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Mechanical properties of nanoparticles: basics and applications
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2014 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 47 013001
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 47 (2014) 013001 (25pp) doi:10.1088/0022-3727/47/1/013001
Topical Review
Mechanical properties of nanoparticles:

basics and applications
Dan Guo, Guoxin Xie and Jianbin Luo
State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University,
Beijing 100084, Peoples Republic of China
E-mail: [email protected]
Received 28 August 2013, revised 14 October 2013

Accepted for publication 24 October 2013
Published 3 December 2013
Abstract
The special mechanical properties of nanoparticles allow for novel applications in many fields,
e.g., surface engineering, tribology and nanomanufacturing/nanofabrication. In this review, the
basic physics of the relevant interfacial forces to nanoparticles and the main measuring
techniques are briefly introduced first. Then, the theories and important results of the
mechanical properties between nanoparticles or the nanoparticles acting on a surface, e.g.,
hardness, elastic modulus, adhesion and friction, as well as movement laws are surveyed.
Afterwards, several of the main applications of nanoparticles as a result of their special
mechanical properties, including lubricant additives, nanoparticles in nanomanufacturing and
nanoparticle reinforced composite coating, are introduced. A brief summary and the future
outlook are also given in the final part.
(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)
1. Introduction nanoparticles could become superparamagnetic and respond

to external magnetic fields very fast with almost zero
Nanoparticles, microscopic objects with at least one remanence [8]; these properties lay bases for applications such
dimension less than 100 nm [1], have attracted intensive as biomedical imaging and information storage technology
scientific attention. Distinctive size-dependent properties [9, 10]. Some of the basic functions of nanoparticles, e.g.,
of nanoparticles often exist, which are mainly due to their a catalysis of electrochemical reactions and the enhancement
relatively large surface area [2]. Moreover, when the size of of electron transfer, make them very useful in designing novel
a particle approaches nanoscale with the characteristic length electrochemical sensing systems [11].
scale close to or smaller than the de Broglie wavelength of As such, research topics on the mechanical properties of
the charge carrier (electrons and holes) or the wavelength nanoparticles have become increasingly hot in recent years; the
of light, the periodic boundary conditions of the crystalline number of relevant publications has increased dramatically, as
particle are destroyed, or the atomic density on the amorphous shown in figure 1. Nanoparticles show different mechanical
particle surface is changed [3]. Due to these, a lot of the properties relative to microparticles and bulk materials,
physical properties of nanoparticles are quite different from providing more effective options for the surface modification
bulk materials, yielding a wide variety of new applications. of many devices in the mechanical strength, or to improve
For example, nanoparticles encapsulated or adsorbed in matrix the quality of nanomanufacturing/nanofabrication, etc. To
materials have been used as carriers for delivering drug be more specific, on the one hand, the mechanical effects of
molecules [1, 4, 5]. Stability, self-assembly behaviour and nanoparticles can affect the tribological properties of lubricants
mutual interactions of nanoparticles at fluid interfaces are with nanoparticles [12] as well as reinforce composite coatings
very relevant to many colloid applications [6]. Special [13]. In a lubricated contact, the comparison in the hardness
optical properties due to the excitation of surface plasmons between nanoparticles and the contacting surface determines
in metallic nanoparticles can be used in biomedicine, energy whether particles are deformed or indented into the surface
and environment protection technologies [7]. Magnetic when the contact pressure is sufficiently large [14]. This
0022-3727/14/013001+25$33.00 1 2014 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 47 (2014) 013001 Topical Review
300 nanoparticles. Section 3 summarizes the important results

on some of the mechanical properties of nanoparticles, such
250 as hardness, elastic modulus, adhesion and friction, as well
as movement. Section 4 introduces the main applications
Number of publication
200 of nanoparticles that result from their special mechanical

properties; these applications include a lubricant with
nanoparticles as additives, nanoparticles in nanomanufacturing
150
and nanoparticle reinforced composite coating. The general
framework of this review is schematically given in figure 2.
100
50 2. Interaction forces and basic theories relevant to

the mechanical properties of nanoparticles
0 As we go down in size, there are a number of interesting
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
problems that arise.Feynman [25]. The first problem
Year
is the diverse interaction forces between the nanoparticles
Figure 1. The number of publications related with the topic on the themselves, or between them and the surface.
mechanical properties of nanoparticles in the past decade.
2.1. Van der Waals (vdW) forces
information could reveal how the particles behave in the
contact. On the other hand, nanoparticles are usually used VdW forces are the weak interaction between all molecules
as abrasives in the nanopolish of ultra-smooth surfaces by and particles, which play important roles in the particles
chemical mechanical polishing (CMP), which is the most mechanical properties. This kind of force includes three parts:
effective planarization tool in the manufacture of an integrated one is the orientation force (the Keesom force) [26], resulting
circuit (IC), till now. Good controls over the mechanical from the interaction between the permanent dipole moment
properties of particles and their interactions with the polished of polar molecules. The second is the induction force (the
surface etc are important for improving the surface quality and Debye force) [27], which comes from the interaction between
enhancing material removal [15, 16]. Successful applications the permanent dipole moment of the polar molecule and the
in these fields usually need a deep understanding of the induced dipole moment. The third is the dispersion force (the
basics of the nanoparticles mechanical properties, such as London force) [28], which exists in a wide variety of polar and
hardness and elastic modulus, interfacial adhesion and friction, nonpolar molecules, coming from the induced instantaneous
movement law, as well as their size-dependent effects. In order dipole polarization. VdW energies are usually from several
to acquire more of this information, different testing methods to dozens of thousands of Joules per mole, one or two orders
have been developed, e.g., nanoindentation with atomic force of magnitude smaller than the chemical bond energy. The
microscopy (AFM) [17, 18], in situ compression by a force vdW forces are long-range forces and can be effective in a
probing holder based on the observation with transmission large range of distances, varying from long distances greater
electron microscopy (TEM) [19, 20]. However, the obtained than 10 nm down to atomic scale distance (about 0.2 nm) [29].
results are still inadequate and some are controversial. For The methods for calculating the vdW interaction forces or
instance, there is still no definite conclusion as to whether energies between small molecules or large macroscopic bodies
the elastic modulus of nanoparticles measured with AFM is have been well established [29]. Several of the common vdW
affected by the particle size and the indentation depth [2124]. forces and energies are given in table 1. The vdW forces of
Furthermore, the contact mechanics, especially the frictional objects with any shape can be transformed with the Derjaguin
and mechanical behaviours related to nanoparticles, have not approximation to those between two planes per unit area
been fully understood. The applicability of classic theories, [30]. Based on the quantum electrodynamics theory, Lifshitz
e.g., the Hertzian theory, for describing the contact behaviours deduced the expression for calculating Hamaker constants,
in the case of particle sizes down to the nanoscale, is still in which can be used to solve problems with media involved [32].
discussion [23, 24]. Typically, the Hamaker constants for interactions in a medium
This work aims at giving a review of the important recent are an order of magnitude lower than those in a vacuum [33].
advances in the mechanical properties of nanoparticles, from The vdW force is always attractive between identical materials,
the basics to their application. The review is organized into but it may be repulsive between dissimilar materials in a third
four sections: section 1 discusses the mechanical models and medium (usually liquid) [29].
theories between nanoparticles or the nanoparticles acting on
a surface. In this part, the basic concepts of the relevant 2.2. Electrostatic force and electrical double layer (EDL) force
interfacial forces and theories of nanoparticles, e.g., the van der
Waals force, electrostatic force, capillary force, DLVO theory, For particles suspended in water or any liquid with a high
contact and adhesion theories etc are also introduced. Section 2 dielectric constant, they are usually charged and can be
briefly describes some of the typical measurement techniques prevented from coalescing due to the repulsive electrostatic
currently used for studying the mechanical properties of force. The charging of a surface in a liquid has three main
2
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the framework of this review.
Table 1. Several of the common vdW energies and forces. a charged surface follows the Boltzmann distribution. The
Types vdW energies vdW forces GouyChapman theory provides a better approximation of the
real system than the Helmholtz theory, but it still has limited
CvdW CvdW quantitative applications. It assumes that ions behave as point
Molecular-plane W = F =
6D 3 2D 4 charges and that there is no physical limit for the ions in their
A R1 R2 A R1 R 2
Spheresphere W = F = 2 approach to the surface. Then, the GouyChapman diffuse
6D R1 + R2 6D R1 + R2
AR AR
double layer was modified by Stern [37] so that ions have
Sphereplane W = F = 2 a finite size and cannot approach the surface closer than a
6D 6D
A A few nanometres: the first layer of ions in the GouyChapman
Planeplane W = F =
12D 2 6D 3 diffuse double layer are not at the surface, but at some
Note: Cvdw is a coefficient related to the atomic pair potential, R is distance away from the surface. As a result, the potential and
the sphere radius, R1 and R2 are the radii of two spheres, concentration of the diffuse part of the layer is low enough to
respectively,D is the distance between two surfaces, justify treating the ions as point charges. Stern also assumed
A = 2 CvdW 1 2 is the Hamaker constant [31] and is the atomic that some ions are probably adsorbed by the surface in a plane;
density. this layer is known as the Stern layer [37]. Within this
sources [29]: (1) the ionization or dissociation of surface layer, thermal diffusion is not strong enough to overcome the
groups; (2) the adsorption or binding of ions from the solution electrostatic forces. In the diffusive outer layer, the ions are
onto a previously uncharged surface; (3) when two dissimilar far enough from the solid surface and are subjected to weak
surfaces are very close, charges can hop across from one electrostatic forces from the surface only, hence they remain
surface to the other. The surface charges are balanced by mobile.
an oppositely charged ion layer in the solution at some A double layer is formed to neutralize the charged surface,
distance away from the surface, forming the EDL. The idea which in turn causes an electrokinetic potential between the
of the EDL was first formally proposed by Helmholtz, who surface and any point in the mass of the suspending liquid.
derived the charge distribution in the solution based on the This voltage difference is of the order of millivolts and is
simple molecular capacitor model [34]. In reality, the thermal referred to as the surface potential. The magnitude of the
motion of ions in the solution introduces a certain degree surface potential is influenced by the surface charge and the
of chaos causing the ions to be spread out in the region of thickness of the double layer. Starting from the surface, the
the charged surface, forming a diffuse double layer. In potential drops off roughly linearly in the Stern layer and then
that case, the analysis of the electronic environment near the exponentially through the diffuse layer, approaching zero at the
surface is more complex and requires more detailed analyses imaginary boundary of the double layer. The potential curve
[33]. Gouy [35], Chapman [36] and Stern [37] put forward is useful because it can suggest the electrical force strength
more accurate models for analysing the surface and electrolyte between particles and the critical distance within which this
interfaces, making great contributions to the development of force comes into play. A charged particles mobility is related
EDL theories. Gouy [35] and Chapman [36] independently to the dielectric constant and the viscosity of the suspending
developed theories of a so called diffuse double layer, in liquid, as well as the zeta potential, which is a potential at
which the change in the concentration of the counter ions near the boundary between the moving particle and the liquid. The
3
curvature of the condensed liquid. The normal capillary force

