al., 2016), being double the area of all other intensive land uses
combined.
Based on a six-year study in the Johnstone catchment, Hunter and Walton (2008) also found that for
a given mean annual precipitation, specific fluxes of TSS from beef pastures, dairy pastures and
unsewered residential areas were similar to those from rainforest, while fluxes from areas of
sugarcane and bananas were 3–4 times higher. However, because grazing occupies most of the
Great Barrier Reef catchment areas (~75%) it dominates sediment delivery to the Great Barrier Reef
(McCloskey et al., 2017b). Sediment concentrations from alluvial gully erosion, which is a key
sediment source in grazing land, have been measured in the range of 10,000–100,000 mg/L
(Shellberg et al., 2013).
The influence of trees vs. pasture in terms of run-off and sediment loss from catchments and
paddocks
It is well established that ground cover and soil surface condition play a significant role in controlling
the rates of run-off (e.g. Connolly et al., 1997; McIvor et al., 1995a; McIvor et al., 1995b; Pressland et
al., 1991) and sediment loss (Bartley et al., 2006; McIvor, 2001; McIvor et al., 1995a; Pressland et al.,
1991; Roth, 2004; Silburn et al., 2011) in savanna landscapes. Soil loss from grazed hillslopes
increases as vegetation cover decreases, with the rate decreasing sharply as cover increases beyond
40% (Bartley et al., 2010; McIvor et al., 1995a; Scanlan et al., 1996). Ground cover can be very patchy
in savanna landscapes (Ludwig et al., 2007) and this results in large variability in sediment yields even
for hillslopes under the same management regime (Bartley et al., 2006). Patchy vegetation on
erodible soils within riparian zones can also lead to the initiation of alluvial gullies and scald features
(Shellberg et al., 2010). Adequate ground cover, on both hillslopes and riparian zones, needs to be
maintained to reduce the potential for gully formation (Wilkinson et al., 2014a). A review of the role
of ground cover in reducing run-off and erosion is provided in Bartley et al. (2014a).
The effect of tree clearing on rangeland ecosystem structure and the resultant changes in water and
sediment yield have not been well studied in Australia; however, studies in semi-arid rangeland
areas in Queensland suggest that converting (Brigalow) forest to pasture can increase run-off by
~80% at sub-catchment scales (Thornton et al., 2007) and ~40% for river basin scales (Siriwardena et
al., 2006). Essentially, clearing of forest can result in a doubling of run-off (Cowie et al., 2007;
Thornton et al., 2007). Cropped and grazed catchments export higher quantities of sediment and
phosphorus than the virgin Brigalow catchments (Elledge and Thornton, 2017). Trend analysis of
recent stream-flow records (1920-2007) using pre- and post-clearing river flow data in the Upper
Burdekin suggest that there has been a decrease in base flow following tree clearing and an increase

in event storm flow during large rainfall events (Peña-Arancibia et al., 2012). Storm flow is largely
responsible for erosion and delivery of sediments from rangelands. In general, if tree clearing and
any associated land use change expose and/or disturb the soil surface, then water and sediment loss
are likely to increase.
Once improved sown pastures are fully established following clearing, which can take a number of
years, run-off may be similar to natural woodlands (McIvor et al., 1995a). Removing trees generally
enhances pasture productivity with the benefits being greatest in woodlands with high canopy cover
(Scanlan, 2002), which most commonly occur in southern and central Queensland. The benefits of
tree clearing on pasture production diminish in lower tree-cover areas of northern and western
Queensland.
The pasture production benefits of clearing can be partially offset by a reduction in pasture quality.
Given the beneficial effect of trees on soil nutrients, tree removal may also have longer term
negative implications for soil nutrient dynamics, soil fertility, pasture production and biomass
(Jackson and Ash, 1998; Jackson and Ash, 2001). A recent study by Gowen and Bray (2016) used
bioeconomic modelling to evaluate the trade-offs between an existing central Queensland grazing
operation, which has been using repeated tree clearing to maintain pasture growth, and an
alternative carbon and grazing enterprise in which tree clearing is reduced and the additional carbon
sequestered in trees is sold. The results showed that ceasing clearing in favour of producing offsets
produces a higher net present value over 20 years. In addition to the biophysical effects of reduced
cover, there are numerous negative ecological implications of tree clearing in rangelands (Ludwig
and Tongway, 2002; Martin and McIntye, 2007).
The influence of trees vs. pasture in terms of erosion and sediment loss in the riparian zone
There is an enormous amount of literature demonstrating that vegetation in riparian zones has
positive benefits in terms of reduced channel erosion. Based on international research, Beeson and
Doyle (1995) found that bends without riparian vegetation were 30 times more likely to undergo
major bank erosion than vegetated bends, and Smith (1976) found that in aggrading river conditions,
heavily vegetated banks were 20,000 times more resistant to erosion than non-vegetated banks.
Micheli et al. (2004) did a comparison of migration rates and bank erodibilities between 1949 and
1997 on the Sacramento River (USA) and found that reaches bordered by agriculture were 80–150%
more erodible than reaches flanked by riparian forest.
A study conducted in the Daintree catchment demonstrated that erosion rates on banks with
riparian vegetation were 6.5 times (or 85%) lower than on sites without riparian vegetation (Bartley
et al., 2008). Olley et al. (2015) determined that sediment yield per unit area from a catchment
containing no remnant vegetation is predicted to be between 50 and 200 times that of a fully
vegetated channel network. It is between 25 and 60 times greater for total phosphorus (TP) and
between 1.6 and 4.1 times greater for total nitrogen (TN), compared with a fully vegetated channel
network (Olley et al., 2015).
Riparian vegetation also has different influences at different spatial scales (Curran and Hession,
2013), and it has different impacts on stream processes depending upon its position down a
catchment (Abernethy and Rutherfurd, 1998). The presence of riparian vegetation is useful for all
types of erosion, but its specific influence may vary within the catchment (Bartley et al., 2015b). For
example, in headwater areas, trees can provide woody debris in the channel that increases the
hydraulic resistance of the channel and banks. In middle reaches, the main role of riparian
vegetation is to strengthen the bank substrate by tree roots. In lower reaches, where channels are
often wider and banks higher, vegetation maintains steeper bank geometries. Riparian vegetation
has benefits for both mechanical and hydrological processes as well as local climate, and a
combination of woody and grass species is likely to offer the greatest benefit in terms of bank

stabilisation (Simon and Collison, 2002). In many Queensland rivers the extent of vegetation within
the channel itself, as well as on the banks, is a key determinant of the extent of channel erosion per
unit imposed stream power (Brooks et al., 2014c).
Figure 7: Contribution of land uses to the total suspended sediment (TSS) load for each region. ‘Other’
includes intensive animal production, manufacturing and industrial, mining, rural and urban residential,
transport and communication, waste treatment and disposal, ports/marine harbor, military areas and open
water bodies.

Table 8: Modelled end-of-basin total suspended sediment (TSS) load by land use as a proportion of the total delivered load (%) based on the 1986-2014 flow period and
most recent Queensland Land Use Mapping Program data in each region.
Region Nature Dryland Forestry Grazing Horticulture Irrigated Sugarcane Bananas Dairy Urban Water Other Stream Total
conservation cropping cropping banks
Cape York 58 0 1 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 100
Wet Tropics 19 0 3 14 1 1 28 1 2 2 0 1 29 100
Burdekin 12 1 1 68 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 16 100
Mackay
7 0 4 23 0 0 32 0 0 3 0 1 31 100
Whitsunday
Fitzroy 7 13 2 38 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 100
Burnett Mary 6 0 3 21 1 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 65 100

Nutrients
Where are the nutrients coming from?

This section focuses on the forms of nutrients for which there are Great Barrier Reef water quality
targets, primarily DIN, PN and PP.
Nutrient forms
The contributions to total Great Barrier Reef nutrient loads vary markedly between nutrient species,
regions and land use. As shown in Figure 8, this has changed over time with changing land use and
landscape and hydrological modification. For example, modelled estimates of baseline loads suggest
that anthropogenic activity has more than doubled TN loads (from 20,000 to 46,500 TN t/year), with
the greatest proportional increase in PN (Figure 8). Pre-development estimates of TN composition
indicated that DON comprised approximately half of the TN load, with approximately equal
contributions from DIN (26%) and PN (27%). Current estimates indicate that these proportions have
shifted, with reduced dominance of DON (38%) compared to DIN (25%) and PN (36%). DIN has
remained relatively constant in terms of its proportional contribution (McCloskey et al., 2017a).
However, as land use changed over the last 200 years, new land uses, especially those involving
application of nitrogen fertiliser, led to large increases in the loads of DIN delivered to the end of
catchments, with the source largely associated with fertiliser use (Lewis et al., 2014b; Thorburn et
al., 2013; Waters et al., 2014). DIN event loads generally increase linearly with the area of fertilised
land use upstream (e.g. Connolly et al., 2015; Mitchell et al., 2009).
Figure 8. The impact of changing land use (pre- and post-development) on estimated annual total
and constituent nitrogen loads entering the Great Barrier Reef lagoon. Source: presented in Bell et
al. (2016) using data from McCloskey et al. (2017a).
50,000 Particulate N
45,000 Dissolved Inorganic N
Dissolved Organic N
40,000
38%
35,000
Annual N loads (t)
30,000
25,000 25%
20,000
15,000 47%
10,000 36%
26%
5,000
27%
-
Predevelopment Current baseline
Current load estimates
A summary of all of the Great Barrier Reef nitrogen and phosphorus monitored load data is
presented in the Appendix, and the data for DIN, PN and PP are presented in Table 9. Based on the
monitoring data, the Burdekin River had the highest average DIN, PN and PP delivery to the Great
Barrier Reef at ~1380 t/yr, 7450 t/yr and 3400 t/yr, respectively (Table 9). In terms of specific
nutrient yields, Cattle Creek (in the Pioneer Basin) had the highest specific yields for PN and PP,

closely followed by the North Johnstone and South Johnstone catchments for each of these
pollutants. The Tully Basin had the highest specific yields for DIN (~0.5 t/km2/yr). Based on the end-
of-sub-catchment monitored specific loads (t/km2/yr), the results shows that the top quartile of sites
(n = 8) contribute 79% of the DIN load, 70% of the PN load and 68% of the PP load (Table 9).
Based on the most recent 2015 Source Catchments modelling, it is estimated that ~55 kt/yr of TN is
delivered to the Great Barrier Reef (Table 10). The total amount of DIN delivered to the Great Barrier
Reef lagoon is estimated to be ~12 kt/yr, which is a 1.2–6.0-fold increase from pre-development
conditions (Table 12). The amount of PN delivered is ~25 kt/yr which is a 2–5-fold increase above
estimated average pre-development loads (Table 13). On average, DIN contributes 22% of the TN
load and PN contributes ~45% of the TN load (Table 10). On a regional basis the Wet Tropics has the
highest loads of TN, DIN and PN (Table 10). The relative rankings of basin contributions for DIN, PN
and PP loads delivered to the coast are shown in Figure 9, Figure 10 and Figure 11, respectively. The
top five basins contributing to the DIN load are the Herbert, Burdekin, Johnstone, Haughton and
Mulgrave-Russell. The top quartile of management units (i.e. 12 out of the 47 management units)
contribute ~87% of the DIN based on the modelled area-specific nutrient yields (t/km2/y). The top
five basins contributing to the PN load are the Fitzroy, Mary, Burdekin, Johnstone and Herbert.
The modelling predicts that there is ~13 kt/yr of TP delivered to the Great Barrier Reef (Table 10 and
Table 11) and ~10 kt/yr of PP, which is a 3–5-fold increase (Table 14). PP contributes 76% of TP
(Table 11). The top basins contributing to the TP and PP load are the Fitzroy, Burdekin, Mary and
Johnstone basins. The top quartile of management units (i.e. 12 out of the 47 management units)
contribute 69% of the TP and 72% of PP based on the specific nutrient yields (t/km2/yr) (Table 14).

