Antena-Activa-HF - 2018 - DST-Group-TR-3522 PDF

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A High Performance Active Antenna

for the High Frequency Band
Wayne Martinsen
Cyber and Electronic Warfare Division

Defence Science and Technology Group
DST-Group-TR-3522
ABSTRACT
The design of an active antenna with an operational frequency range from low- to
high-frequency is presented. The main cause of inter-modulation distortion is
identified and recommendations are given to minimize their generation. A detailed
analysis is carried out into the various sources of noise generated within the active
antenna and how their summation affects the total noise seen at the output. Lightning
protection is also discussed.
RELEASE LIMITATION
Approved for public release
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Produced by

DST Group Edinburgh
PO Box 1500
Edinburgh SA 5111
Telephone: 1300 333 362
 Commonwealth of Australia 2018

August 2018
AR-017-263
APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE
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Executive Summary
This report describes the design of a high performance high frequency (HF) active antenna
starting from the antenna rod and finishing with the output buffer stage which drives the
co-axial transmission line feeding a receiver. The main source of inter-modulation
products is identified and steps that can be taken to reduce their magnitudes are described
and implemented. Internal noise generated within the design, which can limit the
antenna’s sensitivity, is also examined in detail and the main source of this noise identified
across the antenna’s usable frequency range. Recommendations are given on how to install
these types of antennas in an antenna site with the resonance formed by the mast together
with the active antenna readily calculated. Operating an active antenna at frequencies
higher than this resonance will result in a monotonic decrease in sensitivity.
The completed design is a compact receive only active antenna covering the frequency
range from LF to HF. It is broadband with a constant antenna factor over this frequency
range. It can be used to measure the vertical E field strength of a signal, perform general
surveillance work (either fixed or vehicle mounted) or used to create a quickly deployable
antenna array for the geo-location of signals in the HF band.
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Author
Wayne Martinsen
Wayne Martinsen was indentured as an apprentice communications technician in 1972

with Transport Communications Pty. Ltd. (Buranda, Qld.). He attended Yeronga
Technical College (Brisbane, Qld.) where he received honours in the majority of his
subjects. In 1975 his apprenticeship indentures were transferred to The Radio Centre
(Archerfield Aerodrome, Qld.) where he was employed as an Air Maintenance Engineer,
Category Radio. He was involved in all aspects of repair and maintenance of avionics
systems associated with the light aircraft industry. Upon completing his training as an
apprentice he sat for and passed various Dept. of Transport Licensed Air
Maintenance Engineer (L.A.M.E.) exams. In 1977 he joined the R.A.A.F. and after
graduating from their School of Radio, where he received training in military systems, he
worked on a wide variety of airborne communications, navigation and anti-submarine
warfare systems. In 1987 he was discharged from the R.A.A.F. and took up the position of
Technical Officer (Engineering) at Defence Science and Technology Group. Here he is
tasked with the design and development of R.F. circuits required for tropospheric and
ionospheric research.
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Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1
2. ACTIVE ANTENNA DESIGN ......................................................................................... 3

2.1 Design Criteria .......................................................................................................... 3
2.2 The Input stage .......................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 PCB Layout Capacitance ........................................................................ 7
2.2.2 Choosing the FET configuration ........................................................... 7
2.2.3 Minimising Intermodulation Distortion .............................................. 9
2.2.4 Approximating the Output Third Order Intercept Point of a
Class A Transistor Amplifier ............................................................... 10
2.2.5 The Main Cause of Distortion Products ............................................. 12
2.2.6 JFET’s Bias Altered by a Large Input Signal ...................................... 14
2.2.7 Static Electricity and Lightning Protection ........................................ 16
2.2.8 Suppression of Parasitic Oscillation caused by the Antenna Rod .. 17
2.3 The Output Buffer Stage ....................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Changes needed to suit a 75 ohm system .......................................... 20
2.3.2 Testing the buffer amplifier ................................................................. 20
2.3.3 The need for a 50 ohm output impedance and the associated 6 dB
loss ........................................................................................................... 20
2.3.3.1 A Note About Passive Broadband Receive Antennas ...................... 25
2.4 +15V Voltage Regulator ......................................................................................... 25
2.5 The Final Circuit ..................................................................................................... 25
2.6 Installation Recommendations ............................................................................ 28
2.6.1 Antenna and Mast Resonance ............................................................. 34
3. CALCULATING THE EXPECTED OUTPUT NOISE ............................................... 36

3.1 V 1 the noise generated by the circuitry connected to the JFET’s gate ........... 37
3.2 V 2 , the noise internally generated by the JFET ................................................. 40
3.2.1 The effect the input of the buffer amplifier on E FET .......................... 41
3.2.2 Justifying the fixed forward gain of -6.4 dB and the particular
construction of the RFC ........................................................................ 45
3.2.3 V 3 the noise generated by the output buffer stage active devices .. 45
3.3 Calculating the output excess noise .................................................................... 50
3.4 Summary of internal noise generated within the active antenna .................. 51
4. PERFORMANCE TESTING ........................................................................................... 52

4.1 Frequency Response ............................................................................................... 52
4.2 Measured Output Intercept Points ...................................................................... 53
4.3 Calculated and Measured Antenna Factor ......................................................... 56
4.4 Calculating the Active Antenna’s Noise Figure ................................................ 58
4.5 Spurious Free Dynamic Range (SFDR) .............................................................. 60
4.6 In Summary .............................................................................................................. 62
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5. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 64
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. 65
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1. Introduction
Broadband vertical monopole type antennas used for omni-directional surveillance, high
frequency (HF) site noise measurement and direction finding (DF) arrays are generally
made of long metallic rods or tubes. Such antennas are intrinsically quiet. It is only their
distributed DC resistance, usually in the order of a few ohms, which generates noise. This
noise is small when compared to the noise generated by the receiver’s internal resistive
termination, typically 50 ohms. The majority of HF noise seen at the terminals of these
types of receiving antenna is that which has been induced into the antenna from noise
energy propagating in free space. 1 The 377 ohms characteristic impedance of free space,
which is usually thought of as being made up of distributed inductance and capacitance,
cannot by itself generate noise. Pure reactance does not generate noise. Noise propagating
in free space is due to a noise source coupling its energy into free space via some
rudimentary antenna.
The noise voltage induced into a vertical monopole HF antenna suitably matched to a
receiver by the noise propagating in free space will generally far exceed the noise
generated by the DC ohmic resistance of the metal of the antenna itself and is usually also
greater than the internal noise generated within most modern HF receivers. As a
consequence this external HF noise is usually the factor which limits the sensitivity of a HF
receiving system.
A problem with these antennas when used in a DF array is the mutual coupling between
antennas which induces bearing errors in the direction of arrival of signals. It is their
physical height, some six to ten metres high, with typical antenna spacing varying from
seven to seventeen metres which makes these antennas so easy to couple energy into one
another. A solution to the mutual coupling problem is to use an antenna that has a short,
thin metallic rod terminated into a high impedance. A short thin rod minimises the
antenna profile thus reducing the mutual coupling between antennas. The high
terminating impedance reduces the induced current flowing between the rod and ground
system minimizing antenna re-radiation which again reduces the mutual coupling
between antennas. All that is needed is a transconductance amplifier to convert the
induced voltage appearing across the high impedance load into a signal capable of driving
a 50 ohm transmission line. What has just been described is more commonly known as an
active antenna.
Active antennas are of interest to anyone who wants a compact receiving antenna for the
broadband reception of signals from long waves to approximately 50 MHz. They are ideal
for general omni-directional surveillance work or can be used to measure the E field
strength of a signal. Their lack of pre-selection filtering makes these antennas susceptible
to the generation of intermodulation products by strong signals appearing anywhere
1 The exception to this are antennas which have a very low radiation resistance where this resistance is close to
or less than the DC resistance of its metallic structure and the receiver’s input impedance has been matched to
this low radiation resistance. These antennas generally have physical dimensions that are very small when
compared to the operating wavelength.
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within their operational frequency range. The causes of the intermodulation products and
steps that can be taken to minimize their generation will be addressed in the design.
A problem with a short rod as used with active antennas is the resultant induced voltage
from a site’s background noise may not be sufficient to overcome the internal noise
generated by the active antenna’s transconductance amplifier circuitry. This would make a
receive system using this type of antenna internally noise limited. It is for this reason that
active antennas are not recommended for site noise measurements unless it can be proven
the site to be measured is externally noise limited throughout the range of frequencies to
be measured under all seasonal and sunspot cycle conditions.
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2. Active Antenna Design

There are many designs for active antennas that can be found in literature and chief
amongst the designers concerns is the spurious products generated by strong RF signals;
high power AM broadcast stations in the AM band (530 KHz to 1600 KHz) are the main
causes of intermodulation products. Most of these designs are based on the U310 JFET.
This JFET is well known for its performance in the design of active antennas and is the
active component of choice for this design. Due to the many variations in which the U310
has been used in this role and the lack of adequate documentation clearly defining
performance, it is not clear which circuit configuration produces the best result. A more
detailed analysis than can be found in literature is therefore required.
2.1 Design Criteria
The aim is to design an active antenna that has:
Minimum frequency range of 2 – 30 MHz: This frequency range should easily be

met. The only expected frequency limitation is the -6dB/order/octave of the reactive
components (inductors and capacitors) used and the gain-bandwidth product of the
active devices.
Circuitry with the lowest practicable internally generated noise: Every active
semiconductor device used in a circuit is a source of excess noise. This excess noise is
one of the factors which limit the sensitivity of a system. Their use must therefore be
kept to a minimum. Carbon based resistors for example are known for their large
excess noise and will not be used. Metal film resistors with their very low noise levels
are the preferred type. Some ceramic low K SMD and lead type capacitors have been
found to exhibit popcorn type noise. These types of capacitors will not be used in the
through path of the signal. Silver mica capacitors have extremely low effective series
resistance and extremely high shunt resistance. As a consequence, they have very low
levels of internally generated noise. These capacitors will be used in the noise critical
area of the U310 gate circuitry.
Highest possible second and third order intercept points: Active devices are the
main limitation in this area. They must be selected for their linearity as well as being
used appropriately. Some form of push-pull output stage will be used to help
suppress the even order distortion products.
Broadband 50 ohm output impedance: The output impedance of some active antenna
designs found in literature is of the order of a few ohms. This gives an approximate
6dB increase in output signal level when used in a 50 ohm system, which is probably
its main attraction. The input impedance of some receivers is not necessarily a
broadband 50 ohms. Some receivers have tracking pre-selection filters which only
present a nominal 50 ohm termination to the passband signals. Out-of-band signals
are reflected back to the active antenna via the 50 ohm co-ax where they are reflected
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back to the receiver by the few ohms output impedance of the active antenna.
Multiple reflections of unwanted signals can cause degradation of the intercept points
of both the active antenna and the receiver in such a scenario. This can be minimised
by making the output impedance of the active antenna a broadband 50 ohms thereby
absorbing and dissipating as heat any reflected signals from the input of the receiver.
A more detailed discussion is given in section 2.3.3.
Smallest antenna factor (k) without resorting to the use of a voltage gain amplifier.
The antenna factor k is the E field strength in V/m surrounding the antenna divided
by the antenna’s terminated output voltage.
E
k= and expressed in decibels K = 20 log k (2.1)
Vout
where: k = antenna factor