is owing to two actions: one is the pressure difference across
the curved interface and the other is the action of the surface
tension force exerted around the annulus of the meniscus. Butt
and Kappl [44] gave the usual derivations and expressions for
capillary forces between different geometries.
The origin of the lateral capillary forces is the overlap of
the perturbations in the shape of a liquid surface due to the
presence of attached particles [46]. The larger the interfacial
deformation created by the particles, the stronger the capillary
interaction between them. The theories and expressions of
lateral capillary forces for particles bound to interfaces, liquid
films and biomembranes were included in a good review
by Kralchevsky and Nagayama [46]. The lateral capillary
forces are effective in controlling small colloidal particles and
protein macromolecules confined in liquid films to form fine
microstructures.
2.4. Other forcessolvation, structural and hydration forces
Apart from vdW forces and EDL forces, some other forces,
Figure 3. Schematic model of EDL.
i.e. solvation, structural or hydration forces, come into play
when two surfaces or particles approach very close (separation
boundary is called the slip plane and usually defined as the point less than a few nanometres) in the liquid. These forces
where the Stern layer and the diffuse layer meet [38, 39]. The can be monotonically repulsive, monotonically attractive or
common EDL model is shown in figure 3. The EDL interaction oscillatory and they can be much stronger than either the
energy and the force between the bodies of different geometries vdW forces or EDL forces at small separations. Solvation,
can be referred to [40]. structural or hydration forces (in water) arise between two
particles or surfaces if the solvent or water molecules
2.3. Capillary force become ordered by the surfaces [56]. When the ordering
occurs, an exponentially decaying oscillatory force with a
Capillary force is mainly due to the formation of liquid menisci periodicity equal to the size of the confined liquid molecules,
(also termed the meniscus force), the significance of which was micelles or nanoparticles appears [5658]. Solvation forces
realized by Haines [41] and Fisher [42]. Capillary force can depend not only on the properties of the liquid medium
be classified into two types: normal capillary force and lateral but also on the surface physicochemical properties, such
capillary force [43]. A comprehensive review of the normal as hydrophilicity, roughness, crystalline state, homogeneity,
capillary force was given by Butt and Kappl [44]. Denkov rigidity and surface micro-texture. These factors affect the
et al [45] and Kralchevsky and Nagayama [46] contributed a lot structure of the confined liquids between two surfaces, which
to the study of the structure of colloid nanoparticles due to the in turn affects the solvation force [29]. The hydration force is
lateral capillary force. Capillary forces should be considered a strong short-range repulsive force between the polar surfaces
in the studies on powders, soils and granular materials [4750], separated by a thin polar liquid layer (thickness <3 nm); the
the adhesion between particles or particles to surfaces [51, 52] force magnitude decays exponentially with the liquid layer
and the stiction in micro/nano-electromechanical systems [53]. thickness [5862]. The physical mechanisms underlying
It is also relevant to nanoparticle assembling or living cells self- the hydration force are still in discussion. A well known
assemble technologies [54, 55]. interpretation of hydration force is that the solvent molecules
The normal capillary force arises from the Laplace are bound strongly and are restructured by polar surfaces.
pressure within the curved meniscus formed by liquid An ordered-solvent layer was formed at the surface-solution
condensation or vapour bridges around two adhering solid interface, which exponentially decays away from the surface;
surfaces [43, 44]. It can be attractive or repulsive depending the overlap of the ordered-solvent layers near the two mutually
on whether the capillary bridge is concave or convex. Two approaching surfaces creates a force [5961]. The hydration
equations are important to understand the capillary forces, force could determine the behaviours of many diverse systems,
i.e. the YoungLaplace equation and the Kelvin equation. e.g., the colloidal dispersion stability, the swelling of clays and
The YoungLaplace equation relates the curvature of a liquid the interactions of biological membranes.
interface to the pressure difference, while the Kelvin equation
describes capillary condensation, which is the physical basis
2.5. DLVO theory
for many adhesion phenomena [46]. Capillary condensation is
the condensation of vapour into capillaries or fine pores even The DLVO (DerjaguinLandauVerweyOverbeek) theory
for vapour pressures below the saturation vapour pressure. The was introduced by Derjaguin and Landau [63] in 1941 and
Kelvin equation relates the actual vapour pressure to the surface Verwey and Overbeek [64] in 1948 for describing the stability
4
Table 2. Relations between the contact radius a, the contact radius

a0 due to adhesion force without an external load, the deformation
and the adhesion force for two spheres contacting each other
according to the Hertz, JKR and DMT theories.
Hertz JKR DMT
1/3 1/3
R P R R
a [P + 3R
(P + 2R )
E E E
+ (6R P
1/3
2 1/2
+ (3R ) ) ]

