ALL ABOUT ANTENNAS

Part 1 of a Series
By Bob Grove W8JHD, Publisher, Monitoring Times

N o subject is more widely discussed

in the radio field as antennas, and
with good reason; after you select
your radio equipment, no accessory is more
important. There are many myths surrounding
boundaries between air masses, and they can
be diffracted (scattered) by a ground clutter of
reflective surfaces.
Radio and light waves travel through the
vacuum of space approximately 186,000 miles
(that is, the lower the frequency), the more the
absorption. This explains why daytime recep-
tion below roughly 10 megahertz (MHz) is so
poor.
But, the E layer also reflects shorter-
antennas, and we’re going to put them to rest (300 million meters) per second, but when they wavelength (higher frequency) signals back
in this series. pass through a dense medium, they slow down; to Earth; the higher the frequency, the more
this velocity factor, is given as a specifica- the reflection. This is what provides distance
tion for transmission lines. When we specify (DX) on the higher shortwave frequencies.
Radio Waves: antenna and transmission line lengths, these Most DX, however, is produced by the next
Some Basics are electrical wavelengths which are shorter region up, the F layer, which retains its elec-
When we connect a wire between the two than free-space wavelengths because of this trical charge well into the night, reflecting
terminals of a battery, electric current flows. reduction in speed. signals back to the earth over great distances.
This current generates a combined electric and All of these solar influences increase during
magnetic energy “field,” a zone which extends the maximum sunspot cycle every 11 years,
at the speed of light into space. When we break
Propagation then gradually diminish again.
We refer to the behavior of radio waves The earth itself can reflect radio waves,
the circuit, the energy field collapses back
as they travel over distance as propagation. allowing a phenomenon called multihop;
onto the wire. If we reverse the connections
Ground waves stay close to the earth’s surface, combinations of earth reflections and iono-
back and forth rapidly, each successive pulse’s
never leaving the lower atmosphere. They are spheric refractions producing as many as five
electrical (positive and negative) charges and
severely attenuated (reduced), rarely reaching skips! More skips than that would be attenu-
magnetic (north and south) poles reverse as
more than a few hundred miles even under ated by ionospheric absorption and terrestrial
well. This simulates a basic radio wave which
ideal conditions. Surface waves, the
consists of a magnetic and electric field vibrat-
lowest ground waves, often reach-
ing simultaneously, or in phase.
ing their destination by following
The electric field (“E” for electro-motive
the curvature of the earth. Space
force, measured in volts) is parallel to the
waves are the line-of-sight ground
axis of the wire, while the magnetic field
waves which travel directly from
(“H” named after researcher Joseph Henry) is
antenna to antenna.
perpendicular to it. This field is described as
Space waves at VHF and UHF,
electromagnetic. Familiar illustrations depict-
when encountering abrupt weather
ing radio waves as wavy lines or crosshatched
boundary changes, experience
arrows are graphic representations only. There
temperature inversions and ducting
are no “lines of force” as implied when iron
as well as other influences that can
filings line up during magnet demonstrations;
funnel signals into significantly
those filings line up because they all become
extended ground wave coverage.
little magnets, attracting and repelling one
At the upper reaches of our atmo-
another. Radio waves are only a continuous
sphere, ultraviolet rays (UV) from
field of energy which, like a beam of light,
the sun ionize (electrically charge)
is strongest at its source, weakening with
the air atoms, lending the name
distance as it spreads its energy over an ever-
ionosphere to this highest zone
widening area.
of the earth’s atmosphere. Radio
In fact, radio waves and light waves differ
waves which reach these ionized
only in frequency over a continuous electro-
layers, averaging 25-200 miles
magnetic spectrum, with higher-frequency
high, are called sky waves
light having greater energy and the ability to be
The lowest regions of the
seen by some living organisms. Scientists even
ionosphere, the D and E layers,
refer to an antenna as being illuminated by
are influenced directly by sunlight;
radio energy. Radio waves can be reflected by
their effects begin at sunrise, peak
buildings, trees, vehicles, moisture, metal sur-
at noon, and disappear after sunset.
faces and wires, and the electrically-charged
They absorb radio signals. In other Signal propagation is a combination of ground waves and
ionosphere. They can be refracted (bent) by
words, the longer the wavelength sky waves.