Table 9: Average annual monitored dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), particulate nitrogen (PN) and particulate phosphorus (PP) loads for each of the 32 sites in the
Great Barrier Reef catchments. (Source: Garzon-Garcia et al., 2015; Joo et al., 2011; Turner et al., 2013; Turner et al., 2012; Wallace et al., 2016; Wallace et al., 2015;
Wallace et al., 2014). The datasets were measured during events over three–nine years; sites with an * are based on two years only. Standard deviation (SD) in brackets.
NRM region Catchment Gauging River and site name Monitored Years Number DIN (t) DIN PN (t) PN PP (t) PP
station catchment of of (kg/km2) (kg/km2) (kg/km2)
area (km2) data samples
Normanby River at Kalpowar
Cape York Normanby 105107A 15,030 9 264 75 (± 37) 5.0 300 (± 170) 20 93 (± 39) 6.2
Crossing
110001D Barron River at Myola 1,945 9 590 55 (± 27) 28 600 (± 420) 308 131 (± 103) 67
Barron 110002A Barron River at Mareeba 836 3 60 38 (± 13) 45 120 (± 110) 143 49 (± 39) 58
110003A Barron River at Picnic Crossing 228 3 371 36 (± 4) 157 30 (± 16) 131 15 (± 10) 65
1120049 North Johnstone River at Tung Oil 959 9 306 283 (± 88) 295 830 (± 690) 865 293 (± 187) 305
Johnstone South Johnstone River at
Wet Tropics 112101B 400 9 492 147 (± 72) 367 360 (± 230) 900 132 (± 87) 330
Upstream Central Mill
113006A Tully River at Euramo 1,450 9 1491 731 (± 258) 504 440 (± 230) 303 118 (± 73) 81
Tully Tully River at Tully Gorge National
113015A 482 5 311 129 (± 60) 267 160 (± 140) 332 34 (± 29) 70
Park
1,240
Herbert 116001F Herbert River at Ingham 8,581 9 420 921 (± 615) 107 144 301 (± 333) 35
(± 1,350)
119003A Haughton River at Powerline* 1,773 2 37 28 (± 25) 15 30 (± 26) 16 9 (± 8) 5.1
Haughton
119101A Barratta Creek at Northcote 753 6 649 82 (± 13) 108 90 (± 90) 119 24 (± 24) 31
1,382 7,450 3,426
120001A Burdekin River at Home Hill 129,939 9 436 10 57 26
(± 863) (± 6,860) (± 2,783)
5,250 2,334
120002C Burdekin River at Sellheim 36,290 9 171 298 ±( 154) 8.2 144 64
Burdekin (± 5,770) (± 2,411)
Burdekin 120302B Cape River at Taemas 16,074 7 367 47 (± 44) 2.9 680 (± 480) 42 179 (± 136) 11
Belyando River at Gregory
120301B 35,411 7 452 29 (± 21) 0.8 540 (± 560) 15 182 (± 171) 5.1
Development Road
Suttor River at Bowen
120310A 50,291 7 182 28 (± 15) 0.6 270 (± 190) 5.4 102 (± 59) 2.0
Development Road

NRM region Catchment Gauging River and site name Monitored Years Number DIN (t) DIN PN (t) PN PP (t) PP
station catchment of of (kg/km2) (kg/km2) (kg/km2)
area (km2) data samples
1,160
120205A Bowen River at Myuna 7,104 3 112 85 (± 41) 12.0 163 734 (± 800) 103
(± 1,060)
1240062 O’Connell River at Caravan Park 825 4 86 36 (± 21) 43 250 (± 190) 303 74 (± 58) 89
O’Connell O’Connell River at Stafford’s
124001B 340 3 55 18 (± 8) 52 70 (± 20) 205 14 (± 5) 41
Crossing
Mackay
Pioneer River at Dumbleton
Whitsunday 125013A 1,485 9 657 270 (± 170) 181 780 (± 750) 525 230 (± 220) 154
Pioneer Pump Station
125004B Cattle Creek at Gargett 326 3 39 137 (± 11) 420 420 (± 250) 1288 117 (± 59) 358
Plane 126001A Sandy Creek at Homebush 325 6 262 51 (± 26) 156 120 (± 80) 369 40 (± 28) 123
1,340 5,100 2,800
1300000 Fitzroy River at Rockhampton 139,159 9 338 9.6 36 20
(± 1,100) (± 5,200) (± 2,700)
Theresa Creek at Gregory
130206A 15,846 6 75 66 (± 62) 7.8 450 (± 460) 52 208 (± 213) 24
Highway
Fitzroy Fitzroy
1,070
130504B Comet River at Comet Weir 8,500 6 104 233 (± 238) 14 65 712 (± 513) 43
(± 920)
1,030
130302A Dawson River at Taroom 16,450 4 109 74 (± 80) 4.7 65 294 (± 430) 18
(± 1,580)
Burnett River at Ben Anderson 2,060
136014A 32,891 9 457 239 (± 465) 7.3 62 680 (± 1,190) 20
Barrage HW (± 3,660)
2,160
136002D Burnett River at Mt Lawless 7,117 6 396 125 (± 208) 4.3 73 753 (± 1,521) 25
Burnett (± 4,310)
Burnett Burnett River at Jones Weir Tail 1,050
Mary 136094A 21,700 6 297 140 (± 239) 6.5 48 368 (± 676) 17
Water (± 1,950)
136106A Burnett River at Eidsvold 29,395 5 220 63 (± 88) 8.9 280 (± 460) 39 99 (± 173) 13
138014A Mary River at Home Park* 6,845 2 176 294 (± 302) 43 420 (± 520) 61 155 (± 193) 22
Mary
138008A Tinana Creek at Barrage Head* 1,284 2 146 28 (± 15) 76 30 (± 3) 23 22 (± 16) 5.4

Table 10: Contribution of nutrient forms to modelled regional nitrogen budget based on the 2015
modelling (total load) estimates.
DIN DON PN TN
Region
(t/yr) (t/yr) (t/yr) (t/yr)
Cape York 420 4,540 1,900 6,850
Wet Tropics 5,500 4,390 6,700 16,580
Burdekin 2,570 2,560 3,660 8,790
Mackay Whitsunday 1,350 980 2,150 4,810
Fitzroy 1,140 3,410 6,360 10,910
Burnett Mary 1,040 2,110 3,990 7,150
Total 12,030 18,300 24,750 55,080
Table 11: Contribution of nutrient forms to modelled regional phosphorus budget based on the 2015
modelling (total load) estimates.
DIP DOP PP TP
Region
(t/yr) (t/yr) (t/yr) (t/yr)
Cape York 80 150 450 680
Wet Tropics 190 380 1,730 2,300
Burdekin 440 140 2,240 2,820
Mackay Whitsunday 250 70 990 1,310
Fitzroy 1,050 260 3,360 4,660
Burnett Mary 140 80 1,430 1,640
Total 2,140 1,070 10,200 13,420

Table 12: Modelled end-of-basin annual average dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) loads for each of the 35
Great Barrier Reef basins plus additional 13 sub-catchments in the Burdekin and Fitzroy (in grey text). The
modelling represents an annual average based on the 1986-2014 flow period. Note that ** highlights that the
sub-catchment totals for the Fitzroy are within 1% of the basin loads. It was not suitable to present sub-
catchment loads for the Burdekin due to modelling discrepancies. The data in this table are Queensland
Government modelling outputs. The data were rounded to the nearest 10. Catchments highlighted in orange
are in the top quartile (n = 12) for anthropogenic total load (t/yr) of DIN. Catchments highlighted in pink are in
the top quartile (n = 12) for anthropogenic specific load of DIN (kg/km2/yr).
Region Basin Basin name Basin area Total DIN Total Anthropogenic DIN Total specific
# (km2) load specific DIN export to the coast Anthropogenic
exported load (t/yr) DIN export to
to the exported to the coast
coast the coast (kg/km2/yr)
(t/yr) (kg/km2/yr)
102 Olive Pascoe 4,172 100 20 <5 0
103 Lockhart 2,873 50 20 0 0
104 Stewart 2,770 30 10 0 0
105 Normanby 24,380 100 <5 10 0
106 Jeannie 3,637 30 10 0 0
107 Endeavour 2,186 40 20 <5 <5
Wet 108 Daintree 2,105 480 230 130 60
Tropics 109 Mossman 477 160 330 100 220
110 Barron 2,188 150 70 90 40
112 Johnstone 2,317 1,060 460 500 220
113 Tully 1,668 780 470 380 230
114 Murray 1,125 410 370 230 210
116 Herbert 9,852 1,520 150 890 90
REGIONAL TOTAL 21,707 5,500 2,750
Cape Campaspe 20,255 70 <5 0 0
Belyando 35,352 60 <5 0 0
Suttor 18,577 90 0 0 0
Bowen Bogie 11,718 170 10 0 0
East Burdekin 3,299 90 30 20 10
Sub-total
(Burdekin)* 129,615 930
120 Burdekin 130,120 1,100 10 170 <5
117 Black 1,057 100 90 20 20
118 Ross 1,707 180 110 120 70
119 Haughton (Lower
Burdekin) 4,051 1,020 250 910 230
121 Don 3,736 180 50 70 20

Region Basin Basin name Basin area Total DIN Total Anthropogenic DIN Total specific
# (km2) load specific DIN export to the coast Anthropogenic
exported load (t/yr) DIN export to
(t/yr) (kg/km2/yr)
REGIONAL TOTAL 140,671 2,570 2,230
Mackay 122 Proserpine 2,513 310 120 160 60
Whits. 124 O’Connell 2,305 320 140 190 80
125 Pioneer 1,664 260 150 190 120
126 Plane 2,547 460 180 370 140
REGIONAL TOTAL 9,029 1,350 150 900 100
Fitzroy Comet 17,290 40 <5 10 0
Dawson 50,734 140 <5 20 0
Isaac 22,226 240 10 20 <5
Mackenzie 13,128 60 <5 10 <5
Nogoa 19,196 20 <5 <5 0
Theresa Creek 8,473 20 <5 <5 0
Fitzroy River –
lower 11,339 280 30 90 10
Sub-total
(Fitzroy)** 142,387 800 160
130 Fitzroy 142,144 800 10 160 <5
127 Styx 2,997 90 30 10 <5
128 Shoalwater 3,614 100 30 <5 <5
129 Water Park 1,846 70 40 <5 <5
132 Calliope 2,416 50 20 10 <5
133 Boyne 2,498 40 10 <5 <5
Burnett 134 Baffle 4,101 60 10 30 10
Mary
135 Kolan 2,891 80 30 70 20
136 Burnett 33,274 250 10 210 10
137 Burrum 3,346 200 60 190 60
138 Mary 9,420 460 50 360 40
TOTAL Great
Barrier Reef 422,961 12,030 7,570

Figure 9: Ranking of the modelled end-of-catchment annual average total dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) delivery (t/yr) for each of the 35 Great Barrier Reef basins
(in blue) plus the additional internal sub-catchments in the Fitzroy (in green). The modelling represents an annual average based on the 1986-2014 flow period.


Table 13: Modelled end-of-basin annual average particulate nitrogen (PN) loads for each of the 35 Great
Barrier Reef basins plus additional 13 sub-catchments in the Burdekin and Fitzroy (in grey text). The
modelling represents an annual average based on the 1986-2014 flow period. Note that the * and ** highlight
that the sub-catchment totals for the Burdekin and Fitzroy are within 3% and 1% of the basin loads. The data in
this table are Queensland Government modelling outputs. The data were rounded to the nearest 10.
Catchments highlighted in orange are in the top quartile (n = 12) for anthropogenic total load (t/yr) of PN.
Catchments highlighted in pink are in the top quartile (n = 12) for anthropogenic specific load of PN
(kg/km2/yr).
Region Basin Basin name Basin area Total PN Total Anthropogenic Total specific
# (km2) load specific PN PN export to Anthropogenic
exported load the coast (t/yr) PN export to
(t/yr) (kg/km2/yr)
102 Olive Pascoe 4,172 450 110 340 80
103 Lockhart 2,873 320 110 260 90
104 Stewart 2,770 150 60 120 40
105 Normanby 24,380 250 10 150 10
106 Jeannie 3,637 200 60 150 40
107 Endeavour 2,186 250 110 110 50
REGIONAL TOTAL 43,008 1,900 1,350
Wet 108 Daintree 2,105 580 280 60 30
Tropics 109 Mossman 477 100 210 20 50
110 Barron 2,188 200 90 90 40
111 Mulgrave-Russell 1,975 1,230 620 530 270
112 Johnstone 2,317 1,990 860 1,220 530
113 Tully 1,668 870 520 340 200
114 Murray 1,125 400 360 160 140
116 Herbert 9,852 1,330 130 700 70
REGIONAL TOTAL 21,707 6,700 3,110
Cape Campaspe 20,255 30 <5 20 <5
Belyando 35,352 70 <5 60 <5
Suttor 18,577 70 0 60 0
Bowen Bogie 11,718 1,900 160 1,550 130
East Burdekin 3,299 170 50 140 40
Sub-total
(Burdekin)* 129,615 2750 2280
120 Burdekin 130,120 2,890 20 2,410 20
117 Black 1,057 140 140 50 50
118 Ross 1,707 100 60 80 50
119 Haughton (Lower
Burdekin) 4,051 220 60 190 50
121 Don 3,736 310 80 250 70
REGIONAL TOTAL 140,671 3,660 2,980

Region Basin Basin name Basin area Total PN Total Anthropogenic Total specific
# (km2) load specific PN PN export to Anthropogenic
exported load the coast (t/yr) PN export to
(t/yr) (kg/km2/yr)
Whits.
124 O’Connell 2,305 840 370 620 270
125 Pioneer 1,664 450 270 300 180
126 Plane 2,547 470 180 310 120
REGIONAL TOTAL 9,029 2,150 1,460
Fitzroy Comet 17,290 70 <5 40 <5
Dawson 50,734 540 10 350 10
Isaac 22,226 580 30 370 20
Mackenzie 13,128 230 20 160 10
Nogoa 19,196 30 <5 20 <5
Theresa Creek 8,473 40 <5 20 <5
Fitzroy River –
lower 11,339 1,600 140 1,210 110
Sub-total
(Fitzroy)** 142,387 3,090 2,160
130 Fitzroy 142,144 3,070 20 2,150 20
127 Styx 2,997 830 280 700 240
128 Shoalwater 3,614 650 180 550 150
129 Water Park 1,846 1,270 690 1,120 610
132 Calliope 2,416 440 180 360 150
133 Boyne 2,498 110 50 20 10
REGIONAL TOTAL 155,515 6,360 5,820
Burnett 134 Baffle 4,101 270 70 160 40
Mary
135 Kolan 2,891 100 30 70 20
136 Burnett 33,274 670 20 340 10
137 Burrum 3,346 60 20 40 10
138 Mary 9,420 2,900 310 2,350 250
REGIONAL TOTAL 53,031 3,990 2,960
TOTAL Great
Barrier Reef 422,961 24,750 17,680

Figure 10: Ranking of the modelled end-of-basin annual average total particulate nitrogen (PN) delivery (t/yr) for each of the 35 Great Barrier Reef basins (in blue) plus
the additional internal sub-catchments in the Burdekin and Fitzroy (in green). The modelling represents an annual average based on the 1986-2014 flow period.

