pH: Principles and Measurement

S Karastogianni, S Girousi, and S Sotiropoulos, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Definition and Basics and F is the Faraday constant. It follows that the potential of
such a pH-sensitive electrode is a linear function of the pH
pH Basics and Notional Definition
when the latter is defined in terms of activity.
The acidity and alkalinity of aqueous media, where most According to the international standard ISO 31-8, the
reactions in nature occur, depend (according to the Arrhenius standard methodology for pH measurements involves the con-
definition of acids and bases) on the concentration of the hydro- struction of a liquid junction-free galvanic cell where the
nium (H3Oþ) and hydroxyl (OH) ions. The former is quanti- pH-sensitive electrode is the hydrogen electrode (Pt/H2/Hþ:
fied by the more general concept of pH, initially proposed by the H2 gas bubbled at 1 atm through a Hþ-containing solution in
Danish chemist Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen in 1909 and contact with a high surface area Pt electrode) and the reference
revised in 1924 to adjust definitions in relation to the electro- electrode is a Ag/AgCl in a KCl solution. The following nota-
chemical cells used for its measurement. The pH is notionally tion refers to such a cell:
defined for any medium as the decimal logarithm of the recip-
AgjAgCljconcentrated solution of KCl,
rocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aHþ , in that medium:
  test solutionjH2 ðg, 1 atmÞjPt
1
pH ¼  log 10 aHþ ¼ log 10 [1] where vertical lines denote the interface between two different
aHþ
phases. The cell is filled with a standard solution of known pH/
It is only for very dilute solutions that the pH can be directly hydrogen ion activity, pHs, and its electromotive force (emf),
related to proton concentration: ES, is measured. Then, the test solution is replaced by the
pH ¼  log 10 cHþ [2] sample solution of unknown pHx and the new emf of the
cell, EX, is measured. It follows (applying eqn [3] twice and
This approximation holds for pure water where, due to its taking into account that the same reference electrode is used)
self-dissociation constant being Kw ¼ 1014 at 25  C, proton that the pH of the unknown solution is a linear function of the
and hydroxyl concentrations are as low as 107. Thus, pure difference between the two measured emf values:
water at 25  C has a pH value very close to 7; therefore, a value
of pH ¼ 7 defines a ‘neutral’ medium where the proton and its pHX ¼ pHs þ ðES  EX Þ=ð2:303RT=F Þ [4]
hydroxyl counterion are present in equal concentrations. Equation [4] describes the operational definition of pH.
Media with pH < 7 are characterized as acidic, whereas those The pH values of the standard solutions (of both primary
with pH > 7 as alkaline. The common pH range is between and secondary/operational standards), used in the operational
0 and 14 since cases with Hþ or OH concentrations higher definition of the pH of unknown solutions, are estimated by
than 1 M are not often encountered. It should be stressed that a direct measurements of the emf of cells similar to the one
standard pH reference value has been set by IUPAC with described earlier, following the methodology adopted by
respect to which primary and operational standard solutions IUPAC Recommendations 2002.
are further defined; this is the value of pH ¼ 4.21 for a
0.05 mol kg1 potassium hydrogen phthalate aqueous
solution.
Buffer Solutions
A (pH) buffer solution refers to an aqueous solution contain-
Operational pH Definition ing a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base or vice
The notional definition of pH according to hydrogen ion versa. The most outstanding characteristic of a buffer solution
activity (eqn [1]) is based on the fact that pH is accurately is its ability to keep its pH almost constant with the addition of
determined by pH-sensitive ion-selective electrodes, which, a small amount of strong acid or base. This is the reason that
strictly speaking, respond to activity rather to concentration buffer solutions are applicable in a variety of chemical pro-
changes. Ideally, the electrode potential, E, of a pH-sensitive cedures where the prevention of changes in the pH of a solu-
electrode follows the Nernst equation, which, for the hydrogen tion is needed. Many living organisms grow in a relatively
ion, can be written as small pH range, and in order to keep the pH constant, they
utilize a buffer solution (e.g., blood). This remarkable property
0 RT 0 2:303RT of buffer solutions is attributed to the presence of equilibrium
E¼E þ ln ðaHþ Þ ¼ E  pH [3]
F F between the acid HA and its conjugate base A:
where E is the measured potential, E0 is a formal electrode
HA ⇄ Hþ þ A - [5]
potential (i.e., the constant value of the electrode potential
for aHþ ¼1 and the specific electrode/solution conditions for According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the addition of a
each case), R is the gas constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin, small amount of strong acid to this equilibrium mixture will

Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00538-9 333

334 pH: Principles and Measurement

Table 1 Standard buffer solutions at 25  C concentration. Glass electrodes are the main components
of potentiometric sensors and are used in the determination
pH of univalent cations. The glass electrode used in pH
Buffer solution composition value
measurements has a glass bulb membrane with a typical
Potassium tetraoxalate (0.05 m) 1.68 three-component composition of 72% SiO2–22% Na2O–6%
Potassium hydrogen tartrate (saturated) 3.56 CaO (or 80% SiO2–10% Li2O–10% CaO for highly alkaline
Potassium hydrogen phthalate (0.05 m) 4.01 media).
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (0.025 m) þ disodium 6.87 The interaction of the protons in solution with the surface
hydrogen phosphate (0.025 m) of the glass membrane is based on the ion exchange property
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (0.08695 m) þ disodium 7.41 of the latter since, when its main silica component comes in
hydrogen phosphate (0.03043 m) contact with water, it is hydrated and dissociates to Si–O– and
Borax (0.01 m) 9.18
this in turn can be partially protonated:
Calcium hydroxide (saturated) 12.45
Si  O þ H3 Oþ ⇆ Si  O  H þ H2 O [6]
Source: Bates, R. G. (1964). Determination of pH: theory and practice (1st ed.), p. 123.
London: Wiley; Westcott, C. C. (1978). pH measurements, p. 81. Michigan: Academic The name of the glass electrode may be misleading to the
Press. nonspecialist operator in that two misconceptions may sus-
tain: that a pH meter contains a single electrode and that the
electrode material is made of glass. Both of these are obviously
force the equilibrium to shift to the left side of reaction [5]. In not true: glass is an ion conductor and not an electronic one
this way, the concentration of the hydrogen ion increases by (hence, it is not an electrode material) and a potential differ-
less than the amount expected for the quantity of strong acid ence can only be measured between two points (hence, there
added. On the other hand, if a portion of strong alkali is added are two electrodes in a pH meter). In reality, the voltage
to the mixture, the hydrogen ion concentration decreases by between the two sides of the glass membrane is measured
less than the amount expected for the quantity of alkali added, with the help of two electrodes immersed in the solutions on
since more protons are produced as reaction [5] is shifted either side of the membrane. In Figure 1, where (a) a simple
to the right. glass electrode coupled with a reference electrode and (b) a
Table 1 gives the characteristics of seven standard buffer combined system of them are shown.
solutions that cover the usually encountered pH range The glass electrode is made of a plain glass or plastic tube
(between  2 and 12). with the pH-sensitive specialty glass membrane (0.1 mm
thick) blown from its melt and sealed at the end of the tube.
The latter contains an internal standard acidity solution (typi-
cally 0.1 N HCl, sometimes with the addition of a AgCl satu-
Measurement rated solution too) and an internal reference electrode, REin
pH Meters (typically a Ag/AgCl salt-covered wire electrode). The glass
membrane is in contact with the test/sample solution, and in
pH is a measurable parameter and the electronic device that is
the plain configuration of Figure 1(a), the second external
used for measuring the pH of a liquid (or in special cases of
reference electrode, REext (again a Ag/AgCl electrode), is also
semisolid compounds) is called a pH meter. The most impor-
immersed in the test solution. Alternatively, the external elec-
tant component of a typical pH meter is its special measuring
trode can be placed in an external tube, concentric to the glass
probe (a glass electrode or, for special applications, an ion-
electrode tube and containing a KCl solution, which is in
selective field-effect transistor (ISFET)), which is connected to
contact with the test/sample solution via a porous ceramic
an electronic meter that measures and displays the pH read-
frit (Figure 1(b)); in that case, the system is termed as a
ing. All pH meters are calibrated against buffer solutions of
combination pH electrode. Hence, a pH meter consists of an
known hydrogen ion activity. The use of a set of buffer solu-
electrochemical cell that, in the case of a combinatorial system,
tions (operational pH standards) has been proposed by
can be denoted as
IUPAC.
A crude estimate of pH in laboratories can also be per- Ag=AgCl ðREin Þj0:1 N HCljglass membranejsample
formed by pH indicators and sometimes in connection with
solution ðHþ s ÞjjKCl solutionjAg=AgCl ðREext Þ
holographic pH sensors, which allow the measurement of pH
colorimetrically. with vertical lines signifying the interface between two different
phases and the double vertical line an electrolytic junction. The
measured potential, E, between the two cell terminals can then
Glass Electrode be written as
Construction and principle E ¼ Ein  DEm  DElj  Eext [7]
.The most widely used pH meter is based on the glass electrode,
which belongs to the large family of ion-selective electrodes, where Ein and Eext are the potentials of the reference electrodes,
that is, electrodes that contain a material sensitive to changes DEm the potential drop between the two sides of the glass
with respect to the concentration of ions in the test solution, membrane, and DElj the liquid junction potential drop at the
in such a way that the potential drop between the electrode electrolytic junction. Since Ein, Eext, and DElj are expected to be
and the outer surface of the material depends on this constant, eqn [7] becomes
 pH: Principles and Measurement 335