from the archives of Bob Grove MONITORING TIMES 1

scattering, rendering the signal unreceivable.
Internet sites like www.hfradio.org/propa-
gation.html publish continuously-updated
radio propagation forecasts, and a variety of
prediction computer programs are available
elsewhere, allowing the user to plan ahead for
the most productive use of the spectrum.
Tropospheric scattering in the E and F2
layers is fairly common in the 30-50 MHz
spectrum, especially during the daytime and
during sunspot peaks. It favors the east in
the morning and the west in the afternoon.
At VHF and UHF, ionospheric propagation
is rare. Some sporadic E skip, lasting from a
few minutes to an hour or more, may occur in
the 50-200 MHz range. It is caused by erratic
clouds of ionization at an altitude of 75-100
miles.
A similar phenomenon is produced when
meteors enter the E layer. At such high speeds,
the meteor vaporizes, producing an ionized Terrain, trees, wiring, metal siding, nearby buildings and other reflective surfaces all affect
trail which is capable of reflecting VHF signals antenna performance. The lower the antenna, the more obstructed it is likely to be. A basement
back to earth 1000 more miles away, most would be a very poor antenna location. Signals are unpredictably reflected by metal and wiring
dramatically in the 50-80 MHz spectrum. in and on the walls and ceiling; nearby electric and electronic appliances invite interference to
It is estimated that some 200 tons of me- reception; soil absorbs transmitted energy and also reflects signals upward; and signals come
teor material, from visible to dust size, strikes mostly from overhead (there aren’t many there) rather than from the horizon.
the earth every day; much more vaporizes in
the upper atmosphere. Because of this constant half-wave, or smaller, dipole, called a doublet, Location, Location,
bombardment, there are completely automated or it may be multi-lobed, as in a multiple-
systems relying on this technique for long- wavelength antenna, called a longwire. Location…
distance data transfer. The elevation pattern, variously called
radiation angle, takeoff angle, maximum am-
The Radio Horizon
Radio waves, like light waves, follow the
plitude elevation, and launch angle, is affected
line of sight. Because of the curvature of the
Patterns by height above ground, length of the antenna
earth, higher antennas “see” a farther horizon.
The shape of the field of energy emit- element(s), and the presence of nearby metal,
Assuming a flat, unobstructed terrain, the visual
ted by a transmitting antenna, as well as the including other antenna elements. It is an in-
horizon is about 8 miles for a 30-foot-elevated
geometric response by a receiving antenna, is tegral part of an antenna’s gain characteristics
antenna, increasing to only 16 miles at 120 feet!
known as its pattern. It may be a simple donut which we will discuss in a later issue.
Notice the square law effect: it requires roughly
shape surrounding the axis of the wire as in a
four times the height to get twice the distance.
Once an antenna is high enough to “see” past
nearby obstructions, it takes at least double that
height to notice any improvement.
The lower the frequency, the more radio
waves are capable of following the curvature of
the earth beyond the visual horizon. Typical base-
to-mobile communications ranges are about 50
miles in the 30-50 MHz band, 30 miles at 150-174
MHz, 25 miles at 450-512 MHz, and 20 miles at
806-960 MHz. Obviously, these distances will
vary depending upon radiated power, receiver
sensitivity, antenna gain, elevation and location.
Although the higher the antenna the better,
coax cable losses may compromise any signal
improvement; the higher the frequency, the worse
those losses. For example, at 450 MHz, extend-
The higher the frequency, the shorter the
ing a 30-foot antenna to 60 feet could increase
wavelength and the easier it is for a signal to
signal strengths by 5 dB, but if you are using
get through an opening in an absorptive or
common RG-58/U coax, signal strengths may
reflective enclosure.
be attenuated by the same amount, resulting in
no improvement at all!
Nearby trees, buildings and hills take their
At 800 MHz, using this small diameter, lossy
toll, too. Locating an antenna inside a large
Antennas are designed to favor certain direc- RG-58U, signals would get worse with height!
building with steel frame and metal reinforce-
tions, both for transmitting and receiving. Worst of all is thin RG-174U which has all the bad
ments may attenuate signals up to 25 dB at
The lower the frequency, the more the signal characteristics; in long lengths at UHF, you might
VHF and UHF, according to one study. Brick
is capable of following the contour of the ter- as well short-circuit your antenna connector!
walls, slate or tile roofs can account for 6 dB,
rain, and the less likely it is to be absorbed by Always use low-loss cable such as the
even more when wet. Shorter wavelengths
trees and foliage. One study showed that with following, listed in increasing performance:
(900 MHz) get through small windows in
dense trees and vertical polarization, attenu- RG-8/X, RG-8/U, Belden 9913, or 1/2” foam
shielded walls where longer wavelengths (150
ation at 30 MHz is about 3 dB, increasing to (Andrews), Heliax (all 50 ohm cables); or RG-
MHz) do not.
10 dB at 100 MHz. 59/U, RG-6/U or RG-11/U (72 ohm cables).