Table 14: Modelled end-of-basin annual average particulate phosphorus (PP) loads for each of the 35 Great
Barrier Reef basins plus additional 13 sub-catchments in the Burdekin and Fitzroy (in grey text). The
modelling represents an annual average based on the 1986-2014 flow period. Note that the * and ** indicate
that the sub-catchment totals for the Burdekin and Fitzroy are within 3% and 1% of the basin loads. The data in
this table are Queensland Government modelling outputs. The data were rounded to the nearest 10.
Catchments highlighted in orange are in the top quartile for anthropogenic specific yield delivery of PP.
Catchments highlighted in pink are in the top quartile (n = 12) for anthropogenic specific load of PP
(kg/km2/yr).
Region Basin Basin name Basin area Total PP Total Anthropogenic Total specific
number (km2) load specific PP PP export to the Anthropogenic
exported load coast (t/yr) PP export to the
to the exported to coast
(t/yr) (kg/km2/yr)
102 Olive Pascoe 4,172 70 20 60 10
103 Lockhart 2,873 100 30 80 30
104 Stewart 2,770 50 20 40 10
105 Normanby 24,380 80 <5 50 <5
106 Jeannie 3,637 40 10 30 10
107 Endeavour 2,186 80 40 30 10
Wet 108 Daintree 2,105 80 40 20 10
Tropics
109 Mossman 477 20 40 10 10
110 Barron 2,188 50 20 30 10
112 Johnstone 2,317 760 330 620 270
113 Tully 1,668 180 110 120 70
114 Murray 1,125 80 70 60 50
116 Herbert 9,852 290 30 190 20
REGIONAL TOTAL 21,707 1,730 1,220
Cape Campaspe 20,255 20 <5 20 <5
Belyando 35,352 40 <5 40 <5
Suttor 18,577 50 0 50 0
Bowen Bogie 11,718 1,090 90 860 70
East Burdekin 3,299 110 30 90 30
Sub-total
(Burdekin)* 129,615 1,720 1,420
120 Burdekin 130,120 1,800 10 1,480 10
117 Black 1,057 80 70 20 20
118 Ross 1,707 50 30 40 20
119 Haughton (Lower
Burdekin) 4,051 140 30 120 30
121 Don 3,736 170 50 140 40
REGIONAL TOTAL 140,671 2,240 2,120

Region Basin Basin name Basin area Total PP Total Anthropogenic Total specific
number (km2) load specific PP PP export to the Anthropogenic
exported load coast (t/yr) PP export to the
to the exported to coast
(t/yr) (kg/km2/yr)
Whits.
124 O’Connell 2,305 420 180 300 130
125 Pioneer 1,664 180 110 120 70
126 Plane 2,547 230 90 140 60
Fitzroy Comet 17,290 50 <5 30 <5
Dawson 50,734 330 10 210 <5
Isaac 22,226 330 10 210 10
Mackenzie 13,128 140 10 100 10
Nogoa 19,196 10 <5 10 0
Theresa Creek 8,473 20 <5 10 <5
Fitzroy River –
lower 11,339 950 80 700 60
Sub-total
(Fitzroy)** 142,387 1,830 1,270
130 Fitzroy 142,144 1,820 10 1,260 10
127 Styx 2,997 430 140 360 120
128 Shoalwater 3,614 310 90 260 70
129 Water Park 1,846 520 280 460 250
132 Calliope 2,416 220 90 180 70
133 Boyne 2,498 60 20 10 0
REGIONAL TOTAL 155,515 3,360 3,100
Burnett 134 Baffle 4,101 130 30 80 20
Mary
135 Kolan 2,891 40 10 30 10
136 Burnett 33,274 270 10 150 <5
137 Burrum 3,346 20 10 20 <5
138 Mary 9,420 970 100 790 80
REGIONAL TOTAL 53,031 1,430 1,050
TOTAL Great
Barrier Reef 422,961 10,200 8,470

Figure 11: Ranking of the modelled end-of-basin annual average total particulate phosphorus (PP) delivery
(t/yr) for each of the 35 Great Barrier Reef basins (in blue) plus the additional internal sub-catchments in the
Burdekin and Fitzroy (in green). The modelling represents an annual average based on the 1986-2014 flow
period.
In addition to the monitored and modelled load estimates, there are also some basin-specific
assessments of end-of-catchment loads and changes over time. For example, in the combined Tully
and Murray basins, Lewis et al. (2014b) used an independent modelling framework for the period
1800-1829 (30-year period) to estimate pre-development loads for DIN and dissolved inorganic
phosphorus (DIP) (Figure 12). The reconstructed annual mean pre-development loads for the Tully‐
Murray Basin were DIN: 254 t; DIP: 463 t; PN: 63 t; PP: 40 t; and TSS: 58 kt. In comparison, the
reconstructed average annual loads for the past 30 years (1982-2011) for the Tully‐Murray Basin
were DIN: 542 t (2.1-fold increase); DIP: 37 t (2.2-fold increase); PN: 781 t (1.7-fold increase); PP:
164 t (4.1-fold increase); and TSS: 122 kt (2.1-fold increase) (Figure 12). This illustrates another
technique for estimating anthropogenic loads in the Great Barrier Reef catchments and another line
of evidence for assessing changes over time. In the Source Catchments model, the pre-development
loads were based on current hydrology (including dams and weirs) but pre-development land use
and ground cover (McKergow et al., 2005a; McKergow et al., b) may contribute to variations in these
analyses.

Figure 12: The modelled loads of (top) dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) and (bottom) dissolved
inorganic phosphorus (DIP) for the Tully‐Murray Basin. Source: Reproduced from Lewis et al.
(2014b).
What are the drivers and land uses delivering the anthropogenic nutrient loss?
Isolating the effect of land use on pollutant loss in a catchment setting is a challenging task and can
generally only be done at large scales by combining several datasets (e.g. Walton and Hunter, 2009).
Land use (and land management) change is seen as the primary factor responsible for changes in
nutrient loss from the landscape and hence delivery to water bodies downstream. DIN is sourced
from all land uses, whether in ‘natural’ condition or modified by human activity. Undisturbed
landscapes can export large quantities of DIN but generally at low concentrations (Brodie and
Mitchell, 2005). Large datasets are available of run-off losses of DIN from different land uses, both in
the Great Barrier Reef catchment (Brodie and Mitchell, 2005), Australia-wide (Bartley et al., 2012)
and internationally (Kaushal et al., 2014).

For nitrogen, the Wet Tropics region is the main regional contributor of TN load (~32%), while
Mackay Whitsunday and Burnett Mary regions (each 9%) are the lowest contributors (Bell et al.,
2016). The most recent modelling estimates that sugarcane delivers the most DIN to the Great
Barrier Reef from the Wet Tropics, Burdekin, Mackay Whitsunday and Burnett Mary regions (Figure
13). Grazing is the highest contributor of total DIN in the Fitzroy and also contributes >20% of the
DIN load in all regions except the Wet Tropics (Error! Reference source not found.). In the Wet
Tropics and Mackay Whitsunday regions, PN and PP delivery is dominated by sugarcane. Grazing
dominates PN and PP delivery in all other regions except Cape York. Urban areas contribute less than
7% for DIN, PN and PP.
These data are also presented at a basin scale in the Appendix (Table 23), highlighting the
contribution of sugarcane to DIN loads in many Great Barrier Reef basins. In basins with large areas
of sugarcane, more than 40% of the total DIN load comes from sugarcane. Examples include
Mulgrave-Russell (42%), Haughton (89%), Pioneer (73%) and Mary (45%). When considering
anthropogenic sources, sugarcane contributes up to 80% of the total DIN load in some basins
(Waters et al., 2014).
Figure 13: Contribution of main land uses to the dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) load for each region.
‘STP’s’ represent sewerage treatment plant. ‘Other’ includes intensive animal production, manufacturing
and industrial, mining, rural and urban residential, transport and communication, waste treatment and
disposal, ports/marine harbor, military areas and open water bodies.

Table 15: Source Catchment (2015 Report Card) end-of-basin pollutant loads (%).
Total dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) load by land use (%).

Region Nature Dryland Forestry Grazing Horticulture Irrigated Sugarcane Bananas Dairy Urban Water Other Sewage
conservation cropping cropping Treatment Plants
Cape York 72 0 0 28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wet Tropics 30 0 5 7 1 0 47 4 1 4 0 1 1
Burdekin 9 1 1 36 1 0 46 0 0 1 0 0 5
Mackay
5 0 3 21 0 0 65 0 0 3 0 1 2
Whitsunday
Fitzroy 13 3 6 70 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 5
Burnett Mary 3 1 4 24 1 1 56 0 0 6 0 0 5
Total particulate nitrogen (PN) load by land use (%).

Region Nature Dryland Forestry Grazing Horticulture Irrigated Sugarcane Bananas Dairy Urban Water Other Stream-banks
conservation cropping cropping
Cape York 73 0 1 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5
Wet Tropics 36 0 5 14 1 0 28 1 2 2 0 1 12
Burdekin 22 0 2 65 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 9
Mackay
8 0 10 29 0 0 40 0 0 4 0 1 8
Whitsunday
Fitzroy 29 5 10 49 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8
Burnett Mary 21 1 15 38 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 23

Total particulate phosphorus (PP) load by land use (%).

Cape York 71 0 1 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5
Wet Tropics 16 0 2 15 0 1 49 1 1 1 0 0 14
Burdekin 24 1 2 63 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 9
Mackay
8 0 5 34 0 0 43 0 0 3 0 1 6
Whitsunday
Fitzroy 25 5 9 53 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8
Burnett Mary 20 0 14 39 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 24
Total Suspended Sediment (TSS) load by land use (%).

Cape York 58 0 0 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
Wet Tropics 19 0 3 14 1 1 28 1 2 2 0 1 29
Burdekin 12 1 1 68 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 16
Mackay 7 0 4 23 0 0 32
Whitsunday 0 0 3 0 1 31
Fitzroy 7 13 2 38 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38
Burnett Mary 6 0 3 21 1 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 65

Further analysis of nitrogen sourced from sugarcane shows that nitrogen surpluses and nitrogen
fertiliser application rates are correlated with nitrogen losses (in both dissolved and particulate
forms) from Great Barrier Reef catchments (Bell et al., 2016; Thorburn and Wilkinson, 2013;
Thorburn et al., 2013) (Figure 14). The relationships in the Great Barrier Reef are similar to
catchments in the northern hemisphere and the USA (Thorburn et al., 2013). Conversely, lowered
nitrogen fertiliser usage leads to smaller losses of nitrogen as seen in fertiliser trials (Rohde et al.,
2013; Webster et al., 2012).
Figure 14. Relationship between total nitrogen input (fertiliser and legumes) and total wet season nitrogen
in run-off (total nitrogen, particulate nitrogen and dissolved inorganic nitrogen) from >20 sugarcane sites in
Great Barrier Reef catchments. Data points indicate TN losses, while fitted regressions are shown for PN and
DIN from the same sites. Source: Reproduced from Bell et al. (2016).
How does the source of nutrients vary over time and space?
Dissolved inorganic nitrogen

Research into the sources of nutrients across large catchment scales (e.g. Bainbridge et al., 2009;
Hunter and Walton, 2008) has not been as extensive as research into sediment sources. Most of the
recent work on understanding the source of nutrients has focused on sugarcane growing areas.
A number of recent studies in the Mulgrave catchment have investigated the sources of nutrients in
sugarcane areas and evaluated the influence of deep drainage, groundwater losses and riparian
zones. A study of the lateral export of nutrients from groundwater to surface water was carried out
by Rasiah et al. (2013) who determined that ~52% of the total nutrient loading in the local river
systems was from groundwater. This research was conducted over a small plot scale, and the
authors cautioned the use of these data to upscale to larger catchment areas (Rasiah et al., 2013). In
the same catchment, Connolly et al. (2015) determined that NOx (nitrate + nitrite) concentrations
and loads were significantly lower in streams with greater riparian vegetation which may suggest
some removal in this zone, although the dominant influence on the concentrations was likely the

fertilised area above the sampling site. Connor et al. (2013) determined that due to highly variable
groundwater table fluctuations, riparian zones in humid tropical lowlands are unlikely to be effective
at removing nitrogen from groundwater. Therefore riparian zones have only a modest direct
influence on NOx, which is overwhelmed by the large input of nutrients from agriculture. Connolly et
al. (2015) suggest that adequate reduction of inorganic nitrogen in Wet Tropics waterways can only
be achieved by reduced fertiliser application. Other research identified a need for nitrogen fertiliser
management practices that minimise nitrate leaching to groundwater (Rasiah et al., 2013). The
increased nitrate loading also threatens groundwater-dependent ecosystems, which have been
mapped in several areas (Glanville et al., 2016) and have also been shown to be at high risk from
saltwater intrusion (Hunter, 2012; Lenahan and Bristow, 2010).
Particulate nitrogen and dissolved organic nitrogen

