CHAPTER.

25

THE NAVTGATION PROCESS

INTRODUCTION

navigation system's optimum use varies as afunction of the

2500. Fundamentals
type of vessel, the quality of the navigation equipment on
board, and the experience ancl skill ofthe particular navigator'
This chapter emphasizes the operational aspects of
process For the watch officer, ensuring ship safety always takes
navigating in ih" op"n o""un. It is in this operational
judgment priority over completing operational commitments and car-
that an individual navigator's experience and
difficulty iying óut the ship's routine. This chapter discusses several
become most crucial. Compounding this subject's
optimum basic safety considerations clesigned to minimize the prob-
is the fact that there are no set rules regarding the
The ability of human error leading to a marine accident'
employment of navigational systems and techniques'

VOYAGE PLANNING

monic chart to plot a great circle routc between points and to

Voyage planning determines the safest and most effi-
determine the position of resulting track points' Transfer
cient tráck for the ship to follow to ensure that the vessel
these points to a Mercator chart as a succession of waypoints
completes its operational commitments' Constructing a
connected by rhumb lines. Figure 2501 illustrates this method'
planned track foi a voyage is fundamentally important for
This figure shows a great circle route plotted as a straight line
ship's safety. The commanding officer and the navigator
the on a gnomonic chart and as a series of points when trans-
must carefully review and approve the track followed by
ships' groundings have occurred feneJ to a Mercator chart. The arrows represent correspond-
conning officer. Several
track' ing points on the two charts.
becausé ofunauthorized deviations from an approved
An operation order often assigns a naval vessel to an
operating area. In that case, plan a track from the departure
2501. Constructing A Voyage Plan Track
to ttt" of the operating area to ensure that the vessel
"Og"
aithe operating area on time' Following a planned
a navigation computer' a great arrives
Construct the track using
or the sailings' This chapter will track inside the assigned area may be impossible because of
circle (gnomonic) chart,
computer and the great circle the dynamic nature of a planned exercise' In that case'
discuss only the navigation
the sailings' Use a navigation carefully examine the entire operating area for navigation
chart. Chapter 24 covers
because the computer eliminates hazards.If simply transiting through the area, the ship should
computer iione is available
inherent in transferring the track from still follow a planned and approved track'
the plotting errors
gnomonic to a Mercator projection'
2502. Following A VoYage Plan
When using a navigation computer' the navigator sim-
ply inputs the two endpoints of his planned voyage' The
Complete the planning discussed in section 2501 prior
computer computes waypoints marking the greatcircletrack
each to leaving port. Once the ship is transiting, frequently com-
between the two endpoints' The computer determines
pare the ship's actual position to the planned position and
track leg' s distance and, given a speed of advance' calculates
;djust the ship's course and speed to compensate for any
the tim-es the vessel can expect to pass each waypoint'
deviations. Order courses and speeds to keep the vessel on
Construct the track on the Mercator chart by plotting
the
waypoints and the tracks between them' track without significant deviation.
computer-generated
Often a vessel will have its operational commitments
ift"t ád.¡uttlng the track as necessary to pass well clear
changed after it gets underway. If this happens, begin
the
ofany hazard, choose a speed ofadvance (SOA) that ensures and
voyage planning process anew. Ensure the ship's navigator
the ship will arrive on time at any required point'
Given an
ship's planned hourly positions' upptou" the new ffackcorresponding to the new mission'
SOA, mark the track with the "upttin
points of inte¡rded movement The conning officer must understand that, unless transiting in an
These planned positions are achart
operating aráas discussed above, he shouldnevert¡ansiton
enn"). the SóA. chosen for each track leg is the PIM speeü üat does not have an approved track for him to follow'
If a navigation computer is not available' use a gno-
311
 312 THE NAVIGATION PROCESS

lc¡¡on¡loñicl
r=-----r--f I [,

MERCATOR

Figure 2501. Constructing a gl.cat c'ii.clr.tl.:rck on a Mlercator pro.lection.