2 from the archives of Bob Grove

 All About Antennas
Part 2
By Bob Grove W8JHD

L ast month we examined some of the char-

acteristics (peculiarities?) of radio waves
and the importance of proper placement of
an antenna. This month we’ll take a close look at
the antenna itself.
transmitting purposes; you should use at least 16
1/8-wavelength wires to avoid power losses from
soil absorption.
Because current is at its maximum at the
feed point, density of metal around the base of the
The radial counterpoise on a ground mounted
vertical (A) prevents soil absorption of the radio
waves; the radials of an elevated vertical (B)
are part of the antenna itself and help shape
the pattern.
antenna is more important than the length of the
radials. If you have 100 feet of wire, ten 10-foot elevated ground-plane antenna, however, behaves
What is a Ground? lengths are better than two 50-foot lengths. This more like a dipole in free space, with the radials
The earth plays an important role in radio is not so critical on receive-only antennas. supplying half of the antenna and forming the
signal propagation, but grounding your radio Even a single quarter-wavelength wire pro- pattern.
equipment is not one of them. While attaching vides counterpoise effect; it may be run randomly
the chassis of your radio to a buried conductor in
moist soil may protect you from electrical shock; Construction and Size
drain off static-charge buildup; help dissipate Two neighboring shortwave listeners decide
nearby lightning-induced spikes, and even reduce to erect antennas to monitor 41-meter (7.1-7.3
electrical noise pickup, it will not make received MHz) international broadcasting. One neighbor,
or transmitted signals stronger. using rocks as counterweights, throws about 50
Radio waves travel through space, not feet of small-gauge hookup wire over a couple
through the ground except at very close ranges or of tree limbs; it sags in a number of places, has
at extremely low frequencies. They are intercepted no insulators other than its plastic covering, and
by the antenna’s metal element(s), not by the soil averages some 30 feet in the air. At the center cut
beneath it which absorbs and dissipates the signal of the wire he has soldered a 50-foot length of TV
as heat. coax which he runs down to his receiver.
His neighbor, a purist, erects two 30 foot
telephone poles 60 feet apart, stretching 66 feet
of heavy gauge, silver plated, uninsulated wire
A good radial counterpoise (A) is always pref- between porcelain insulators. The antenna is in
erable to using lossy Earth (B) in a vertical an open yard with no trees. At the center he care-
antenna system. fully attaches a commercial coax connector, from
which he runs a 50-foot length of large-diameter,
or even coiled loosely in some cases. Such a wire low-loss, RG-8/U coax.
is often connected to the chassis of the transmitter Does the purist hear signals any better?
A good ground system utilizes short, large- Nope. Assuming identical environment and an-
gauge wire to connect radio equipment com- if it is hot during transmitting as evidenced by
painful RF burns when touching the equipment, tenna orientation, reception will be virtually the
monly to at least one deep ground rod. same. The difference in signal strengths between
especially your lip to the mike!
The inverted V antenna is a good example of 50 and 66 feet is imperceptible. The plastic-coated
A good electrical ground consists minimally how to keep the high-current feed point away from wire insulates it from the moist tree limbs, but
of two eight-foot metal rods, at least ten feet apart, absorptive and reflective earth by elevating it to even if it touched, the resistance of the trees
connected to the radio equipment by a short length the apex of the antenna. The ends of the drooping would not contribute significant signal loss. Signal
of heavy braid. Moist, mineralized soil is best; dry, elements (high-voltage points) come to within absorption by foliage at 7 MHz is minimal; the
sandy soil is worst. a few feet of the ground where their capacitive resistance of the thinner wire is less than one ohm;
A radio-frequency (RF) ground, on the other interaction with the soil may cause some length and the difference between 50 feet of RG-58/U
hand, is more extensive. A vertical antenna may detuning of the antenna, but little signal loss. and RG-8/U at 7 MHz is a mere fraction of a dB.
be thought of as a center-fed dipole turned on its Don’t confuse a ground-mounted, counter- For receiving purposes, an antenna may be
end, and the lower half removed so that we can poised vertical with an elevated ground-plane thick or thin; its texture may be solid, stranded or
mount the remaining element on the ground where tubular; its composition may be any metal (gold,
the coax will be attached. But we must somehow steel, copper, lead or aluminum); it may be cov-
supply that missing half of the antenna. ered with insulation or left bare. All signals will
If we simply bury the needed wire in the sound virtually the same.
ground, the energy that would radiate from that Even if signal strengths were reduced
element is absorbed by the mineralized soil, considerably, they would still be just as audible,
simply heating it. Such an antenna is sometimes because at shortwave frequencies, once there is
referred to as a “worm warmer!” enough signal to be heard above the atmospheric
Instead, we construct a counterpoise on or noise (static), a larger antenna will only capture
above the soil, a metallic surface emulating a more signal and noise. The S-meter may read
“perfect” (reflective) earth, composed of radial higher, but you would hear the same signal above
wires connected to, and extending outward from The inverted V is a popular dipole configura- the noise audio with the “deficient” antenna by
the coax shield at the base of the antennas. tion. simply turning up the volume control.
How many spokes of wire, and how long? antenna. On the ground we are trying to prevent So why bother with good construction prac-
AM broadcast stations use at least 120 radials for radiation from being absorbed by the soil; an tices? Heavy gauge, stranded wire will withstand