Ein Eext E
E Ein Eext

Ag/AgCl Ag/AgCl Ag/AgCl

internal RE external RE internal RE Ag/AgCl
external RE

KCl solution
0.1 N HCl
KCl solution
0.1 N HCl internal solution
Porous diaphragm
internal solution ([H+]in) ΔElj
([H+]in)

Sample solution ([H+]s)

ΔEm ΔElj Porous diaphragm
ΔEm
pH-sensitive glass
pH-sensitive glass
Sample solution ([H+]s)
(a) (b)

Figure 1 Schematic representation of a pH meter comprised of (a) a glass electrode coupled with a separate reference electrode and (b) a
combined system.

E ¼ Econst  DEm [8] Specialty glasses, rich in Li, partially alleviate this problem.
Other problems encountered include attack by high F levels,
The DEm potential drop is due to the development of dif-
noble metal deposition, protein deposition, and debris fouling
ferent surface concentrations of chemisorbed Hþ at opposite
of the ceramic frit. Cleaning the surface of a fouled glass
glass surfaces, as a result of the establishment of different
electrode can be done by brief immersion in HF, but
equilibriums for reaction [6], due to different bulk solution
nowadays, replaceable affordable glass membrane tips have
concentrations in the internal and sample solutions.
appeared in the market too.
This potential drop may be given by the Nernst equation for
the potential of a concentration cell:

RT ½Hþ in ISFET pH Sensors

DEm ¼ 2:303 log [9]
F ½Hþ s
Construction and principle
Taking into account that [Hþ]in is a constant and known There are certain applications for pH measurements where the
quantity and that for the sample solution it holds pHs ¼  log use of glass cannot be tolerated and miniaturization is also
[Hþ]s, eqn [9] becomes essential. Among these, food testing and biomedical testing are
the most usual cases where breaking of the thin glass mem-
0 RT
E ¼ Econst  2:303 pHs [10] brane of a glass electrode would be catastrophic and inclusion
F of the meter in a catheter is often needed. The first of these
indicating that the pH is a linear function of the measured requirements is fully met by nonglass pH electrodes, whereas
potential. the second one can be partially met if, together with a minia-
The specific form of the equation (y ¼ a þ bx) is behind the ture pH-sensing device, a miniaturized reference electrode is
need for a two-point calibration of glass pH meters, using two also used. The most typical nonglass electrodes (apart from the
buffer solutions of known pH values (typically around 4 Sb-based ones) are those based on ISFETs, which originated
and 7). It should be noted that, since the pH of standard from the metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors
buffers is reported with two decimal places accuracy, pH read- (MOSFETs) that are widely used in modern electronics.
ings should also be rounded to two decimals. A MOSFET consists of a semiconductor (e.g., a p-type Si)
As the resistance of such a cell (primarily due to the glass covered by a thin insulating layer of an oxide (e.g., SiO2) and
membrane) is very high (in the 107–109 Ω range), the corre- four metal terminals: the substrate (located at the free face of
sponding pH meter cannot be equipped with a common the semiconductor), the source and drain (located between the
voltmeter, but instead, a high impedance device is needed. other face of the semiconductor and the oxide), and the gate
The commercialization and widespread use of pH meters was (located on top of the oxide layer (Figure 2(a))). The applica-
only possible when cheap, miniaturized electronics, based on tion of an appropriate gate voltage VG changes the charge/
field-effect transistors, became available and were employed in conductivity of the semiconductor channel between the drain
the demanding electronic part of the device. and the source. For example, for an enhancement-mode MOS-
The most serious practical limitation of the common glass FET (where the semiconductor is not heavily doped) and for a
electrode is its inability to work at pH values above  11 as a p-type semiconductor, a positive VG bias above a certain
result of the ‘alkaline error,’ that is, the interference from alkali threshold value VT results in the mobile hole hþ intrinsic
metals such as Naþ and Kþ usually present in alkaline media carriers being pushed away from the oxide/semiconductor
and competing with Hþ for silica sites due to their similar size. interface into the bulk of the latter; this leaves behind a thin
336 pH: Principles and Measurement

– + – +
VG VG
– + – +

Gate Sample solution Reference electrode

Metal oxide insulator SiO2 metal oxide insulator

VD VD
n-channel n-channel
Source Drain Source Drain
lD lD

p-type semiconductor Si (p-type semiconductor)

Substrate

(a) (b)

Figure 2 Schematic representation of (a) a MOSFET device and (b) of a SiO2-based ISFET used for pH measurements.