K = antenna factor expressed in dB
E = strength of E field (V/m)
V out = terminated antenna output voltage (V)
HF active antennas are generally very broadband devices covering a frequency range
from LF to low band VHF frequencies (approx. 30 KHz to 50 MHz). Any electronic
amplifier used in an active antenna must be able to handle the vector sum of all the
signals residing in this frequency range without creating distortion products. The two
factors that affect the magnitude of V out in equation (2.1) for a given E field strength
are:
1. the length of rod used to sample the E field and
2. the electronic gain applied to the magnitude of voltage induced into the
length of rod.
Both 1 and 2 above have a directly proportional relationship with V out . Either
doubling the rod length or the electronic gain will double V out . It was highlighted in
the introduction that passive antennas are generally intrinsically low noise devices.
This implies that antenna gain is preferred over electronic gain in communication
systems, especially in antenna sites with very low external noise. For example, a
passive antenna’s gain is not characterised by the 1dB compression point, intercept
points or spurious free dynamic range. The magnitude of noise appearing at the
output of an electronic amplifier is dependent upon its active devices internally
generated noise (noise factor), bandwidth, gain and its distortion products described
via the amplifier’s 1dB compression point, intercept points and spurious free dynamic
range. In the case of an active antenna, a balance is needed between antenna gain (rod
length) and electronic gain of the transconductance amplifier used to convert the
voltage at its high impedance input into a current at its low impedance output. Too
much rod length in the presence of strong E fields can overdrive the electronic
amplifier and generate unwanted distortion products. Too much electronic gain has a
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similar effect. Preference will be given to the intrinsically noise free and distortion free
gain obtainable by increasing the rod length with the amplifier being designed to
maximise its spurious free dynamic range at the expense of electronic gain.
2.2 The Input stage
There is a problem with the local bird wildlife on the antenna test site. Sulphur Crested
Cockatoos and Galahs are quite at home hanging onto very thin structures while
destructively pecking at anything that looks interesting to them. Long thin vertical rods
used in the past have been bent and in some cases snapped off by these birds either
skylarking in the test site or through crashing into them whilst in full flight. A 1.2m long
tapered stainless steel antenna rod designed for VHF mobile communications was
purchased to combat this menace. This tapered rod (2.45 mm at the bottom to 1.25 mm at
its tip) can have its ends brought together to form a circle and, when one end is let go,
springs back to its original straight shape. This rod will be used for the antenna.
In order to understand the impact the rod will have on the design of the active antenna it
is first necessary to define the rod’s electrical equivalence. At frequencies below the rod’s
natural resonant frequency the rod’s input impedance will appear as a small capacitor
with its associated distributed inductance in series with a resistance, see figure 2.1(a).
Rr
Rr Ldis RDC
Ldis RDC rod
base
rod Ca
base Rin
Eheff Cin active
Ca antenna
ground ground
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1 (a) schematic representation of a short vertical rod antenna above a ground plane and
in (b) voltage generator created by a time varying E field and the effective height of the
rod connected to the input circuitry of the active antenna shown in the dashed box
The capacitance will be the true capacitance measured at some low frequency which will
increase in value as the frequency is raised due to the distributed inductance associated
with the length of the rod. This increase in value of capacitance with frequency is more
commonly known as apparent capacitance. The apparent capacitance to ground of a short
vertical rod over a perfectly conducting ground plane is given as [ref. 4, ch. 16 pg. 3 to 6]:
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55.78h
Ca =
 h     f h  
2
 ln a  − 1 1 −  71.32  
      
(2.2)
The resistance is the series combination of the radiation resistance R r plus the DC ohmic
resistance R DC of the metal. The radiation resistance can be calculated by:
1.44 h 2 f 2
Rr =
312 (2.3)
where: R r = radiation resistance (Ω)

h = height of rod (m)
f = frequency (MHz)
C a = rod apparent capacitance to ground (pF)
a = rod diameter (m).
Equations (2.2) and (2.3) were used to calculate the expected values for the 1.2 m rod over
the HF band, see figure 2.2. Calculating the impedance using Z = (Rr + RDC )2 + X Ca
2
will
show the impedance very closely follows the calculated reactance of the apparent
capacitance to ground. The radiation resistance and DC resistance (R DC ) have very little
impact over the frequency range of interest can therefore be ignored.
Capacitance and radiation resistance of rod 1.2m long 2.45mm dia.
20 10
18 9
16 8
14 7
12 6
rod capacitance
pF 10 5 ohms radiation resistance
8 4
6 3
4 2
2 1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
MHz
Figure 2.2 Capacitance (upper trace) and radiation resistance (lower trace) of a 1.2 m vertical rod
2.45 mm diameter above a perfectly conducting ground plane
Figure 2.1(b) shows the voltage generator created by a passing E field and the rod’s
connection to the input of the active antenna. The total input circuit capacitance of the
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active antenna C in , and C a form a capacitive divider sharing the output voltage from the
generator in proportion to their reactance ratio. C in must therefore be made as small as
possible to maximize its reactance and hence the voltage appearing across its terminals.
Some active antenna designs increase the value of C a by fitting a capacitive top hat to the
vertical rod thus increasing the voltage drop across C in . The total input circuit resistance of
the active antenna R in ,(which is in shunt with C in ) is to be made as large as possible
relative to the maximum reactance value of C in for the same reason. C in and R in also have
an effect on the LF (Low Frequency) RF noise generated by the active antenna’s input
circuit. This is covered in detail in section 3.
2.2.1 PCB Layout Capacitance
Care needs to be taken to arrange the PCB layout so as to minimise undesirable parasitic
capacitance. FR4 for instance has an ε r (relative dielectric constant) of approximately 4.7.
Any PCB layout using this type of or simular substrate must use tracks that are short and
very thin with a substrate thickness as thick as possible in an effort to reduce layout
capacitance to ground. The preferred layout method, and that used by this author, is the
“in air three dimensional point to point wiring on a copper ground plane”, also known as
the “dead bug” or “ugly bug” technique in some texts. It produces the lowest distributed
capacitance to ground and hence minimises C in . Only the active antenna’s input circuitry
between the antenna rod base and the input lead to the first active device need be wired in
this fashion. The output of the first active device and subsequent circuitry can tolerate the
few extra pF added by the PCB tracks due to their much lower circuit impedance.
2.2.2 Choosing the FET configuration
FETs with their high gate input impedance are the logical choice for use as the first active
device. There are two possible design configurations that suit the requirement.
1. common source: The common source configuration is generally associated with

voltage gain (A v ) which is approximated by:
RL
Av = (2.4)
1
+ RS
g fs
where: R L = total load resistance seen by the drain (Ω)

R S = un-bypassed FET source resistance (Ω)
g fs = common source forward transconductance (S)
Any voltage gain in an RF circuit requires higher intercept points to keep

unwanted distortion products of strong signals below the circuit noise floor.
Higher intercept points generally indicate higher 1dB compression points and
correspondently higher quiescent current. Higher current capability means
larger FET channel dimensions and as a consequence larger internal distributed
capacitances within the FET. C in can now become large relative to C a reducing
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its voltage drop and sensitivity. Common source configuration will not be
considered any further for this application.
2. common drain: The voltage gain (A v ) of a common drain (source follower) is

given by [ref. 7, pg. 58]:
Vout g fd RL
Av = =
Vin 1 + g fd RL
(2.5)
where: g fd = common drain forward transconductance (S)

R L = total load resistance seen by the JFET source (Ω)
The voltage gain being less than unity eases the need for large channel
dimensions in the FET giving rise to a smaller gate capacitance. Hence, a
common drain configuration with its high input impedance and low output
impedance will be used for the current design. Other equations that are useful in
designing common drain amplifiers are:
Rin X in  X in 
Z in = θ = arctan  
Rin2 + X in2  Rin  (2.6)
1
Ro ≈ Rs
g fd
(2.7)
I d = g fdVg
(2.8)
where: Z in = input impedance seen at the FET’s gate terminal (Ω)

C in = total input shunt capacitance of FET input circuitry (F)
X in = total input shunt capacitive reactance of FET input circuitry (Ω)
R in = total input circuit shunt resistance of FET (Ω)
f = frequency (Hz)
θ = phase angle (degrees)
R o = output resistance seen at the FET source lead (Ω)
R s = un-bypassed source resistance (Ω)
I d = FET’s drain current (A)
V g = input signal voltage drop across R in (V)
= in parallel with
The corner frequency for a common drain amplifier is [ref. 2, pg. 113]:
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1 g fd
f out = =
2 πrds C out 2 π C out (2.9)
1
rds =
g fd
(2.10)
C out = C gs + C ds + C load + C stray

(2.11)
where: r ds = FET’s internal resistance between source and drain leads (Ω)
C out = total output capacitance (F)
C gs = capacitance between the FET’s gate and source leads (F)
C ds = capacitance between the FET’s drain and source leads (F)
C load = capacitance of the load connected to the FET (F)
C stray = stray circuit capacitance (F)
2.2.3 Minimising Intermodulation Distortion
All discrete solid-state electronic amplifying devices generate distortion products at their
outputs when a signal is applied to their inputs. In the case of the JFET, the main cause of
distortion is the variation in the forward transconductance when the drain current is
changed. There are many factors that can cause a change in drain current. The two that
have the greatest impact of the generation of distortion products are:
1. the application of an input signal which causes the current to swing about the
bias point
2. the bias point varying through the effects of a large input signal.
It should be noted that due to the reverse bias of the gate/source junction and the very low
leakage current associated with this reverse bias, the same current flows in the drain lead
as in the source; therefore the common drain transconductance (g fd ) is the same as the
common source transconductance (g fs ).
Figure 2.3, obtained from [ref. 8], is a plot showing the dependence of g fs on drain current
for the U310 JFET. Before this figure can be examined in detail it is first necessary to derive
an approximate formula for the prediction of distortion products in active semiconductor
devices.
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Figure 2.3 Variation in transconductance with I D for the U310 JFET from [ref. 8]
2.2.4 Approximating the Output Third Order Intercept Point of a Class A

Transistor Amplifier
The following derived formula can be used to approximate the output third order
intercept point of a single ended class A transistor amplifier. It assumes a conjugate match
between the transistor and load.
The product of V CE and I C gives the total power dissipated by an active device. Assuming
25% efficiency for a class A amplifier gives an expected output 1 dB compression of (V CE I C
/4). Typically an amplifier’s output third order intercept point is located 10 to 15 dB above
its 1 dB compression. Taking 13 dB as approximately midway in the range of 10 to 15 dB,
the power multiplier for approximating the output third order intercept becomes
 13 
anti log10   = 20 . Combining this with the expected 1 dB compression point gives
 10 
 20VCE I C 
10 log10   and finally, by specifying the current to be in mA and not amps
 4 
converts the result from dbW to dBm. The final equation is:
OPIp 3 ≈ 10 log10 (5VCE I C ) (2.12)
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where: OPIp3 = output third order intercept point (dBm)