from the archives of Bob Grove MONITORING TIMES 3

 Atmospheric noise
decreasing with
ice, wind loading, and flexing better than thin solid frequency. higher gain claim than if they compared it to a real
wire, and it will radiate transmitted power more antenna: a half-wave dipole. Unless the claimed
efficiently. Commercially made center insulators gain figure is followed by dBd or dBi, referencing
with built-in connectors are more rigid and water a dipole or isotropic radiator in free space, it is
resistant than soldered connections and they can meaningless and suspect.
be easily disconnected for servicing or inspection. Assuming we run the transmission line away
Sturdy, insulated suspension is more durable over at right angles from the antenna for at least a
time, and keeping antennas away from tree foliage quarter wavelength, the location of the feed point
may avoid some signal loss at higher frequencies. causes very little distortion of the pattern, but the
the receiver’s own self-generated circuit noise, a impedance selection varies dramatically.
larger aperture will only increase the atmospheric Is a good transmitting antenna always a good
Skin Effect noise right along with the signal. If the noise is receiving antenna? Yes, if its aperture is large
A thin, hollow, metal tube is just as efficient locally generated (power lines or an electrically- enough to capture enough signal to overcome
in conducting and radiating radio-frequency noisy neighbor, for example) a beam or loop receiver noise. The law of reciprocity states that
energy as a solid wire of the same diameter and antenna can be rotated away from the source of if an antenna system efficiently radiates a signal
material. This is because RF energy barely dips the noise to null the interference, hopefully toward into space, it will just as efficiently deliver an
below the surface of the conductor, and the higher the direction of the signal as well. intercepted signal to a receiver.
the frequency, the shallower the depth. The larger As we tune upwards from 50 MHz, atmo- Is a good receiving antenna a good trans-
the surface, the less resistance, which would waste spheric noise diminishes; therefore, larger and mitting antenna? Not necessarily. If randomly
power as heat. Skin depth varies inversely with better-matched antenna systems do improve erected, it may be susceptible to power loss due
the square root of the conductivity and the per- reception because they help overcome receiver to impedance mismatch. Its pattern will be unpre-
meability (magnetic attraction) of the metal; the noise, which can be higher than atmospheric noise dictable and reactance may shut down a transmit-
better the conductor, the deeper the skin effect. at VHF and UHF frequencies. Ultimately, once ter with built-in protection against mismatches.
At microwave frequencies (10 GHz), the skin the aperture is great enough to overcome receiver
depth of silver, an excellent conductor, is 0.64 noise at these higher frequencies, larger aperture
micrometers (µm), while that of aluminum, a will only pick up more noise (just as at the lower Arrays
poorer conductor, is 0.80 µm. frequencies) so directivity should be the goal for Depending upon its thickness, taper and
Iron is a very poor conductor and has high better reception. length, a mass of metal, brought within one-
permeability; its skin depth is only 1/7 that of quarter-wavelength of a radiator (the driven
copper, making it a poor choice as a conductor at element, connected to the feed line), will interact
radio frequencies. Antenna Gain with the field, focusing (there’s that light analogy
Signal improvement may come from a larger again!) the energy to produce directivity or gain.
aperture, or from intentionally distorting (shaping) Probably the best known of these combina-
Antenna Size the field to produce a narrower pattern. While tions is the Yagi-Uda array, named for the two
The energy-intercepting area of an antenna larger aperture increases background noise as well Japanese scientists who developed the antenna
is called its aperture (another similarity to light as as signal strengths, directivity favors one or more in 1928. While Uda actually did all the develop-
in the aperture of a camera lens) or capture area; directions at the expense of others. This reduces mental work, Yagi published the results, so the
the larger its aperture, the more signal it captures. overall pickup (better signal-to-noise-ratio), con- antenna, as fate would have it, usually bears his
Curiously, a large antenna is not necessarily bet- centrating on a target direction for receiving and/ name alone.
ter at transmitting (or receiving) than a smaller or transmitting, and reducing reception interfer-
antenna. If a small element can be designed to be ence from the sides and back.
just as efficient as a large antenna, and radiates the Such pattern re-direction often refers to
same pattern, there is no benefit in using a larger front-to-back ratio and side-lobe rejection,
antenna unless it can be configured to offer gain, describing how improvement in one direction
which comes from shaping the directionality of is accompanied by the desirable loss in other
the antenna. Similarly, all antennas of the same directions. The pattern can be shaped by adding
size (wire dipoles, folded dipoles, fans, trap anten- parasitic elements, which are unconnected but
nas, cages, or any other) radiate the same amount secured to the boom, called reflectors and direc-
of power. Their relative advantages come from tors (see Yagi below). Feed point mismatch does
pattern directivity. The Yagi is a popular beam antenna with
not affect an antenna’s gain or pattern. forward gain.
The U.S. Coast Guard found several de- Adding a second identical antenna separated
cades ago that a five-foot antenna was adequate by ½ wavelength and connected in phase, known
for HF reception 100% of the time. Remember, as stacking will increase Curiously, the Japanese did not use the Yagi
the purpose of an antenna is transmitted and received sig- in World War II.
to detect enough signal to nal strengths by 3 dB, regard- The modern Yagi consists of a half-wave-
overcome the receiver’s own less of the original gain. Thus, length driven element, a single rear reflector about
internally-generated noise; two 1-dB-gain antennas will 5% longer, and one or more forward directors
once that is accomplished, provide 4 dB total gain, and about 5% shorter. The elements are usually spaced
more signal only means more two 20-dB-gain intercon- 0.15-0.2 wavelengths apart.
atmospheric noise with its nected antennas will provide Depending upon the number of directors, a
attendant interference from 23 dB total gain. Yagi may have six to twenty decibels (6 - 20 dBd)
strong-signal overload. Antenna performance is gain over a half-wave dipole in free space.
Below approximately usually compared to a half- There are many computer programs available
50 MHz, atmospheric noise wave dipole reference. Some in handbooks and on the Web for designing Yagi
(static) becomes increas- manufacturers compare the as well as other effective antennas.
ingly worse the lower we gain of their antennas to an
tune. This background hiss “isotropic” radiator which is a Next Month :
is a composite of thousands theoretical (and nonexistent) What do we mean by “matching” an an-
of lightning strikes occur- antenna that has a spheri- tenna? What is “impedance?” Is it possible to re-
ring simultaneously, around Stacking any two identical antennas, cal radiation pattern. This motely “tune” an antenna for best performance?
the world. Once we detect regardless of their individual gain, gives manufacturers a 2.1 dB Stay tuned for the next thrilling installment!
enough signal to overcome will increase the total gain by 3dB.