Particulate and dissolved organic nutrients comprise the majority of the end-of-basin loads to the
Great Barrier Reef (Table 9, Table 21 and Table 24) but very little is known of their sources and
losses/transformation as they are transported from terrestrial to marine systems (Brodie et al., 2015;
Wooldridge et al., 2015). These nutrient fractions are most likely contributing to the end-of-
catchment monitored DIN load through in-stream mineralisation processes, but their relative
contribution and sourcing are not well understood or modelled at present (Figure 15). This highlights
the potential for elevated DIN loads, depleted PN loads (mineralisation and/or denitrification) and
loads (mineralisation) at the end of catchments as a result of in-stream processes. Thorburn and
Wilkinson (2013) concluded that in-catchment nitrogen loss processes like denitrification may be
minimal for surplus nitrogen lost from cropping systems due to short residence times and rapid flow
rates in coastal river systems draining the main crop production centres. However, this may not be
the case for nitrogen losses from the more distant inland grazing areas (Bell et al., 2016). For
example, a study in the Fitzroy catchment using generalised additive modelling found that the Nogoa
sub-catchment, which is dominated by grazing, is important for determining the DIN and DIP
concentrations reaching the Fitzroy River mouth (Robson and Dourdet, 2015). This suggests that
grazing, rather than cropping, is a major source of DIN in some catchments, although the exact
source and mechanism generating the DIN within the grazed areas is not known. In areas such as the
Nogoa sub-catchment, which is known for its severe gully erosion (Ciesiolka, 1987), gully erosion may
be an indirect source of the DIN. Additionally, PN and are likely to be contributing DIN to the Great
Barrier Reef lagoon through estuarine and marine mineralisation processes that are not well
understood (Brodie et al., 2015).
The role and impact of nutrients on the Great Barrier Reef is dependent on their bioavailability
(fraction of the TN and phosphorus pools that are immediately available plus those that have the
potential to become available to phytoplankton over a specified period of time) (see also Chapter 3).
In the past, the focus has been principally on dissolved forms (e.g. ammonium-N, nitrate-N, dissolved
reactive phosphorus), assuming they are immediately or partially (e.g.) bioavailable when discharged
from rivers into the Great Barrier Reef lagoon (Brodie et al., 2015). Understanding the sources,
transport, transformation, fate and impact of bioavailable nutrients of terrestrial origin on the Great
Barrier Reef remains a critical knowledge gap. This is crucial for determining the land management
practices that will be effective at reducing nitrogen loads.

Figure 15: Conceptual model illustrating potential in-stream nitrogen transformations influencing end-of-
catchment loads. Source: Bell et al. (2016).
Burton et al. (2015) carried out a pilot study to test the bioavailability of particulate nutrients on
selected soil types from sugarcane, banana and grazing land uses and found that measurements of
PN and PP are not good indicators of bioavailable nitrogen and phosphorus pools, and the
bioavailable nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon contents in fine sediments (<10 µm) vary
widely across soil types. Fine sediment (<10 µm) tends to be enriched in bioavailable nitrogen and
phosphorus compared to its parent soil, and the quantity of nitrogen mineralised was not affected
when conditions changed from freshwater to marine, hence sediment continues to be a bioavailable
nitrogen and phosphorus source in the marine environment. The main sources of bioavailable
nitrogen and phosphorus will depend on the relative contribution of surface and sub-surface
sediments to end-of-system loads, with surface sediments having higher bioavailability status.
What processes are responsible for the excess nutrients?

Based on the most recent Source Catchments modelling (McCloskey et al., 2017b), the erosion
process responsible for the delivery of PP largely follows the same pattern as for sediments
(therefore data not shown). The erosion source responsible for delivering PN, however, is dominated
by hillslope erosion in all regions except the Burdekin where channel sources (combined gully and
streambank) represent ~52% of the PN erosion source (Table 15).
Current literature suggests that the dominant source of DIN is from fertilised crops such as
sugarcane, and it is transported off the paddock as surface or sub-surface flow (Waters et al., 2014).
The catchment models deliver DIN to the stream in sugarcane areas as surface run-off or by sub-
surface pathways (McCloskey et al., 2017a; McCloskey et al., 2017b).
Garzon-Garcia et al. (2016) quantified various indicators of bioavailable nitrogen and phosphorus for
different geomorphological units on a limited number of alluvial gullies in the Normanby catchment.
The study determined that alluvial gullies in grazed catchments are likely to be important sources of
bioavailable nitrogen and phosphorus to the aquatic environment. The <10 µm fraction is generally
enriched in bioavailable nitrogen and phosphorus and organic carbon compared to the <63 µm
fraction, and therefore the finer grained terrace soils are a more important source than bank sub-
surfaces and gully floors. Importantly, the relative contributions at the landscape scale from surface
and sub-surface soils have not been evaluated for PN nor bioavailable nutrients. This was done for
alluvial gully complexes only (Garzon-Garcia et al., 2016). Recent research in gullied catchments of
South East Queensland has shown that a relatively small variation in the proportion of sediment
coming from surface and sub-surface sources between wet and dry years changes the main source of

nitrogen (Garzon-Garcia et al., 2017). Hence, management of both surface and sub-surface erosion
sources plays a role in the reduction of bioavailable nutrients delivered to the Great Barrier Reef.
Based on the modelling data (Table 16) the proportion of PN coming from gullies in the Burdekin
Basin appears to reflect the initial findings from Garzon-Garcia et al. (2016); however, modelling of
other rangeland areas where gullies are likely to be a major source of PN (e.g. Cape York and Fitzroy)
indicates a disproportionate amount of PN from hillslope sources.
Table 15: Modelled particulate nitrogen (PN) loads by erosion process as a % for each region based on 2015
Source Catchment modelling.
Region Gully Streambank Hillslope
Cape York* 6 2 92
Wet Tropics 2 10 88
Burdekin 43 9 48
Fitzroy 5 7 88
Mackay Whitsunday 1 8 91
Burnett Mary 2 7 81
* For the Normanby Basin gully density data layer was replaced with data derived from gully mapping. Gully PP
for the Normanby Basin is 45%.
Pesticides and other pollutants
Where are the pesticides coming from?

Compared with sediment and nutrient data, there has generally been less research into the sources
of pesticides and new pollutants delivered from the Great Barrier Reef catchments to the marine
system. A detailed update of the source, transport and management of pesticides in the Great
Barrier Reef catchments was provided by Devlin et al. (2015). Monitoring programs have detected up
to 55 different pesticide residues (including metabolites) in waterways of the Great Barrier Reef
catchments (Devlin et al., 2015). The highest concentrations of pesticides are generally detected in
smaller catchments with a high proportion of sugarcane, for example Sandy Creek and Pioneer River
in the Mackay Whitsunday and Barratta Creek in the Lower Burdekin (Devlin et al., 2015).
The monitored loads of five prevalent PSII herbicides (ametryn, atrazine, diuron, hexazinone and
tebuthiuron) have been reported from up to 14 end-of-system water quality monitoring sites and
five sub-catchment sites since 2009. Table 17 presents the annual average loads from 2010 to 2015
and the monitored loads of a much larger suite of pesticides, including herbicides and some
insecticides and fungicides, that have been reported since 2012 (Garzon-Garcia et al., 2015; Wallace
et al., 2015; Wallace et al., 2016). Two sites on the Mulgrave River at Deeral and the Russell River at
East Russell have been monitored since 2014-2015; however, as there was only one year of loads
data available for each of these rivers at the time of publication, an annual average could not be
calculated, and the data were not included in the pesticide loads assessment.
For the five PSII herbicides, the monitoring results suggest that the highest loads of ametryn are
coming from the Burnett Basin at ~27 kg/yr, atrazine from the Fitzroy at ~886 kg/yr, diuron from the
Pioneer at ~292 kg/yr, hexazinone from the Tully at ~102 kg/yr and tebuthiuron from the Fitzroy at
~2484 kg/yr. However, the total load for each basin can be better expressed using the toxic load
approach (Smith et al., 2016a; Smith et al., 2016b) which accounts for the type of pesticides in the
load and their relative toxicities and reports them as a diuron-equivalent (d-eq.) mass. The highest
annual average toxic load recorded for the end-of-system sites is discharged from the Pioneer River

(332 d-eq. kg), followed by Tully River (311.5 d-eq. kg), Sandy Creek (201 d-eq. kg), Herbert River
(162.2 d-eq. kg), Fitzroy River (148.6 d-eq. kg), Barratta Creek (73 d-eq. kg), Burnett River (56.9 d-eq.
kg), Comet River (52.4 d-eq. kg), Burdekin River (28 d-eq. kg), North Johnstone River (27.8 d-eq. kg),
O’Connell River (15.5 d-eq. kg), Tinana Creek (10.5 d-eq. kg), Mary River (8.6 d-eq. kg) and Haughton
River (1.5 d-eq. kg). Based on the loads estimated for 2014-2015 (Wallace et al., 2016), other
pesticides with relatively high loads include metolachlor from the Fitzroy (440 kg), imidacloprid from
Tully (120 kg), fluroxypyr from Fitzroy (110 kg) and 2,4-D from all basins (total monitored = 300 kg).
The exports of the prevalent PSII herbicides from the recent 2015 Source Catchments modelling
(McCloskey et al., 2017b) for each of the 35 major basins are presented in Table 18. The total
amount of each PSII herbicide estimated to be delivered to the Great Barrier Reef each year is ~860
kg/yr of ametryn, 2600 kg/yr of atrazine, 5700 kg/yr of diuron, 690 kg/yr of hexazinone and 1900
kg/yr of tebuthiuron. The modelling results suggest that these PSII herbicides are not a major
concern on Cape York. In the Wet Tropics and Mackay Whitsunday regions atrazine, diuron and
hexazinone are found in moderate to high loads. In the Burdekin and Burnett Mary region only
atrazine and diuron are found, and in the Fitzroy only atrazine and tebuthiuron are present.
The highest concentrations of pesticides are also found closest to the source in sub-catchments, with
concentrations decreasing towards the end of system (Devlin et al., 2015). The highest loads of
pesticides are detected in larger catchments and those catchments with high discharge volumes, for
example Fitzroy and Tully (Turner et al., 2013; Wallace et al., 2014; Garzon-Garcia et al., 2015;
Wallace et al., 2015; Wallace et al., 2016). However, large discharge volumes also provide greater
dilution potential, therefore these catchments often have low concentrations of pesticides. The
highest concentrations are most often detected at the start of the wet season in the first flush
events, with concentrations dissipating over time with sequential rain events (Davis et al., 2016;
Devlin et al., 2015). In irrigation-based farming systems, high concentrations can be detected before
the wet season if irrigation tail water is released into catchments, for example, at Barratta Creek in
the Lower Burdekin (Devlin et al., 2015).

Table 16: Average annual measured PSII herbicide loads for each of the 14 sites in the GBR catchments (Garzon-Garcia et al., 2015; Turner et al., 2013; Turner et al.,
2012; Wallace et al., 2015; Wallace et al., 2014)
Region Catchment Gauging River and site name Years of Number of Ametryn Total atrazine Total Hexazinone Tebuthiuron Total toxic
station sampling samples (kg/yr) diuron (kg/yr) (kg/yr) load
(kg/yr)
(kg/yr) (kg/yr)
Wet Tropics Johnstone 1120049 North Johnstone River 4 125 NC 15.8 26.0 8.0 0.3 27.8
at old Bruce Highway
Bridge (Goondi)
Tully 113006A Tully River at Euramo 5 371 8.1 166.0 282.0 102.0 4.4 311.5
Herbert 116001F Herbert River at Ingham 5 274 9.5 71.0 146.0 47.0 NC 162.2
Burdekin Haughton 119003A Haughton River at 2 35 0.1 5 1.2 NC 0.1 1.5
Powerline
Barratta 119101A Barratta Creek at 5 360 4.3 290.0 58.8 4.7 0.6 73.0
Northcote
Burdekin 120001A Burdekin River at Home 5 215 12.9 158.6 18.5 0.5 217.5 28.0
Hill
Mackay O’Connell 1240062 O’Connell River at 2 59 0.02 6.3 13.0 8.6 6.8 15.5
Whitsunday Caravan Park
Pioneer 125013A Pioneer River at 5 537 23.7 316.0 292.0 63.0 0.9 332.0
Dumbleton Pump
Station
Plane 126001A Sandy Creek at 5 234 10.3 147.2 179.6 44.6 0.2 201.0
Homebush
Fitzroy Fitzroy 1300000 Fitzroy River at 5 172 NC 885.6 67.4 16.5 2,484.0 148.6
Rockhampton
130302A Comet River at Comet 4 55 NC 420.3 35.9 16.9 404.0 52.4
Weir
Burnett Mary Burnett 136014A Burnett River at Ben 5 335 27.0 110.1 42.6 35.9 72.9 56.9
Anderson Barrage
Mary 138014A Mary River at Home 2 174 NC 14.5 7.55 3.2 NC 8.6
Park
138008A Tinana Creek at Barrage 2 134 NC 10.4 9.9 2.8 NC 10.5