V CE = voltage between collector (or drain) and emitter (or source) (V)
I C = collector (or drain) current (mA)
Equation (2.12) shows the distortion in a transistor is minimised by allowing the transistor
to draw as much current as possible with the highest V CE (consistent with a safety margin
from the manufacturer’s absolute maximum ratings). The manufacturer’s maximum
power rating for the U310 is 500 mW. Operating the JFET at approximately 400 mW
should give adequate head room making allowance for component tolerances and the
U310 de-rating of 4mW/oC above 25oC. A drain voltage of +15V with a drain/source
current of approximately 30 mA was chosen. The 1.17V bias required to draw 30 mA will
be derived by the voltage drop across a 39 ohm resistor placed between the source lead
and ground. Two series connected Radio Frequency Chokes (RFC) will be inserted in
series with source resistor to prevent the 39 ohms from loading the wanted RF signals.
Series connecting two chokes this way reduces the total associated distributed capacitance
for a given inductance and reduces the ferrite losses. These losses are seen as a high value
shunt resistor across each RFC and by connecting these two ferrite losses (high value shunt
resistor) in series reduces the power lost through heating the ferrite thus increasing the
overall combined inductor Q. This ensures the RFC’s presents the highest impedance over
the broadest frequency range. The expected power dissipated by the JFET is the
drain/source current multiplied by the drain/source voltage, 0.03(15-1.17) = 415 mW.
Measures will be taken to dissipate this heat to keep the JFET as cool as possible. The
approximate OPIp3 via (2.12) is 10Log 10 (5*(15-1.17)*30) = +33 dBm.
The JFET was connected as seen in figure 2.4 (a) with a load resistor (R L ) of 50 ohms and
the forward gain was measured to be -6.3dB at 8 MHz. The single RF generator was
replaced with an RF two tone generator (7 MHz and 11 MHz) and the following output
parameters measured, OPIp3 = +30 dBm and OPIp2 = +32 dBm.
+15V
+15V
D D
Cgd
Vin
G
Vin
50 50 Vin 50
50 Cgs Cds rds rds
39 RL
2Vin S
RFC S
RL VRL
39 RL VRL
RFC
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.4 (a) Test setup for initial measurements of the JFET, (b) Thevenin equivalent model
of the FET, (c) Simplified circuit
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2.2.5 The Main Cause of Distortion Products
In order to take measures to improve these intercept points of the JFET, it is first necessary
to understand the main causes of the JFET’s internally generated distortion products.
Figure 2.3, taken from [ref. 8], highlights the variation in the JFET’s g fs with drain current.
The drain current will vary in a direct relationship to the magnitude of the input signal,
assuming the bias is held constant.
The approximate output impedance for a U310 JFET with an I D of 30 mA was calculated
by extrapolating the manufacturer’s data sheet to derive a value of 18 mS for the g fs and
via equation (2.10) returns a value of 55 ohms. The data in figure 2.3 was further
extrapolated to create the equivalent drain current range of 2 to 60 mA. Equation (2.5) was
used to plot figure 2.5 which shows the variation in voltage gain of a U310 common drain
amplifier with two load resistors, 55 ohms and 5K7 ohms.
The choice of 5K7 ohms will become clear later but for the current purposes assume it is an
arbitrary value many times larger than the JFET’s drain/source internal resistance of 55
ohms for the intended operating bias. Another way of looking at figure 2.5 is, the steeper
the gradient the larger the magnitude of distortion products for a given range of g fs . The
ideal is to have no variation in gain with variations in drain current i.e. a horizontal line.
Of the two plots seen in figure 2.5 it is the 5700 ohm load that is the closest to a horizontal
line and hence would produce the least amount of distortion.
1.1
0.9
0.8
Voltage gain
55 ohms
0.7
5700 ohms
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
gfs (Siemens)
Figure 2.5 Variation in voltage gain with two load resistances over a g fs range 0.01 to 0.02
Siemens equivalent to a U310 drain current swing in the range between 2 to 60
mA
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In order to get a clearer picture of the mechanism which creates the gradient, figure 2.4(a)
has been redrawn into its Thevenin equivalent model in (b) and then simplified in (c). The
magnitude of the voltage seen at the source can be approximated as follows. If R L is made
very large relative to r ds then very little current can flow around the circuit; equation (2.10)
gives the relationship between r ds and g fd . The voltage appearing across R L will therefore
reflect the open circuit voltage of the internal voltage generator. The ratio of V RL to V in is
given by equation (2.5) as
Vout VRL g fd RL
Av = = =
Vin Vin 1 + g fd RL
re-arranging to solve for V RL gives,
g fd RL
VRL = Vin
1 + g fd RL
and by making R L very large relative to r ds simplifies to
VRL ≈ Vin
The voltage appearing at the source of the JFET is therefore approximately equal to V in .
If the value of r ds in figure 2.4(c) is held constant and R L = r ds then the voltage seen across
the load resistor R L would be a smaller but faithful reproduction of V in and readily
calculated by,
RL
VRL = Vin
RL + rds (2.13)
In reality, r ds is not constant. Equation (2.10) was used to generate figure 2.6. It shows the
variation in r ds with g fs . Applying a sine wave to the gate of the JFET will show that r ds will
decrease in value in line with the magnitude of the positive excursions of the wave and
increase with the magnitude of the negative. Inserting these variations in r ds for the 360
degree conduction angle of a sine wave into equation (2.13) shows the positive half of the
sine wave will be slightly larger in magnitude than the negative half. This asymmetrical
distortion generates spurious products in proportion to the magnitude of the input signal
and is a reason why large signals in the HF band generate spurs in a JFET input active HF
antenna.
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variation of rds with gfs
120
100
80
rds in ohms
60
40
20
0
0.01 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.02
gfs (Siemens)
Figure 2.6 Variation in r ds resistance over the g fs range of 0.01 to 0.02 Siemens, equivalent to a
U310 drain current swinging between 2 and 60 mA
This simplistic view of how distortion products are generated within the JFET channel is
far from complete; however it is a sufficient analogy for the purpose of improving the
design of an active antenna based on a JFET. There are two things that this analogy points
to that can reduce the generation of distortion products. They are,
1. find a FET that has the smallest ohmic variation in r ds with a given change in
drain/source current and,
2. make R L as large as possible in comparison to r ds to reduce the effects that the
variation in r ds has on the voltage dropped across the load resistor R L .
Small ohmic variations with given changes in drain current imply the use of power FETs.
These devices however have large gate capacitances and would de-sensitise the active
antenna by shunting the RF signal to ground via this capacitance. Small signal FETs have
much smaller capacitances but have large values of r ds with proportionally larger
variations with changes in drain current. The U310 JFET is a good compromise between
these two dilemmas.
2.2.6 JFET’s Bias Altered by a Large Input Signal
The bias applied between the gate and source leads of the JFET can be altered if an input
signal of sufficient magnitude is applied to the gate that overcomes the reverse bias of the
diode between the gate and source leads inherent in the JFET’s manufacture. Figure 2.7(a)
shows the circuitry immediately attached to the JFET. The components in the dashed box
are the circuit equivalent of the buffer’s input impedance. In figure 2.7(b) the internal
resistance between the drain and source leads (r ds ) is shown broken into two parts with the
diode junction of the gate connected to where they are joined. The gate terminal is
physically closer to the source connection on the JFET’s channel than it is to the drain. This
makes the resistance of the forward biased gate-source path measurably smaller than the
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gate-drain; a useful point to remember when trying to identify the leads of a JFET in the
absence of the manufacturer’s data sheet. The reverse bias of the gate-source junction is
approximately 1.17 volts and is set by the voltage drop across the 39 ohm source resistor
by the 30 mA source current. The peak of the positive portion of an input signal must
exceed this voltage for the gate-source diode to conduct. It is unlikely that the vector sum
of all the signals induced into the 1.2 metre rod antenna will approach this value under
normal operating conditions. The two most likely causes for this internal diode to conduct
are:
1. close-in lightning strikes and,
2. the active antenna co-located with an RF transmitter.
The positive excursions of signals that are sufficient in magnitude to force the JFET’s
internal diode into conduction will deposit a charge across the 0.2 uF coupling capacitor to
the buffer; the charge being deposited at a rate governed by the RC time constant where R
= 5700 ohms and C = 0.2 uF. This charge and subsequent discharge, via approximately the
same RC time constant, will increase the JFET’s quiescent bias reducing the source current.
The same positive excursion of signals causing gate current to flow will also charge the
two series connected 220 pF between the antenna rod and the gate. The charge time
constant of the equivalent 110 pF in series with the 5700 ohms input resistance of the
buffer amplifier is very short. The discharge time constant however is considerably longer.
When the forward conduction of the gate/source junction ceases the discharge time
constant becomes 110 pF and the 4.7 Mohm gate bias resistor. The current flowing through
the 4.7 Mohm resistor from the charge on the capacitor produces a voltage on the gate
which is negative with respect to the chassis ground effectively reducing the current flow
through the JFET. Equation (2.12) indicates the JFET’s 1 dB compression point will be
reduced dragging down with it the JFET’s second and third order intercept points.
Unwanted distortion products will therefore increase in magnitude until the bias is
restored to its quiescent state.
+15V
+15V 0.1uF
D
0.1uF
220pF 220pF D 220pF 220pF
G S rds
0.2uF G
4M7 39 4M7
S
16pF 0.2uF
5700
RFC 39
16pF
5700
RFC
(a) (b)
Figure 2.7 (a) circuitry attached to the JFET, (b) the diode junction internal to a JFET
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Distant and close-in lightning strikes with their energy spread across a very wide
bandwidth are easy to discern and with a duration of only a fraction of a second are an
accepted interference to any receiver operating from LF to HF frequencies. The reverse
biased protection diodes in the JFET’s gate circuitry limit the magnitude of signal voltage
from a close-in lightning strike that can be applied to the JFET. However, the gate-source
internal diode will start to conduct before the limiting diodes start to work. A lightning
flash is usually made up of many strokes and the JFET’s bias is expected to return to
normal in approximately five RC time constants 5*0.2E-6*5700 = approximately 6 mS after
the last stroke. The other RC time constant affecting the gate bias is the discharge of the
two series connected 220 pF capacitors in the JFET gate circuit. They will discharge in
5*110E-12*4.7E6 = approximately 2.6 mS.
There are no filters within the design of an active antenna beyond the 6 dB/octave of the
distributed capacitance to ground of the active antenna’s input circuitry and the frequency
response of the active semiconductor devices. These types of antennas are wide open to RF
energy from LF to the lower part of the VHF band. A high power transmitter co-located
with an active antenna can be keyed on/off as required or be continually on. If the RF
voltage induced into the rod is of sufficient magnitude to forward bias the JFET’s internal
diode, then as before the JFET’s source current will decrease. This will cause
intermodulation products to be generated. If the receiver connected to the active antenna
is not tuned to where these distortion products will fall in frequency then a pronounced
increased in noise floor will be noticed for the duration in which the transmitter is
operating desensitising any receiver connected to it. Care needs to be taken when
installing any active antenna in an antenna site to ensure there is adequate distance
between an active antenna and any transmitters.
2.2.7 Static Electricity and Lightning Protection
The fine weather electric field vector at ground level is in the order of 100 V/m with the
Earth negatively charged and the atmosphere above the Earth being positively charged
[ref. 9, pg. 313]. Clear air can support a charge which increases the fine weather field
sometimes to a magnitude where breakdown can occur giving rise to the “bolt from the
blue” phenomenon [ref. 9, pg. 24]. FET input active antennas, with their very high DC
input resistance between the antenna rod and ground, need protection from the static E
fields that can develop a charge across the distributed input capacitance of the antenna
exceeding its static voltage rating. A 4M7 resistor connected between the base of the
antenna rod and ground is used to bleed away any normal charge build-up. A gas
discharge tube with a spark-over voltage of approximately 90 V is placed in parallel with
the 4M7 resistor for those infrequent occasions when a charged mass of air deposits a
charge faster than the 4M7 resistor can bleed it away. The gas discharge tube also serves as
the front line defence by shunting to ground the energy induced into the antenna rod from
a nearby cloud to ground lightning strike. Silver mica DC blocking capacitors connected
between the base of the antenna rod and the JFET’s gate terminal prevent the voltage drop
across the 4M7 resistor through the bleeding of the antenna charge from altering the
JFET’s bias point.
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JFET input active antennas are generally broadband devices that are capable of responding
to RF energy from LF to low band VHF frequencies. A cloud to ground lightning strike
consists of multiple pulses of discharge current and has a large portion of its energy
spread over this frequency range. Active antennas need protection from these large
induced time varying voltages. Two 220 pF 350 volt silver mica capacitors are connected in
series between the antenna rod and the gate of the JFET. Silver mica capacitors have very
low internally generated noise and the combined 700 volt rating is many times the spark-
over voltage of the gas discharge tube. The junction of the two capacitors has a pair of
reverse biased microwave diodes biased at half the Vcc rail. These diodes are considerably
faster than the JFET that they are protecting and protect the JFET’s gate from large voltage
excursions whose magnitude is insufficient to fire the gas discharge tube. The combined
110 pF capacitance of the two 220 pF silver mica capacitors connected in series together
with the measured 13 pF of the JFET input circuitry form a voltage divider which reduces
the signal level appearing at the base of the rod antenna by 1dB when it is coupled via this
circuitry to the JFET’s gate. This small insertion loss, which increases the active antenna’s
noise figure by 1 dB, is an acceptable price to pay for lightning protection.
2.2.8 Suppression of Parasitic Oscillation caused by the Antenna Rod
Figure 2.8 is the schematic of the input circuitry of the active antenna. The 22 ohm resistor
in series with the JFET’s gate is a VHF parasitic stopper and is required to prevent the
JFET from breaking into lowband VHF oscillation when an antenna rod is connected to the
JFET’s input circuitry. Oscillations usually occur at a frequency just above the natural ¼
wave resonance of the antenna rod. This is where the rod appears as an inductance which
resonates with the circuit’s distributed capacitance forming a Colpitts oscillator. A more
detailed explanation on how this oscillator is formed is given in section 3.1. The value of
resistor is dependent upon the JFET, circuit layout, antenna rod length and the completed
antenna’s installed environment. This resistor may need to be increased to suit a different
physical layout or a much longer antenna rod length. The total capacitance seen at the gate
terminal of the JFET is in the order of 6 pF. The capacitive reactance of this capacitance at
30 MHz is 884 ohms. The 22 ohm resistor installed in the series path of this high reactance
will have minimal effect on the circuit’s overall performance.
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+Vcc
1.2m 0.1uF RFC

rod
10K
10K HP5082-2800
2M2 220pF 0.1uF
SM 22
0.1uF
220pF U310 to buffer
4M7 SM 4M7 amplifier
GDT 39
HP5082-2800
RFC
RFC
Figure 2.8 Input circuitry of the active antenna
2.3 The Output Buffer Stage
The output buffer stage must have:

• an input impedance as high as possible to minimise the distortion products
generated within the JFET
• operate over a minimum frequency range of 2 to 30 MHz with constant gain
• have a broadband 50 ohms output impedance to control any reflected waves from
a receiver and,
• some sort of push-pull configuration to help suppress the even order distortion
products.
Several push-pull configurations were tried before settling on the design as seen in figure
2.9. This design produced the highest OPIp2 and OPIp3 points at the cost of a -6 dB
amplifier gain. The complementary pair of transistors should have their current gains (β)
matched in order to maximise the suppression of the even order distortion products.
Because the transistors are used as emitter followers (voltage gain less than one), and the
approximate 3.6 ohms output impedance seen at the transistor’s emitter is loaded by a 96.4
ohm un-bypassed emitter resistor, then a fair spread in β can be tolerated when matching
transistors. Had the transistors been connected to give a voltage gain (common emitter)
then much more stringent requirements would be required when matching transistors.
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+15V
0.1uF
27K
2N2222A
0.1uF 12pF
RDS
55
U310 2K7
JFET 100 1uF
68K
100
2K7 RL
50
0.1uF 12pF
2N2907A
27K
Figure 2.9 Output Buffer circuitry
Figure 2.10 Measured return loss at the output terminal of the completed active antenna
The input impedance of the buffer was measured and can be represented as a 5K7 ohm
resistor in parallel with a capacitance of 16 pF. This is the load that will be connected to the
output of the JFET input stage as seen in figure 2.8. Figure 2.10 is the buffer amplifier’s
measured output return loss of -28 dB at 1 MHz improving to a minimum of -40 dB from
4.5 MHz to 30 MHz indicating the output impedance of the buffer is a broadband 50 ohms.
The 12 pF capacitor across the paralleled emitter resistors is to compensate for the output
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circuit’s distributed inductance. This will need to be finely adjusted if the physical
component layout is changed in any way.
2.3.1 Changes needed to suit a 75 ohm system
The output impedance can easily be changed from 50 ohms to suit a 75 ohm system if this
is preferred. All that is required is for the un-bypassed emitter resistor parallel
combination of 100 and 2K7 as seen in figure 2.9 to be replaced with the parallel
combination of 150 and 6K2. The 12 pF frequency compensation capacitor will need to
have its value reduced slightly and is best done with the aid of a network analyser in the
high frequency part of the HF band on the finished design.
2.3.2 Testing the buffer amplifier
The buffer amplifier was connected as seen in figure 2.11 with a 50 ohm termination
resistor installed at its input. The forward gain at 8 MHz was measured to be -6.3 dB. In
figure 2.12 the red top trace is the input from a signal generator as applied to the buffer
stage input and the bottom blue trace the output. Note the 2 dB/division scale and the
output follows the input from 1 MHz to approximately 50 MHz. The gain slowly increases
from -6.3 dB at 50 MHz to -5.3dB at 100 MHz.
The single RF generator was replaced with an RF two tone generator (7 MHz and 11 MHz)
and the following output parameters measured, OPIp3 = +56.5 dBm and OPIp2 =
+110dBm. These figures exceed the measured parameters of the JFET input stage and
therefore will not be the limiting factor in the completed cascade design.
2.3.3 The need for a 50 ohm output impedance and the associated 6 dB loss
The input impedance of most modern receivers is usually specified as ‘nominally 50 ohms’
implying the input impedance may wander with frequency in this vicinity. This is
especially true if tracking pre-selection filters have been employed in an effort to control
the generation of unwanted spurs. Figure 2.13 is the measured input impedance at 7 MHz
of a R&S EK890 HF receiver when it was set to receive a 7 MHz signal. Notice the real
component is only 21 ohms with a small amount of series inductance of approximately +j2
ohms; a second EK890 receiver measured 32+j3 ohms at the same frequency.
RF energy reflected back to the active antenna from the receiver can have an appreciable
effect on the system gain, phase and generated distortion products; the system being the
active antenna connected to a long length of co-axial cable whose other end is connected to
the input of a receiver.
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+15V
0.1uF
27K
2N2222A
0.1uF 12pF
50 50
2K7
8MHz 1uF
0dBm 100
68K
100
2K7 RL
50
0.1uF 12pF
2N2907A
27K
Figure 2.11 The output buffer circuitry test setup
Figure 2.12 Frequency response of the output buffer circuit, ∆ marker at 8 MHz
Red: input signal level into buffer input
Blue: buffer output
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Figure 2.13 Measured input impedance of 21+j2 ohms seen at the antenna input of a R&S EK890
receiver when tuned to 7 MHz
Some designs for active antennas freely available in the public domain e.g. on the internet,
do not have an output impedance matching the transmission line connecting the antenna
to the receiver, usually 50 ohms, and the output is taken directly from the emitters of the
push-pull pair. Figure 2.9 has been reconfigured to reflect this and is seen in figure 2.14.
This configuration’s output impedance is about 1.8 ohms. The main attraction for
connecting the output buffer this way is the voltage gain approaches unity when used in a
50 ohm system. This is equivalent to an approximate 6 dB increase in output signal level
when compared with a stage that has been matched to the transmission line. If the
assumption is made that the input to the receiver is a constant broadband 50 ohms then
figure 2.15 is the simulated expected system frequency response with a 30 m length of
ideal co-ax between the active antenna and the receiver; notice the flat gain and linear
phase change with frequency and the voltage gain just slightly less than one.
This however is not reality. Figure 2.13 shows the EK890 receiver has an input resistance
of 21 ohms at 7 MHz. While this resistance will vary as the receiver is tuned to other
frequencies, a fixed input resistance of 21 ohms will be used as an example of how
standing waves from the receiver can alter the system voltage gain and phase with
frequency. The input impedance of the receiver in the simulation model was changed from
50 ohms to 21 ohms and figure 2.16 displays the result.
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+15V
0.1uF
27K
2N2222A
0.1uF 1uF
100 2K7
68K
100 2K7
0.1uF 1uF
2N2907A
27K
Figure 2.14 Output buffer circuit. The output impedance of this configuration is approximately
1.8 ohms
Figure 2.15 Phase(red left scale) and magnitude (blue right scale) response with frequency of
receiving system with output buffer output Z = 1.8 ohms, 30 m of ideal 50 ohm co-ax
connecting to a receiver input Z = 50 ohms
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Figure 2.16 Phase (red) and magnitude (blue) response with frequency of receiving system with
output buffer output Z = 1.8 ohms, 30 m of ideal 50 ohms co-ax connecting to a
receiver input Z = 21 ohms
The mismatch between the ideal 50 ohm transmission line and 21 ohms input resistance of
the receiver has reflected some of the RF signal back to the output of the buffer stage
where the mismatch between the transmission line and the 1.8 ohms buffer output
impedance re-reflects this signal back to the receiver. The magnitude of the reflected signal
diminishes with each reflection as a portion of the signal is dissipated in the output of the
buffer amplifier and the receiver. The termination at the ends of the co-ax that is closest to
50 ohms will dissipate most of the reflected signal. The 1.8 ohms output impedance of the
buffer amplifier will therefore re-reflect most of the reflected energy back to the receiver
where it is algebraically summed with the current forward wave. As can be seen in figure
2.16, the result is a significant gain and phase variation with frequency.
Figure 2.17 Phase (red LH side, degrees) and magnitude (blue RH side, dB) response with
frequency of receiving system with output buffer output Z = 50 ohms, 30 m of ideal
50 ohm co-ax connecting to a receiver input Z = 21 ohms
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The simulation was reconfigured to reflect figure 2.11, an active antenna with a broadband
output impedance of 50 ohms and a receiver input resistance of 21 ohms. The simulation
carried out again resulting in the response of figure 2.17. Here the reflected wave from the
receiver whose input resistance is 21 ohms is totally absorbed by the 50 ohm output
impedance of the buffer amplifier resulting in a 0.05 dB ripple with frequency at the
receiver input; note the smooth phase response.
2.3.3.1 A Note About Passive Broadband Receive Antennas

While this simulation was aimed at active antennas it is also relevant to passive broadband
receive antennas; for example, the elevated feed monopole. The input impedance of these
antennas, which is the output impedance when used to feed signals to a receiver, varies
with frequency and may never be 50 ohms throughout its operational frequency range. It
is for this reason that a broadband pre-amplifier should be placed directly at the antenna’s
output terminals so the 50 ohms output impedance of the amplifier drives the co-axial
cable which feeds the receiver. While an amplifier’s output impedance is usually affected
by its input termination and the magnitude and type of feedback employed within the
amplifier, the variation in the amplifier’s output impedance with frequency will be
considerably less than that of the antenna to which it is connected to and also much closer
to the required 50 ohms. This would minimise unwanted changes in phase and magnitude
should the receiver’s input impedance vary with frequency.
2.4 +15V Voltage Regulator
Some three terminal voltage regulators are quite noisy. Their dynamic output impedance
in the vicinity of an ohm makes it quite a daunting task to filter out the internal noise
generated from such a low impedance source. The LM317LZ three terminal regulator has
an acceptable noise level especially when used with a PNP current boost transistor. PNP
transistors are known for their low 1/f noise [ref. 13 pg. 353].
The +15V voltage regulator seen in the final design has been designed to be low noise. Its
regulated output is filtered via separate RF chokes before being connected to the input and
output buffer stages. This ensures the noise performance of the final active antenna is
limited by those two stages and not by the noise contribution of the voltage regulator. A
steering diode (S1G) is used for reverse polarity protection.
2.5 The Final Circuit
Figure 2.18 is the final circuit of the active antenna. The entire prototype circuit was built
into the lid of a IP66 rated diecast aluminium box measuring 64x58x34mm using “in air
three dimensional point to point wiring” on a copper ground plane made from a piece of
FR4 PCB material, see figure 2.19.
Figure 2.20 shows the recessed BNC connector. This protects the connector from damage
caused by rain. Note the 1 mm hole drilled in the high point of the recess to allow the air
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pressure to equalise with temperature changes. An earlier version of this active antenna
which did not have this hole sucked in rain water when the cool rain rapidly dropped the
temperature of the box. Figure 2.21 is the completed assembled antenna. The machining on
the right is to locate the U bolt used to attach the antenna to a metal post.
2N2907A
2K2
LM317LZ 10uF
+15V out in 33 35V
adj
S1G
rod 0.1uF RFC 10uF RFC 240
1.2m 10uF 2K7
10K +15V@30mA +15V@20mA
RFC
10K HP5082-2800
2M2 220pF 0.1uF 0.1uF
SM 22 27K 12pF
220pF U310 2K7