4 from the archives of Bob Grove

 All About Antennas
eventually radiated into space. The higher the
voltage (that is, the worse the mismatch), the
more power is absorbed by the resistive insula-

Part 3 tion, heating it. That’s where low-loss coax is

important. An impedance mismatch does not
produce radiation from the feed line.
When receiving, all signal voltage gath-
By Bob Grove W8JHD ered by a perfectly matched antenna is fed to
the receiver, but with a mismatch, the reflected

L
signal is radiated back into space. In practice,
this is usually of minor consequence, especially
ast month we discussed the many physi- closer to 65 ohms; if thicker tubing, 55-60 ohms.
at HF and below, where atmospheric noise is a
cal aspects of antenna design, not only This impedance rises as we move the feed point
dominant influence on signal interference.
in construction but in location. Now off center. If we use a folded dipole (See figure.)
let’s take a close look at some of the electrical the feed point impedance rises to about 300
considerations. ohms. The Transmission Line
Proximity to the earth’s surface also alters In the early days of radio when open-wire
transmission lines were common, the voltage
Matching the System fields produced by standing waves would light
The term “impedance matching” always up bulbs and deflect meters brought near the
comes up when referring to an antenna and lines; nowadays, with the near-universal use of
transmission line. To impede means to oppose, coaxial cable which encloses the electrostatic
so what is being opposed in an antenna system? fields, such measurements are not as easy.
When a battery is connected to a light bulb, Connecting an unbalanced line (coax) to a
the resistance of the filament is the impedance, balanced antenna can cause RF currents to flow
dissipating the opposed energy as heat and light. on the outside of the line, but these are not stand-
Ohm’s law reveals that there is a simple relation- ing waves. So what gives a transmission line its
ship between resistance, voltage and current. characteristic impedance (surge impedance)? A
When a transmitter is connected to an antenna the feed point resistance of a horizontal dipole, feed line can be considered as a radio-frequency,
in free space, RF energy is radiated into space; typically dropping from 100 to nearly 0 ohms as low-pass filter consisting of an infinite number
the voltage and current are controlled both by the the antenna is lowered from 0.33 wavelengths of series inductances shunted by an infinite
antenna’s radiation resistance and any capacitive to the earth’s surface, and fluctuating between number of parallel capacitances.
or inductive reactance which may be present. 60 and 100 ohms at heights between 0.33 and 1 The impedance of this distributed network
Why does an open circuit like a dipole wavelength.
accept and radiate power? An antenna is a spe- Vertical dipoles fare better, since their pat-
cialized form of transmission line; it is coupled
to space, which has an impedance of 377 ohms.
The center feed point impedance of a half-wave
dipole, however, is much lower than that.

Resonance
The impedance of an antenna is a combina-
tion of radiation resistance, conductor resistance, is theoretical, based upon the dielectric constant
and reactance. Radiation resistance is desirable; of the insulation, the spacing of the conductors,
it’s what accepts power and radiates it into space. no losses, and infinite length.
Conductor resistance, however, wastes power as While the most common feed line imped-
heat. Reactance opposes incoming energy; it is ances are 50, 75 and 300 ohms (TV twin lead),
caused when an antenna is too long or too short there are more than two dozen commercially-
at a particular frequency, so that when the wave available impedances from 32 to 600 ohms.
(signal voltage) traveling along the antenna is terns do not radiate directly downward where
reflected from the ends, it returns to the feed they would interact with the earth. Once elevated
point “out of phase” with the incoming wave. at least 0.25 wavelength, their impedance re- So why 50 or 75 ohms?
mains a relatively constant 70 ohms. Why have we chosen impedance standards
A half-wave antenna is naturally “reso- like 50 and 75 ohms for coax? For transmitters,
nant”; an arriving signal travels that half-wave A vertical antenna with drooping radials
has lower impedance, nominally 50 ohms; if the best power-handling capability is at 77 ohms,
length in half its cycle, then reflects back in while the best voltage tolerance occurs below
the other direction, finishing that cycle when it those radials were horizontal (at right angles to
the vertical element), the feed-point impedance 30 ohms. 50 ohms is a good compromise and it
returns to its starting point, the electromagnetic matches several standard antenna designs.
equivalent of a vibrating guitar string. would be about 35 ohms.
If 50-ohm coax is attached to an antenna’s For receiving purposes, 75 ohms is op-
Measurements will reveal maximum cur- timum for low coax losses, so it was adopted
rent (and minimum voltage) at the center, and 50-ohm feed point, we have a perfect (1:1 ratio)
impedance match, but if that 50 ohm coax is at- by the cable TV industry. Conveniently, it also
maximum voltage (minimum current) at the ends matches several antenna designs.
of the wire. A multiple-half-wave (full-wave, tached either to a 25 or 100 (50/25 or 100/50),
is that bad? No. Is 3:1? No. The impedance a transmitter or receiver
wavelength-and-a-half, etc.) antenna will have a “sees” when it is mismatched to a length of
standing wave on every half-wavelength section. The simple fact is that if there is no resis-
tive loss in the feed line or antenna (of course transmission line connected to an antenna is a
there always is), 100% of the generated power composite of the length of the line along with
Radiation Resistance will be radiated by the antenna regardless of the its losses, the SWR (see “Traveling Waves”
An infinitely-thin, half-wave dipole in free mismatch. below), and the load (feed point impedance of
space (at least several wavelengths away from What really happens with an impedance the antenna to which it is connected). If they are
other objects) would have a center feed point mismatch? Some of the signal voltage reflects all properly matched, however, the impedance
impedance (radiation resistance) of 73 ohms. back from the antenna junction through the coax is determined only by the characteristic of the
Constructed of normal wire the impedance is to the transmitter where it is re-reflected and line.