electron-rich (n-type) channel between the gate and drain pH Indicators

terminals. If a positive bias, VD, between the drain and the
pH indicators are halochromic compounds, weak acids or
source is applied, then the electrons flow through the
bases, that occur as natural dyes and indicate the concentration
n-channel giving rise to a drain current, ID. For a constant
of Hþ (H3Oþ) ions in a solution through color changes. They
value of VD, this drain current depends on the gate bias VG
exist in the form of dissolved dyes, which are added directly to
(more accurately on expressions containing its difference from
the solution or dye-infused paper strips, which are dipped into
the threshold potential, VG  VT).
the solutions and then removed for comparison against a colo-
In an ISFET used as a pH meter, the gate electrode terminal
r–pH key. The general idea of pH indicator functionality is that
is replaced by a reference electrode, and the sample solution is
the nondissociated form of the indicator has a different color
between this electrode and the insulating oxide, which is pH-
than the ionic form of the indicator. It must be stressed that the
sensitive (e.g., SiO2, Si3N4Ox, Al2O3, or Ta2O5), as depicted in
color of the indicator changes over a range of hydrogen ion
Figure 2(b). (For other ion-sensitive ISFETs, there is an addi-
concentrations, which is called the color change interval. The
tional ion-selective membrane on top of the oxide layer.)
corresponding pH interval (for an acid indicator) is between
In an ISFET pH meter, changes in the pH of the sample
pKa þ 1 and pKa  1, where Ka is the indicator’s acid dissocia-
solution alter the surface potential of the oxide layer (via ion
tion constant. Equation [11] describes the dissociation of an
exchange reactions similar to [6]), which in turn modifies VT
acidic pH indicator HAind:
and, as a result, the drain current ID. There are two modes of
operation: a constant VG voltage operation whereby ID is mon-
HA ind þ H2 O ⇆ H3 Oþ þ A ind  [11]
itored via a current follower circuit and a constant ID current
mode, whereby the changes in VG needed to maintain a con- In eqn [11], HAind represents the acid form and A ind the
stant ID via a feedback circuit are recorded. In either case, the conjugate base of the indicator. It must be stressed that
measuring circuit need not be characterized by a very high the ratio of these determines the color of the solution and
impedance, as is the case of the potentiometric glass electrode. connects the color to the pH value. The weak protolyte pH
A practical implication of this is that the meters of a glass and indicators have a pH that can be calculated from the
an ISFET electrode are not interchangeable in a straightforward Henderson–Hasselbalch equation:
manner.
The voltage output of a pH ISFET (either after conversion to A
VT values or as directly related to changes of VG, depending on pH ¼ pKa þ log ind
[12]
HA ind
mode of operation) should theoretically follow a Nernstian
dependence on sample proton concentration. However, most From eqn [12], it can be deduced that in the case where
of the metal oxide materials used do not exhibit the Nernstian/ pH ¼ pKa, both acid and conjugate forms are present in a 1:1
maximum sensitivity of 59 mV dec1 (e.g., SiO2 has a ratio. When pH is above the pKa value, the concentration of the
30 mV dec1 value, Si3N4Ox has  55 mV dec1, and only conjugate base is greater than the concentration of the acid,
Ta2O5 approaches the theoretical value). and the color associated with the conjugate base dominates. In
The reduced sensitivity is perhaps the only drawback of the opposite case, where pH is below the pKa value, the con-
ISFET pH meters (the other is their higher cost) with respect verse is true. More precise measurements are possible if the
to the glass electrode. However, their nonfragile property color is measured by spectrophotometry. pH indicators work
(especially if a miniaturized reference electrode is also embed- efficiently at their designated pH range, and they are usually
ded in an all-plastic body), their fast response time, and their destroyed at the extreme ends of the pH scale due to undesired
ability to operate at extreme pH values make them the only side reactions. In Table 2, some common indicators are
viable solution for many applications. summarized.
 pH: Principles and Measurement 337