4M7 SM 4M7
0.1uF 100 1uF
GDT 39 50V
68K 2N2222A R.F. Output
HP5082-2800 2N2907A 100
0.1uF 2K7
RFC
Ground Radials
12pF
27K
RFC
Forward Voltage Gain = 0.476 (-6.45dB)
O/P Excess Noise = 6.5dB = -167.5dBm/Hz
Zo = 50 ohms
RFC:- 30T 38SWG BN-43-2402 (approx. 1.5mH)
GDT:- Gas Discharge Tube, EPCOS, B88069X190S102
Figure 2.18 The final circuit of the active antenna
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Figure 2.19 Point to point wiring of the active antenna. The two yellow series connected silver
mica capacitors are in the foreground
Figure 2.20 View from the bottom showing Figure 2.21 Assembled antenna with rod
the recessed BNC connector
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2.6 Installation Recommendations
There are three general methods that can be used to install an active monopole antenna at
a site.
1. ground level on a metallic mat or radial ground plane.
2. elevated above the ground with the active antenna’s outer metal case electrically
connected to the top of a metal pole with no metallic ground plane at its base,
figure 2.22.
3. elevated above the ground via a metal pole with a radial type or wire mesh ground
plane at the pole base, figure 2.23.
If a radial ground mat is used then it should consist of a minimum of 16 radials. For the
antenna setup described in figure 2.23 which was used in all field trials, h 1 = 1.2 m, h 2 = 1.2
m and h 3 = 0.3 m. The length of each of the 16 radial wires forming the ground plane was
ah 1 + h 2 ≈ 1.7 m; where the factor a is derived in section 2.6.1.
An RF current choke, figure 2.25 and 2.26, should be inserted in series with the co-axial
line at the point where the ground radials end. This effectively turns the outer braid of the
co-ax between the output of the active antenna and the current choke into a 17th ground
radial. A current choke is also installed on the outside of an earthed co-ax cable entry
panel into the RF hut, see figure 2.24. The twisted pair of enamel covered wires used to
make the co-axial cable RF current chokes should have a characteristic impedance the
same as that of the co-axial cable being used to connect the active antenna to the receiver.
The RF current choke at the cable entry panel prevents RF currents induced into the outer
braid of the co-axial cable from flowing towards the earthed cable entry panel inducing a
differential voltage between the inner and outer conductors of the co-ax. The outer braid of
the co-ax would otherwise act like a horizontal monopole antenna with the high current
point being at the earthed cable entry panel. Figure 2.27 is the response of the active
antenna installation before the RF current chokes were fitted. In figure 2.28 the RF current
chokes have been fitted as per figure 2.24. Notice the suppression of the two resonances
and also the general suppression of unwanted currents below approximately 6.5 MHz.
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1.2m rod
h1
active
antenna
h2
co-ax cable
current choke
ground
h3
h3
Figure 2.22 Recommended installation for a given mast height and rod length for an active
antenna; note the position of the co-axial current choke.
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1.2m rod
h1
active
antenna
star picket / metal pipe
h2
coax cable
16 x equally spaced ground

radials attached to base of
star picket
co-ax cable
current choke
ground
ah1 + h2 h3
Figure 2.23 Recommended lengths of ground radials for a given mast height and rod length for
an active antenna
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16 x radial ground wires
grounded cable entry

panel into RF hut
receiver co-ax cable co-ax cable

current choke current choke
co-ax cable from
RF hut RF hut active antenna
interior exterior
Figure 2.24 Recommended installation for an active antenna
co-ax outer braid

small metal box insulated from
metal box
this end to RF hut 50 ohm co-ax
current choke
50 ohm co-ax this end to run
or active antenna of co-ax cable
current choke:- 10T ECW28swg bifilar BN-43-202
Figure 2.25 Construction details of current choke
Figure 2.26 RF current choke housed is a small metal box. Note the isolated BNC connector on
the right hand side
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Figure 2.27 Active antenna response with no RF current chokes fitted

Figure 2.28 Active antenna response with co-axial current chokes fitted at ground radial end
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Figure 2.29 Active antenna response from 10 KHz to 6 MHz with (cyan trace) and without
(green trace) the co-axial current chokes fitted. Notice the magnitude of the AM
stations are relatively unchanged. The red trace is the response with the Tx loop
disabled.
Figure 2.29 was included to demonstrate effectiveness of the RF current chokes and how
the magnitudes of the AM radio broadcast radio stations below 1.8 MHz are relatively
unchanged with their insertion. The magnitudes of these signals are dependent upon the
state of the AM modulation at the instant of sampling. Of importance is the level of noise
in the space between the signals. The test set-up was based on a 20 m/side equilateral
triangle with the RF hut, broadband Tx test loop [ref. 12, appendix F] and active antenna at
each of the points of the triangle. There was 23 metres of co-ax cable between the Tx loop
and the RF hut and 20 metres of co-ax between the active antenna ground radial end and
the hut. The active antenna’s co-ax was connected to the cable entry panel; the co-ax from
the Tx loop entered the RF hut through a crack in a doorway on the opposite side of the
hut to the cable entry panel. The Tx loop’s co-ax cable had ‘clip-on’ ferrite beads
functioning as RF chokes at 1 metre spacing to control radiation from the cable’s outer
braid from the Tx loop inducing currents into its own feeding co-ax.
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At 6 MHz and below all points in the test set-up are in the near field of the Tx loop. This
would simulate an active antenna’s receiver and associated co-axial feed in an electronic
rich installed environment, i.e. racks of electronic equipment some with switch mode
power supplies. The green trace shows signals being induced into the outer braid of the
co-ax creating a differential voltage between the co-ax’s inner and outer conductors. The
cyan trace show’s how effective the RF current chokes are at suppressing these near field
signals induced into the outer braid. The red trace is the response without excitation from
the Tx loop.
2.6.1 Antenna and Mast Resonance
The height of the star picket/metal pipe used as a mast to elevate the active antenna above
ground has its lower portion imbedded in the ground with ground radials attached at the
air/ground interface. This mast acts as a grounded vertical monopole antenna which has
its first resonance where the total apparent length equals 0.25λ. The mast is made up of
two heights; the above ground height and the below ground height. The full length of this
mast is used unaltered in the resonance calculation. The only effect the portion of the mast
that is below ground has is to lower the Q of resonance and this is dependent upon the soil
type and moisture content of the ground.
The metallic rod used for the antenna however appears electrically to be much shorter
than its physical length. This is due to the high input impedance of the rod’s termination
being predominately capacitive appears in series with the rod and has a shortening effect.
The shortening factor a which the rod’s physical length is multiplied by, can be readily
calculated for any active antenna by finding the resonance when the active antenna is
attached to a mast of known total length. Horizontal ground radials being orthogonal to
the vertical mast and antenna rod have very little effect on this resonance. Therefore the
search for resonance can be carried out with or without the ground radials attached.
Figure 2.30 is the response of the active antenna via a vertically polarized Tx loop up to
100 MHz ; ¼ wave resonance is at 38 MHz and ½ wave resonance is the dip at 75.35 MHz.
Equation (2.14) is used to find the shortening factor a.
 300 
 − h2 − h3 
4f
a =  1/ 4  (2.14)
h1
where: f 1/4 = 38 MHz = peak in the active antenna’s response indicating the
antenna installation’s ¼ wave resonance, marker 1
from figure 2.30 (MHz)
h 1 = physical height of antenna rod (m)
h 2 = physical height of mast above ground (m)
h 3 = physical height of mast below ground (m)
a = a factor peculiar to the design of a particular active antenna
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Figure 2.30 Maximum response at 0+] ZKHUH WKH WRWDO DSSDUHQW OHQJWK RI WKH DFWLYH
antenna appears as a resonant 1/4 wavelength monopole and minimum response at
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3. Calculating the
Expected Output Noise
Calculation of the expected output noise will be done in three sections as depicted in
figure 3.1. The EMF (ElectroMotive Force or open circuit voltage) associated with each
noise generator will have the following designations.
E1 = noise voltage generated by the combined resistance appearing between the
FET’s gate and ground
E2 = noise voltage generated within the FET and,
E3 = noise voltage generated by the output buffer stage.
All three noise sources will have their magnitudes projected as they would appear at the
terminated output of the active antenna and be represented as V1, V2 and V3 respectively.
The internal noise voltage generated by a receiver directly connected to the output of the
active antenna can be readily calculated from the manufacturer’s specifications and added
to the active antenna’s internally generated noise to find the system’s overall noise
performance.
+15V
0.1uF
27K
2N2222A
+15V
0.1uF 12pF
2K7
1uF
100
68K
100
39
2K7
RCOMB RL = 50 ohms
Cdis
0.1uF 12pF
RFC
2N2907A
27K
RCOMB 55 50 VR L = V 12 + V 22 + V 32
E1 Cdis E2 E3 RL = 50 ohms
Figure 3.1 The three sources of noise in the Active Antenna
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3.1 V 1 the noise generated by the circuitry connected to the JFET’s

gate
The open circuit noise voltage generated by the combined resistance connected between
the JFET’s gate and ground is [ref. 10, ch. 4]:
E1 = 4kTBRCOMB
(3.1)
where: k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.380622E-23 Joules/Kelvin

T = 290 = absolute room temperature (K)
B = receiver bandwidth (Hz)
R COMB = combined gate to ground resistances (Ω)
For the design being considered, R COMB is = 4M72M24M7 = 1M13 ohms. The
distributed capacitance to ground of the whip antenna plus the total input circuit
capacitance form a frequency dependent voltage divider with the R COMB reducing its
internally generated open circuit noise voltage. In order to calculate the voltage drop
across the capacitance, whose voltage drop is coupled to the gate of the FET, it is first
necessary to know the impedance of the series R COMB C dis circuit presents to the internal
noise generator. The impedance of a series RC circuit can be calculated by equation (3.2).
2 2
Z RC = RCOMB + X dis
(3.2)
where: Z RC = impedance of a series connected resistor and capacitor (Ω)

f = frequency (Hz)
R COMB = 1M13 = combined gate to ground resistance (Ω)
C dis = distributed rod and circuit capacitance (F)
1
X dis =
2π f Cdis
The ratio of voltage dropped across the capacitor becomes:
1
voltage ratio =
2π f Cdis Z RC (3.3)
and multiplying this ratio by the measured forward voltage gain of the active antenna
gives:
1
ratio = 0.47863
2π f Cdis Z RC (3.4)
 − 6.4 
where 0.47863 = anti log   = measured forward voltage gain of active antenna.
 20 
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Combining equations (3.1) and (3.4) gives equation (3.5) for calculating V 1 , the noise
voltage generated by the R COMB C dis circuit at the input of the FET which appears at the
terminated output of the active antenna.
 1 
V1 = 0.47863 4kTBRCOMB  
 2π f Cdis Z RC  (3.5)
C dis is not easy to measure directly; the measuring instrument’s reading rendered unstable
by its own test signal being partially radiated and also corrupted by signals received by
the length of the antenna rod. The capacitance can, however, be indirectly measured
through resonating it with a known inductor. By placing a known inductor between the
base of the rod and the antenna’s metal case the antenna’s input circuit will take the form
of a Colpitts oscillator. If there is sufficient positive feedback then oscillation will occur,
otherwise a pronounced sharp increase in the antenna’s internally generated noise will be
observed at the antenna’s output. It is a simple matter to measure the frequency of the
oscillation/sharp increase in noise at the output of the antenna using a spectrum analyser.
Figure 3.2 shows the active antenna’s input circuit with the 7 uH inductor added. In figure
3.3(a) the input circuit has been simplified to only show those components that play a
major role. C dis in (3.5) is the active antenna’s distributed input capacitance. It is comprised
of C a the rod capacitance, C c the distributed wiring capacitance and finally C gs , C gd and C ds
are the JFET’s internal distributed capacitances. These components have been rearranged
in (b) to more easily identify the Colpitts oscillator configuration.
+Vcc
1.2m 0.1uF RFC

rod
10K
10K HP5082-2800
2M2 220pF 0.1uF
SM 22
0.1uF
220pF U310 to buffer
7uH 4M7 SM 4M7 amplifier
GDT 39
HP5082-2800
RFC
Figure 3.2 Input circuit of the Active Antenna with the 7 uH inductor added between the base of
the rod and the antenna’s outer metallic case
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X+ &D WREXIIHU X+ 5UDG WREXIIHU
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&JV X)
&D 5)&
5)&
D E

Figure 3.3 (a) The simplified input circuit, and (b) the components rearranged to highlight the
Colpitts oscillator

Figure 3.4 Measured peak in antenna noise floor at 12.26 0+] FDXVHG E\ WKH X+
inductor resonating with the antenna’s distributed capacitance. +30 dB
amplifier used between the antenna output and the analyser input.