a2 a2 a2 8a 1/2

R R R 3E
1/3 1/3
6R 2 2R 2
a0 0
E E
3R
Figure 4. Schematic plots of the DLVO interaction potential energy Pad 0 2R
E (the Hamaker constant A is 1.5 1020 J). 2
Note: R is the reduced radius defined as 1/R = (1/R1 ) + (1/R2 ),
of colloidal dispersions. The theory combines the effects is the adhesion work per unit area. P is the external force and E
is the reduced Youngs modulus defined as
of the vdW attraction and the electrostatic repulsion. It can
(1/E ) = 43 [((1 v12 )/E1 ) + ((1 v22 )/E2 )], E1 , E2 , and 1 , 2 are
explain many phenomena quantitatively in colloidal science, Youngs moduli and Poissons ratios of the two spheres, respectively.
e.g., the adsorption and the aggregation of nanoparticles in
aqueous systems, and describe the force between charged
surfaces interacting through a liquid medium [6569]. Figure 4 1882 [73], surface forces were not included. In these models,
shows the schematic plot of the DLVO interaction potential the displacement and the contact area are equal to zero when
energyE of model nanoparticles (diameter: 100 nm and no external force is applied. However, as the size of the object
surface potential: 2040 mV) which are dispersed in aqueous is decreased to the nanoscale, the surface forces play a major
salt solutions. role in their adhesion, contact and deformation behaviours.
It can be seen that a strong long-range repulsion with a high Modern theories of the adhesion mechanics of two contacting
energy barrier is present for highly charged surfaces in dilute solid surfaces are based on the JohnsonKendallRoberts
electrolyte (i.e. long Debye length). When the surface charges (JKR) theory [74] or the DerjaguinMullerToporov (DMT)
are reduced or the concentration of the electrolyte solutions are theory [75]. The JKR theory is applicable to easily deformable,
increased, a small secondary minimum in the potential energy large bodies with high surface energies. Strong, short-range
curve appears. Colloid particles may undergo a reversible
adhesion forces dominate the surface interaction; the effect of
flocculation due to the secondary minimum because of its weak
adhesion is included within the contact zone. In contrast, the
energy barrier [33], resulting in slow particle aggregation for
DMT theory better describes very small and hard bodies with
the surface with a low charge density. Below a certain surface
low surface energies [76]. In this case, the adhesion is caused
charge or above a certain electrolyte concentration (known
by the presence of weak, long-range attractive forces outside
as the critical coagulation concentration), the energy barrier
the contact zone. Tabor [76] introduced a nondimensional
falls below the zero axis and particles then coagulate rapidly.
physical parameter, often referred to as Tabors parameter,
Consequently, the colloid system becomes unstable.
to quantify the limits of JKR, DMT and the cases between
Although the DLVO theory is the basis for understanding
them. The intermediate regime between the JKR and the
colloid stability and has a considerable amount of experimental
DMT theories has also been described by Maugis [77] using
support, it is inadequate for the colloid properties in the
the Dugdale model [78]; a transition parameter roughly
aggregated state. This is because short-range interactions are
dominant in this state and the specific properties of ions should equivalent to Tabors parameter was defined [77]. A summary
be taken into account rather than regarded as point particles. of the different conventions used for defining the transition
Most deviations of experimentally measured forces from those parameter was given by Greenwood [79]. Carpick et al [80]
expected from the DLVO theory are due to the existence provided a simple analytic equation to determine the value
of a Stern-layer or non-DLVO forces, e.g., ion-correlation, of the transition parameter; it could closely approximate
solvation, hydrophobic and steric forces [7072]. Maugis solution. The expansion of the JKR theory by Maugis
and Pollock [81] leads to the additional description of plastic
deformation. Table 2 summarizes the relations between the
2.6. Contact, adhesion and deformation theories of
contact radius, deformation and the adhesion force for two
nanoparticles
spheres contacting each other according to the three mostly
In traditional contact theories for two objects in contact with used theories.
each other under external forces, for instance, the simplest Although the Hertz, JKR and DMT theories have been
case of two interacting elastic spheres deduced by Hertz in widely used to study the mechanical properties of nanoparticles
5
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the basic working principle of AFM.
[21, 22, 82, 83], whether or not the continuum mechanics can the basic working principle of AFM is shown in figure 5,
be used to describe a particle at the nanometre scale is still in including a cantilever with a sharp tip on its end, piezotube
discussion. The molecular dynamics (MD) simulation method scanner, scanning and feedback systems, a four quadrant
provides an opportunity to understand the atomistic processes photoelectric detector and the computer. Briefly, the sharp
in the contact region. Luan and Robbins [84] researched the tip scans over the sample and the deflection of the cantilever
contact between two nanocylinders by MD simulations and is quantified through a laser beam reflected off the backside
found that the atomic-scale surface roughness produced by of the cantilever and received by the photoelectric detector.
discrete atoms led to dramatic deviations from the continuum If a constant force is kept between the tip and sample during
theory. Contact areas and stresses may be changed by a factor scanning, the topographic image of the sample surface can
of two, whereas friction and lateral contact stiffness by an be obtained by plotting the height of a sample stage on
order of magnitude. Also Miesbauer et al [85] analysed the the piezoscanner, which is controlled by a feedback system.
contact between two NaCl nanocrystals with MD simulations. Alternatively, the interaction force between the tip and sample
It was found that the Hertzian theory was a suitable description can be obtained with the cantilevers vertical deflection using
of the studied system when the system size was larger than the force-versus-distance curves, briefly called force curves,
50 ; the discrepancy became more obvious as the particle together with Hookes law [95, 96]. These curves can provide
was even smaller. Cheng and Robbin [86] investigated the valuable information on some of the important properties
nanoscale contact with MD simulations to test the adaptability of nanoparticles, such as hardness, elastic modulus and the
of continuum contact mechanics at the nanoscale; the results adhesion between nanoparticle and substrate. The lateral force
suggested that the continuum contact models could be applied is closely related to the torsional deflection of the cantilever;
to the case where the forces averaged over the areas containing an accurate value can be obtained after careful calibration of
many atoms. Nonetheless, the continuum theory, because of the cantilevers torsional coefficient [97]. More details about
its concise expression, is still widely applied in the mechanical the basics of AFM can be seen in [93, 96].
analysis at the nanoscale, such as designing micro/nano-
devices [87], creating nanostructured materials with optimized 3.2. Particle tracking velocimetry (PTV)
mechanical properties [88] and understanding the molecular
PTV is an image-based velocimetry method of measuring
origins of friction and adhesion [8991]. the velocity field and tracking individual particles in fluidic
systems [98, 99]. Fluorescent particles are usually used
3. Main techniques for studying nanoparticles as tracers within a defined area where those particles are
illuminated; then pictures of these particles are taken. The
The research methods frequently used in studying the motion trajectories of the particles can be reconstructed by
mechanical properties of nanoparticles will be briefly locating them in those pictures and the velocities of the
introduced as follows: particles can be calculated correspondingly. Based on these,
deep insight into some of the complex and low-velocity
3.1. AFM techniques flows in a region can be acquired. It is a technique that
is slightly different from particle image velocimetry (PIV)
AFM is a powerful technique that can be used to obtain both where the particles displacements within a segment of an
high-resolution images on many kinds of solid surfaces and image are averaged [100]. Currently, there are mainly two
the vertical force as well as lateral force between a sharp different PTV methods, i.e. two-dimensional particle tracking
tip and the surface [9294]. The schematic diagram of velocimetry (2D-PTV) [101] and three-dimensional particle
6
tracking velocimetry (3D-PTV) [102]. The defined area is a

thin light sheet for 2D-PTV while it is an illuminated volume
for 3D-PTV, which is usually based on a multiple-camera-
system.
3.3. In situ TEM
TEM could provide images with a significantly higher

resolution than a light microscope by using electrons as light
source which have a much lower wavelength [103, 104]. The
basic principle is that a beam of electrons passes through a very
thin sample and, after interacting with the atoms in the sample,
some unscattered electrons reach a fluorescent screen to form
Figure 6. Relative displacements and deformations of the
an image. The image is shown in varied darkness indicating
particle-AFM tip system during the indentation process. Left: the
the material density in different parts of the specimen. The AFM tip just touches the particle without deformation of the
image is magnified and can be studied directly from the screen particle. Right: the particles deformation occurs due to the applied
or recorded with a camera for post-analysis. In situ TEM offers force by the AFM tip.
the capability of real-time observation of the responses of the
microstructural evolution of nanostructures to external active Their methods were aimed at measuring the film of particles
stimuli and their relationship with properties [19, 105]. Active rather than individual particles. The deformation behaviours
stimuli applied to the sample examined in the microscope of polystyrene microspheres (diameter: 20 m) by using AFM
during simultaneous imaging include mechanical [19], thermal against a mica surface was firstly investigated by Biggs and
[106] and electrical [107] ones, etc. Spinks in 1998 [82]. Since then, protocols of calculating
the mechanical characteristics (e.g., the elastic modulus) of
3.4. MD simulation nanoparticles have developed rapidly, primarily by measuring
the particles deformation with AFM. Typically, quantitative
Computational simulations are usually considered as very computation of the elastic modulus of nanoparticles requires
useful complementary tools to experimental studies on the the measurement of indentation h by converting AFM force-
mechanical properties of nanoparticles [108]. Among many displacement curves into force-indentation curves instead of
different kinds of computation methods, MD simulation is measuring the contact area radius [21]. The latter is hard
an important aspect which could model the time evolution to obtain directly. The external load P applied through the
of the physical motions of interacting atoms or molecules cantilever (its spring constant denoted as k) to the tip can be
[109, 110]. It is a computation method that is based described with the Hooke law,
on statistical mechanics; statistical ensemble averages are
normally hypothesized to be equal to the time averages of P = k c (1)
the system. Mostly, in MD simulation, Newtons equations
of motion for the atoms or molecules in a system are where c is the cantilever deformation. The indentation depth
numerically solved to get their positions and velocities and h of the tip into the sample surface is:
finally to describe the thermodynamic behaviours of the
system. The interactions and potential energy between atoms h = z c (2)
or molecules are defined by a molecular mechanics force
where z is the piezo displacement. The relative displacements
field.
and deformations of the particle-AFM tip system in the
indentation process are shown in figure 6. Since there is
4. Basic mechanical properties of nanoparticles often system thermal drift, the deflection offset, c0 should
be considered. In this case, equation (1) can be rewritten as
4.1. Hardness and elastic modulus of nanoparticles
Understanding some basic mechanical properties of nanopar- P = k (c c0 ). (3)