Table 2 Common pH indicators Living Systems

Indicator pH range Acid Base pH is extremely important for living systems through its role in
biochemical reactions. The pH of various parts and fluids of an
Thymol blue 1.2–2.8 Red Yellow organism is regulated by the acid–base homeostasis. For exam-
Pentamethoxy red 1.2–2.3 Red-violet Colorless ple, human blood should have a pH value in the 7.36–7.42
Methyl yellow 2.9–4.0 Red Yellow
range, mainly controlled by the bicarbonate/carbonic acid
Methyl orange 3.1–4.4 Red Orange
buffer. A pH change as low as 0.2 pH units can result in
Bromophenol blue 3.0–4.6 Yellow Blue-violet
Tetrabromophenol blue 3.0–4.6 Yellow Blue death (via acute acidosis or alkalosis).
Alizarin sodium sulfonate 3.7–5.2 Yellow Violet Certain definite pH values are needed for the activation of
Bromocresol green 4.0–5.6 Yellow Blue many enzymes in the body and the trigger of associated reac-
Methyl red 4.4–6.2 Red Yellow tions. The parts and fluids of the human body have pH values
Bromocresol purple 5.2–6.8 Yellow Purple that span the entire pH range, starting from gastric acid
Chlorophenol red 5.4–6.8 Yellow Red (pH ¼ 1.0), to human skin (pH ¼ 5.5), urine (pH ¼ 6.0), and
Bromophenol blue 6.2–7.6 Yellow Blue blood (pH ¼ 7.4), to pancreatic fluid (pH ¼ 8.1).
p-Nitrophenol 5.0–7.0 Colorless Yellow
Azolitmin 5.0–8.0 Red Blue
Neutral red 6.8–8.0 Red Yellow
Cresol red 7.2–8.8 Yellow Red
a-Naphtholphthalein 7.3–8.7 Rose Green
Food and pH
Thymol blue 8.0–9.6 Yellow Blue pH is also very important for foodstuff in many perspectives. It
Phenolphthalein 8.0–10.0 Colorless Red is a factor of major importance in water absorption,
Thymolphthalein 9.4–10.6 Colorless Blue
emulsification, and gelation of different protein sources. It
Nile blue 10.1–11.1 Blue Red
affects significantly the physical and chemical properties of
Alizarin yellow 10.0–12.0 Yellow Lilac
food ingredients such as proteins, sugars, and amino acids, to
Source: Bates, R. G. (1964). Determination of pH: theory and practice (1st ed.), mention a few.
pp. 138–139. London: John Wiley & Sons. The vast majority of foodstuffs, apart from egg whites and
soda crackers, have a pH value <7. Alkaline foods (pH > 7) are
limited, though the pH of some staple foods lies in the range of
4.5–7.0. Generally, foods that are products of plant origin have
a pH that is lower than those of animal origin. On the basis of
their pH, foods can be classified as high-acid (pH ¼3.7), acidic
Applications (pH ¼3.7–4.6), medium-acid (pH ¼4.6–5.3), or low-acid
(pH ¼ over 5.3). The pH of some food is listed in Table 3.
The measurement of pH is important for many applications in pH gives also information about food stability and preser-
medicine, biology, chemistry, agriculture, forestry, environ- vation. It can be used to retard microbial spoilage that could
mental science, oceanography, civil engineering, chemical happen in the presence of some pathogens such as bacteria,
engineering, water treatment and water purification, food molds, and yeasts. Microorganisms usually show their best
science, and nutrition. growth rate in the pH range of 6.5–7.5. Furthermore, the
growing capability of molds and yeasts lies in a much broader
pH range than that of microorganisms such as bacteria. In
consideration of the fact that almost all of the pathogenic
pH in Nature
agents and most of deterioration bacteria cannot grow at
The role of pH in nature is closely related to that of water, and pH < 4.5, foods are divided into two categories, which are
as such, it is extremely important for living organisms and the low-acid or acidic. The low-acid foods with pH > 4.5 are less
environment. The pH of natural water and soils controls the stable. Their stabilization by heat treatment demands a heat
form of life sustained in these environments. The pH of sterilization to remove all pathogens and corruption, including
the various parts of plants and living organisms defines their bacterial spores. Food acids, at pH < 4.5, are relatively stable.
function, whereas that of foodstuffs their taste and function Their stabilization by heat treatment needs less severe proce-
once in the food chain. dures, such as pasteurization, in order to eliminate mold, yeast,
Examples of the environmental importance of pH are acid and some acidophilic bacteria.
rain (a result of industrial pollution, with detrimental effects The reduction of pH of food products is usually necessary
on life and buildings) and ocean acidification as a result of and can be carried out using two methods. One of them is
increased carbon dioxide emissions (detrimental to living acidification, which is a direct method, and its aim is to lower
organisms in aquatic environments). Typical examples of bio- the pH by adding organic acids, such as acetic acid or vinegar
logical processes involving pH changes include the production and citric acid or lemon. The second method, which is an
of carboxylic acids, such as lactic acid by muscle activity, the indirect method, utilizes microorganisms for fermentation.
protonation of phosphate derivatives such as ATP, and the Fermentation is a food preservation procedure that uses
function of the oxygen-transport enzyme hemoglobin. Finally, selected nonpathogenic microorganisms producing acid or
an example of pH-related properties of foodstuff is the acidity alcohol to alter food organoleptic and/or antibacterial
of some juice fruits due to the presence of citric acid. characteristics.
338 pH: Principles and Measurement