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and found to be 24.1 pF. This result can be used in equation (3.5) to find V 1 , the frequency
dependent noise generated by the JFET’s gate circuitry.
1
Cdis =
4π f 2 L
2
(3.6)
where: C dis = 24.1E-12 = measured distributed rod and circuit capacitance (F)
f = resonant frequency (Hz) = 12.26 MHz from figure 3.4
L = known inductance = 7 uH
3.2 V 2 , the noise internally generated by the JFET
The dominant source of noise in a common drain JFET is that generated by the
drain/source equivalent noise resistance (r n ) [ref. 3, pg. 54]. Its open circuit noise voltage
can be calculated by:
Eo / c = 4kTBrn
(3.7)
0.67
rn ≈
g fs
(3.8)
where: r n = JFET’s internal drain/source noise resistance (Ω)
This resistance should be as low as possible to minimise the magnitude of the noise
voltage and is usually achieved by biasing the JFET close to saturation. Once biased, the g fs
can be calculated from a measurement made of the JFET’s r ds using a network analyser and
manipulation of equation (2.10). In-house measurements made on a U310 JFET
manufactured by Vishay and picked at random returned a g fs value of 18.02 mS at 30 mA.
This gives a value for r n of 37.2 ohms.
The noise voltage generated by r n is increased by the device’s excess noise. Excess noise is
usually cited by the manufacturer as the device’s noise figure in dB (F dB = 1.5 dB typical at
105 MHz for the U310 JFET, [ref. 8]). The manufacturer usually measures the noise figure
when the JFET is conjugate matched to a 50 ohm system. The output impedance of the
U310 JFET (r ds is approx. 55 ohms) in the active antenna is not matched to the high input
impedance of the buffer amplifier. This high input impedance of the buffer amplifier
allows the JFET’s output noise voltage to approach the FET’s internal noise generator’s
open circuit voltage. Also, the gate terminal of the FET is terminated to a very high
impedance. The manufacturer’s cited noise figure for the U310 FET is no longer valid and
needs to be measured under the conditions in which the FET is to be used. This
measurement returned a value of 5.28 dB. The measured noise figure is first converted into
a voltage ratio:
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F 
voltage ratio = anti log10  dB 
 20  (3.9)
then multiplied by the open circuit noise voltage of r n . The open circuit noise voltage
appearing at the source of a common drain U310 JFET is therefore:
F 
EFET = anti log10  dB  4kTBrn
 20  (3.10)
where: F dB = 5.28 dB measured excess noise figure for the U310 JFET under
conditions in which it is being used
r n = 37.2 ohms from equation (3.8)
3.2.1 The effect the input of the buffer amplifier on E FET
Figure 3.5 is the schematic of the output buffer circuit. The drain/source resistance from
the JFET has been calculated using equation (2.10) and found to be approximately 55 ohms
and is used as the buffer amplifier’s input termination. The output of the buffer amplifier
is terminated with a load resistance of 50 ohms. With the input and output of the buffer
amplifier correctly terminated, work can now begin calculating the sources of noise.
+15V
0.1uF
27K
2N2222A
0.1uF 12pF
r
DS
55
U310 2K7
JFET 100 1uF
68K
100
2K7 RL
50
0.1uF 12pF
2N2907A
27K
Figure 3.5 The buffer amplifier circuit
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CNPN re ENPN 96.4

1uF
3.6
3.6 96.4
CPNP EPNP RL
re 50
Figure 3.6 Simplified buffer amplifier output circuit, C is the collector and E the emitter
The 68K bias resistor in the input circuitry of the buffer amplifier has its noise shorted out
by the two 0.1 µF coupling capacitors and hence plays no part in the noise calculations.
The other two 27K bias resistors are effectively connected in parallel via the chassis and
positive rail forming a single 13K5 equivalent resistor. The input resistance of the two
individual transistors will be approximately equal and in parallel with each other. The
manufacturer’s data sheets for both transistors give their current gain (β) in the range of
100 to 300. A value of 150 will be used as a typical figure. The expected input resistance of
each transistor is then:
rin = β (RE + re ) (3.11)
where: r e = 3.6 = measured internal emitter resistance (Ω)

β = 150 = typical value of transistor current gain
R E is best calculated with the aid of figure 3.6, a simplified schematic of the output stage in
which E NPN and E PNP are the emitter and C NPN and C PNP are the collector leads of the
respective transistors. Here it can be seen that R E = 96.4 ohms + (the parallel combination
of R L (50 ohms) and the series connection of 96.4 ohms plus the 3.6 ohms of the other
transistor’s r e ) = 130 ohms. Applying this number for R E in equation (3.11) returns a value
of approximately 20K ohms. The inputs of the two transistors are connected in parallel
giving a combined transistor input resistance of 10K ohms. The parallel combination of the
13K5 equivalent bias resistance and the 10K transistor input resistance gives a total input
resistance for the buffer amplifier of 5K7 ohms. This calculation agrees with an earlier
measurement carried out in section 2.3 using a network analyser which returned the
parallel combination of 5700 ohms and 16 pF capacitance.
The following calculations are carried out to show the effects the JFET output impedance
and the buffer input impedances have on each other. The excess noise generated by the
buffer amplifier will not be considered at this stage.
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Rin Cin
5K7 rds Vin
55 16pF
Ein
Figure 3.7 Noise generated by the effective input resistance of the buffer amplifier
The open circuit noise voltage generated by the 5K7 equivalent input resistance of the
buffer stage is:
Ein = 4kTBRin
(3.12)
where: Rin = 5K7 = total combined resistance seen at the input of the buffer (Ω)
The JFET’s r ds (equation (2.10)) and the input resistance and capacitance of the buffer form
a divider network reducing the open circuit noise voltage of the 5K7 equivalent input
resistor, see figure 3.7. The impedance presented by the parallel combination of r ds and C in
is [ref. 15, pg. 28]:
rds X in
Z rds // Cin =
rds2 + X in2
(3.13)
1
X in =
2π f Cin
where r ds = 55 ohms = internal resistance between the FET’s drain and source
C in = 16pF = measured buffer amplifier’s distributed input capacitance
f = frequency (Hz)
and the voltage ratio resulting from the series connection of the 5K7 resistor and this
impedance becomes:
Z rds // Cin
voltage ratio =
Rin + Z rds // Cin (3.14)
Combining equations (3.12) and (3.14)
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Z rds // Cin
Vin = 4 KTBRin
Rin + Z rds // Cin (3.15)
The second source of noise and the most dominate of the two is that from the JFET. The
simplified schematic is shown in figure 3.8.
rds Rin Cin VFET

55 5K7 16pF
EFET
Figure 3.8 Noise generated by the FET appearing at the input of the buffer amplifier
The magnitude of E FET has already been calculated via equation (3.10). In order to calculate
the magnitude of V FET , the voltage appearing at the input of the buffer amplifier, it is first
necessary to know the impedance presented by the parallel combination of R in and C in .
Equation (3.16) is used to calculate this impedance.
Rin X in
Z Rin // Cin =
Rin2 + X in2
(3.16)
1
X in =
2π f Cin
and the voltage ratio resulting from the series connection of the 55 ohm r ds resistor and this
impedance becomes 2:
Z Rin // Cin
voltage ratio =
rds + Z Rin // Cin (3.17)
combining equations (3.10) and (3.17) to obtain the magnitude of V FET .
F  Z Rin // Cin
VFET = anti log10  dB  4 KTBrn
 20  rds + Z Rin // Cin (3.18)
2Note that rds is used in (3.17) as it represents the output resistance of the JFET and not rn which is used to
calculate the expected magnitude of the noise.
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V 2 which appears at the terminated output of the active antenna is the summation of the
two non-coherent noise sources multiplied by the gain of the output buffer amplifier,
equation (3.19).
G 2
V2 = anti log10   VFET + Vin2
 20  (3.19)
where G = -6.4 = measured forward gain of the active antenna (dB)
3.2.2 Justifying the fixed forward gain of -6.4 dB and the particular
construction of the RFC
The JFET’s internal r ds resistance of 55 ohms and the JFET’s load impedance described in
equation (3.16) when used in the voltage gain equation (2.5) returns an expected voltage
gain variation for the JFET of 0.974 at 3 MHz to 0.849 at 30 MHz. Multiplying these figures
by the expected voltage gain of the output buffer stage of 0.5 gives an expected gain of
-6.25 dB at 3 MHz and -7.77 dB at 30 MHz. Actual measurements of total forward gain for
the active antenna are -6.1 dB at 3 MHz, -6.2 dB at 15 MHz and -6.3 dB at 30 MHz. A fixed
forward gain of -6.4 dB was chosen to represent the worst case. The near constant forward
gain is attributed to the ‘inductive kick’ associated with the use of the very large, low
internal loss RFC seen in series with the JFET’s 39 ohm source resistor. While it is tempting
to replace this time consuming hand wound twin RFC with a single of-the-shelf perhaps
even an SMD type inductor, it should be borne in mind that the very low Q of such
inductors will negate the inductive kick effect and introduce the expected calculated gain
with its 1.52 dB variation and not the measured 0.2 dB variation across the 3 MHz to 30
MHz band. When the high Q hand wound twin RFC is used the numerical voltage gain of
the JFET is considered to be unity due to the ‘inductive kick’ and the voltage gain of the
buffer amplifier is considered to be numerically 0.47863 or -6.4dB.
3.2.3 V 3 the noise generated by the output buffer stage active devices
No noise specification could be found in any of the various manufacturers’ data sheets for
the 2N2907A transistor. The noise generated by the buffer circuit will have to be directly
measured so that its impact on the overall active antenna design can be assessed. Figure
3.9 is a set of plots of the noise output from the output buffer stage only as seen in figure
3.5.
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Figure 3.9 Measured noise output from the buffer stage only, +30 dB gain with a 1.5 dB noise
figure post amplifier used on all but the Cyan trace.
Blue: input of buffer amplifier input unterminated.
Red: input to buffer amplifier input terminated with 55 ohms.
Green: +30 dB post amplifier only with a 50 ohm input termination.
Cyan: spectrum analyser input terminated with 50 ohms indicating its internal
noise figure of 21 dB.
A +30 dB amplifier with a 1.5 db noise figure was used between the output of the buffer
amp and the spectrum analyser. This was needed to overcome the measured 21 dB noise
figure of the spectrum analyser. The blue (top) trace is the buffer amplifier with no input
termination and shows the noise generated by the equivalent 5K7 ohm input resistance
and the influence of the 16 pF distributed capacitance at its input 3. The red trace with the
marker at 10.58 MHz is with a 55 ohm resistor connected between the input and ground
simulating the r ds with no excess noise from the JFET. The noise generated by the buffer
amplifier’s input circuitry and the effects of the distributed input capacitance are
swamped by the r ds of 55 ohms. The marker at 10.58 MHz shows a noise level of -90.95
dBm for 100 KHz of bandwidth. The green and cyan traces are used to confirm the red and
blue traces represent the unit under test and are not test equipment limited.
The circuit output noise voltage generated by the active devices used in the output buffer
stage can be calculated by subtracting the forward gain of the test amplifier from the
spectrum analyser’s measured total output noise level thus referencing the total noise to
3 The blue trace in figure 3.9 is larger than what is predicted by equation (3.15). This has been attributed to the
positive feedback via the capacitance between the transistor’s emitter and base (aka, bootstrapping) when the
input is unterminated.
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the input of the test amplifier. Subtract from this the noise contribution of the test
amplifier and the remainder is the noise from the active antenna, see equation (3.20).
2 2
  dBm − GdB    F  
V3 =  0.22361anti log    −  anti log  dB 0.5 4kTBR 
  20    20   (3.20)
where: V 3 = 108.4nV = rms noise voltage generated within the buffer amplifier
appearing at its terminated output (V)
dBm = -90.95 dBm for 100 KHz bandwidth, marker from figure 3.9
G dB = +30 = post active antenna test amplifier gain (dB)
0.22361 = the terminated rms voltage for 0 dBm in a 50 ohm system (V)
F dB = 1.5 = measured noise figure of +30dB test amplifier
k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.380622E-23 Joules/Kelvin
B = 100KHz = receiver bandwidth from figure 3.9 (Hz)
R = 50 = termination resistance (Ω)
The left-hand-side of (3.20) is the total noise of both the active antenna and the test
amplifier as measured at the output of the test amplifier converted to its equivalent at the
test amplifier’s input. The right-hand-side is the open circuit noise of a 50 ohm termination
multiplied by 0.5 to convert it into its terminated form then multiplied by the numerical
voltage ratio derived from the test amplifier’s 1.5 dB measured noise figure. The total noise
contribution generated internally within the active antenna to be added to the internal
noise generated within any receiver that the active antenna is connected to therefore
becomes:
2
2 2 
2 F  
Vrms = V + V + V +  anti log  dB 0.5 4kTBR 
1 2 3
  20   (3.21)
where: V 1 = results of equation (3.5)