VOYAGIT T}IT I'I'A I{ATION

2503. Equipment Inventory lirr irrr open ocean or coastal transit. Complete this prepara_
liorr wcll before using the chart to maintain the plot.
Prior to getting the ship underway, inventory all naviga-
tion equipment, charts, and publications. The navigak)r Correcting The Chart: Correct all applicable charts
should develop a checklist of navigation equipment specific: {lrlotrgl.r the latest Notice to Mctriners, Local Notice to
to his vessel and check that all required equipment is onboartl. Mari¡ters, and Broadcast Notice io Mariners. Ensure the
The navigator should have all applicable Sailing Directions, churt 1o be used is the correct edition.
pilot charts, and navigation charts covering his planncd
route. He should also have all charts and sailing direcfion tslotting Approved Track: Section 2501 above dis-
covering ports at which his vessel rnay call. He should havc cr"rsscs constructing the track. Mark the track course above
all the equipment and publications required to support celcs- lhc lrack line with a "C" followed by the course. Similarly,
tial navigation. Finally, he must have all technical documen- ¡ualk cach track leg's distance under the course line with a
tation required to support the operation of his electruuic "l)" lbllowed by the distance in nautical miles. Mark thepIM's at
navigation suite. hourly intervals, and mark the time conesponding to each pIM.
Complete this chart, publication, and equipment inven-
tory well before the underway date and obtain all rnissing CaBcuiaúing Minirnum Ex¡rected, Danger, And Warn-
iterns trefore sailing. ing Soundings: Chapter Eight discusses calculating mini-
mum expected, danger and warning soundings. Determin-
2504. Chart Pre¡iaration ing these soundings is particularly irnportant for ships pass-
ing a shoal close aboard. Set these soundings to warn the
Just as the navigator must prepare charts for piloting, he conning officerthathe is passing too close to the shoal. Mark
must also prepare his charts for an open ocean transit. The theminimum expected sounding, the warning sounding, and
following is a listof theminimum chart preparation required the danger sounding clearly on the chart and indicate the
 .THE
NAVIGATION PROCESS 1t1

section of the track for which they are applicabie. the entire navigation situation from the chart alone without
reference to the directive from which the chart was c<¡n-
lVlarking Allowed Operating Areas: This chart prepa- structed. Therefore, put all operationally important informa,
ration step is applicatrle to military vessels. Often an opera- tion directly on the chart.
tion order assigns a naval vessel to an operating area for a
specific period of time. There may be operational restric- Marking Chart Shift Points: If the transit will require
tions placed on the ship while within this area. For example, the ship to operate on more than one chart, mark the chart
a surface ship assigned to an operating area may be ordered points where the navigator must shift to the next chart.
not to exceed a certain speed for the duration of an exercise.
When assigned an operating area, clearly mark that area on Examining 50nm On Either Side Of Track: High-
the chart. Label it with the time the vessel must remain in the light any shoal water or other navigation hazard within 50nm
area and what, if any, operational restrictions it must follow. of the planned track. This will alert the conning officer as he
The conning officer and the captain should be able to glean approaches a possible danger.

NAVTGATIO}-I R.OUTINE AT SEA

2505. Frequency Of Fosition Deterrnination abie for maintaining an accurate ship's position during
periods when external fix sources arc unavailable.
The table below lists recommended fix intervals as a Always check a position detcrrnined by a fix, inertial
function of navigation phase: navigator, or DR by comparing thc chartcd sounding at the
position with the fathomcter rcarling. lf'the soundings do not
Pilotins Coastal con'elatc, invcstigatc thc cliscrcpancy.
Chaptcr Scvcn covcrs thc importance ol maintaining a
3 min. or less 3-15 min. 30 min" propcr I)lt . It lrcars rcpcating hcrc. Dcter¡nine the difference
hctwccn thc l'ix and thc DR positirnts atevery fix and use this
Shorten the suggested fix interval ifrequired to ensurt: infirrrnirtion to c¿rlculaLc an llll liom cvery DR. Constant
the vessel remains a/ Ieast twofix intervals.from thc neartsf a¡tplicirtion of-sct ¡rn<l tlrif t to thc DII is crucial if the vessel
danger. However, do not exceed the times rec<lmtnclltlctl rrrust ¡rass a known navigation hazard close aboard.
above. Choose afix interval thatprovidcs a suff icicnr saf oty
margin from all charted hazards. 25()l¡. F'athometer Operations
Use all available fix information. With thc aclvcnf of
accurate satellite navigation systcms, it is cspccially tcntpt- Use figure 2506 to clcvelop a standard procedure for
ing to disregard this maxim. However, the experienced operating the fathorneler.
navigator never feels comlortable rclying solely on onc
particular system. Supplement the satellite position with 2507. Ttre Modified Piloting Party
positions from l-oran, celestial sights, radar lines ofposition,
and visual observations. Evaluate the accuracy ofthe vari- If operating out of piloting waters but near a navigation
ous fix methods against the satellite position; when the hazard, station a modified piloting party. As the name
satellite receiver fails, the knowledge, for example, that implies, this team does not consist of the entire piloting
Loran fixes consistently plotted 1 nm to the west of GPS can paÍy" It could consist of only the navigator or assistant
be helpful. navigator, a plotter, and a recorder. Its purpose is to increase
Use an inertial navigator if one is available. The inertial supervision ofthe navigation plot in areas that could pose a
navigator may produce estimated positions more accurate hazard to the vessel.
than fix positions. Inertial navigators are completely inde- The navigator and captain should develop a standing
pendentofany external fix input. Therefore, they are invalu- order covering the stationing of a modified piloting party. A