ticles, such as the hardness and the elastic modulus, will aid Also, if the position for the tip initially touching the sample
a lot in the proper design of particles in specific applications, surface is considered, resulting in another height offset z0 ,
as well as evaluating their roles and action mechanisms. To equation (2) becomes
the authors knowledge, the measurement of the mechanical
properties of microparticles has been developed for decades. h = (z z0 ) (c c0 ). (4)
The microindentation technique was used by Steinitz in 1943
to test the hardness of microparticles with indented areas of In this way, the forceindentation curves can be obtained for the
larger than 100 m2 and a minimum indenter size of 20 m2 calculation of the particles elastic modulus by evaluating the
[111]. About ten years ago, nanoindentation was employed by slope of the loading region on the curves with contact theories.
Shorey et al to measure the elastic properties of particles (aver- More details about the calculation of the elastic modulus
age size: 5 m) used for magnetorheological finishing [112]. of compressed nanoparticles can be seen in [22, 83, 113].
7
Table 3. Summary of the hardness and elastic modulus of different particles with the size of several hundreds of nanometres or smaller.
Hardness/(bulk Indentation
Particle material Diameter/size value) Elastic modulus/(bulk value) depth Notes
Organic Polystyrene(PS) 58194 nm [21]; 8.04.1 GPa [21]; 36 nm [21] Modulus increases with
nanospheres [21, 114] the decrease of particle
size [21]
180250 nm [114] 12 GPa [114] 56 nm [114] Vinylbenzyl(trimethyl)
/(33.6 GPa) [115] ammonium chloride
units inside [114]
Polypropylene(PP) 200500 nm 1.32.8 GPa 1.5 nm
[22] /(1.52 GPa)
Polyesters [116] 23 nm 0.10.3 GPa Hyperbranched,
molecular
weight = 30007000
Polyethylenimine 15 nm 5160 MPa up to 10 nm Bigger pressure resulted
(PEI) [117] in larger modulus
Poly- 350 nm 4.3 GPa/(4 GPa) [115] up to 60 nm 6.6 GPa (200 C heat
(methylmethacrylate) treatment)
(PMMA) [118]
Liquid 95150 nm 0.10.6 GPa 10 nm 4-pentyl-4-
crystal [119] cyanobiphenyl (5CB)
(main component)
Core/shell PS/CeO2 [113] 130260 nm 515 GPa 2030 nm Modulus increases with
particle size
PMMA/silica 450 nm [118]; 10.3 GPa [118]; up to 80 nm PMMA-based
[113, 118] 350 nm [113] 911 GPa [113] terpolymer [113]
Metal Gold [120] 22 nm 1.72 GPa/(Vickers 100 GPa/(79 GPa) 35 nm Six-fold symmetry gold
nanoparticle hardness 216 MPa) nanoparticles
Gold modified 10 and 20 nm 0.12 and 1.3 GPa(a) ; Protein: (a) bovine
with 0.08 GPa (a) ; 9.5 and 1.0 GPa(b) serum albumin;
proteins [121] 0.22 and (b) streptavidin
0.13 GPa(b) pure gold particle:
hardness = 0.4 GPa;
modulus = 5.2 GPa
Silver [122] 13 nm 3.12 GPa 103.9 GPa
/(Vickers hardness /(83 GPa)
251 MPa)
Silicon nanoparticle 40140 nm [123]; 2534 GPa [124]; 600180 GPa [123]/(around 1336 nm [123] Modulus increases with
540 nm [124]; 2050 GPa/ 150 GPa) 324 nm [125] decrease of particle
40100 nm [125] (12 GPa) [125] size [123]; simulation
result [124]
Nanowire, Gold 40250 nm 70 11 GPa 400 nm
nanotube, nanowire [126] (displacement)
etc.
Silver nanowire 20140 nm 75160 GPa
[127, 128]
lead 30280 nm 1430 GPa/(16 GPa)
nanowire [128]
ZnO 70, 99 nm 120, 83 GPa/(140 GPa)
nanowires [129]
WS2 20 nm 171 GPa/(150 GPa [131])
nanotube [130]
Boron nitride (BN) 0.582.38 nm 40.781.85 GPa/(3040 or Single-walled, modulus
nanotubes [132] 74 GPa) decreases with diameter
increases
Carbon 0.921.91 nm 579 GPa/(36.5 GPa, bulk
nanotubes [133] graphite [134])
Carbon 9 nm 16 GPa Multi-walled
nanotubes [135]
Silicon nitride 2050 nm (thickness) 570 GPa 150 nm
nanobelts [136] (bending modulus) (displacement)
/(120330 GPa)
Cellulose 4.2 nm (wood), 5.9 nm 24.8, 17.7 GPa [137]; Cellulose nanocrystals
nanocrystals (cotton) [137] 8.1 GPa(mean value) [138] are crystalline, rod-like
[137] 820 nm [138] shaped particles
Mostly based on the previous method, the elastic modulus of a size-dependent behaviours. Typical related results and the
variety of nanoparticles have been measured by compressing underlying mechanisms can be divided as the following three
or bending particles primarily with AFM, as summarized in categories.
table 3; the hardness of some nanoparticles is also given. As
shown, the nanoparticles hardness and elastic modulus often (1) In the case of spherical polymer nanoparticles, there
deviate from their bulk materials and some show obvious are yet no uniform size-dependent behaviours of the
8
mechanical properties. For instance, the compressive