Head Water

Table 17: Modelled end-of-basin PSII herbicide loads for each of the 35 basins based on the 2015 Source Catchments modelling.
Region Basin name Toxic equivalent load (kg/yr) PSII (kg/yr) Ametryn (kg/yr) Atrazine (kg/yr) Diuron (kg/yr) Hexazinone (kg/yr) Tebuthiuron (kg/yr)
Cape York Jacky Jacky Ck 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Olive Pascoe 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lockhart River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Stewart River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Normanby River 0 10 0 10 0 0 0
Jeannie River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Endeavour River 0 <5 0 <5 0 0 0
Total <1 20 0 20 0 0 0
Wet Tropics Daintree 100 120 0 10 90 20 0
Mossman 70 80 0 <5 60 10 0
Barron 40 120 1 80 30 10 0
Mulgrave-Russell 620 750 0 50 600 90 0
Johnstone 750 920 0 90 730 100 0
Tully 410 490 0 30 400 60 0
Murray 310 370 0 20 300 50 0
Herbert 110 250 120 90 30 <5 0
Total 2,420 3,090 120 380 2,250 330 0
Burdekin Black <5 <5 0 0 <5 0 0
Ross 0 <5 0 <5 0 0 0
Haughton 940 1,710 0 800 910 0 0
Burdekin 260 500 0 260 250 0 0
Don 90 180 0 90 90 0 0
Total 1,280 2,390 0 1,150 1,240 0 0
Mackay Proserpine 250 330 50 40 200 30 0
Whitsunday O’Connell 700 970 180 140 560 90 0
Pioneer 710 980 200 140 550 90 0
Plane 1,270 1,760 330 250 1,010 170 0
Total 2,920 4,040 760 570 2,330 380 0
Fitzroy Styx River <5 200 0 <5 0 0 200
Shoalwater <5 110 0 0 0 0 110
Waterpark Ck 0 20 0 0 0 0 20
Fitzroy River 40 1750 0 290 0 0 1,460
Calliope River <5 100 0 0 0 0 100
Boyne River <5 40 0 0 0 0 40
Total 50 2,210 0 300 0 0 1,910
Burnett Mary Baffle <5 10 0 10 <5 0 0
Kolan 30 70 0 40 30 0 0
Burnett 20 120 0 100 20 0 0
Burrum 20 80 0 70 10 0 0
Mary 10 70 0 60 10 0 0
Total 90 350 0 270 80 0 0

TOTAL 6,760 12,100 880 2,690 5,900 710 1,910

What are the drivers and land uses delivering the pesticide loss?
Pesticide data collected across a multitude of Great Barrier Reef land uses (grazing, urban,
horticulture, forestry and intensive cropping) showed that diffuse load losses were highest from
intensive agriculture, mainly sugarcane (Devlin et al., 2015) (Figure 16). Physico-chemical
characteristics determine the likelihood of off-paddock transport of pesticides (Simpson et al., 2000;
Wauchope et al., 2002). The persistence and transport of pesticides in tropical environments is not
well understood, although it is assumed that herbicides will generally dissipate more quickly in
tropical and subtropical environments than under temperate conditions because of the higher
temperatures and wetter conditions (Racke et al., 1997; Sanchez-Bayo and Hyne, 2011). Recent
research (Shaw et al., 2013) showed that half-lives of commonly applied sugarcane herbicides under
local conditions were comparable or lower than published international values. In addition,
herbicides on cane residues (without rainfall) degraded slower than has been previously reported
(Shaw et al., 2013).
The greatest risk window for herbicide losses from paddocks in rain-fed farming systems is within 25
days of application, whereas within irrigated farming systems, where paddocks are typically irrigated
2‐4 days after herbicide application, >80% of annual herbicide losses occur in the two irrigations
following application. Pesticides are delivered predominantly from surface water run-off or in
irrigation tail water; only a small proportion is delivered through other mechanisms, including
groundwater and airborne drift. The majority of herbicide run-off from paddocks was found to be in
the dissolved phase with the exception of pendimethalin, glyphosate, diuron and imazapic.
Herbicides at the sub-catchment level were also predominately (>80%) transported in the dissolved
phase (Devlin et al., 2015).
Many of the pesticides detected in Great Barrier Reef catchments are registered to a multitude of
different crops and land uses (Devlin et al., 2015). Catchment monitoring programs (for a review see
Devlin et al., 2015) have provided evidence of the association between various pesticides and
specific land uses, including sugarcane, horticulture (e.g. mixed crops in Bowen and Atherton
Tableland regions, bananas), broadacre cropping, cotton, grazing, forestry and urban (including
sewage treatment plants). Non-agricultural sources have also been investigated with a total of 17
pesticide residues (not including metabolites) detected in sewage treatment plants in the Cairns
region (O’Brien et al., 2014); however, the concentrations (and water volumes) were relatively low
compared to run-off from diffuse cropping lands. According to the 2015 modelling results the
dominant source of the pesticides is sugarcane for all regions except the Fitzroy which, while it is
dominated by open grazing, has significant grain and cotton cropping areas. Cape York does not
contribute any significant pesticide sources to the Great Barrier Reef lagoon (Table 19). Tebuthiuron
is also used in grazing areas in the Fitzroy Basin; however, it is considered to be less toxic than the
other PSII chemicals.
A study comparing pesticide risk indictors with measured pesticide data from fruit tree crops
determined that simple risk indicators (e.g. Pesticide Impact Rating Index, Environmental Potential
Risk Indicator for Pesticides) can be good predictors or a first-tier risk assessment of pesticide
transport to neighbouring water bodies (Oliver et al., 2016). Oliver et al. (2014) also determined that
the application of herbicides (such as diuron and atrazine) to raised beds only is a highly effective
way of minimising migration of these herbicides in drainage water from furrow-irrigated sugarcane.

Table 18: Modelled end-of-basin pesticide (toxic equivalent) loading by land use for each natural resource management region (%).
Region Nature Dryland Forestry Grazing Horticulture Irrigated Sugarcane Bananas Dairy Urban Water Other Stream
conservation cropping cropping banks
Cape York 0 ~0 0 0 0 ~0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wet Tropics 0 <1 0 0 0 <1 >99 0 0 0 0 0 0
Burdekin 0 <1 0 0 0 <1 >99 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mackay
0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
Whitsunday
Fitzroy 0 23 0 77 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Burnett
Mary 0 2 0 0 0 1 97 0 0 0 0 0 0

Figure 16: Contribution of main land uses to the Toxic Equivalent pesticide load for each region. ‘Other’
includes intensive animal production, manufacturing and industrial, mining, rural and urban residential,
transport and communication, waste treatment and disposal, ports/marine harbor, military areas and open
water bodies.
Other pollutants
Other pollutants are known to be present in the coastal and marine waters of the Great Barrier Reef
(Kroon et al., 2015a). These include antifouling paints, coal particles, heavy and trace
metals/metalloids, personal care products, petroleum hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals and marine
debris. In addition, pollutants such as nanomaterials, perfluorooctane sulfonate and
perfluorooctanoic acid may be present but no monitoring information is available for the Great
Barrier Reef lagoon. These pollutants are derived from a range of diffuse and point sources including
agriculture (including intensive animal production), manufacturing and industrial, mining, rural and
urban residential, transport and communication, waste treatment and disposal, ports/marine
harbour, coastal/marine tourism, military areas, and shipping (Kroon et al., 2015b). Aquaculture
activities in north Queensland present possible sources of antifouling paints and pharmaceuticals.
Increasing coastal development including agricultural, urban, industrial, aquaculture and defence
land uses and ports, and associated projected increases in shipping traffic (Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park Authority, 2014), are expected to increase the sources and diversity of pollutants being released
into the Great Barrier Reef lagoon in the near future.
Monitoring information on pollutants other than sediments, nutrients and pesticides is not detailed
enough, or does not exist, to provide information on the spatial and temporal variation of
contaminant sources (Kroon et al., 2015b). For example, only two studies present limited monitoring
data for Great Barrier Reef sewage treatment plants, confirming the presence of 26 pharmaceuticals
and five personal care products in discharge effluent (O’Brien et al., 2014; Scott et al., 2014). Based
on Australian (Birch et al., 2015; French et al., 2015) and overseas (Dai et al., 2016) studies, it is likely

that the number of pharmaceutical personal care products in sewage treatment plant effluent and
stormwater run-off is much higher. Urban stormwater and sewage treatment plants are also known
sources of heavy metals (Gobeil et al., 2005), marine debris and microplastics such as fibres from
clothing and microbeads from cosmetics (Browne et al., 2011; GESAMP, 2015), nanomaterials (in
personal care products; Keller et al., 2014), petroleum hydrocarbons (Yunker et al., 2002) and
perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid (Xiao et al., 2012); however, no recent
monitoring information is available for the Great Barrier Reef region. Similarly, limited available
monitoring data demonstrates that Queensland industrial areas and ports are sources of antifouling
paints (Advisian, 2015; Department of Environment and Heritage Protection, 2012; GHD Pty Ltd,
2005; Port of Townsville Limited et al., 2013; Ports North, 2015), coal dust (GHD Pty Ltd, 2012a),
metals (GHD Pty Ltd, 2005; GHD Pty Ltd, 2012b; Port of Townsville Limited et al., 2013; Ports North,
2015; Taylor, 2015), and petroleum hydrocarbons (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, 2009; Simpson et al., 2013) (for more detail, see Kroon et al., 2015b).
In the Great Barrier Reef catchment, other pollutants are mostly discharged from industrial, urban
and sewage treatment plants but also from agricultural land uses, mines (existing and abandoned)
and ports/marinas. Point sources of pollutants are generally regulated; however, (i) not all pollutants
are monitored as part of these regulations (e.g. pharmaceuticals and personal care products in
wastewater treatment plants), (ii) monitoring information is generally not readily available, and (iii)
exceedances of ANZECC/ARMCANZ sediment and water quality guidelines (ANZECC and ARMCANZ,
2000) and the interim National Assessment Guidelines for Dredging (Department of the
Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, 2009; Simpson et al., 2013 have been reported (Kroon et
al., 2015). In addition, diffuse sources such as agricultural land uses also have the potential to
contribute to the excess of other pollutants, such as metals, nanomaterials and plastic polymers,
through fertiliser and pesticide applications (Berry et al., 2013; De et al., 2014; Verburg et al., 2014).
Agricultural land uses are a known source of metals (Mico et al., 2006), nanomaterials (De et al.,
2014), pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics (Sarmah et al., 2006) and potentially also of microplastics,
but no recent monitoring data are available for the Great Barrier Reef region. Heavy/trace metals
and metalloids occur naturally in rocks and soils, but anthropogenic input of metals such as
cadmium, copper, lead and zinc occurs through fertiliser applications (Mico et al., 2006). Elevated
levels of arsenic, cadmium and mercury in sediments near Great Barrier Reef catchments influenced
by agriculture were attributed, in part, to applications of phosphatic fertilisers and fungicides
containing these elements (Haynes, 2001; Walker and Brunskill, 1996). Nanoparticles are increasingly
being used for targeted delivery of pesticides in agricultural systems (De et al., 2014). Antibiotics are
used to treat disease and protect animal health, including cattle, pigs and poultry (Sarmah et al.,
2006). Coatings (partly) consisting of plastic polymers in slow-release fertilisers may contribute to
microplastic contamination in receiving waters (Verburg et al., 2014).
Urban areas can also contribute to coastal pollution through wastewater treatment plants and urban
storm water run-off (Gunn, 2014). The current population of northern Queensland exceeds 1.2
million people (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2015), with the majority of this population in
Townsville (189,000 people), Cairns (169,000), Mackay (122,000), Rockhampton (118,000),
Maryborough (100,000) and Bundaberg (94,000). Over 50 wastewater treatment plants operational
in north Queensland discharge into rivers that are connected to the Great Barrier Reef marine
environment (Hill et al., 2012).
Industrial areas, including ports, can contribute to coastal pollution through point source releases
into the air or water, as well as during transfer and transport of goods. The National Pollutant
Inventory (Department of the Environment and Energy, 2016) records annual emissions and
transfers of 93 pollutants from facilities around Australia, including in the Great Barrier Reef region,

under the National Environment Protection Measures legislation. The inventory data do not,
however, provide information on the fate of these pollutants in the environment.
Mines, both existing and abandoned, are potential sources of pollutants to adjacent coastal and
marine environments. Queensland has >15,000 abandoned mines with many occurring in the Great
Barrier Reef catchment (e.g. Mount Morgan gold mine) (Unger et al., 2012; Unger et al., 2015). For
example, elevated mercury in a sediment core from Bowling Green Bay was thought to be a legacy of
gold mining in the Charters Towers / Ravenswood area (Walker and Brunskill, 1996), although it can
also be found in pesticides (Kealley, 2015). Discontinued mine sites continue to release pollutants
into receiving waters (e.g. see Little, 2014), such as the tailings dam at Collingwood Bluestone tin
mine near Cooktown into the Annan River (Howley, 2012). The Queensland Floods Commission also
identified abandoned mine pits as a potential source of pollution to the Great Barrier Reef
(Queensland Floods Commission of Inquiry, 2012).
Existing mines in the Great Barrier Reef catchment include coal, extraction of coal seam gas,
underground coal gasification (which has now ceased), liquid natural gas, oil shale mining and
refining and metalliferous ores. More than 50 operating coal mines currently export their product via
ports in the Great Barrier Reef, and further large-scale thermal coal mines are proposed in the Surat
and Galilee basins (Department of Employment, 2016). An emerging issue is the large volume of
water requiring emergency releases from mines and refineries after high rainfall events (Great
Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2014).
Approximately 666,000 ha of acid sulphate soils occur along the Great Barrier Reef coast in close
proximity to reef waters (McClurg et al., 2009a; McClurg et al., 2009b; Powell and Martens, 2005a;
Ross, 2003; Ross, 2004; Ross, 2005; Ross, 2007; Ross, 2008). Drainage from acid sulphate soils occurs
widely along the Queensland coast and is usually related to soil disturbances for agriculture,
aquaculture and coastal developments (Baker, 2003; Cook et al., 2000). Oxidation of iron sulfide in
acid sulphate soils causes acidification, metal contamination, deoxygenation and iron precipitation in
receiving coastal waters (Cook et al., 2000; Powell and Martens, 2005b). Estuarine sediments
impacted by acid sulphate soil drainage can be enriched with aluminium, cadmium, cobalt, copper,
manganese, nickel and zinc; concentrations 5–100 times greater than background have been
reported (Nordmyr et al., 2008).
Landfills, combined with rivers, lakes and wetlands used as illegal dump sites and riverine transport
of waste from landfills and other inland sources, have been identified as a primary source of land-
based marine debris around the world (United Nations Environment Programme, 2009). In the Great
Barrier Reef lagoon, high concentrations of marine debris were recorded between Shoalwater Bay
and Townsville in February 2013 (Harmel et al., 2014). These were associated with large flooding
events due to ex-tropical cyclone Oswald (Bureau of Meteorology, 2014) and thus were most likely
derived from land-based sources.
Military exercise and range areas are present in the Great Barrier Reef, including maritime defence
practice areas, land training areas with a coastal component (e.g. Shoalwater Bay, Cowley Beach)
and airspace allocated for military aviation activities (e.g. Halifax Bay range near Townsville) (PGM
Environment and Eco Logical Australia, 2014). Recent monitoring detected perfluorooctane sulfonate
and perfluorooctanoic acid in groundwater, surface water and sediment at the RAAF Base Townsville
(GHD Pty Ltd, 2016). No other monitoring data are available concerning military exercise and range
areas being potential sources of pollutants, such as antifouling paints, marine debris, metals,
nanomaterials, pharmaceutical personal care products and petroleum hydrocarbons. In addition,
legacy impacts associated with past defence activities include the presence of large amounts of
unexploded ordnance and chemical warfare agents that were dumped at sea at the end of World
War II (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2014). Limited information exists concerning
sources other than shipping and domestic sewage.