Water l)epth Soundins Interval

Charted Water Depth < 100 ft. Monitor fathometer continuouslv.

100 ft. < Charted tYetgl !qplh<¡I0 ft. Take and record soundinss everv 15 minutes.
500 ft" < Charted Water Depth < 1000 ft. Take and record soundinss everv 30 minutes-
Charted Water Depth > 1000 ft Take and record soundings everv hour.

Figure 2506. Fathometer operating guidelines.

314 THE NAVIGATION PROCESS

good rule is to station the modified piloting party when 0800, 1200, and 2000 each day. Prepare these reports ap-
operating within 10 nm of a known hazard. proximately 30 minutes ahead of the time when they are due.
Use the DR positions for the time of the report. For example,
2508. Compass Checks prepare the 2000 position report at 1930 using the ship's
2000 DR position. Often the captain will require additional
Determine gyro compass error at least daily as part of information with these position reports. Some captains, for
the at-sea routine. Check the gyro compass reading against example, may want status reports on the engine room. Tailor
the inertial navigator if the vessel has an inertial navigator. each position report to contain the information the captain
Ifthe vessel does not have an inertial navigator, check gyro wants.
error using the celestial techniques discussed in Chapter 17.
Report any error greater than 1o to the navigator and com- 2511. Watch Relief Procedures
manding officer.
Check the gyro repeaters and the magnetic compass When a watch officer relieves as Officer of the Deck
against the gyro compass hourly and after each course (OOD), he assumes the responsibility for the safe navigation
change. When comparing themagnetic and gyro compasses, of thc ship. He becomes the Commanding Officer's direct
account for changes in variation and deviation. Report any represcntative in ensuring ship safety. As such, he must
repeater error greater than 1o to the commanding officer. prcparc himself fully prior to assuming the watch. The
following list contains those items that, as a minimum, the
2509. Commanding Officer's Night Orders And rclicving OOD must check prior to assuming the watch.
Standing Orders
. Conduct a Pre Watch Tour: The relieving OOD
The Night Order book is the vehicle by which the should tour the ship prior to his watch. He should
captain informs the officer ofthe deck ofthe captain's orders lamiliarize himself with any maintenance in progress.
for operating the ship. The Night Order book, despite its He should check for general cleanliness and stowage.
name, can contain orders for the entire 24 hotx period after He should order any loose gear that could pose a
which the CO issues it. safety hazard in rough seas secured.
The navigator may write the Night Orders pertaining to
navigation. Such orders include assigned operating areas, . Check the Position Log and Chart: Check the type
maximum speeds allowed, required positions with respect to and accuracy of the ship's last fix. Verify that the
PIM, and, regarding submarines, the maximum depth at navigation watch has plotted the last fix properly.
which the ship can operate. Each department head should Ensure there is a properly constructed DR plot on the
include in the Night Order book the evolutions he wants to chart. Examine the DR for any potential navigation
accomplish during the night that would normally require thc hazards. Check ship's position with respect to the
captain's permission. Thecaptain can add furtherorders and PIM. Ensure that the ship is in the correct operating
directions as required. When the captain signs the Night area, if applicable. Check to ensure that the naviga-
Orderbook, itbecomes an official orderto the OfficeroftheDcck. tion watch has properly applied fix expansion in
The Officer of the Deck must not follow the Night accordance with the navigator's instructions.
Orders blindly. Circumstances under which the captain
signed the Orders may have changed, rendering some evo- . Check the Fathometer Log: Ensure that previous
lutions ordered impractical to complete. The Officer of thc watches have taken soundings at required intervals
Deck, when exercising his judgment on completing orderccl and that the navigation watch took a sounding at the
evolutions, must always inform the captain of any deviation last fix. Verify that the present sounding matches the
from the Night Orders as soon as such a deviation occurs. charted sounding at the vessel's charted position.
The Commanding Officer's Night Orders are in effcct
only for fhe 24 hours after they are written; his Standing . Check the Compass Record Log: Verify that the
Orders are continuously in force. The captain sets the ship's navigation watch has conducted compass checks at
navigation policy in these orders. He sets required fix the proper interval. Verify that gyro error is less than
intervals, intervais for fathometer operations, minimum 1" and that all repeaters agree within lo with the
CPA's, and other general navigation and collision avoidance master gyro.
requirements. The Officer of the Deck must follow the
Commanding Officer's Standing Orders at all times. Report " Read the Commanding Officer Night Orders:
any deviation from these orders immediately to the Com- Check the Night Order Book for the captain's direc-
manding Officer. tions for the duration of the watch.