moduli of the polystyrene nanoparticles (diameter:
200 nm) were found to be slightly less than those of
the corresponding bulk materials due to the presence of
hydrated ionic functional groups [21]. In contrast, the
work conducted by Paik et al [22] showed that the elastic
modulus of polypropylene (PP) nanoparticles was higher
than that of the bulk material. It was thought that the
glass transition temperature (Tg ), the crystalline phase
and crystallinity etc could affect the deformation of the
polymer chain inside and thereby result in the change of
the particles elastic modulus.
(2) For crystalline metal nanoparticles, dislocations inside
the particles have been demonstrated as one of the
factors contributing to the change in the mechanical
behaviour of nanoparticles, which is in contrast to
the traditional view that no dislocation is present
in crystalline nanoparticles. The experimental work
done by Ramos et al [120] indicated that the
hardness and elastic modulus of six-fold symmetry
gold nanoparticles were higher than the bulk phase
due to the formation of stacking faults and dislocations Figure 7. High-resolution TEM images of a silver nanoparticle
in specific crystallographic directions. Mordehai and before and after compression: (a) before compression (twin
Nix et al [139, 140] performed nanoindentation and highlighted); (b) at the initial stage of compression (an edge
compression tests combined with theoretical simulation to dislocation highlighted); (c) at a stage of further compression (two
additional dislocations shown in the inset); (d) after the removal of
reveal the deformation behaviours of single-crystal gold the compression (no dislocation observed) [105].
nanoparticles on sapphire substrates. The particle strength
under indentation increased with the lateral dimension of
the particle due to the competition between the generation [143] suggested the size dependence of the bulk moduli
of dislocations beneath the indenter and their drainage of several semiconductor nanoclusters correlated with the
from the particle [139]. Under compression with a flat strong interaction with the passivant.
diamond punch, the compressive stress of the particle (3) For nanowires or nanotubes, it has been typically found
increased with the decrease of the particle size since by Jing et al [127] and Cuenot et al [128] that the
the nucleated dislocations resulted in the stress gradient elastic moduli of silver and lead nanowires decreased
along the slip planes [140]. In situ TEM nanoindentation with the increasing radial diameter. They proposed that
experiments showed the direct evidence of the presence of the increase in the modulus was attributed to the effects
dislocations in metal nanoparticles during deformation but of the surface stress, the oxidation layer and the surface
they disappeared during the unloading process, as shown roughness [127], or the surface tension effect [128]. MD
in figure 7 [105]. Wang et al [141] recently demonstrated simulations conducted by Yang et al [144] showed the bulk
a new kind of stacking fault related with dislocations modulus of Ni/Ni3 Al nanowires increased but the surface
in gold nanocrystals, which could nucleate, migrate and energy decreased with the increasing wire perimeter size.
annihilate under mechanical loading with in situ TEM and However, only the fracture properties rather than the
MD simulation. elastic behaviour of ZnO nanowires were affected by the
For silicon nanoparticles, similar behaviours were surface effects due to the presence of surface cracks and
observed by Gerberich et al [125] that their hardness defects [129].
(particle diameter: 40 nm) was four times greater than Worth mentioning is the fact that measuring the
the value of bulk silicon. They proposed that the mechanical properties of individual nanoparticles is very
dislocations or line defects inside the particle are the main complex; many influencing factors could affect the finally
factors resisting high pressures. Furthermore, atomistic measured results. These factors include the uniform
simulation conducted by Zhang et al [124] confirmed dispersion of nanoparticles on an ideally hard substrate,
that the superhard silicon nanoparticles resulted from the precise locating of particles and the proper application
the nucleation and movement of dislocations. Apart of loads onto the particles, as well as the measurement
from dislocations or defects, the changes of the lattice of the minimum particle deformation, etc. In addition,
strain and the bond energies of nanoparticles to the many uncertainties during measuring and calculating
compressive stress were proposed as another cause for the the mechanical properties of nanoparticles with AFM,
strengthening and weakening of the mechanical properties e.g., uncertainties associated with the instrument
of nanoparticles [142]. Furthermore, first-principles calibration and the calculation models, should be
electronic-structure calculations made by Cherian et al considered [138].
9
300 (c)
250
200
Fc/nN
150
100
F f-static
50
F f-kinetic
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
R/nm
Figure 8. AFM images of a nanoparticle on the substrate (a) before and (b) after manipulation; (c) the dependence of the friction force of
polystyrene particles on the silicon surface on the particle radius (R) [24].
4.2. Adhesion and friction of nanoparticles of nanoparticles [91]. For instance, the frictional anisotropies
for molybdenum oxide (MoO) nanoparticles were investigated
The adhesion and the friction of nanoparticles play important
by Sheehan and Lieber [166]. The maximum sliding friction
roles in nanofabrication, lubrication, the design of micro/nano
force between polymer latex spheres (radius between 50 and
devices, colloidal stabilization and drug delivery. In this
100 nm) and a highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG)
case, characterizing the adhesion and friction behaviours of
surface was obtained by Ritter et al [23]. More recently,
nanoparticles has attracted significant research interest over
the interfacial friction between antimony (Sb) nanoparticles
the past decade [84, 145157]. So far, AFM has been proved
and a HOPG surface was successfully measured through
to be a powerful tool to measure the adhesion and friction
pushing nanoparticles with the AFM tip by Dietzel et al [167].
between a nanoparticle and a solid surface. The AFM tip itself
In addition, the adhesion forces between nanoparticles with
can also be thought of as a nanoparticle; then the adhesion
force as well as the friction force can be easily obtained by the different sizes and the surface were measured by Guo et al [24].
cantilevers deflection [151, 154]. However, the use of AFM is In the most general case, the adhesion force is a
practically limited by the tip material and its geometric shape. combination of electrostatic force, vdW force, meniscus or
By attaching the particle to the force sensor in the microscope, capillary force, solvation force and structure force, etc. The
the force between a surface and a colloid particle was directly adhesive contact between elastic surfaces is usually described
measured with AFM by Ducker et al in 1991 [70]. Since by single-asperity theories such as JKR, DMT or M-D
the properties of the attached particle, such as the size, the (Maugis-Dugdale) theories, as mentioned previously. The
shape and the material were controllable, the uncertainties adhesion force of micro/nanoparticles has been extensively
in the force measurement caused by the irregular shape of studied and most of the equations for the continuum contact
the AFM tip etc could be avoided. Hence, the colloidal theories can be applied extremely well, even at the submicron
probe technique is more effective for studying the adhesion scale [82, 85, 168170]. A linear dependence of the adhesion
and friction of micro/nanoparticles [96, 158]. Nevertheless, force on the reduced radius was found by Heim et al [170]
it is actually very difficult to attach a single nanoparticle for the adhesion between silica spheres, proving that the DMT
with the size of less than 1 m on the AFM force sensor; theory was also valid for the particle with dimensions below
the colloid probes in most references have sizes larger than 1 m. The simulation of the adhesion between a nickel AFM
1 m [158]. A chemical method was used by Vakarelski et al tip and a gold surface by Landman et al [168] showed good
to place individual gold nanoparticles (2040 nm) on the tip agreements with the JKR theory for both the mean positions
of an AFM cantilever to measure the adhesion force between of atoms and the stress distribution. Individual nanoparticles
nanoparticles and mica [159]. Ceria nanoparticles (50 nm in with varying size from about 50 to 500 nm were manipulated
diameter) were attached on the AFM tip with epoxy glue by on a silicon surface using AFM by Guo et al [24]. The results
Ong and Sokolov [160] to measure the adhesion force between showed that the friction forces between the particles and the
nanoparticles and a flat silica surface. Other various methods substrate were proportional to the two third power of the radius,
include measuring the adhesion force of the tip against a film which was in agreement with the Hertzian theory, as shown in
of nanoparticles [153, 161163] and manufacturing a tip with figure 8. The situations where the continuum contact theories
a certain curvature by thermal oxidation, etc [164, 165]. are no longer applicable involve changing surface energy with
Besides the direct adhesion measurement by the vertical time [171173], viscoelastic materials [174, 175] and rough
deflection of the AFM cantilever, nanoparticle movement surfaces [176, 177]. All of these factors could give rise to
manipulation by the cantilevers torsional deflection was firstly hysteresis and time-dependent effects.
used to push C60 islands grown on a NaCl surface in 1994 Under ambient conditions, the capillary force (meniscus
[156]. Since then, this method has been increasingly popular force) was demonstrated to make the largest contribution to the
to characterize the intriguing nanoadhesion/friction behaviours adhesive force [178]. The capillary force between a plate and a
10
sphere was calculated by OBrien and Hermann [179], proving