V 2 = results of equation (3.19)
V 3 = results of equation (3.20)
F dB = noise figure of any receiver connected to output of active antenna (dB)
B = same bandwidth used to calculate V 1 , V 2 and V 3 (Hz)
R = 50 = termination resistance (Ω)
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-70.0000
-80.0000
-90.0000
-100.0000
total output noise
-110.0000
V1
dBm
V2
-120.0000
V3
-130.0000
-140.0000
-150.0000
-160.0000
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
MHz
Figure 3.8 Blue: Calculated output noise of -118.0dBm at 15.5 MHz, 100 KHz bandwidth, 50 ohm
termination, no post amplification.
Pink: V 1 noise from the parallel combination of 1M13 resistor and 24.1 pF distributed
capacitance circuitry connected to the JFET’s gate before the JFET’s intrinsic
noise is added. As with the blue trace, 100KHz bandwidth, 50 ohm termination,
no post amplification.
Green: V 2 noise generated internally by the FET appearing at the output. As with the
blue trace, 100KHz bandwidth, 50 ohm termination, no post amplification.
Red: V 3 noise generated by the buffer output stage. As with the blue trace, 100KHz
bandwidth, 50 ohm termination, no post amplification.
The noise of the active antenna in isolation can be calculated by letting F dB in equation
(3.21) equal zero. This, however, is an approximation as any receiver that the active
antenna is connected to will make a contribution to the total measured noise and influence
the measured system performance.
Equations (3.5), (3.19), (3.20) and (3.21) were entered into an Excel spreadsheet to produce
the plot as seen in figure 3.8. The blue trace is the expected output as seen on the spectrum
analyser for the test setup. Notice it flattens at approximately 1 MHz and above. This is
where the noise generated by the JFET’s gate resistors, seen as the pink trace, is being
attenuated with increasing frequency by the 24.1 pF distributed shunt capacitance and is
where the noise generated by the JFET’s internal r ds and the output buffer stage
predominates.
In figure 3.9 the +30 dB gain test amplifier with a 1.5 dB noise figure has also been added
so a direct comparison can be made between calculated (figure 3.9) and measured (figure
3.10) noise in a system bandwidth of 100 KHz.
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Figure 3.9 Calculated internally generated noise at -88.0 dBm # 0+] appearing at the
output of the Active Antenna, +30 dB post antenna gain with a 1.5 dB noise figure,
100 .+]EDQGZLGWK has been added.

Figure 3.10 Measured internally generated noise (-87.5 dBm # 0+]) appearing at the
output of the Active Antenna, +30 dB post antenna gain with a 1.5 dB noise figure,
100 .+]EDQGZLGWK
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Figure 3.10 is the measured output noise generated by the active antenna when installed
on a ground plain in a screened room to exclude external EM fields. Note the very close
agreement with the red trace of figure 3.9.
3.3 Calculating the output excess noise
Excess noise 4 in a 50 ohm system is defined as noise above the thermal noise generated by
a correctly terminated 50 ohm termination resistor at room temperature, usually 290 K.
The excess noise internally generated by the active antenna’s circuit appearing at its 50
ohm terminated output can be calculated by letting F dB = 0 in equation (3.21). Using the
marker from figure 3.10, equation (3.22) returns a measured excess noise figure of 6.5 dB.
FdB = 174 + dBmant − 10 Log10 B − GdB (3.22)
where: dBm ant = calculated using equation (3.21) or read directly from the
spectrum analyser measurement of figure 3.10 (dBm)
G dB = +30 dB = gain of low noise amplifier between output of active
antenna and input of spectrum analyser (dB)
B = same bandwidth used to calculate or directly measure dBm ant (Hz)
Figure 3.11 is a graph showing the calculated excess noise versus frequency for the active
antenna when connected to a broadband 50 ohm termination; no external EM fields are
being received by the antenna rod.
Excess Noise
50.00
45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
dB
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
MHz
Figure 3.11 Calculated excess noise of 6.01 dB at 15.5 MHz appearing at the terminated output
of the active antenna. The 6.5 dB measured in figure 3.10 includes the effects of the
1.5 dB excess noise of the +30 dB test amplifier
4 More commonly known as noise factor when expressed as a ratio or noise figure when in dB’s.
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The active antenna’s calculated excess noise is in the vicinity of the measured noise figures
of some commercially made HF receivers for amateur use. Military grade HF receivers
usually have higher noise figures, in the range of 10 to 15 dB, with higher input intercept
points. Some amplification between the active antenna’s output and military grade
receiver input may be necessary in quiet sites if the active antenna’s sensitivity is to be
maintained.
3.4 Summary of internal noise generated within the active antenna
Equations (3.5), (3.19), (3.20) and (3.21) were implemented into an EXCEL spreadsheet and
the variables manipulated to find the main causes of internal noise generated by the active
antenna’s circuitry. The main findings are:
• The higher the effective total shunt resistance connected between the JFET’s gate
circuit and ground, the lower the frequency at which the noise generated by this
resistance predominates for a given distributed shunt capacitance. For the current
design this noise predominates below 500 KHz.
• The larger the distributed shunt capacitance of the JFET’s gate circuitry the lower
the frequency at which the noise generated by the shunt resistance predominates
for a given shunt resistance. This shunt capacitance also includes the antenna rod
capacitance to ground.
• Use a JFET that has the lowest r ds keeping in mind that low r ds generally means
higher internal device capacitances, especially the JFET’s gate to drain/source
capacitance, which will shunt to ground the wanted RF signals. Biasing the JFET
close to its saturation to lower the r ds will also generate internal heat. A trade-off
may be necessary between the heat generated and an acceptable value for r ds . This
is the dominant source of noise from 500 KHz and above.
• Use only metal film resistors in construction as these have the lowest internally
generated excess noise.
• Use only silver mica capacitors for the series connected 220 pF capacitors in the
gate circuit of the JFET. The very high impedances of the gate circuit make it
sensitive to the noise generated by the high shunt resistance associated with the
capacitor’s dielectric. Some low pF ceramic capacitors have been found to be very
noisy when used in this high impedance application.
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4. Performance Testing
4.1 Frequency Response
Figure 4.1 (a) and (b) shows two possible methods of connecting the test tones from a
signal source to the active antenna for the purpose of measuring frequency response and
inter-modulation performance.
screw thread screw thread

for rod for rod
Ca
+20V +20V
50 ohm co-ax 50 ohm co-ax
O/P O/P
50 BNC 50 BNC
co-ax output co-ax output
Bias T Bias T
(a) (b)
Figure 4.1 Two possible methods of connecting to the active antenna
Both methods were tried to see if there were any effects on the results. C a , which
represents the rod capacitance to ground, was calculated using equation (2.2) and found to
be 13 pF at 3 MHz. Apart from the capacitive divider produced by C a and the distributed
input capacitance of the active antenna reducing the magnitude of the test signal to the
input of the active antenna by approximately -6 dB, there was no difference in the
measured output intercepts between the two methods. The test connection shown in (b)
will be used as this setup did not need a high intercept point amplifier to boost the two
tone test signal to the required level.
Figure 4.2 is a plot of the forward gain starting from 10 KHz to 100 MHZ. The vertical
scale is 1 dB/division. The marker at approximately 7 MHz shows a forward gain of -6.46
dB.
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Figure 4.2 Top trace: through path loss of test set-up and reference from which gain is
calculated
Bottom trace: active antenna output showing a measured forward gain of
-6.4 dB across WKH+)EDQG
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Figure 4.4 Two tone test, 8 0+]DQG 0+] dB external attenuation used

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Figure 4.6 Third order tone at 5 0+] dB external attenuation. Marker at -89.2 dBm
(-79.2 dBm at output of antenna) equates to an OPIp3 = 39.6 dBm

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Figure 4.7 Second order tone at 3 0+] dB external attenuation. Marker at -89.54 dBm
(-79.54 dBm at output of antenna) equates to an OPIp2 = 79.5 dBm

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screw thread of the antenna mount and the metal case. The active antenna’s circuit
oscillated at 16.028 MHz. Equation (3.6) was used to calculate the input capacitance C in of
14 pF. The antenna rod is 1.2 m long and 2.45 mm in diameter at its base. Equation (2.2)
was used to calculate an expected C a of 13 pF. These two capacitances form a capacitive
divider to the voltage generated in the rod by the E field reducing the rod’s open circuit
voltage by a factor of 0.48. The forward voltage gain of the active antenna was measured
using the setup of figure 4.1(b) and found to be 0.479. Total voltage gain between the open
circuit voltage generated in the rod to that appearing at the terminated output of the active
antenna is 0.48 x 0.479 = 0.23. The calculated antenna factor (k) is therefore:
E 1
k= = = 4.35
Vter 0.23 (4.2)
and expressed in decibels:
K = 20 log k = 12.8dB (4.3)
The active antenna was installed in an antenna test site where an E field generated from a
distant vertical monopole was calculated using the response of a Rohde & Schwarz HE010
active antenna and the manufacturer’s cited typical antenna factor of 17 dB for that
antenna. The calculated E field strengths were then used in conjunction with the
terminated output voltage of the active antenna under test to confirm the antenna factor
calculation. Figure 4.8 is the measured antenna factor calculated from the collected data.
There is close agreement between the calculated and measured antenna factors.
Antenna Factor
15
14
13
Fa dB
12
11
10
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
MHz
Figure 4.8 Measured antenna factor
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4.4 Calculating the Active Antenna’s Noise Figure
Reference 6 (page 3) gives the following equation for calculating the vertical r.m.s. noise
field strength in dB(µV/m) for a short vertical monopole above a perfect ground plane.
En = Fa + 20 log f MHz + 10 log B − 95.5

dB(µV/m) (4.4)
The equivalent noise field strength needed to be equal to the internal noise generated by
the active antenna can be calculated by rearranging equation (4.4) to solve for F a :
Fa = En − 20 log f MHz − 10 log B + 95.5

dB (4.5)
E n can be found by calculating the terminated noise generated by a standard 50 ohm

resistor, expressed in dB(µV), then adding to it the active antenna’s excess noise figure and
the active antenna’s antenna factor (K).
( )
En = 20 log 500000 4kTBR + FdB + K dB(µV/m) (4.6)
where: F a = active antenna noise figure (dB)

f MHz = centre frequency (MHz)
R = termination resistance = 50 (ohms)
B = bandwidth in (Hz)
F dB = excess noise figure from equation (3.22) (dB)
K = antenna factor from equation (4.3) (dB)
500000 = 1 000 000/2 = multiply by 1 000 000 to convert from volts to µV
then divide by 2 to convert from µV open circuit to
µV terminated
Equations (4.5) and (4.6) were entered into an EXCEL spreadsheet and the active antenna’s
noise figure plotted, see figure 4.9.
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180
160
140
120
Business
100 Residental
dB
Rural
80 Quiet Rural
Active Antenna
60
40
20
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
MHz
Figure 4.9 The calculated antenna noise figure for the active antenna with a 1.2 m rod 2.45 mm
diameter and the expected values of man-made noise for comparison
The ITU report [ref. 6, pg. 10 and pg. 14] gives the following equation and table for
calculating the expected man-made noise levels for European receive sites in the HF band.
Fam = c − d log f
(4.7)
where F am = median value of man-made noise power in the 0.3 to 250 MHz
frequency range for a short vertical lossless grounded monopole
antenna (dB)
f = frequency (MHz)
c and d = as per Table I
Table I values for the constants c and d obtained from [ref. 6] to be used in equation (4.7)
Environmental Category c d
Business 76.8 27.7
Residential 72.5 27.7
Rural 67.2 27.7
Quiet Rural 53.6 28.6
Noise levels in rural Australia have been measured and found to be as much as 10 to 15dB
lower than the values of equation (4.7) [14, pg. 12], however, the ITU report is regularly
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cited in reports and texts and seems to be the reference to which comparisons are made.
Expected noise levels for the four European environmental sites are also plotted in figure
4.9 for comparison.
4.5 Spurious Free Dynamic Range (SFDR)
The SFDR for an active antenna can be calculated by using the frequency dependent noise
figure and the input intercept points. The input intercept point for the active antenna is:
n
I = OPIpn + K
(4.8)
where: OPIp3 = +39.6 dBm = measured output intercept point, figure 4.6
OPIp2 = +79.5 dBm = measured output intercept point, figure 4.7
K = antenna factor (in dB) from equation (4.3) = 12.8 dB
The second and third order SFDR can be calculated by [5, pg. 108]:
2 3 
3rd order SFDR =  I − kT / Hz − 10 log B − Fa 
3 
(4.9)
2 
2nd order SFDR = 0.5  I − kT / Hz − 10 log B − Fa 
  (4.10)
where: SFDR = spurious free dynamic range (dB)