Table 3 pH values of some foodstuffs Further Reading

Foodstuff pH Bates RG (1973) Determination of pH: theory and practice, 2nd ed. London: John Wiley
& Sons.
Apple, eating 3.30–4.00 Bergveld Em IrP (2003) ISFET, theory and practice. In: Proceedings of IEEE sensor
Bananas 4.50–5.20 conference, pp. 1–26. Toronto: IEEE.
Beans, vegetarian, tomato sauce, canned 5.32 Boron WF and Boulpaep EL (2005) Medical physiology: a cellular and molecular
Bread, white 5.00–6.20 approach. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders.
Bread, Boston, brown 6.53 Buck RP, Rondinini S, Covington AK, et al. (2002) Measurement of pH. Definition,
standards, and procedures (IUPAC Recommendations 2002). Pure and Applied
Bread, whole wheat 5.47–5.85
Chemistry 74(11): 2169–2200.
Cabbage 5.20–6.80 Covington AK, Bates RG, and Durst RA (1985) Definition of pH scales, standard
Carrots 5.88–6.40 reference values, measurement of pH and related terminology. Pure and Applied
Cauliflower 5.60 Chemistry 57(3): 531–542.
Cheese, Camembert 7.44 Janata J and Janata J (2009) Principles of chemical sensors. In: Modern analytical
Cheese, Cheddar 5.90 chemistry, 2nd ed. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, NY: Springer Science &
Cheese, Cottage 4.75–5.02 Business Media.
Cheese, Parmesan 5.20–5.30 Mendham J, Denney RC, Barnes JD, and Thomas MJK (2000a) Determination of pH.
Cherries, California 4.01–4.54 In: Vogel’s quantitative chemical analysis, 6th ed. New York: Prentice Hall.
Mendham J, Denney RC, Barnes JD, and Thomas MJK (2000b) The glass electrode.
Chicken 5.8–6.4
In: Vogel’s quantitative chemical analysis, 6th ed. New York: Prentice Hall.
Cornflakes 4.90–5.38 Myers RJ (2010) One-hundred years of pH. Journal of Chemical Education 87: 30–32.
Eggs, new-laid, whole 6.58 Prichard E and Lawn R (2003) Practical laboratory skills training guides. In: Prichard E
White 7.96 (ed.) Valid analytical measurement series, vol. 175. London: Royal Society of
Yolk 6.10 Chemistry.
Fish 6.5–6.8 Westcott CC (1978) pH measurements. Michigan: Academic Press.
Garlic 5.80
Grapes 2.80–3.80
Grapefruit 3.00–3.75
Honey 3.70–4.70
Relevant Websites
Ketchup 3.89–3.92
Lemon juice 2.00–2.60 http://www.fda.gov/Food/default.htm – U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Milk, cow 6.40–6.80 http://gr.mt.com/eur/en/home/supportive_content/specific_overviews/Measurement.
Milk, goat’s 6.48 html – Mettler-Toledo International Inc.
Milk, peptonized 7.10 http://www.nico2000.net/Book/Beginners_Guide.pdf – Nico2000 Ltd.
Mushrooms 6.00–6.70 http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/74/11/2169/ – International Union of Pure and
Mustard 3.55–6.00 Applied Chemistry.
http://www.radiometer-analytical.com/pdf/ph_theory.pdf – Radiometer Analytical Inc.
Olives, black 6.00–7.00
Onions 5.30–5.80
Oranges, Florida 3.69–4.34
Peaches 3.30–4.05
Peanut butter 6.28
Pears 3.50–4.60
Peas, chick 6.48–6.80
Peppers 4.65–5.93
Pineapple 3.20–4.00
Potatoes 5.40–5.90
Rice (cooked) 6.00–6.80
Salmon, fresh, boiled 5.85–6.50
Sardines 5.70–6.60
Soy Sauce 4.40–5.40
Soybean milk 7.00
Spaghetti, cooked 5.97–6.40
Spinach 5.50–6.80
Strawberries 3.00–3.90
Tea 7.20
Tomatoes 4.30–4.90

Source: US Food and Drug Administration; http://www.fda.gov/Food/default.htm.

See also: Acids: Natural Acids and Acidulants; Acids: Properties and
Determination; Biosensors; Fatty Acids: Determination and
Requirements; Fatty Acids: Fatty Acids; Nucleic Acids.