the meniscus dimension was of 1 nm [180, 181]. The adhesion
between particles in aqueous media was found to be mainly
influenced by the electrostatic force [182, 183], solvent force
and structure force [184186]. For small particles of nanoscale
size, more subtle effects beyond continuum theories have
been observed. Specifically, the surface molecular structure,
the distribution of terminal groups on the particles surfaces
and the surface energy variation due to particle deformation
could influence and even dominate the adhesion behaviours
[84, 153, 158, 187, 188].
In Amontons and Coulombs friction theories for
describing macroscopic dry sliding friction, the friction is
proportional to the normal force, but independent of the contact
area as well as the sliding velocity. However, the tribological
properties at the micro/nano scale cannot be explained with Figure 9. Static and kinetic frictions and their ratios for particles
with radii of 71.85 nm and 228.2 nm on a non-hydroxylated surface
these empirical theories. Ever since 1987 when the frictional and a hydroxylated surface, respectively. The normal load is
forces were detected with AFM by Mate et al [154] for 348 nN. The columns with solid fill and horizontal stripes represent
the first time, the friction at the micro/nano scale has been Ff -kinetic and Ff -kinetic on the non-hydroxylated surface, respectively.
observed by many researchers to deviate considerably from The columns with vertical and oblique stripes repesent those on the
the predictions based on established macroscopic laws. The hydroxylated surface, respectively. The square and the circle
represent the ratio of Ff -kinetic and Ff -kinetic for particles with R of
nanoscopic friction is proportional to the true contact area,
71.85 nm on the non-hydroxylated and the hydroxylated surface,
which is not necessarily proportional to the loading force respectively. The triangle and the rhombus represent those for
[189191]. Furthermore, the friction in a nanoscale contact particles with (R = 228.20 nm) on the non-hydroxylated surface
increases logarithmically with the sliding velocity [192], being and the hydroxylated surface, respectively [24].
in sharp contrast to empirical theories. The friction between
the AFM tip and the substrate has been measured as a function was found that the adhesion of the particles to the substrate was
of many parameters, such as the externally applied load strongly reduced by the presence of hydrophobic interfaces.
[189191, 193, 194], the sliding velocity [192, 195, 196], the The friction and wear of spherical gold nanoparticles under
tip radius and shape [189, 191], the relative orientation between dry conditions and submerged in water were studied by
the scan direction and the substrate lattice [197200], the Maharaj and Bhushan [207]; the results indicated that the
temperature [201, 202] and the chemical nature of the sample addition of gold nanoparticles reduced friction and wear.
[203205]. The method using the AFM tip to control the lateral
Sitti and Hashimoto [208, 209] proposed an AFM-based
manipulation of nanoparticles provides a powerful tool to
force-controlled pushing system for the manipulation and
measure the interfacial friction of nanoparticles with arbitrary
assembly of nanoparticles. Interaction forces among the AFM
materials and sizes. Polymer latex spheres (50100 nm in
probe tip, the nanoparticle and the substrate, including the vdW
radius) were manufactured by Ritter et al [23] on a HOPG
force, capillary force, electrostatic force, repulsive contact
surface; the threshold force needed to overcome the static
force and frictional force were analysed [208]; several modes
friction of a single latex sphere was found to depend on the
of particle motion including sliding, rolling and rotation were
sphere size, being in accordance with the JKR and DMT
theories. Similarly, Sb nanoparticles on a HOPG surface observed [209].
were pushed by Dietzel et al [157] with an AFM tip and
two coexisting frictional states were observed: some particles 4.3. Movement of nanoparticles
showed finite friction and increased linearly with the interfacial
areas, while other particles experienced a state of frictionless Various forces such as gravitational (buoyancy) forces,
sliding. The transition from static to kinetic friction was also surface forces, viscous flow forces and the forces due to
investigated in another of their work and a hysteretic character Brownian motion result in the movement of nanoparticles
in the force domain was found [167]. Polystyrene nanospheres in the media in different ways [210220]. However, the
with radii varying from about 30 to 200 nm on the polished experiments for the direct observation of nanoparticles
nanosmooth silicon surface were manipulated by Guo et al [24] movement are limited primarily due to the small particle
with the contact mode of AFM; the typical results are shown size preventing the application of the most commonly used
in figure 9. The results indicated that the ratios between the imaging techniques. Fortunately, the rapid development of
kinetic friction Ff -kinetic and the static friction force Ff -kinetic measurement technology provides opportunities for tracking
were in the range of 0.30.6. Moreover, the ratio did not change individual nanoparticles or even single molecules. Up to now,
whether the particles were located in different areas of the several methods have been used for making high-resolution
surface, the tip normal force was varied or even the surface measurements of the motion of single nanoparticles. Among
was modified [24]. these methods, two groups can be classified: one is to passively
Gold particles with a mean diameter of 25 nm were track the particle motion without applying significant external
manufactured by Mougin et al [206] on silicon substrates; it stimuli and the other is to measure the particles motions
11
Figure 10. The particle trajectories in a water droplet during the evaporation process [223].
under external mechanical forces [221]. To be more specific, inorganic nanoparticles during fluid evaporation was observed
studies based on two typical methods will be emphasized in using a TEM by Zheng et al [227]. The observation of the
the following parts. self-assembled process of nanoparticles in a liquid medium
The first method is particle tracking with the fluorescence with the particle size comparable to the molecular dimension
technique. A system for observing nanoparticles was of the liquid was made using an environmental TEM by Dai
developed by Xu et al [222] using a high-resolution et al [228].
fluorescence microscope and fluorescent core-shell SiO2 The movement of nanoparticles is very complicated due
nanoparticles of 5060 nm in diameter were used as the seed to the influence of many factors, e.g., complex forces, medium
nanoparticles. By using this system, the velocity profile and environment. In this instance, the studies on the single
of nanoparticles in a channel flow [222], the Marangoni nanoparticles motion in the past were mostly qualitative in
flow in evaporating water droplets [223] and nanoparticle nature; more precise measurement methods or instruments
wall collision behaviours [224] were investigated. The with a combination of functions are needed for quantitative
Marangoni flow in a droplet manifested with fluorescent analyses in future works.
nanoparticles revealed a stagnation point where the directions
of the surface flow, the surface tension gradient and the 5. Applications relevant to the mechanical
surface temperature gradient changed, as shown in figure 10 properties of nanoparticles
[223]. The nanoparticlewall collision experiments showed
the nanoparticles adsorbed on the solid surface after collision 5.1. Nanoparticles in lubrication
in liquid were much easier to be removed than those deposited
on dry surfaces [224]. The reason for this observation was that The mechanical properties of nanoparticles play a major role
the particles might be adsorbed at the secondary minimum of in influencing the tribological properties of lubricated systems
the particlewall interaction when the collision occurred in with nanoparticles. The effects of the mechanical properties
water, rather than at the primary minimum for the particles of nanoparticles as lubricant additives on the tribological
deposited on dry surfaces, as described in the DLVO theory properties differ in various materials. The lubricating
mentioned earlier. Another system for in situ observing properties of typical nanoparticle materials are summarized
nanoparticles movement with the fluorescence technique in in table 4. From a general point of view, the combined effects
confined geometries where external loads and rotations could of rolling, sliding and the formation of a third body layer and
be applied was developed by Lei et al [225]. With this system, tribofilms are the main reasons for the increased lubricating
it has been found that the velocities of free particles were behaviour after adding nanoparticles [12], as briefly described
much larger (20 times) than the rotating speed, providing in the following parts.
evidence that nanoparticle impacting was also one of the (1) The rolling mode of nanoparticles in the lubricated
main surface material removal factors during the surface contact area could provide very low friction and wear;
planarization process. More discussions on this point will be however, the occurrence of this effect is strongly
given in the latter part of this review. dependent upon some properties, e.g., the shape, the
The second method is the TEM observations, which size and the concentration of the nanoparticles in the
could give more delicate details of the particle movement lubricant [246, 250, 253, 254]. Spherically shaped and
and provide deeper understanding of the roles of particles mechanically stable nanoparticles without significant
in specific applications. The movement behaviours of a agglomeration are favourable for their rolling in the
single MoS2 nanoparticle in a dynamic contact were directly contact area between tribopairs [245]. As far as
observed with in situ TEM by Lahouij et al [226]; the the intrinsic mechanical properties of nanoparticles are
results showed that either a rolling or a sliding process of the concerned, whether the initial spherical shape of the
fullerenes could be possible during shearing. The motion of nanoparticles in the contact area can be preserved or
12
Table 4. Summary of lubrication properties of nanoparticles of different materials as additives.
Material category Examples Lubrication mechanism and regime Favourable aspects Unfavourable aspects
Metal Au [229], (1) Formation of soft and low shear Friction and wear Low dispersibility in
nanoparticles Ag [229, 230] Cu strength tribofilms reduction, organic solvent
[231233], Ni [234] anti-contact fatigue,
good extreme
pressure
CuO, ZnO and ZrO2 (2) Formation of the third body layer
[235237], due to mechanical compaction
TiO2 [238]
Al2 O3 [239, 240]
Organically coated (3) Extreme pressure related to the More stable colloid Modification with
modification size and the hardness of system chlorine and
[233, 241, 242] nanoparticles phosphorus
containing compounds
are not green
Metallic-organic (4) Effective in mixed lubrication Efficient delivery of
complexes [243] and low-load boundary lubrication particles to the
asperity contact
Dichalcogenide WS2 [244246], (1) Rolling/sliding at the low normal Reducing sliding
MX2 (M = W, MoS2 [226, 247, 248], stress and exfoliation at the high friction, by up to
Mo; X = S, Se) WSe2 [249] normal stress under boundary 50%, in the mixed
nanoparticle lubrication lubrication regime
(2) Layers in the particles can easily
slide due to weak intermolecular
interactions
Carbon-based Diamond nanoparticle (1) Ball-bearing effect Friction reduction,
nanoparticle [218, 250252] (2) Viscosity-increasing effect anti-scuffing, surface
(3) Increase in the surface hardness polishing
of tribopair
Graphite nanoparticle Ball-bearing spacers, reduce metal High temperature Water insoluble due to
[253, 254] contact and increase the wettability resistance, extreme hydrophobicity
of lubricant on surface pressure and
self-lubrication
ability
Fullerene [255257] Similar to dichalcogenide MX2 More effective for low
viscosity base oil and
high normal loads
Silicon SiO2 [258261], Bear load, separate tribopair, Cheap and easily
nanoparticle Al2 O3 /SiO2 prevent direct contact, and promote available
composite rolling, inhibit the expansion of the
nanoparticles [262] microcracks on the tribopair
surface due to particle embedment
Polymer PTFE nanoparticle (1) Increased load bearing properties Reduce friction and Unstable under high
nanoparticle [263, 264] due to large adhesion between wear; extreme temperature
lubricant and tribosurface pressure
(2) Mechanical energy adsorbed by
particles as its deformation occurs
(shock-absorbing effect)
not have a close relationship with their hardness/elastic between particles are very relevant to the above two modes
properties, which are also affected by the nanoparticle of particle movement in the lubricated contact area. A
size [226]. smaller applied load and harder tribopair surfaces readily
(2) The sliding mode of nanoparticles could also result in lead to rolling friction of nanoparticles in the contact area,
low friction and wear. Sliding friction usually occurs because these would give less of a probability for the
when the particle is not very spherical in shape and has particles to mechanically deform or indent into the surface
low adhesion to the tribopair surfaces [265]. Besides, [14, 245]. Moreover, particle agglomeration is greatly
particle agglomeration in the contact area is another factor determined by the interaction force between particles,
that could lead to sliding friction during the shearing of thereby inhibiting rolling while promoting the sliding of
tribopairs [229233]. In this case, the nanoparticles play nanoparticles in the contact area [229, 231]. Another
a role as a spacer in minimizing the direct contact between important aspect of the nanoparticle in the lubricant
the asperities of two shearing surfaces. under a low applied pressure is that the viscosity of
Externally applied pressure on the nanoparticles, the the lubricant could be enhanced and thereby the oil
rigidity of the tribopair surfaces and the interaction forces film formation properties in the lubricated contact could
13
100 Ordered
layer
Oil film thickness h/nm

