May Be Defined As Undulations or Bends or

 Folds - may be defined as undulations or bends or
curvatures developed in the rocks of the crust as a result

of stresses to which these rocks have been subjected
from time to time in the past history of the Earth.
 Parts of Fold
- Limbs
- Hinge
- Axial plane
- Axis of a fold
- Plunge of a fold
- Crest and Trough
Hinge
 In a folded layer, a point can be found where curvature is maximum and one limb ends
and the other limb starts from that point. This is the hinge point.
 When rocks occur in a sequence and their all hinge points are joined together, they make
a line, called the hinge line. Axial surface.
 When the hinge line is traced throughout the depth of a folded sequence a surface is
obtained which may be planar or non-planar. It is referred to as axial surface
Axial plane
 Axial plane is the imaginary plane that passes through all the points of maximum curvature
inclined or horizontal in nature.
 A fold surface is planar in nature; otherwise it in a folded sequence. Ø It may be vertical, is
sometimes called a planar fold if the axial is a non-planar fold.
Axis of a fold
 It is simply defined as a line drawn parallel to the hinge line of a fold.
 A more precise definition of an axis of a fold would be the line representing the intersection of
the axial plane of a fold with any bed of the fold.
Plunge of a fold
 The angle of inclination of the fold axis with the horizontal as measured in a vertical plane is
termed the plunge of the fold.
Crest and Trough.
 Most folds are variations of two general forms; up arched and down arched bends. The line
running through the highest points in an up arched fold defines its crest.
 A corresponding line running through the lowest point in a down arched fold makes its trough.
The crest and trough may or may not coincide with the axis of the fold.
 Types of Folds
1. Anticline - is a fold that is convex up and has its oldest

beds at its core. The term is not to be confused with
antiform, which is a purely descriptive term for any fold
that is convex up. Therefore, if age relationships between
various strata are unknown, the term antiform should be
used.
2. Synclines - A syncline is a fold with younger layers

closer to the center of the structure. Synclines are
typically a downward fold, termed a synformal syncline
(i.e. a trough); but synclines that point upwards, or
perched, can be found when strata have been overturned
and folded (an antiformal syncline).
3. Symmetrical Fold - when the axial plane is vertical and

bisects the fold is said to be asymmetrical or upright fold.
They may be Anticlinal and synclinal in nature.
4. Asymmetrical Fold - If the axial plane has dip, the fold is

described as ‘inclined or asymmetric’ fold. In this case
both the limbs dip at different angles and the axial plane
cannot divide the fold into two symmetrical halves.
5. Over turned Fold – Here the axial plane is inclined and

both the limbs dip in the same direction usually at
different angles. In this one limb occurs in the normal
position while the other appears to have been rotated or
may be completely overturned from its original position.
6. Isoclinal folds - are similar to symmetrical folds, but
these folds both have the same angle and are parallel to
each other. 'Iso' means 'the same' (symmetrical), and
'cline' means 'angle,' so this name literally means 'same
angle.' So isoclinal folds are both symmetrical and aligned
in a parallel fashion.
7. Recumbent fold - has an essentially horizontal axial

plane. linear, fold axial plane oriented at low angle
resulting in overturned strata in one limb of the fold.
8. Conjugate fold - A set of paired, asymmetric folds

whose axial planes dip towards one another. Limbs are
commonly straight, and hinge zones short and angular.
Conjugate folds are thought to be formed during the final
stages of deformation.
9. Domes and Basins - Domes are like anticlines but