New approaches to estimating catchment loads and water quality trends

A range of techniques have been used over the last 30 years to estimate end-of-catchment and basin
pollutant loads to the Great Barrier Reef. These include simple empirical models (e.g. Belperio, 1979;
Moss et al., 1993; Neil et al., 2002), catchment budget modelling (McKergow et al., 2005a;
McKergow et al. 2005b), monitored loads (Furnas, 2003; Joo et al., 2012) and integrated modelling
and monitoring data (Kroon et al., 2012; Kuhnert et al., 2012). The most recent modelling approach
is outlined in Waters et al. (2014) and McCloskey et al. (2017a; 2017b).
Validating modelled load estimates

Several studies have compared the Source Catchments model outputs against monitored data
(Wilkinson et al., 2014b), other empirically derived data (Hughes and Croke, 2011) and alternative
modelling approaches (Alvarez-Romero et al., 2014). These studies determined that the Source
Catchment model gave similar levels of error when compared to general rating curve approaches
and other similar catchment models for predicting end-of-catchment sediment load data. They also
agreed that the models could be improved considerably by using locally derived estimates of
erosion, storage, transformation and delivery. This would reduce the overestimates of erosion and
delivery that generally occur when generic input parameters are used.
Data assimilation and estimating confidence

The more recent general additive modelling approach for sediment and nutrient modelling (Kuhnert
et al., 2012; Robson and Dourdet, 2015) also formed the basis for an investigation into whether
trends in total sediment loads could be detected with any level of certainty (Darnell et al., 2012). This
research showed that end-of-catchment monitoring programs will have low statistical power (<40%
chance) of detecting improved water quality trends (towards achieving the Reef Water Quality
Protection Plan target) of a 20% TSS load reduction at end of catchment by 2020 for both the Tully
and Burdekin rivers.
More recently, efforts have focused on assimilating measurements with modelled output with the
intent of providing confidence estimates for load predictions across an entire catchment. Pagendam
et al. (2014) developed a Bayesian Hierarchical Modelling framework for assimilating (or blending)
monitoring data for a 14 km2 rangeland catchment in the Burdekin using modelled outputs from the
Loads Regression Estimator statistical model (Kuhnert et al., 2012) and SymHyd (Chiew et al., 2002).
This work was then extended to estimating loads at 411 spatial locations across a time frame of 21
years in the Upper Burdekin catchment, where Source Catchments modelled output was assimilated
with measurements from 14 sites where flow and/or concentration was measured in the Upper
Burdekin (Gladish et al., 2016). The assimilation approach combined Source Catchments modelled
outputs of flow and concentration with measurements (if available) using (a weighted average of)
Bayesian methods. The weights of each piece of information were influenced by uncertainties
specified through priors. Where the uncertainty was high for a particular information source
(measured or modelled), this information was down-weighted in the estimation of flow and
concentration. In general, where measurements were available, the estimate of the concentration,
flow and the subsequent load was quantified with a high level of certainty. New methods for
visualising and communicating the outputs from the Bayesian Hierarchical Modelling, particularly the
uncertainty and how this can be linked to better and more informed decision-making, is currently
being explored (Kuhnert et al., in review).

3. Synthesis of key findings
Table 20 provides a summary of (i) the key findings from the previous Scientific Consensus Statement
in 2013, (ii) the new insights and information gained over the last four years of research, and (iii)
contentious, unresolved areas of further research. The implications and considerations for improved
management are discussed in Chapter 5.

Table 19: Synthesis of established knowledge, new information and areas of further research relating to the sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef
Established knowledge and New information or insights Contentious, unresolved or unknown areas (for
understanding (based on previous further research)
Scientific Consensus Statement findings)
Overarching • The key findings from the 2013 In this review, data are presented using: • Explicit estimates of confidence are required to
Scientific Consensus Statement were • measured pollutant loads data for 32 sites (with highlight where we have high/medium or low
based on modelled export loads for the up to nine years of data) for sediments, nutrients confidence in the various datasets.
six natural resource management and pesticides
• A more robust framework for incorporating
regions. Monitoring data were
• updated modelling data (up to 2014-2015) have new knowledge into Source Catchment
discussed, but only PSII herbicide data
been presented at the management unit (or sub- modelling and reporting would improve
were presented.
catchment) scale for the 47 management units transparency and knowledge integration.
• a synthesis of individual research project findings
focusing on the last four years (2013-2017).
Sediments • Mean-annual river loads to the Great • There is an estimated 9900 kt/yr of fine (silt and • Independent estimates (not modelled) of the
Barrier Reef lagoon for total suspended clay) sediment being delivered to the Great Barrier relative ratio of pre-development erosion rates
solids have increased 3.2 to 5.5-fold Reef. Approximately 7930 kt/yr of this sediment is for different landscapes will help refine pre-
compared to pre-European conditions. estimated to be anthropogenic and due to development model estimates (e.g. long half-
changes in land use and management. Modelled life nuclides or similar approach), but these are
estimates suggest that fine sediment has increased not yet widely available.
~5-fold (between 3 and 8 times depending on the
basin) from pre-development conditions.
• The relative rankings of modelled load data for
catchments with high per unit area sediment loads
have been reasonably consistent over the last 10
years.
• Anthropogenic load increases from pre-
development conditions have been validated
against long half-life nuclides in some catchments
(Burdekin, Barron).
• Comparing mean annual total • The Burdekin Basin contributes ~40% of the • A systematic review is required of both the
suspended solids loads by individual anthropogenic total suspended solids load to the modelling and monitoring data, using all
basin showed good agreement between Great Barrier Reef lagoon, with the Wet Tropics available water quality data (including the sub-

Sediments estimates derived from monitoring and (~15%), Fitzroy (~18%) and Burnett Mary (~15%) catchment and pre-2006 data), across similar
cont’d. modelling. the other dominant regions. flow periods at a range of nested scales.
• Within these regions, the top five sediment- • Many monitoring records remain short (< 5-10
contributing basins are the Burdekin, Fitzroy, years).
Mary, Burnett and Herbert basins.
• Reporting pollutant loads at smaller basin scales
has highlighted that there are hotspot areas (e.g.
Bowen Bogie), particularly within the larger
catchments. This is supported by more recent
monitoring data.
• The main sources for the anthropogenic • Using the monitored specific sediment loads • The relative contribution of fine sediment from
total suspended solids load to the Great (t/km2/yr), ~64% of the sediment load is coming gullies in different soil types (alluvial vs
Barrier Reef lagoon are (i) grazing lands from the top quartile (n = 8) of basins. hillslope) is currently not known for most of the
(gully and hillslope erosion) (45%) and Great Barrier Reef.
• Using the anthropogenic modelled specific loads
streambank erosion (39%), (ii) the
(t/km2/yr), ~64% of the sediment load is coming • The influence of ground cover (amount,
Fitzroy and Burdekin basins (at least
from the top quartile (n = 12) of management biomass, composition and distribution) on sub-
70%), and (iii) a combination of gully
units. catchment and catchment scale runoff and
and streambank erosion and subsoil
sediment delivery is not fully understood and is
erosion from hillslope rilling, rather than • The dominant source of sediments according to
important for understanding the influence of
broadscale hillslope sheetwash erosion. land use has not changed significantly. Grazing
hillslope hydrology on channel and gully
dominates overall sediment delivery to the Great
erosion.
Barrier Reef, as well as in the Burdekin, Fitzroy and
Burnett-Mary. In the Wet Tropics and Mackay • The contribution of erosion from un-sealed
Whitsundays, sugar cane is the largest source of roads to end of catchment sediment yields is
total sediment. Sugar and bananas have high currently poorly understood, but is likely to be a
specific sediment yields. significant point source in some areas.
• Sediment source tracing in several catchments has • Catchment modelling suggests that Cape York,
identified that approximately 90% of fine sediment as a region, is dominated by hillslope erosion
delivered to the Great Barrier Reef is from subsoil sources (~64%). Tracing and dating studies in
erosion (which could be derived from gully, bank, the Normanby catchment have now shown that
scald or deep rill erosion). Of the sediment coming gully erosion is the dominant erosion process

Sediments from subsoil sources, ~50% is estimated to be contributing to sediment loads. These data have
cont’d. from vertical surfaces (gullies and riverbanks) and been integrated into the Normanby modelling;
40% from horizontal surfaces of subsoil (hillslope however, further data are needed to refine the
scalds, rills and gully floors). models for the remainder of Cape York.
• Sediments from urban land uses (particularly
greenfield sites) can be important at local scales.
• Monitored total suspended solids in the • It is the clay-rich <16 µm fine sediment that is • There needs to be better agreement regarding
Burdekin, Fitzroy, Plane, Burnett and travelling the furthest into the marine system. the particle size of the fine sediment fraction
Normanby catchments contain a high Larger particles are stored or trapped in the rivers that is used in catchment and marine systems
proportion of fine sediment (<10 µm) or nearshore zone. studies.
material, which is the fraction most
• Large dams and weirs can trap considerable • The range and dominant particle size of
likely to reach the Great Barrier Reef
amounts (up to 70%) of fine sediment. This sediment is not well understood for many parts
lagoon.
reduces the delivery of sediment to the coast from of the Great Barrier Reef catchments. Analysis
areas upstream of large dams. It is estimated that and interpretation of previously collected
the Burdekin Falls Dam has reduced the total particle size data should be a priority.
sediment load from the Burdekin River by 35%
• Further understanding of the variations in
compared with pre-dam conditions.
erosion, storage and delivery of fine sediment
• Dating of in-channel sediment stores (benches) will improve targeting of areas for remediation.
suggests that in-channel storage of both fine and
coarse material can be significant in some areas.
This reduces or delays the delivery of fine and
coarse material to the marine system. This may
also reduce the ability to evaluate remediation
effectiveness if measurements are only taken at
the end of the system.
• Land-use change and intensification has • New evidence from coral core (flow • The role of long-term natural climate
been correlated with increased reconstruction) analysis suggests that there was a fluctuation on end-of-catchment sediment
suspended sediment loads that are measured increase in river flow at the same time fluxes is not well understood and is essential for
recorded within coral cores offshore of as human settlement of the Burdekin region. Any developing achievable water quality targets.
the Burdekin River mouth. measured increase in pollutant yield after 1860 is

therefore likely to be a combination of land use
and climatic factors.
Nutrients • Mean annual river loads to the Great • The total modelled nutrient loads estimated to be • There is relatively low confidence in the pre-
Barrier Reef lagoon have increased 2.0– delivered to the Great Barrier Reef are ~55 kt/yr European nutrient load estimates due to the
5.7-fold for TN and 2.5–8.9 times for TP for TN and 13.4 kt/yr for TP. Approximately 29 scarcity of measured data to validate models.
compared to pre-European conditions. kt/yr and 8.8 kt/yr of this TN and TP is estimated The lack of data makes the setting of water
to be anthropogenic and due to changes in land quality targets based on anthropogenic loads
• PN comprises by far the largest
use and management, respectively. This is 2.1- and problematic.
proportion of the mean annual
2.9-fold increase for TN and TP, respectively.
anthropogenic TN loads, followed by • Targeted monitoring of water quality data from
DIN. • The total modelled DIN estimated to be delivered less disturbed sites (e.g. rainforest) would
to the GBR is ~12 kt/yr of which 6.0 kt/yr is provide important insights into pre-
• Most PN is lost or mineralised from fine
estimated to be anthropogenic and due to development conditions.
sediment following delivery to the Great
changes in land use and management. For PN the
Barrier Reef lagoon and could be readily
total load is ~25 kt/yr, where ~17 kt/yr is
available for uptake in Great Barrier
anthropogenic, and for PP the total load is ~10
Reef ecosystems.
kt/yr, where ~7.5 kt/yr is anthropogenic. DIN
increased by ~2-fold (range 1.2–6.0, or 38-fold in
the case of Cape York) and for PN the increase has
been ~1.5-fold (ranging between 1.2- and 2.2-
fold).
• Of these total loads, PN contributes ~45% of TN,
and PP contributes 76% of TP.
• DIN contributes 22% of TN at the GBR scale
according to the models.
• Comparing mean annual TN loads by • The available load monitoring data generally • A systematic review of both the modelling and
individual basins showed reasonable support the priority management units identified monitoring data for all pollutants at similar flow
agreement between estimates derived by modelling; however, absolute values can vary periods at a range of scales (not just at the end
from modelling and monitoring. significantly for some forms of nutrients between of system) is required.
data types.

