Chapter-3

3. Geologic structures and their effect on Eng’g structures

Geologic structures include faults, folds, and joints.
3.1 Types of Rock Deformation
• Stress, defined as force per unit area, is what causes rocks to
deform (change shape )
• When rocks experience stress (compression, tension or shear),
they respond to it by deforming.
• The rocks tend to give a little bit, especially at the beginning of the
deformation. If the pressure is eased during this period of
elasticity, the rocks return to their original volume and shape.
• If however, the stress builds up past the elastic limit of the strata,
deformation becomes permanent.
 Folds and faults are both structures produced by the
deformation of rocks.
 Folds are structures where layering is deformed without
breaking so that the layering surfaces are curved but
continuous .
 Faults represent a different type of response by rocks to the
stresses imposed on them.
 Faults are fracture surfaces along which appreciable
displacement of the layering has taken place.
 Faults, unlike folds, can be thought of as structural
discontinuities.
 Types of stresses

In the above diagram, notice that different types of stress are

distinguished in terms of their effects.
• In other words, stress can’t be observed directly. Instead, we
infer the type of stress from its effects:
• If horizontally directed compressive stress is applied,
shortening occurs in a direction parallel to the direction of
maximum compressional stress.
• If horizontally directed tensile stress is applied, elongation
occurs parallel to the direction of maximum tensile stress.
• If horizontally directed shear stress is applied, smearing
occurs parallel to the direction of maximum shear stress.
 Deformation caused by stress is called strain.
all below are influence how a rock will accommodate strain.
– The type of rock,
– the temperature and
– pressure, and even
– the rate of stress

 In summary, rocks can behave in an elastic, ductile (plastic),

or a brittle fashion when stressed:
 Elastic strain occurs if the material recovers its initial shape
after the stress is reduced or removed.
 Plastic or ductile strain occurs when the rock bends but
doesn’t break.
 Brittle strain occurs when the rock breaks.
Seismic waves are a good example of elastic strain, as shown in
the diagram above.

As a P-wave moves through a rock mass, for example, the rock

mass will compress, but after the P-wave moves through, the rock
mass will uncompress and return to its original shape.

Under increased stress, a rock mass will continue to strain

elastically, but only to a point. Beyond the elastic limit, a rock
mass (or a blob of silly putty) will bend, as shown below:
Finally, if stress is applied rapidly, as shown below, a rock mass
will permanently rupture, creating cracks (brittle strain), as
shown below:
 In general, rocks subjected to tectonic stress at plate boundaries
will exhibit
• brittle behavior at or near Earth’s surface and
• ductile behavior in Earth’s interior where temperatures and
pressures are higher.
 Low rates of stress are more conducive to ductile behavior,
whereas
 higher stress rates, particularly at low temperatures and
pressures, typically result in brittle behavior.
• Rocks will permanently deform in one of two ways,
depending upon
rocks properties and
the confining pressure they experience.

• Strata will break if the rocks behave in a brittle fashion

and/or the confining pressure is low.

• Brittle deformation is particularly common in rocks that

contain hard and non-giving minerals like quartz (e.g.,
quartz arenite sandstone) or calcite (e.g., limestone), that are
shallowly buried (low confining pressure).
• If strata are ductile (like modeling clay), and/or the confining
pressure is high, the deformation is more likely to result in
bending or folding.

• Rocks containing pliable minerals like gypsum (evaporites)

or clays (shales), or rocks that are deeply buried (>10 km
depth) become folded when subjected to stress.
 3.1 Folding and Folds
Definition of folds and folding
• Folds are bends, buckles, curvature or undulations
developed in the horizontal rocks of the earth’s crust.
• Folds are structures in which the attitudes of the beds are
changed by flexure resulting from the application of post-
depositional tectonic forces.
• Folding is the process of making folds.
3.1.1Parts of folds
• Parts of folds are described based on their geometry
• Axial plane- is the imaginary plane, which divides folds as
symmetrically as possible.
It may be vertical, inclined or horizontal.
• Axis of fold- is the line of intersection of the axial plane
with the bed of fold.
It may be horizontal or inclined or vertical.
• Plunge- The angle of inclination of the fold axis with the
horizontal as measured in a vertical plane is termed as pitch
or plunge of the fold.
• Crest- the highest point on the anticline
• Trough- the lowest point on the syncline
• Limbs- are the layers which form the sides of fold after
buckling.
 In the above sketch, the imaginary plane of symmetry that
bisects the fold is called the axial plane.
 The line of symmetry formed by the intersection of the
axial plane with the folded surface is called the fold axis, or
hinge line.
 The sides of the fold, which tilt away from the axis, are
called the fold limbs.
 3.1.2 Causes of folds
Folds can be formed because of one of the following
phenomenon
1. Folding due to tangential compression
2. Folding due to intrusion of magma or salt bodies
3. Folding due to differential compaction.
Figure: Folding due to horizontal compression