2510. Position Reports " Check Planned Operations: For any planned opera-
tions, verify that the ship has met all operational
Ifthe captain requires position reports, deliver them at prerequisites, that the ship is in the correct operating
 THE NAVIGATIONPROCESS 315

area, and that all watchstanders have reviewed the relieve the watch. The on watch OOD then should brief the
operation order. If the operation is a complicated one, relieving OOD on the following:
consider holding an operations brief with applicable
watchstanders prior to assuming the watch'
. Vessel's present course and speed.
. Vessel's present depth (submarines only)-
. Check the Broadcast Schedule: Read any message
. Any evolutions planned or in progress'
traffic that could have a bearing on the upcoming
. The status ofthe engineering plant'
watch. Ifthe ship is on a broadcast schedule, find out
. The status of repair on any out of commission equip-
when the radio operator received the last broadcast ment that effects the ship's operational capability.
(military vessels only). Determine if the radio opera-
. Any orders from the Commanding Officer not ex-
pressly given in the Night Orders.
tor has any messages to transmit during the watch'
" Status ofcargo (merchant vessels only).
. Ascertain the Contact Situation: Check the radar
. Any hazardous maintenance planned or in progress'
and sonar contact picture, if so equipped' Determine
. Any routine maintenance planned or in progress'
which contact has the closest CPA and what maneu-
. Any planned shiP's drills.
vers, if any, will be required to open CPA' Find out
from the offgoing OOD if there have been any bridge- the relieving OOD has no questions following this
If
to-bridge communications with any vessels in the brief, then he should relieve the watch. Upon relieving the
watch, he should announce to both the helmsman and the
area. Check that no CPA will be less than the mini-
mum set by the Commanding Offrcer's Standing Orders' quartermaster that he has the deck and the conn. The quar-
termaster should log the changc of watch in the ship's deck
. Review Watchstander Logs: Review the log read- 1og.

ings for all watchstanders. Note any out of specifica- Watch officers should not relieve the watch in the
tion readings or any trends in log readings indicating middle of an evolution or when casualty procedures are
that a parameter will soon go out of specification' being carried out" Relieve the watch only during a steady
state operational and tactical situation. This ensures that
After conducting the above listed checks, the relieving there is watchstander continuity whcn carrying out a specific
OOD should report to the on watch OOD that he is ready to evolution or combating a casualty.