instead of an arch, the fold is in a dome shape, like an
inverted bowl. Similarly, there are also basins, which are
like synclines but again, instead of a sinking arch, the fold
is in a shape of a bowl sinking down into the ground.
Dome: nonlinear, strata dip away from center in all
directions, oldest strata in center. Basin: nonlinear, strata
dip toward center in all directions, youngest strata in
center.
 Causes of Folding
 Folding Due to Tangential Compression
Folding Due to Tangential Compression Lateral Compression is believed to be the main cause
for throwing the rocks of the crust into different types of folds depending upon the types of
rocks involved in the process and also the direction and magnitude of the compression effecting
those rocks.
In general, this primary force is believed to act at right angles to the trend of folds. under the
influence of the tangential stresses, folding may develop in either of the three ways: flexural
folding, flowage folding and shear folding.
 Flexural Folding.
It is that process of folding in which the competent or stronger rocks are thrown into folds due to their sliding
against each other under the influence of lateral compression.
This is also distinguished as flexural-slip-folding in which the slip or movement of the strata involved takes place
parallel to the bedding planes of the layer.
It has been established that in flexural folding, the amount of slip (and hence the ultimate type of fold) depends
on a number of factors such as:
 thickness of the layers and nature of the contact; thicker the layers, greater is the slip; further, cohesion
less contacts favour easy and greater slips;
 distance from the hinge point; greater the distance from the hinge points, larger is the displacement, so
much so that it may be negligible at the hinge point;
 type of the rocks involved; siltstones, sandstones and limestones are more prone to flexure slip folding
compared to soft clays and shales.
 Flowage Folding
 It is the principal process of folding in incompetent or weaker, plastic type of rocks such as
clays, shales, gypsum and rock salt etc.
 During the compression, the material of the involved layers behaves almost as a viscous or
plastic mass and gets buckled up and deformed at varying rates suffering unequal distortion.
 In such cases the thickness of the resulting fold does not remain uniform.
 Shear Folding.
 In many cases, folding is attributed to shearing stresses rather than simple compression.
 It is assumed that in such a process, numerous closely spaced fractures develop in the rock at the
first stage of the process.
 This is followed by displacement of the blocks so developed by different amounts so that ultimately
the rocks take up folded or bent configuration.
 The folded outline becomes more conspicuous when the minor fractures get sealed up due to
subsequent recrystallization.
 Folding Due to Intrusions

 Intrusion of magma or even rock salt bodies from beneath has been found to be the cause of up
arching of the overlying strata.
 In magmatic intrusions, highly viscous magma may be forced up very gradually and with
considerable force so that the overlying sedimentary host rocks are bodily lifted up to provide space
for the rising magma.
 In extreme cases, the magma may even rupture the overlying strata to flow out as lava
 Folding Due to Differential Compression

 Strata that are being compacted under load in a basin of sedimentation develop, with passage of time,
downward bending especially in the zones of maximum loading.
 If the strata in question is not homogeneous, the bending may not be uniform in character and results in
warping or folding of different types.
 Such folds are, however, totally dependent on the load from above and are attributed to superficial
causes.
 These are, therefore, non- tectonic folds.
 Effects of Folding on Civil Engineering Projects
• Change in altitude: folding of any type would cause the change in attitude (dip and strike) of
the same strata in the aerial extent and also in depth. Hence same layers may be repeated in
alignment. If it happens so and encountered layers are of undesirable nature, the project cost and
time will be affected.
• Strained nature: all the stresses that act on the rocks during the folding are generally
absorbed by the rocks undergoing strain and hence stores some strain energy. So these rocks
may respond to any disturbance caused by nature or by engineering. General example is rock
bursts (falling of huge blocks of rocks due to release of strain energy) during excavation of a
tunnel through folded region.
• Shattering of rocks: folding is a result of stress. These stresses are maximum in the axial
zones which are enough to break the rocks. Hence axial regions are likely to be the areas of
fractured zones which are weak in strength and porous in character. Such areas of folded rocks
cannot be trusted as roofs and floors of tunnels or foundation sites for dam.

May Be Defined As Undulations or Bends or

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May Be Defined As Undulations or Bends or

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 Folds - may be defined as undulations or bends or

curvatures developed in the rocks of the crust as a result

1. Anticline - is a fold that is convex up and has its oldest

2. Synclines - A syncline is a fold with younger layers

3. Symmetrical Fold - when the axial plane is vertical and

4. Asymmetrical Fold - If the axial plane has dip, the fold is

5. Over turned Fold – Here the axial plane is inclined and

7. Recumbent fold - has an essentially horizontal axial

8. Conjugate fold - A set of paired, asymmetric folds

9. Domes and Basins - Domes are like anticlines but

 Folding Due to Intrusions

 Folding Due to Differential Compression

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