Before intrusion
After intrusion
 folding due to natural differential compaction

Heavy light heavy light heavy light heavy light heavy

• An important aspect of anticlines and synclines is how the
relative age of the folded layers change as one moves from
the limbs toward the axis of partially eroded folds exposed at
the Earth’s surface.
• The diagram below shows a partially eroded anticline (up
fold) exposed at Earth’s surface. Imagine walking from each
limb toward the fold axis. How does the relative age of the rock
layers you cross change?
• As shown in the above diagram, the oldest layers are exposed in
the center (axial region) of an eroded anticline.
• In other words, the relative age of the folded layers increases as
one moves from the limbs toward the axis of eroded anticline.
• The strict definition of an anticline is an up fold with the oldest
rocks exposed in the axial region of the fold.
• Likewise, eroded synclines display the opposite age trend: the
rock layers become progressively younger as one moves from
the limbs toward the axial region of a syncline.
 3.1.3 Types of folds
Folds are classified on the basis of:
1. upward or downward bend
2. position of axial plane
 Folds classified and that are recognized by upward or
downward curvature
1. Anticline / Antiform
2. Syncline/ synform
3. Momocline
1. Anticline fold
 In anticline fold the beds bent upward i.e. become convex
upward.
 The older rocks occupy a position in the interior or core of
curvature
 The limbs dip away from each other at the crest
 2. Syncline fold
 Syncline fold - the beds bent downward i.e. become concave
upward.
 The younger rocks occupy a position in the interior or core
of curvature
 The limbs dip into each other at the trough
3. Monocline fold
As the name implies, have only one limb
3.1.4 Classification of folds on the basis of
position of axial plane
 Folds that are recognized on the basis of position of axial
plane are:
a) Symmetrical folds

b) Asymmetrical folds

c) Recumbent folds

d) Over turned folds

e) Isoclinal folds
 (a) Symmetrical fold

 Symmetrical fold: is the fold in which the vertical axial plane

divides it into two equal halves.

Figure: symmetrical fold

 (b) Asymmetrical fold

• Asymmetrical fold : is the fold in which the axial plane

divides the fold into two unequal parts.

Figure: Asymmetric fold

 (c) Recumbent folds
• Recumbent folds: these are folds in which the axial plane
acquires almost horizontal attitude. In such folds limbs
are more or less horizontal

Figure: Recumbent fold

 (d) Over turned folds

• Over turned folds: A fold in which the axial plane is

inclined with the horizontal and the limbs dip out at
unequal angles in the same direction.

Figure: overturned fold

 (e) Isoclinal fold
• Isoclinal fold: a fold, in which the axial plane is inclined
with the horizontal and the limbs dip essentially at equal
angles in the same direction.

Figure: Isoclinal fold

Figure: Combination of fold types in a single folded strata
 3.1.5 Effects of folding

 reduces rocks bearing capacity

 makes the rocks permeable
 result in the release of pressure
 Folding induces change in the attitude
Figure 3: Schematic diagrams of symmetrical, asymmetrical,
overturned and recumbent
anticlines and synclines.
 3.2 Faults
Faults are brittle fractures along which movement has taken
place.
 For dip-slip faults, movement is parallel to the dip of the fault
plane and typically shows a strong component of vertical
motion.
 In strike-slip faults, movement is primarily horizontal.
3.2.1 Parts of a fault
 Fault plane: a fracture plane along which displacement takes
place
 Hanging wall: the block above the fault plane
 Foot wall: the block below the fault plane
 Dip angle: angle between the fault plane and the horizontal
 Hade: angle between the fault plane and the vertical
 Throw: the vertical displacement component of the fault
 Heave: the lateral displacement component of the fault
 Up thrown side: the block which relatively moves upward along
the fault plane
 Downthrown side: the block which relatively moves downward
along the fault plane
 Slip: the displacement that occurs during faulting on the fault
plane.
 Strike: the line of intersection of the fault plane with the
horizontal ground surface. Strike is perpendicular to dip direction
 3.2.2 Cause of faulting
• Faults develop mainly due to shear or sliding failures resulting
from:
 tensional,
 compressional or
 rotational forces (tectonic)
 3.2.3 Types of Faults

• Faults are classified based on:

1) Type of net slip involved
2) Relative movement of footwall and hanging wall
on inclined fault plane
3) The amount of dip angle
4) The fault pattern
 Types of faulting
Based on Relative movement of footwall and hanging wall on
inclined fault plane
1, normal faulting:
hanging wall goes downward;
2, reverse faulting:
hanging wall goes upward;
3, strike slip faulting:
The 2 walls go horizontally in the opposite directions
against each other;
left-lateral strike slip;
right-lateral strike slip.
 3.2.4 Effects of faults
 considerable fracturing and shattering of rock along fault zones
Reduces bearing capacity of rocks at foundation
 shear zones and fault zones serves as easy pathways for water
leakage
 bring totally different rocks together
 heterogeneity or non-uniformity of physical character
 Slippage along the fault plane
Land slide
 3.3 Jointing and Joints
3.3.1 Definition of jointing and joints
• Joints are divisional planes or cracks along which the fractured
rock masses appear to have suffered no relative displacement.
Jointing is a process of making joints
Figure: Vertical joints
 3.3.2 Types of joints
Joints are mainly classified on the basis of their
 orientation of joints
 origin
 relative attitude
Classification of joints based on orientation
• Systematic joints: joints which have parallel orientation and
regular spacing. They are also straight.
• Nonsystematic joints: joints that do not share a common
orientation and those highly curved and irregular fracture
surfaces. They occur in most area but are not easily related to a
recognizable stress.
Figure: Systematic and non systematic joints
3.3.3 Classification of joints based on their
mode of origin
• Most of the joints are formed due to either tensional forces or
shearing forces. Accordingly, they are described as :
 Tension joints
 Shear joints
• Tension joints develop perpendicular to the direction of
tensional forces, which pull apart the rock masses. Both
columnar joints in basalt and mud cracks are examples of
tension joints.
• Shear joints develop in those contexts where shearing forces
prevail. Faults and limbs of folds are the places where shearing
forces occur and create shear joints.
Figure: Example of Columnar joints in basalts tensional joint
 3.3.4 Effects of joints
 Creates shattering and cracking
reduces the bearing capacity of the rocks beneath
foundation of huge civil structures.
 Joints can percolate water down to the ground.
Serious leakage beneath reservoirs and dams
 cause sever landslides along hill slopes.
when joint plane is parallel to the slope