Nutrients • Lateral export of DIN to surface water is now • The relative contribution of groundwater
cont’d. included in the modelled estimates in sugarcane nitrogen to total loads exported to the stream
areas. The modelling of lateral movement needs further research.
supports studies which suggest this may be a
potential pathway for DIN.
• The Fitzroy, Burdekin and Wet Tropics • TN delivery to the GBR is dominated by the Wet • As above
contribute over 75% to the Tropics (30%) and Fitzroy (20%) regions; DIN
anthropogenic TN load to the Great delivery is dominated by the Wet Tropics (46%)
Barrier Reef lagoon. and Burdekin (21%); and PN delivery is dominated
by the Wet Tropics (27%) and Fitzroy (20%)
• The Fitzroy and Burdekin basins
regions. PP delivery is dominated by the Fitzroy
contribute approximately 55% of the
(33%) and Burdekin (22%) regions.
anthropogenic TP load to the Great
Barrier Reef lagoon. • Within these regions, hotspot areas exist. The top
five basins contributing to the DIN load are the
Herbert, Burdekin, Johnstone, Haughton and
Mulgrave-Russell.
• The top five basins contributing to the PN load are
the Fitzroy, Mary, Burdekin, Johnstone and
Herbert.
• The top quartile of management units (i.e. 12 out
of the 47 management units) contribute ~67% of
the TN, ~87% of the DIN, 69% of the PN, 69% of
the TP and 72% of PP based on the specific
nutrient yields (t/km2/y).
• Using the monitored end-of-basin specific loads
(t/km2/yr), 68% of the PP, 70% of PN and 79% of
the DIN load is coming from the top quartile of
basins (n = 8).
• Using the modelled data, the top quartile of
management units (n = 12) deliver ~87% of the

Nutrients DIN, 69% of PN, 67% of the TN, 72% of PP and 69%
cont’d. of the TP to the Great Barrier Reef.
• PN comprises by far the largest • The total modelled anthropogenic nitrogen load is • The bioavailable status (the magnitude and
proportions of the mean annual made up of ~45% PN, ~33% and 22% DIN. timescales) and conversion processes of the
anthropogenic TN loads, followed by various forms of nutrients, in both freshwater
• The total monitored nitrogen load is made up of
DIN and . and marine settings, require further
~49% PN, ~34% and 15% DIN.
understanding. This will assist with targeting
• PP comprises by far the largest
• Modelled PP comprises 76% of the mean annual the main source of pollutants.
proportions of the mean annual
anthropogenic TP load. This is the same per cent
anthropogenic TP loads.
as for measured PP.
• The total monitored phosphorus load is made up
of ~76% PP, ~8% dissolved organic phosphorus
and 16% DIP.
• Most PN and PP is lost or mineralised • Sub-surface soil erosion (based primarily on • There have been no investigations into the
from fine sediment following delivery to studies undertaken on gullies) may contribute low contribution of particulate nutrients from
the Great Barrier Reef lagoon and could concentrations but potentially high loads of streambank erosion.
be readily available for uptake in Great bioavailable nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon
• The contribution of bioavailable nitrogen from
Barrier Reef ecosystems. depending on the soil type.
natural sources is not well understood and
needs to be considered for evaluating
anthropogenic loadings and future
effectiveness of management actions.
• There have been no published nutrient isotope
studies at the sub-catchment or catchment
scale.
• Sediment erosion processes, particularly • Grazing dominates the source of PN river loads, • As above
in grazing lands are sources of PN and and sugar dominates DIN river loads.
PP; sugarcane and grazing are sources
• The measured concentrations of DIN from natural
of DIN; and land-use changes in filter
(rainforest) settings are potentially higher than
and buffer capacity are the main
have been modelled.
sources of .

• Although the spatial location of bioavailable PN
sources may differ from TSS, the management
strategies for mitigating export of PN and TSS are
similar.
• Dissolved and particulate nutrient loads from
urban land uses, particularly wastewater
discharges, can be important at local scales, but
generally represent <7% overall.
Pesticides • The total mean annual load of PSII- • The 2015 modelled total mean annual load of PSII- • Lack of on-farm application rates and pesticide
inhibiting pesticides is estimated to inhibiting pesticides is ~12,100 kg per year. usage data is a major limitation to
range between 16,000 and 17,000 kg understanding the source of pesticides.
• Since the last Scientific Consensus Statement there
per year.
is more monitored pesticide load data across a • There have been several laboratory-based
• The total pesticide load to the Great greater range of sites; however, detailed studies; however, more field-based
Barrier Reef lagoon is likely to be comparison of the measured and modelled data assessments would improve our understanding
considerably larger, given that at least has not been explicitly undertaken for this review. of (i) the fate and source of pesticides in various
28 pesticides have been detected in the Results from the measured end-of-system water environmental conditions (groundwater,
Great Barrier Reef catchments. quality monitoring sites suggest that the measured surface freshwater and marine conditions), (ii)
pesticide loads are generally lower than modelled pesticide half-lives in freshwater, and (iii)
• Comparing mean annual PSII inhibiting
estimates. pesticides transported in the bound and
pesticide loads by individual basins
dissolved phases.
showed large variability between • The measured pesticide data suggest that most
estimates derived from modelling and pesticides are found in all regions, even though • A detailed comparison of pesticide
monitoring. some are in very small quantities and may not be concentrations obtained from monitoring and
registered for use in those areas. modelling is required.
• The main sources for the PSII inhibiting • The toxic equivalent loads for pesticides are • As above
pesticides load to the Great Barrier Reef highest from sugarcane for all regions, except the
• A broader range of toxic pesticides should be
lagoon are (i) sugarcane (94%), (ii) the Fitzroy, where grazing dominates.
reported (the current five should be expanded
Wet Tropics, Burdekin and Mackay
• Total toxic equivalent loads are dominated by the in annual reporting).
Whitsunday basins (more than 85%).
Wet Tropics, Mackay Whitsunday and Burdekin
sugarcane areas.

Other • Other sources of pollutants to the Great • Compared with sediment and nutrient data, there • Monitoring information on pollutants other
pollutants Barrier Reef lagoon include point has generally been less research into the sources than sediments, nutrients and pesticides is not
sources such as intensive animal of pesticides and new pollutants delivered from detailed enough or does not exist.
production, manufacturing and the Great Barrier Reef catchments to the marine
• There is a need to increase our understanding
industrial, mining, rural and urban system.
of the types, concentrations and sources of a
residential, transport and
• Other pollutants are mostly discharged from range of pollutants.
communication, waste treatment and
industrial, urban and sewage treatment plant
disposal, ports/marine harbour, and
sources but also from agricultural land uses, mines
shipping. Compared to diffuse sources,
(existing and abandoned) and ports/marinas.
most contributions of such point
sources are relatively small but could be
locally and over short time periods
highly significant. Point sources are
generally regulated activities; however,
monitoring and permit information is
not always available.

4. Research gaps and areas of further research

The key knowledge gaps related to each of the pollutant sources were summarised in Table 20. This
section provides some more context on the key opportunities, research gaps and priority needs.
Limitations and associated opportunities

• There are good (up to nine-year) records of measured pollutant data at up to 32 sites across
the Great Barrier Reef. It would be timely to undertake a focused analysis and comparison of
the measured and modelled data at multiple sites within each catchment. This would provide
(i) an understanding of where the models and measurements are working well and where they
could be improved (e.g. Alvarez-Romero et al., 2014; Newham et al., 2003; Wilkinson et al.,
2014b), (ii) an insight into how the models and measurements vary at different scales (sub-
catchment vs. end of system) (e.g. Wilkinson, 2008), (iii) evaluate if there are differences
between modelled and measured datasets for different pollutants or erosion processes (e.g.
Bartley et al., 2007; Hughes and Croke, 2011), (iv) an evaluation of the potential influence of
climate change.
• There is relatively low confidence in the pre-development load estimates for sediments and
particulate nutrients due to the scarcity of measured data to validate models. The lack of data
makes the setting of water quality targets based on anthropogenic loads problematic. Various
techniques (e.g. isotopes and dating) are now available that would provide important insights
into pre-development conditions that should be applied more broadly.
• Given our improved understanding of the importance of particle size and the nutrient status of
sediments in terms of delivery and ecological risk to the Great Barrier Reef, an increased effort
should be given to measuring and reporting on particle size and other chemical metrics within
the loads monitoring program.
Research gaps
• Processes such as the ‘Birch effect’ (Jarvis et al., 2007; Xiang et al., 2008), which relates soil
nutrient release to soil wetting and drying cycles, should be investigated.
• A more thorough consideration of the impact of roads and fences on sediment delivery should
be undertaken.
• There is a need to initiate (i) targeted sampling programs, and (ii) open source data
management for existing data on priority emerging pollutants.
Priority needs
• There is an urgent need to explicitly quantify certainty and confidence in the load modelling
and monitoring data. Error or confidence is currently accounted for in the flow modelling but
not the load modelling. Techniques are available for evaluating models (e.g. Daggupati et al.,
2015; Moriasi et al., 2015; Saraswat et al., 2015) as well as for quantifying uncertainty by
blending modelling and monitoring data (as discussed in Section 2.4.2).
• We now have considerable data to identify that sub-surface erosion is a dominant source of
fine sediment and particulate nutrients; however, further work is needed to determine which
type of sub-surface erosion dominates erosion sources in key areas (e.g. alluvial gully walls,
hillslope gully walls, scalds, rills, cane drains or streambank erosion).
• The influence of ground cover (amount, biomass, composition and distribution) on sub-
catchment- and catchment-scale run-off, sediment and nutrient delivery is not fully understood

and is important for understanding the influence of hillslope hydrology on riverbank and gully
erosion. Continued work using the most recent, higher resolution, remotely sensed ground
cover should be a priority.
• A key gap in our understanding is knowledge of the best place for returning riparian vegetation
in the landscape and the associated cost effectiveness of such approaches.
• Recent research has highlighted the need for a better understanding of the role of land use, soil
type and erosion processes (including gully erosion dynamics) in controlling the delivery and
bioavailability of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). Given this new knowledge, there is an
urgent need to develop whole-of-catchment/basin nutrient budgets (using measured field
data) that compare all bioavailable nutrient sources and include areas such as estuaries, mud
flats, freshwater lagoons and a range of land uses (e.g. cropping AND grazing). Investigating the
bioavailability of nutrients from individual processes or land units (e.g. alluvial gullies) is useful,
but this needs to be put into a broader context, and all sources need to be evaluated at the
landscape scale.
• The role of long-term natural climate fluctuation on end-of-catchment sediment and nutrient
fluxes is not well understood; this knowledge is essential for developing achievable water
quality targets.
• The availability of industry‐specific pesticide/herbicide and chemical usage data is urgently
needed. This would inform monitoring programs and improve modelling outputs. A greater
linkage with relevant industries is required to facilitate communication between researchers,
managers, regulators and end users so these data may become more accessible.