Metal
base oil ball
10 Nanoparticle
0.05% UDP
0.3% UDP
0.5% UDP
Fluid
layer
1
0.1 1 10 100
Rolling speed of ball v/(mm/s) Disc
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 11. Typical results of lubrication properties of oils (polyester (PE)) with added diamond nanoparticles: (a) film thickness against ball
rolling speed for PE with nanoparticles of different concentrations (applied pressure: 174 MPa); (b) physical model of nanoparticles as
additive; (c) SEM image of the rubbing surface under PE lubrication (rubbing time: 30 min; applied pressure: 220 MPa); (d) SEM image of
the rubbing surface under PE lubrication with nanoparticles (rubbing time: 30 min; applied pressure: 220 MPa) [218].
be improved, as shown in figures 11(a) and (c) [218]. abrasive effect of hard nanoparticles under large pressures
It can also be noted from this figure that when the and heavy aggregations of oils with high particle
applied pressure increased further, the sliding effect of concentrations in the inlet of the contact area [264].
nanoparticles could give rise to the surface polishing
effect. 5.2. Nanoparticles in nanomanufacturing
(3) When the applied pressure is sufficiently large, nano-
particles become mechanically unstable and delamination As already mentioned in the introduction, CMP is an
of nanoparticles could happen [245, 246]. For indispensable planarization tool in nanomanufacturing ICs.
instance, studies suggested that when the applied Abrasive and corrosive slurry is used to physically grind and
pressure was 1 GPa and the tribopair operated in the chemically remove microscopic topographic features on a
boundary lubrication regime, exfoliation of inorganic wafer to obtain a flat surface [215]. In this process, abrasive
fullerene-like (IF) nanoparticles as the lubricant additive nanoparticles in the slurry are a very important contributor
would dominate [244247]. In this case, material to obtain controlled material removal without sacrificing
layers of the broken particles could form as the third planarity. They usually either embed in the polishing pad
body and adhere on the tribopair surfaces separating the or remain immersed in the slurry, as schematically shown
counterpart. These layers likely align themselves parallel in figure 12 [265]. Among many factors that could affect
to the tribopair surfaces due to adhesion and shear. It the material removal rate and surface quality in CMP, the
occurs more often for metal dichalcogenide and graphite mechanical interaction between the nanoparticles and the
nanoparticles, which have anisotropic layered structures wafer surface plays a critical role. For the material removal
with weak vdW forces as the bonding interaction between process, two models have been proposed to understand
layers [226, 244249, 253257]. In addition, valleys the mechanical behaviours of abrasive nanoparticles in
between asperities could be filled out by nanoparticles; CMP, i.e. the hydrodynamic model and the solid contact
then the tribopair surface could be partly smoothened out model [266, 267].
to reduce friction and wear [261].
It is worth pointing out that nanoparticles as lubricant (1) In the hydrodynamic model, the wafer and the polishing
additives do not always give rise to favourable tribological pad are separated by a thin liquid film; the material
properties. Increases in friction and wear, as well removal is primarily due to the collision of abrasive
as lubricant starvation, were observed due to the nanoparticles onto the wafer, or the fluidic shearing.
14
abrasion between the polishing pad and the wafer surface,

as well as that between nanoparticles and the wafer surface
[266, 267, 275277]. Nevertheless, increasing evidence
shows that the rolling of free nanoparticles in the slurry is
not notably inferior to abrasive sliding for the material
removal and surface finish on the atomic scale in the
CMP process [265, 278]; a typical MD simulation result
is shown in figure 14.
Another important aspect is understanding the adhesion
and the removal of nanoparticles on the wafer surface; this is
a relevant problem in the post-CMP cleaning process [279].
Interfacial forces, such as the vdW force, electrostatic force
and capillary force in the vicinity of the nanoparticle and the
Figure 12. Schematic illustration of the CMP tool and the contact wafer surface dominate the adhesion process [280]. Many
among wafer, pad asperity and abrasive particles during the CMP experimental factors could influence the adhesion strength
process [265]. between the particle and the wafer surface, as the following
list demonstrates.
The effects of the particle size, the incidence speed and
(1) The adhesion could increase with the contact time, since
angles etc on the collision between nanoparticles and the
the contact area and then the interfacial forces increase as
wafer surface have been investigated [214, 224, 268, 269].
time progresses [281].
Xu et al [224] designed an experiment based on
(2) Large atmospheric humidity could accelerate the adhesion
a fluorescent microscope system where fluorescent
formation [282].
nanoparticles adsorbed on a glass surface were exposed
(3) The size effect of nanoparticles on the adhesion strength
to the vertical impact of a liquid with 15 wt% abrasive
has been a research focus and some contradictory
nanoparticles. The results suggested that the collision
results have been obtained. Heim et al [170] found
between the abrasives and the wafer surface had a
that the relationship between microparticle/wafer surface
negligible effect on the material removal at a liquid
adhesion and the particle radius agreed with the prediction
impact speed of 3 m s1 . When the impacting speed
of contact theories. On the contrary, the results obtained
was increased and the nanoparticle incidence angle was
by Thoreson et al suggested that no size effect of
changed, damage to the wafer surface could occur. For
the particle/wafer surface adhesion could be observed
instance, there were many pits and scratches on the
[283]. This trend was also confirmed by the experiments
surface on the wafer surface under a speed of 50 m s1
conducted by Lei et al [225], in which a series of
and an incidence angle of 45 ; heavy and heterogeneous
heat-treated AFM probes with various curvature radii were
deformation in the surface layer was observed with
employed to measure the particle/wafer surface adhesion.
the high-resolution TEM [214], as shown in figure 13.
This result might be as a result of the reduction of the real
MD simulation studies on the collision process of a
contact area caused by asperities on the tip surface [284].
nanoparticle onto a silicon or silica surface suggested the
(4) In addition, the influence of capillary force should be also
damage could be increasingly reduced with the increasing
considered, since small particles could aggregate to form
incident angle [269271]. Moreover, the critical velocity
larger ones [43].
for the pileup formation on the silicon surface is affected
by the incidence angle rather than the particle size [270]. After nanoparticles are adsorbed onto the wafer surface
(2) In the solid contact model, part of the polishing pad is due to the action of interfacial forces, they could be embedded
in direct contact with the wafer surface [272, 273]. The in the surface by pad pressure if valleys or asperities are present
particles embedded in the pad slide against the substrate on the surface [285]. In this case, the number of residue
surface, in a similar way to fixed abrasive grinding nanoparticles on the wafer surface after the CMP process could
(referred to as fixed particles). The particles immersed in reduce when the wafer surface hardness increases [286]. These
the slurry between the pad and the wafer can be referred to residue nanoparticles should be removed during the post-CMP
as free particles. Lei et al [225] used a fluorescence based cleaning process to avoid their unfavourable effects on the
experimental system to track the movement of individual follow-up processes [287]. Applying external mechanical
particles between the polishing pad and the solid surface. stimuli, megasonic cleaning as well as some wet chemical
The results confirmed that some particles were fixed on the effects are optional ways to overcome the adhesion force and
polishing pad and rotated with the pad, while the others remove physisorbed (in some cases chemisorbed) or partially
moved freely in the slurry flow. Paul et al [274] proposed embedded nanoparticles, as schematically shown in figure 15.
that the ratio of the number of fixed particles and that The mechanical removal forces are very complex, mainly
of free particles was of great importance to the material including the contact elastic force, the hydrodynamic drag
removal mode. In regard to this model, it has been widely force and the friction between a brush and nanoparticles,
accepted that the material removal is due to the two-body etc [288, 289]. A schematic description of all the forces
15
Figure 13. (a) AFM image of the surface after a 10 min exposure; (b) cross-section high-resolution TEM images of the specimen subsurface
after exposure [214].
Figure 14. The rolling process of a silica particle under an external down force of 5 nN and a lateral driving force of 10 nN (left); The
number of removed atoms against various external down forces with abrasive rolling and abrasive sliding (right) [265].
for a nanoparticle on the surface in the cleaning process deliver improved properties, such as enhanced mechanical
was put forward by Huang et al [290]. Furthermore, properties, self-lubrication, wear-resistance and energy-
contact models and lubrication hydrodynamic theories were absorbing capabilities [300]. A few examples demonstrating
employed to analyse the fluid flow field and calculate the the influence of nanoparticles on the mechanical (hardness,
hydrodynamic drag force, as well as the surface roughness and elastic modulus as well as tensile strengths etc) and tribological
the characteristics of the brush nodules were considered [291]. properties of nanocomposite coatings are shown in table 5.
The mechanical brush scrubbing method is very efficient There are two main categories of nanocomposites, which are
for removing residue particles; however, it becomes less summarized as follows.
effective when the particle size is very small, e.g., a
nanoparticle. In this case, megasonic cleaning and chemically- (1) Due to some of the inherent properties of the matrix, for
activated removal could be adopted. Megasonic cleaning is to instance the high strength and modulus, wear resistance
utilize a sound field with a frequency of typically 0.82 MHz and high thermal and electrical conductivity, metal or
to excite controlled cavitation, which is gentler and on a much metal alloy matrix composite coatings show distinct
smaller scale than that produced under ultrasonic cleaning. advantages over polymeric composites [315]. In these
Increases in the megasonic frequency, the cleaning period and coatings, ceramic (Al2 O3 [301, 304, 306], TiO2 [305],
the solution temperature etc could improve the cleaning effects SiC [307, 308]) and carbon-based (graphite [316] and
[292295]. Nevertheless, this cleaning method has some CNTs [317]) nanoparticles are usually added. There
problems, e.g., the instability of the sound field for cleaning are three reasons why ceramic particles are used as
large size wafers and low cleaning efficiency. The basic idea reinforcement to enhance the hardness and the wear-
of the chemically-activated removal, i.e. using a chemical resistance of composites:
additive, is to weaken the bonds between particles [296] or the high hardness and strength of particles [306, 308]
to change the charges on the wafer surface and the particles migration and dislocation motion of grain boundaries
(alter the solution pH [297, 298] or add surfactants [299]) for can be prevented by the particles in the matrix [304]
controlling the electrostatic repulsion between the particles and
heterogeneous nucleation effect of particles in metal
the wafer surface.
or metal alloys [308].
The addition of graphite nanoparticles or CNTs in a metal
5.3. Nanoparticles in coatings
matrix could, on the one hand, reduce the porosity of
Incorporating different kinds of nanoparticles within a a pure metal coating, then the coating would be much
metal or polymer matrix to produce nanocomposites can denser and compact with fewer cracks. On the other hand,
16
(a) Particle the cross-linking densities in the coatings) or increase