from the archives of Bob Grove MONITORING TIMES 5

Magical line lengths if a half-wavelength at 7 MHz is 66 feet in free antenna system will reflect power back to the
Trick No.1: The impedance measured at space, then the electrical half-wavelength of antenna where it will be re-radiated back into
the bottom of an electrical-half-wavelength coax with a velocity factor of 67% would be 44 space.
transmission line (or any whole-number mul- feet.
tiple of a half-wavelength), regardless of the Feedline loss
characteristic impedance of the feed line, is the Standing Waves or Single-wire feed, popular in the early 1900s
feed point impedance of the antenna. but now virtually abandoned, matched best at
Traveling Waves? high-impedance feed points (hundreds or even
When the system is non-resonant, the thousands of ohms); it was commonly used to
waves reflect back from any point where the off-center-feed antennas in the early days of
impedance changes, passing across each other radio, often with an SWR exceeding 10:1, but
in phase. Typically, these changes occur where they were efficient radiators.
For example, if, at some frequency, an the transmission line attaches to the antenna. The lowest-loss transmission line commer-
antenna has a feed point impedance of, say, Early instrumentation could not detect cially available is open-wire, parallel feed line
143 ohms, then we will read 143 ohms at the which waves, forward or reflected, were being known as “ladder line.” It accommodates high
bottom of a 50-, 72- or 300-ohm, electrical half- measured; their composite voltage was shown power and high SWR with virtually no loss.
wavelength line connected to it. on a voltmeter, periodically distributed along
Keep in mind that this is an electrical half- the transmission line. They were assumed to be Disadvantages of open-wire feeders in-
wavelength; we must multiply the free-space standing waves and the name has stuck. clude:
half-wavelength by the velocity factor of the The comparison of those summed voltage (1) A separation requirement between it and any
coax. For example, a half-wavelength at 14 MHz peaks to the minimum voltages interspersed nearby moisture or metal by two to four times
is 33 feet; using coax with a velocity factor of between them is called “voltage standing wave the separation of its two wires to avoid some
ratio” or “VSWR.” Engineers prefer to measure SWR increase resulting from interaction with
66% would mean that you would actually cut its unenclosed field;
the line to a length of 22 feet. the “voltage reflection coefficient,” the com-
(2) Unbalancing the line by allowing one wire to
parison of the reflected voltage to the incident come closer than the other to nearby metal
Trick No.2: We can use a quarter-wave- voltage at any one point on the line. or moisture;
length piece of transmission line as an imped- Since power (measured in watts) is a (3) Inability to bend at sharp angles without ad-
ance-matching transformer using the formula: product of voltage times current, as the current ditional reflective losses;
rises, the voltage falls (and vice versa); thus, the (4) Impedance mismatch when attaching to
current peaks are half way between the voltage standard low impedance antennas and
transmitters (except when used in multiples
peaks. The ratio of the current peak to minimum of a half-electrical-wavelength long at specific
For example, by substituting actual values is the same as that of the voltage, so “VSWR” frequencies);
in the solution below, if we wish to attach a 100- is usually shortened to “SWR” to accommodate (5) Balanced matching requirements when used
ohm antenna to a length of 50 ohm cable, we can both units. with unbalanced equipment (like every trans-
For example, if a 200-ohm resistive antenna mitter made!);
insert a quarter-wavelength matching stub of 70 (6) Vulnerability to electrical noise pickup if
(often marked 72 or 75) ohm cable. feed point is attached to a 50-ohm line, we would slightly unbalanced;
have a 4:1 SWR. The presence of inductive or (7) Changes in characteristic impedance from
= = 70.7 ohms capacitive reactance adds further to an antenna’s rain, ice and snow;
impedance. (8) and rarity of parallel-line connectors on radio
equipment.
Don’t forget to multiply the free-space
quarter-wavelength by the velocity factor and
Solid-dielectric, parallel feed line like TV
shorten the length of the cable accordingly. For
twin lead may also be used for receiving and
example, a quarter-wavelength at 14 MHz is
low-power transmitting provided all the caveats
234/14, or 16.7 feet; using coax with a velocity
regarding open-wire feeders are observed.
factor of 66%, the actual physical length would
Because its closer conductor spacing con-
be cut to 11 feet.
fines its field more, it may be brought within two
If the line needs to be physically longer, use
or three inches of nearby metal or moisture. But
odd multiples of the quarter-wavelength and the
the plastic insulation on inexpensive TV twin-
transformation will remain the same.
lead disintegrates with time, collecting moisture
and residue in its cracks, making it lossy.
Coaxial cable, on the other hand, may
approach the efficiency of open wire, may
be run underground or through metal pipe, is
electrical-noise resistant, and mates easily with
conventional connectors.