3
I = system third order input intercept point (dBm)
2
I = system second order input intercept point (dBm)
kT/Hz = thermal noise in a 1Hz bandwidth
= -174 dBm for a 50 ohm system
B = bandwidth (Hz)
F a = noise figure, from equation (4.5) (dB)
Figure 4.10 shows the results of equations (4.9) and (4.10) for a 3 KHz communication
system bandwidth.
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SFDR
120
118
116
114
112
110
108
106
104
102
3rd order SFDR
dB
100
2nd order SFDR
98
96
94
92
90
88
86
84
82
80
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
MHz
Figure 4.10 Calculated 3rd and 2nd order SFDR for a 3 KHz system bandwidth
The data of figure 4.10 can be converted into an E field strength/tone measured in
volts/metre by multiplying the terminated noise voltage generated in a 50 ohm resistor by
the voltage ratio of both the calculated antenna noise figure F a and the SFDR, equation
(4.11).
F   SFDR 
V / m = 0.5 4kTBR anti log10  a  anti log10  
 20   20  (4.11)
where: k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.380622E-23 Joules/Kelvin

B = 3000 = typical bandwidth for a HF communication system (Hz)
R = 50 = active antenna termination resistance (Ω)
F a = active antenna noise figure, from equation (4.5) (dB)
SFDR = spurious free dynamic range from equation (4.9) or (4.10) (dB)
The results of equation (4.11) are displayed in figure 4.11. This is the level that two equal
strength E fields will have to be in order to generate a spurious product at the same
voltage level as the antenna’s internally generated noise floor.
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Max. Signal Strength/Tone
10
3rd order
V/m
2nd order
0.1
0.01
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
MHz
Figure 4.11 Calculated strengths of two equal magnitude E fields that would create a spurious
product at the same voltage level as the antenna’s internally generated noise floor
4.6 In Summary
The design of a high performance HF active antenna has been presented. The main source
of inter-modulation products has been identified and steps taken to reduce their
magnitudes are described and implemented. The internal noise generated within the
design, which can limit the antenna’s sensitivity, was also examined in detail. The effect of
near-field external noise on the lower frequencies of the HF band was also shown and
methods to reduce their influence via the use of RF current chokes presented.
Recommendations were given on how to install these types of antennas in an antenna site
with the resonance formed by the mast together with the active antenna readily calculated.
Operating an active antenna at frequencies higher than this resonance will result in a
monotonic decrease in sensitivity with increasing frequency.
The antenna factor was calculated from first principles and confirmed via a field
experiment. The antenna factor was then used to calculate the active antenna’s noise figure
thus allowing comparisons to be made with the expected levels of man-made noise cited
in an ITU report.
The completed design is a compact receive only active antenna covering the frequency
range from LF to HF. It is broadband with a constant antenna factor over this frequency
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range. The presented active antenna can be used to measure the vertical E field strength of
a signal, perform general surveillance work (either fixed or vehicle mounted) or used to
create a quickly deployable antenna array for the geo-location of signals in the HF band.
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5. References
1. “Low-Noise JFETs-Superior Performance to Bipolars” (10-Mar-97), Siliconix
application note AN106.
2. Applications Engineering Staff, Siliconix Inc., (1990), revised by Ed Oxner,
“Designing with Field-Effect Transistors”, Mcgraw-Hill, Inc., ISBN: 0-07-057537-1.
3. Edwin S. Oxner, (1989), “FET Technology and Application, an introduction”,
Marcel Dekker, Inc., ISBN: 0-8247-8050-7
4. ARRL, (2007-2009), “The ARRL Antenna Book 21st edition”, ARRL, ISBN: 0-87259-
987-6
5. Stephen J. Erst, (1984), “Receiving Systems Design”, Artech House Inc. ISBN: 0-
89006-135-1)
6. Recommendation ITU-R PI.372-6, Radio Noise (1994)
7. Noll, Edward M., (1975), “FET principles, experiments and projects” ISBN: 0-672-
21167-x
8. Vishay data sheet for U310 FET, Vishay Siliconix Document Number: 70237 S-
50149-Rev. H, 24-Jan-2005
9. Martin A. Uman, (2001), “The Lightning Discharge” Dover Publications, Inc.,
Mineola, New York, ISBN: 0-486-41463-9
10. F. R. Connor, (1973), “Noise” Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., 25 Hill Street,
London, W1X8LL, ISBN: 0-7131-3306-6
11. Sergio Franco (1995), “Electric Circuits Fundamentals”, ISBN: 0-03-072307-8
12. W. Martinsen (2009), “Giselle, A Mutually Orthongonal Triple Twin-loop Ground-
symmetrical Broadband Receiving Antenna for the HF Band”, DSTO-TR-2321,
DSTO Information Sciences Laboratory, PO Box 1500, Edinburgh, South Australia
5114, Australia.
13. Ulrich L. Rohde & T. T. N. Bucher (1988) “Communications Receivers Principles
and Design” ISBN: 0-07-053570-1
14. Brett J. Northey & Philip S. Whitham (2000) “A Comparison of DSTO and DERA
HF Background Noise Measuring Systems with the International Radio
Consultative Committee (CCIR) Model Data” DSTO technical report DSTO-TR-
0855 , Electronics and Surveillance Research Laboratory, PO Box 1500, Edinburgh,
South Australia, 5108, Australia.
15. Richard C. Dorf (1993) “The Electrical Engineering Handbook” CRC Press, ISBN: 0-
8493-0185-8
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6. Acknowledgements
The sole responsibility for the accuracy of any technical writing lies with its author.
Information obtained from references or discussions with colleagues is still the
responsibility of the author for it was the author’s decision to use or reject such
information. With this in mind, this author wishes to acknowledge the contributions made
to this document by the following people.
Mark Kilmer (Mini-Kits Australia): for his suggestions on areas of the document where a
more detailed explanation would ease its understanding.
Dr. Ken Grant: for his assistance with some of the graphs and for proof reading the
document before vetting.
Michael Chase, Adrian Caldow, Dallas Taylor and Dr. Anthony Szabo: for vetting the
document and their many suggestions which helped to clarify and make the text easier to
read.
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DISTRIBUTION LIST

Wayne Martinsen
Task Sponsor
ASD
S&T Program
Chief of Cyber and Electronic Warfare Division
Dr. Gareth Parker/Research Leader/CEWD/CSS/203Labs
Dallas Taylor CEWD/CSS/CSP/203Labs
Jon Arnold CEWD/CSS/AT/203Labs
Wayne Martinsen CEWD/CSS/AT/203Labs
Adrian Caldow CEWD/CSS/AT/203Labs
Joseph Magarelli CEWD/AC/PE/205Labs
Mini-Kits (Australia), att. Mark Kilmer, P.O. Box 368, Enfield Plaza 5085, SA
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1. DLM/CAVEAT (OF DOCUMENT)

DEFENCE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY GROUP
DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA
2. TITLE 3. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION (FOR UNCLASSIFIED LIMITED
RELEASE USE (U/L) NEXT TO DOCUMENT CLASSIFICATION)
A High Performance Active Antenna for the High Frequency
Band Document (U)
Title (U)
Abstract (U)
4. AUTHOR(S) 5. CORPORATE AUTHOR
Wayne Martinsen Defence Science and Technology Group

DST Group Edinburgh
PO Box 1500
Edinburgh SA 5111
6a. DST GROUP NUMBER 6b. AR NUMBER 6c. TYPE OF REPORT 7. DOCUMENT DATE
DST-Group-TR-3522 AR-017-263 Technical Report August 2018
8.TASK NUMBER 9.TASK SPONSOR 10. RESEARCH DIVISION
INT 17/527 ASD Cyber and Electronic Warfare Division
11. MSTC 12. STC
Cyber Sensing and Shaping Access Technologies
13. SECONDARY RELEASE STATEMENT OF THIS DOCUMENT
Approved for public release

OVERSEAS ENQUIRIES OUTSIDE STATED LIMITATIONS SHOULD BE REFERRED THROUGH DOCUMENT EXCHANGE, PO BOX 1500, EDINBURGH, SA
5111
14. DELIBERATE ANNOUNCEMENT
No limitations
15. CITATION IN OTHER DOCUMENTS
Yes
16. RESEARCH LIBRARY THESAURUS
Antenna design; High frequency; Distortion; Lightning

17. ABSTRACT
The design of an active antenna with an operational frequency range from low- to high-frequency is presented. The main
cause of inter-modulation distortion is identified and recommendations are given to minimize their generation. A detailed
analysis is carried out into the various sources of noise generated within the active antenna and how their summation affects
the total noise seen at the output. Lightning protection is also discussed.
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UNCLASSIFIED

A High Performance Active Antenna

Cyber and Electronic Warfare Division

Cyber and Electronic Warfare Division

Telephone: 1300 333 362

 Commonwealth of Australia 2018

APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE

A High Performance Active Antenna

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Wayne Martinsen was indentured as an apprentice communications technician in 1972

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2. ACTIVE ANTENNA DESIGN ......................................................................................... 3

3. CALCULATING THE EXPECTED OUTPUT NOISE ............................................... 36

4. PERFORMANCE TESTING ........................................................................................... 52

2. Active Antenna Design

2.1 Design Criteria

The aim is to design an active antenna that has:

Minimum frequency range of 2 – 30 MHz: This frequency range should easily be

where: k = antenna factor

2.2 The Input stage

where: R r = radiation resistance (Ω)

Capacitance and radiation resistance of rod 1.2m long 2.45mm dia.

2.2.1 PCB Layout Capacitance

2.2.2 Choosing the FET configuration

1. common source: The common source configuration is generally associated with

where: R L = total load resistance seen by the drain (Ω)

Any voltage gain in an RF circuit requires higher intercept points to keep

2. common drain: The voltage gain (A v ) of a common drain (source follower) is

where: g fd = common drain forward transconductance (S)

where: Z in = input impedance seen at the FET’s gate terminal (Ω)

C out = C gs + C ds + C load + C stray

2.2.3 Minimising Intermodulation Distortion

2.2.4 Approximating the Output Third Order Intercept Point of a Class A

OPIp 3 ≈ 10 log10 (5VCE I C ) (2.12)

where: OPIp3 = output third order intercept point (dBm)

(a) (b) (c)

2.2.5 The Main Cause of Distortion Products

re-arranging to solve for V RL gives,

and by making R L very large relative to r ds simplifies to

variation of rds with gfs

2.2.6 JFET’s Bias Altered by a Large Input Signal

2.2.7 Static Electricity and Lightning Protection

2.2.8 Suppression of Parasitic Oscillation caused by the Antenna Rod

1.2m 0.1uF RFC

Figure 2.8 Input circuitry of the active antenna

2.3 The Output Buffer Stage

The output buffer stage must have:

Figure 2.9 Output Buffer circuitry

2.3.1 Changes needed to suit a 75 ohm system

2.3.2 Testing the buffer amplifier

Figure 2.11 The output buffer circuitry test setup

2.3.3.1 A Note About Passive Broadband Receive Antennas

2.4 +15V Voltage Regulator

2.5 The Final Circuit

220pF U310 2K7

Figure 2.18 The final circuit of the active antenna

2.6 Installation Recommendations

1. ground level on a metallic mat or radial ground plane.

16 x equally spaced ground

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