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Appendix
Table 20: Average annual measured nitrogen loads for each of the 20 sites in the GBR catchments. (Source: Garzon-Garcia et al., 2015; Joo et al., 2011;
Turner et al., 2013; Turner et al., 2012; Wallace et al., 2016; Wallace et al., 2015; Wallace et al., 2014). The datasets were measured during events over
three to nine years; sites with an * are based on two years only.
Years Number
NRM Gauging
Catchment River and site name of of TN (t) PN (t) N0x-N (t) NH4-N (t) DIN(t) DON (t)
region station
data samples
Cape York Normanby 105107A Normanby River at Kalpowar Crossing 9 264 1,600 ± 1,600 300 ± 170 40 ± 21 35 ± 18 75 ± 37 740 ± 310
110001D Barron River at Myola 9 590 900 ± 600 600 ± 420 45 ± 22 10 ± 6 55 ± 27 270 ± 170
Barron 110002A Barron River at Mareeba 3 60 270 ± 160 120 ± 110 33 ± 11 5±3 38 ± 13 110 ± 50
110003A Barron River at Picnic Crossing 3 371 100 ± 37 30 ± 16 34 ± 3 2±1 36 ± 4 30 ± 20
1120049 North Johnstone River at Tung Oil 9 306 1,300 ± 800 830 ± 690 269 ± 86 14 ± 4 283 ± 88 230 ± 80
Wet Tropics Johnstone South Johnstone River at Upstream Central 9 492
112101B
Mill 600 ± 300 360 ± 230 141 ± 69 7±3 147 ± 72 90 ± 40
113006A Tully River at Euramo 9 1,491 1,600 ± 600 440 ± 230 699 ± 251 32 ± 13 731 ± 258 430 ± 150
Tully
113015A Tully River at Tully Gorge National Park 5 311 400 ± 200 160 ± 140 118 ± 59 11 ± 5 129 ± 60 110 ± 50
Herbert 116001F Herbert River at Ingham 9 420 3,100 ± 2,300 1,240 ± 1,350 869 ± 594 52 ± 39 921 ± 615 880 ± 680
119003A Haughton River at Powerline* 2 37 100 ± 80 30 ± 26 26 ± 23 2±2 28 ± 25 43 ± 32
Haughton
119101A Barratta Creek at Northcote 6 649 330 ± 240 90 ± 90 76 ± 14 6±3 82 ± 13 130 ± 90
120001A Burdekin River at Home Hill 9 436 12,500 ± 10,400 7,450 ± 6,860 1,193 ± 739 190 ± 248 1,382 ± 863 3,580 ± 2,950
120002C Burdekin River at Sellheim 9 171 7,300 ± 7,400 5,250 ± 5,770 243 ± 115 56 ± 50 298 ± 154 1,610 ± 1,600
Burdekin 120302B Cape River at Taemas 7 367 1,200 ± 700 680 ± 480 38 ± 43 10 ± 5 47 ± 44 460 ± 270
Burdekin Belyando River at Gregory Development 7 452
120301B
Road 1,200 ± 1,100 540 ± 560 13 ± 10 16 ± 12 29 ± 21 600 ± 530
120310A Suttor River at Bowen Development Road 7 182 700 ± 500 270 ± 190 17 ± 11 11 ± 9 28 ± 15 400 ± 280
120205A Bowen River at Myuna 3 112 1,500 ± 1,200 1,160 ± 1,060 56 ± 20 29 ± 23 85 ± 41 180 ± 100
Mackay 1240062 O’Connell River at Caravan Park 4 86 400 ± 280 250 ± 190 23 ± 17 18 ± 10 36 ± 21 87 ± 88
O’Connell
Whitsunday 124001B O’Connell River at Stafford’s Crossing 3 55 200 ± 30 70 ± 20 15 ± 7 4±1 18 ± 8 90 ± 20

125013A Pioneer River at Dumbleton Pump Station 9 657 1,400 ± 1,100 780 ± 750 230 ± 150 41 ± 23 270 ± 170 310 ± 170
Pioneer
125004B Cattle Creek at Gargett 3 39 800 ± 230 420 ± 250 107 ± 28 12 ± 10 137 ± 11 240 ± 60
Plane 126001A Sandy Creek at Homebush 6 262 280 ± 170 120 ± 80 45 ± 22 6±6 51 ± 26 100 ± 70
1300000 Fitzroy River at Rockhampton 9 338 10,800 ± 10,600 5,100 ± 5,200 1,200 ± 1,000 160 ± 160 1,340 ± 1,100 4,390 ± 4,500
130206A Theresa Creek at Gregory Highway 6 75 770 ± 750 450 ± 460 56 ± 58 10 ± 8 66 ± 62 240 ± 220
Fitzroy Fitzroy
130504B Comet River at Comet Weir 6 104 1,900 ± 1,600 1,070 ± 920 192 ± 197 41 ± 43 233 ± 238 730 ± 740
130302A Dawson River at Taroom 4 109 1,740 ± 2,600 1,030 ± 1,580 51 ± 46 23 ± 35 74 ± 80 790 ± 1,240
136014A Burnett River at Ben Anderson Barrage HW 9 457 3,400 ± 5,800 2,060 ± 3,660 276 ± 479 158 ± 248 239 ± 465 930 ± 1,460
136002D Burnett River at Mt Lawless 6 396 3,140 ± 6,200 2,160 ± 4,310 76 ± 118 49 ± 90 125 ± 208 900 ± 1,700
Burnett
Burnett 136094A Burnett River at Jones Weir Tail Water 6 297 1,900 ± 3,500 1,050 ± 1,950 86 ± 148 54 ± 91 140 ± 239 700 ± 1,320
Mary 136106A Burnett River at Eidsvold 5 220 600 ± 1,000 280 ± 460 43 ± 57 21 ± 31 63 ± 88 270 ± 430
138014A Mary River at Home Park* 2 176 1,000 ± 1,200 420 ± 520 273 ± 278 21 ± 24 294 ± 302 320 ± 390
Mary
138008A Tinana Creek at Barrage Head* 2 146 150 ± 10 30 ± 3 23 ± 13 6±1 28 ± 15 90 ± 10

Table 21: Average annual measured phosphorus loads for each of the 32 sites in the GBR catchments. (Source: Garzon-Garcia et al., 2015; Turner et al.,
2013; Turner et al., 2012; Wallace et al., 2015; Wallace et al., 2014). The datasets were measured during events over three to nine years; sites with an * are
based on two years only.
Years Number
NRM region Basin Gauging station River and site name of of TP (t) DIP (t) PP (t) DOP (t)
data samples
Cape York Normanby 105107A Normanby River at Kalpowar Crossing 9 264 150 ± 75 19 ± 11 93 ± 39 44 ± 41
110001D Barron River at Myola 9 590 150 ± 118 9±8 131 ± 103 15 ± 14
Barron 110002A Barron River at Mareeba 3 60 70 ± 50 15 ± 10 49 ± 39 5±2
110003A Barron River at Picnic Crossing 3 371 20 ± 11 2±1 15 ± 10 2±1
1120049 North Johnstone River at Tung Oil 9 306 300 ± 221 15 ± 6 293 ± 187 37 ± 39
Wet Tropics Johnstone South Johnstone River at Upstream Central
112101B 9 492 150 ± 98 9±4 132 ± 87 17 ± 17
Mill
113006A Tully River at Euramo 9 1,491 150 ± 94 20 ± 17 118 ± 73 58 ± 42
Tully
113015A Tully River at Tully Gorge National Park 5 311 40 ± 35 2±1 34 ± 29 17 ± 13
Herbert 116001F Herbert River at Ingham 9 420 380 ± 409 41 ± 32 301 ± 333 89 ± 83
119003A Haughton River at Powerline* 2 37 15 ± 13 5±5 9±8 1±1
Haughton
119101A Barratta Creek at Northcote 6 649 50 ± 50 14 ± 8 24 ± 24 8±8
Burdekin River at Home Hill 9 436 3,970 ±
120001A
3,179 421 ± 315 3,426 ± 2,783 262 ± 333
Burdekin River at Sellheim 9 171 2,640 ±
Burdekin 120002C
2,582 174 ± 163 2,334 ± 2,411 121 ± 130
Burdekin 120302B Cape River at Taemas 7 367 200 ± 140 11 ± 6 179 ± 136 30 ± 22
120301B Belyando River at Gregory Development Road 7 452 270 ± 248 72 ± 66 182 ± 171 28 ± 26
120310A Suttor River at Bowen Development Road 7 182 160 ± 114 33 ± 27 102 ± 59 30 ± 42
120205A Bowen River at Myuna 3 112 790 ± 810 29 ± 21 734 ± 800 7±5
1240062 O’Connell River at Caravan Park 4 86 68 ± 63 13 ± 10 74 ± 58 3.6 ± 1.9
O’Connell
124001B O’Connell River at Stafford’s Crossing 3 55 20 ± 6 5±1 14 ± 5 2±1
Mackay
125013A Pioneer River at Dumbleton Pump Station 9 657 310 ± 280 50 ± 30 230 ± 220 22 ± 28
Whitsunday Pioneer
125004B Cattle Creek at Gargett 3 39 150 ± 65 27 ± 6 117 ± 59 6±1
Plane 126001A Sandy Creek at Homebush 6 262 80 ± 50 33 ± 20 40 ± 28 7±6

Years Number
NRM region Basin Gauging station River and site name of of TP (t) DIP (t) PP (t) DOP (t)
data samples
Fitzroy River at Rockhampton 9 338 4,300 ±
1300000
4,500 1,280 ± 1,500 2,800 ± 2,700 320 ± 480
Fitzroy Fitzroy 130206A Theresa Creek at Gregory Highway 6 75 290 ± 271 68 ± 62 208 ± 213 12 ± 10
130504B Comet River at Comet Weir 6 104 1,070 ± 847 320 ± 310 712 ± 513 40 ± 38
130302A Dawson River at Taroom 4 109 740 ± 1,150 383 ± 617 294 ± 430 50 ± 78
136014A Burnett River at Ben Anderson Barrage HW 9 457 790 ± 1,385 82 ± 142 680 ± 1,190 46 ± 88
136002D Burnett River at Mt Lawless 6 396 860 ± 1,743 75 ± 143 753 ± 1,521 47 ± 91
Burnett
136094A Burnett River at Jones Weir Tail Water 6 297 440 ± 819 53 ± 101 368 ± 676 34 ± 63
Burnett Mary
136106A Burnett River at Eidsvold 5 220 160 ± 281 50 ± 89 99 ± 173 15 ± 23
138014A Mary River at Home Park* 2 176 180 ± 221 15 ± 19 155 ± 193 10 ± 12
Mary
138008A Tinana Creek at Barrage Head* 2 146 10 ± 1 0.4 ± 0.1 7 ± 0.4 2 ± 0.2

Table 22: Modelled annual average estimates of total dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) loads (tonnes per year) for the Great Barrier Reef basins. (Source: Derived from
McCloskey et al. 2017b).
AWRAC basin Nature Dryland Forestry Open and Horticulture Irrigated Sugarcane Urban Bananas Dairy Other Total
conservation cropping closed cropping including
grazing point sources
Jacky Jacky 61 - - 6 - - - 0 - - 0 67
Olive Pascoe 78 - - 20 - - - - - - 0 98
Lockhart 48 - - 1 - - - 0 - - 0 49
Stewart 30 - 0 1 - - - - - - 0 31
Normanby 35 1 0 68 - 0 - 0 0 - 1 105
Jeannie 29 0 0 5 0 - - 0 - - 1 35
Endeavour 22 0 1 16 0 0 - 1 0 - 0 40
Daintree 184 0 159 18 1 1 94 15 0 - 6 478
Mossman 45 0 0 2 0 0 98 9 - - 6 160
Baron 28 0 12 14 1 6 49 19 0 1 23 152
Mulgrave-Russell 388 0 2 20 10 1 393 52 9 15 44 934
Johnstone 328 5 3 85 8 3 415 51 112 31 46 1,059
Tully 285 0 8 21 4 0 314 22 115 1 7 777
Murray 113 - 21 13 3 0 244 6 10 - 4 414
Herbert 264 2 42 203 1 6 966 20 - 3 15 1,522
Black 34 0 5 22 5 - 21 3 - - 1 97
Ross 14 0 1 27 3 0 - 8 - - 127 180
Haughton 26 0 1 61 10 4 902 12 - - 0 1,016
Burdekin 143 14 13 744 0 2 185 1 - - 2 1,104
Don 7 0 0 79 19 4 68 1 - - 0 178
Proserpine 31 - 13 98 1 1 153 11 0 0 2 310

AWRAC basin Nature Dryland Forestry Open and Horticulture Irrigated Sugarcane Urban Bananas Dairy Other Total
conservation cropping closed cropping including
grazing point sources
O’Connell 21 - 8 94 0 0 192 8 0 0 3 325

Pioneer 11 - 13 26 0 - 188 12 0 0 6 256
Plane 5 0 7 66 0 - 353 7 0 0 26 464
Styx 5 0 4 80 0 - 0 0 - - 2 91
Shoalwater 55 - 0 43 - - 0 0 - - 2 100
Water Park 42 0 11 7 0 - 0 3 - - 2 65
Fitzroy 38 38 48 597 2 - 0 7 - - 69 799
Calliope 2 0 3 39 0 - 0 1 - - 2 47
Boyne 5 - 2 28 0 - 0 1 - - 1 37
Baffle 5 0 2 37 1 0 8 3 - - 0 58
Kolan 1 0 1 15 1 0 57 2 - - 1 78
Burnett 2 8 4 67 2 4 138 5 - - 16 246
Burrum 3 0 4 10 2 0 168 5 - - 7 199
Mary 16 0 27 117 8 3 208 52 - - 28 459


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© State of Queensland, 2017

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................ iii

Executive summary ......................................................................................................................................... 1

4. Research gaps and areas of further research ........................................................................................... 76

5. Reference list ........................................................................................................................................... 78

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef i

Acronyms, units and definitions

d-eq. kg = diuron-equivalent in kilograms

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef ii

Thank you to Jane Mellors (TropWATER JCU) for final editing.

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef iii

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 1

Pesticides and other pollutants

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 2

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 3

Table 1: A synthesis of the broad findings presented in this chapter

Questions Sediments Nutrients Pesticides Other contaminants

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 4

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 5

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 6

The questions this chapter addresses

This chapter does not:

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 7

Figure 1: Location of monitoring sites presented in this Chapter.

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 8

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 9

Definitions and clarifications

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 10

Definition of sub-surface material

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 11

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 12

Term Units Description Comments Application

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 13

2. Sources of pollutants—an update of research from 2013 to 2016

Where are the sediments coming from?

There is a reasonable degree of consistency between modelling and monitoring in terms of

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 14

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 15

^ No discharge occurred in the Burnett River between 2006 and 2009.

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 16

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 17

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 18

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 19

REGIONAL TOTAL 53,031 1,460 1,190

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 20

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 21

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 22

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 23

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 24

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 25

What processes are responsible for the excess sediment?

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 26

Region Catchment Mean surface Technique/Tracer Reference

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 27

Region Catchment Mean surface Technique/Tracer Reference

Region Hillslope Gully Stream bank Gully + streambank

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 28

Sources of pollutants to the Great Barrier Reef 29