Here are the reasons that most coax is

When transmitting, the high voltages lossier than open-wire feed line:
produced by high SWR may arc across the feed (1) Its conductors are smaller, offering more
resistance to waste the current as heat.
line insulation or tuning components, and high (2) The dielectric (insulation) surrounding the
current may waste energy by heating the feed conductor dissipates some power; the higher
But remember, most antennas exhibit a line conductors. Since these are stationary points the frequency, the higher the dissipation.
very narrow frequency bandwidth for a given on the line for any particular frequency, the
impedance, so all this magic occurs only around transmitter (or matching device) may experience These two factors explain why large diam-
one frequency; on single-element antennas like either high voltage or high current, depending eter, foam dielectric, short length, coax cables
dipoles and verticals, it also works on odd-har- upon the length of the line. are preferred, especially for transmitting. There
monic multiples, although the match degrades In a receiving system, antenna-to-transmis- is also a safety reason: coax doesn’t radiate its
as we increase the number of multiples. sion-line mismatch will also produce losses in energy.
Remember as well, to take into account the transmission line; additionally, any imped- Of course, mammoth coax is wasted if
the velocity factory of the coax. For example, ance mismatch between the receiver and the smaller will do; after all, in house wiring, we

6 from the archives of Bob Grove

don’t use enormous #4 bus wire when #12 safely reading. Use good cable and that SWR differ- (the preferred term) also provide adjustable im-
passes all the current that is required. ence is but a few percent. pedance transformation between the receiver or
So what is the best coax? Generally So how does transmission line loss in transmitter and line, and some provide balanced-
speaking, the bigger the better, with aluminum- decibels translate to percentage of power loss? If to-unbalanced matching as well.
sheathed hard line taking the prize. But will system impedances are matched properly, a 1 dB Every length of metal has some frequency
you know the difference between that and, say, loss uses up 20% of the power; 3 dB represents or frequencies at which it is naturally resonant;
Belden 9913, foam dielectric RG-8/U, RG- 50%; and 6 dB attenuation means that 75% of that is, the inductive reactance equals the capaci-
213/U or RG-214/U? Not unless you are running the power is being used to heat the coax, whether tive reactance, thus mutually canceling the reac-
at least 100 feet at 1000 MHz or higher, or are transmitting or receiving. tance and leaving only the radiation resistance.
transmitting more than 1000 watts. If an antenna is too long for it to be naturally
For receiving purposes, or for transmitting resonant at some desired frequency, we say it is
up to 200 watts, it’s even easier. Since we aren’t inductive; a series capacitance can “tune out”
developing high voltages, we can use smaller- that inductive reactance which opposes the
diameter cable, just so long as it’s not lossy. incoming RF power.
Generally speaking, coax with a high veloc- Conversely, an electrically-short (capaci-
ity factor rating suffers the least loss. Below 30 tive) antenna can be adjusted by a series induc-
MHz use RG-58/U, RG-59/U, RG-6/U, or RG- tance. Contrary to a popular notion, a loading
8/X for runs of up to 100 feet. For VHF/UHF to coil does not “add the missing length” to a
1000 MHz, use any of these but the RG-58/U. short antenna; its inductive reactance cancels
Don’t let 70 ohm (instead of 50 ohm) the antenna’s capacitive reactance. We can also
impedance throw you; you won’t hear the differ- neutralize these reactances with a transmatch
ence for receiving, and the impedance mismatch connected at the transmitter output.
for a 50 ohm transmitter is only 1.4:1 which is Quoting antenna guru Walt Maxwell,
inconsequential, resulting in a loss of less than W2DU, when the transmatch is properly tuned,
0.2 dB, which is imperceptible. “...the entire system is made resonant...all re-
Generally speaking, the thinner the coax, actances in the system are cancelled...the net
the poorer the cable. Skinny RG-174/U should reactance is ZERO! In addition, by obtaining a
be used only for the shortest runs (a few feet). conjugate match at the antenna tuner, a conju-
Never use shielded audio cable in place of gate match is inherently obtained at any other
coax for radio frequency work; it is very lossy, junction in the system where a mismatch existed
has dreadful shielding, inviting interference In an unmatched system, line losses are prior to obtaining the match with the tuner.”
during reception, and radiation during transmis- even worse. High-SWR voltages dissipate more A transmatch is adjusted to provide capaci-
sion. Its reputation for causing radio-frequency power in the transmission line’s dielectric (insu- tive and inductive values of equal magnitude,
interference (RFI) when used to interconnect lation breakdown), current peaks dissipate more but of opposite phase, to the returning reflected
digital accessories is notorious! power in the conductor (resistive losses) and power, thus re-reflecting it back toward the