the physical interactions between macromolecular
Brush chains of the matrix [313, 314, 321]. In this
manner, effective pathways could be provided for
nanoparticles to complement the poor mechanical and
Wafer
tribological performances of some polymer matrices,
Cleaning liquid e.g., their poor resistance to surface abrasion and
(b) wear [319].
Megasonic Uniform dispersion of nanoparticles in the matrix is
sound field very crucial in obtaining improved mechanical properties
(e.g., strength and ductility) of nanocomposite coatings,
since the maximum filling content of nanoparticles with
a large surface area is limited [318]. When the content
Boundary layer of nanoparticles in the nanocomposite coatings exceeds
a critical value, particle agglomeration would happen,
(c) resulting in deterioration of the mechanical properties (for
Surfactant
instance, aggravated microcracks on the coating surface),
decrease in Youngs modulus and increase in the wear rate
[313, 319]. In order to achieve good particle dispersion,
appropriate preparation and processing methods are
needed. Specifically, powder metallurgy and vapour
phase processing [315], ultrasonic assisted melting and
disintegrated melt deposition, mechanical alloying and
Figure 15. Basic schematic models of typical post-CMP cleaning of
nanoparticles: (a) brushparticle mechanical interaction;
friction stir processing [322], as well as layer-by-layer
(b) megasonic cleaning; (c) chemical additive (surfactant). deposition [323, 324] have been used. In addition, the
interface between the nanoparticle and the matrix can
the crystalline size in the coating could be refined due to be modified precisely on the molecular/atomic level
the presence of nanoparticles. In addition, the structural with techniques, such as atomic layer deposition (ALD)
and chemical stability of CNTs, which have a higher [325] or molecular assembly to obtain some interesting
stiffness and strength compared with the metal matrix are structures, e.g., core/shell hybrid nanoparticles [326].
another important factor contributing to the strengthening
effect [317]. 6. Conclusion and outlook
(2) Modification of the physical properties of a polymer
matrix can be achieved by adding inorganic or Increasingly high requirements of the surface and interface
organic nanoparticles, causing some new characteristics properties of many mechanical systems demand new
of polymers to be obtained [318]. For example, designs and improvements of surface modifications and
polymer composite coatings containing some inorganic manufacturing technologies. Nanoparticles exhibiting many
nanoparticles can provide resistance to the initiation and unique mechanical properties have become one of the most
propagation of cracks, fill cavities and initiate crack attractive choices for meeting these needs in the past couple of
bridging, deflection and bowing [319]. Basically, the years. The foregoing parts review basic physics and recent
mechanical properties of polymer based nanocomposites important results of nanoparticles from the perspectives of
can be affected by many factors, among which the their mechanical properties and interfacial interactions, as well
interface between the nanoparticle and the polymer matrix as related applications. Available fundamental research data
plays a dominant role due to the large specific surface regarding the mechanical properties of nanoparticles provide
area of the particle [310, 318]. Hence, a good design of a valuable guidance for their effective implementation in surface
nanocomposite, by taking the complex interplay between engineering, micro/nanomanufacturing and nanofabrication
matrix, interface and nanoparticles into consideration, etc. Many of these applications with nanoparticles have
could tailor the composite material system with desirable already made impressive progress in practice and exhibited
physical properties. Several underlying mechanisms significant advantages in many fields.
responsible for the interface reinforcement are: Despite these, further works are still needed to acquire
(1) the interaction between nanoparticles and the information on the mechanical properties of more kinds of
polymer matrix could result in the formation of nanoparticles with the advances of convenient characterization
special microstructures (for instance, a finer scale techniques and mature nanoparticle production technologies.
lamellar structure), correspondingly the improved Quantitative descriptions of the mechanical properties of
mechanical properties could prevent rapid crack nanoparticles in relation to the size dependent and material
propagation in the coating [320]; effects etc should be also made. Additionally, how to achieve
(2) nanoparticles could enhance their interaction with the a much clearer picture about the roles of nanoparticles in their
matrix through chemical bonds (for example, increase specific applications is of great significance. Hence, direct
17
Table 5. Summary of the mechanical properties of some nanocomposite coatings.
Maximum Friction
tensile(T) or coefficient Optimum
Increased hardness (H) flexural (F) (COF)/wear particle Particle
Nanoparticle/matrix or modulus (M) strength rate(WR) concentration size (nm)
Metal Al2 O3 [301], (H)68.4 (T) 250 MPa 47 vol% 4080
matrix AlN [302], HRF(115%) [301] (67%) [301] [301, 303]
MgO [303]/Al or Al (H)1.59 GPa (50%) Compressive 39 vol% [302]
alloy (M)140 GPa strength
(56%) [302] 288 MPa(164%)
[303]
Al2 O3 /Ni-W [304] (H)8.5 GPa 1460 MPa (5075)% 57 wt% [304] 3090
TiO2 /Ni [305] (31%) [304] (1180%), residual [303]; 12 g l1 [305]
(H)400 HV stresses [304] 40%
(23%) [305] (WR) [305]
(WC, ZrO2 , Al2 O3 , (H) increase by 516 bending strength (5090)% 26 vol% 10100
and Si3 N4 )/(Co or HRB increase by 54% (WR),
Fe) [306] 75%
(COF)
SiC/Mg (T) 216 MPa(24%); 10 vol% [307] 20 [307];
alloy [307, 308] Yield strength 0.5 wt% [308] 50 [308]
384 MPa(113%)
[308]
Nanographite/Cu [309] (H) 94 HV (31%, 23%(COF, 35
5 vol%) 15 vol%),
33%(WR,
15 vol%)
Polymer SiAlON, [310] (H) 67(Shore-D, (T)18 MPa(-44%) 67% (WR, 911 wt% [310] 70 [310]
matrix SiO2 [311]/Epoxy 18%) [310] aggregation, 3 wt%) [310]
resin (M) 60 MPa (40%) 5 wt.% [311]
aggregation,
5 wt.% [311]
ZnO/polyurethane [12] (T) 17.83 MPa 2 wt% 27
(108%)
nano-PTFE/Phenol (H)112 HRM (25.8%) (F)110 MPa 33%(COF); 25 wt% 2080
resins [313] (19.6%) 61% (WR)
PTFE-MoS2 - (H)123 MPa (7%) (T)52.08 MPa 3 wt% 1030
Al2 O3 /polyoxy- (7%)
methylene [314]
visualizations of the interfacial behaviour of nanoparticles in [5] Manmode A S et al 2009 Nanoparticles-Tremendous

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Mechanical properties of nanoparticles: basics and applications

2014 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 47 013001

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Mechanical properties of nanoparticles:

Received 28 August 2013, revised 14 October 2013

1. Introduction nanoparticles could become superparamagnetic and respond

0022-3727/14/013001+25$33.00 1 2014 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

300 nanoparticles. Section 3 summarizes the important results

200 of nanoparticles that result from their special mechanical

50 2. Interaction forces and basic theories relevant to

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the framework of this review.

curvature of the condensed liquid. The normal capillary force

2.4. Other forcessolvation, structural and hydration forces

Table 2. Relations between the contact radius a, the contact radius

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the basic working principle of AFM.

tracking velocimetry (3D-PTV) [102]. The defined area is a

3.3. In situ TEM

TEM could provide images with a significantly higher

Understanding some basic mechanical properties of nanopar- P = k (c c0 ). (3)

mechanical properties. For instance, the compressive

sphere was calculated by OBrien and Hermann [179], proving

Table 4. Summary of lubrication properties of nanoparticles of different materials as additives.

Oil film thickness h/nm

abrasion between the polishing pad and the wafer surface,

(a) Particle the cross-linking densities in the coatings) or increase

Table 5. Summary of the mechanical properties of some nanocomposite coatings.

visualizations of the interfacial behaviour of nanoparticles in [5] Manmode A S et al 2009 Nanoparticles-Tremendous

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