THE DAY'S WORK IN CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

The advent of accurate electronic and satellite naviga- 5. Calculate an azimuth o[the sun for a compass
tion systems has relegated celestial navigation to use solely check. The navigator normally obtains an azi'
as a backup navigation method. Seldom if ever will a ship
muth at about the same time as he takes a
undertake an ocean transit relying only on celestial naviga- morning sun observation. He may also check
the compass with an amplitude observation at
tion. Therefore, the navigator need not follow the entire
routine listed below if celestial navigation is not his primary sunrise.
navigation source. Use only the steps of the celestial day's 6. Observe the sun at local apparent noon. Cross
work that are necessary to provide a meaningful check on the the resulting LOP with an advanced morning
sun line or with a longitude determined at LAN
primary fix source's accuracy' Should the electronic naviga-
tion system fail, however, and should celestial navigation for a fix or running fix.
become the primary means of navigation, this section pro- 1. Reduce a sun sight during the afternoon. This
is primarily for use with an advanced noon sun
vides a comprehensive procedure to follow'
line, or with a moon or Venus line, if the skies
are overcast during evening twilight.
2512. Celestial Navigation Ro¡¡tine
8. Calculate an azimuth of the sun for a compass
check at about the same time as the afternoon
Complete a typical day's work in open celestial naviga-
sun observation. The navigator may replace
tion as follows:
this azimuth with an amplitude observation at
sunset.
1. Plot the dead reckoning position.
2. Reduce celestial observations for a fix during 9. Reduce celestial observations for a fix during
moming twilight. evening twilight.
3. Wind the chronometer and determine chro-
nometer error. Chapters "l ,17 , and20 contain detailed explanations of
4. Reduce a sun sight for a morning sun line' the procedures required to carry out this routine.
376 THE NAVIGATION PROCESS

POSITION PLOTTING SHEET

aa
'/,,,

/900 /)P l+.9)

Figure 2512.Typical celestial plot at sea.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SMALL CRAFT

2513. Navigation Of Small Craft Directions, and binoculars.

All craft venturing offshore should carry a properly
In principle, the navigation of small craft is the same as registered EPIRB and VHF radio. L,oran C, Omega, and GPS
that of larger vessels. However, because of a small craft's receivers a¡e available; boats thatfansitoutof sightofland should
shallower draft, greater maneuverability, and possible limi- have at least one ofthese.
tations of equipment and expertise, there are important If thecraftis toproceedoutof sightof land formorethan
differences. Small craft often spend most of their time within short intervals, celestial navigation equipment should be
sight of land, and their navigation is largely a matter of aboard. This equipment should include a sextant, an accurate
piloting. They generally are close enough inshore to reach timepiece, a means of receiving time signals, an almanac,
safety in case of storm or fog. Since most of them are and sight reduction tables. Celestial navigation calculators
primarily pleasure craft, there is a tendency for their navigation or computer programs are also useful.
tobe aless professionalprocess than in commercial ormilitary A small craft navigator of limited experience may
craft. underestimate the importance of professional navigation.
Regardless of the nature of the craft, it should carry the However, his vessel's safety depends on his skill. He must
minimum safety equipment required by the U.S. Coast plan his track and know his position at all times. Small craft
Guard. In addition to this Coast Guard mandated safety navigation also requires a complete, accurate, and neat plot.
equipment, a small craft should also carry a compass, charts, Where this is impractical because of heavy weatherorlimited
plotting devices, speed 1og, tide tables, Coast Pilot or Sailing plotting space, use a careful log and dead reckoning plot.
 THE NAVIGATION PROCESS 311

CONCLUSION

2514. The Importance Of The Navigation Process position enroute are fundamental concepts of safe naviga-
tion. A mariner should never feel comfortable unless he is
Navigating a vessel is a dynamic process. Schedules following an approved track plotted on a corrected chart on
change; missions change. Planning a voyage is a process that which he has frequently updated his position.
begins well before the ship gets underway. Executing fhat plan Developing and implementing such a routine is only half
does not end until the ship ties up at the pier at its final destinaüon. of the battle. Watchstanders must follow approved procedures.
Develop a navigation process encompassing the prin- U.S. Navy grounding reports and U.S. Coast Guard accident
ciples discussed in this chapter. Carefully planning a routc, reports attest to the danger courted when a vessel disregards
preparing required charts, and closely monitoring the ship's basic navigation safety.