But even good coax deteriorates with both effects are aggravated by rising frequency. antenna in phase with the transmitted power.
time; foam-dielectric coax, initially superior in The result is that power is being wasted as heat. We don’t electrically alter any reactance in
performance, loses grace first, falling victim to For example, a 6:1 SWR in 100 feet of RG- the antenna system, we merely neutralize their
moisture intrusion. Many experts (especially 8/U at 14 MHz produces only a 1 dB loss, but at effects, thus matching all impedances in the
cable vendors!) recommend replacing coax 450 MHz it becomes 6 dB, and at 900 MHz, 8 process. All that is left is the antenna’s radiation
every five years. dB. With poorer-quality cable, losses are much resistance, so all power is radiated.
So, how can we tell if the coax is still good? worse. It pays to use good cable!
One way is to short-circuit the far end of the Keep in mind that these are coax losses; if
cable and attach the near end to an SWR meter you use open-wire feeders, the loss at 10:1 or
which, in turn, is connected to a low-power even 20:1 SWR is insignificant. Such high SWR
transmitter. The short will reflect 100% of the was present on early, micro-power earth satel-
power reaching it, sending it back to be regis- lites, but we heard those fine 23,000 miles below,
tered as reflected power. The higher the SWR, demonstrating once again that SWR alone has
the better, because it means that energy is not nothing to do with radiation efficiency.
being absorbed along the way. Replace coax that Contrary to popular myth, high antenna
shows a short-circuit SWR lower than 3:1. SWR does not radiate any more harmonics or
An easier test is to attach an ohmmeter on television interference (TVI) than a 1:1 SWR,
its high resistance scale across the shield and assuming that the transmitter is properly tuned
center conductor of the coax, leaving the far on frequency.
end open. There should be no reading on the Keeping SWR to a minimum by proper
meter (several megohms resistance). If there is transmission-line impedance matching is a pre-
a reading, the lower the resistance, the worse ventive against damage, especially to modern
the coax. It may be showing the consequences transceivers with marginal power specifications.
of water intrusion or corrosion. Automatic power-reduction circuits often
A high SWR between the feed line and kick in with an SWR as low as 2:1, making This “tuned feed-line” approach can be
antenna may appear as a low SWR at the trans- matching a requirement to achieve full output used with single wire, open parallel line, twin
mitter. Corroded or loose connectors, lossy cable power. lead, or coax equally well. Since a transmatch is
and other resistive agents can all contribute to a typically connected between the transmitter (or
deceptively low SWR reading. receiver) and feed line, it can only impedance-
Since no cable is 100% efficient, the SWR Tuning the System match those two points; it has no affect whatso-
measured at the transmitter will always be lower Antenna tuners, antenna tuning units ever on matching the feed line to the antenna. We
than the actual mismatch at the antenna; the (ATUs), transmatches, couplers and match- would need to connect the transmatch between
poorer (lossier) the cable, the lower (and more boxes are different names for the same thing: the feed line and antenna feed point to produce
misleading) the reading. combinations of adjustable capacitors and coils a match there.
Only by connecting an SWR meter directly to compensate for inductive and capacitive re-
to the antenna feed point can we get a true SWR actances in the antenna system. Transmatches

from the archives of Bob Grove MONITORING TIMES 7

 Just because it’s a transmatch doesn’t mean
it’s a good transmatch. Flimsy construction and
small-gauge wire may mean additional losses,
especially at higher power levels. High-power All about Antennas Part 4:
transmatches are invariably more efficient than
the low-power variety.
Choosing Antennas
Efficiency
Efficiency is a commonly misunderstood By Bob Grove W8JHD (all graphics courtesy the author)
concept in antenna system design; it is simply
the percentage of transmitter-generated signal
which is radiated by the antenna, or received
signal voltage which is delivered to the receiver. The term “polarization” refers to the rela-
If there were no resistive or insulation losses, any tive position of the electric component of the
antenna and feed line would be 100% efficient radio wave with respect to the earth’s surface. The gain of an an-
whether or not they are properly matched. A vertical antenna, often referred to as a “Mar- tenna may come
coni” (or “whip” if short), has its element(s), from increasing
and therefore its electric field, perpendicular its aperture (A)
Balanced or Unbalanced? to the earth. A horizontal antenna, variously or narrowing its
Most elevated, horizontal antennas are fed pattern(B).
called a “Hertz”, “flat top” or “Zepp” (after
at or near the center; they are said to be balanced,
the trailing antennas on the Zeppelins), has
both from a standpoint of symmetry as well as
its element(s) and electric field parallel to the
reference to ground.
earth.
Neither polarization is inherently superior.
The choice is made on a basis of practical
considerations such as the likelihood of a
horizontal antenna causing television interfer-
ence (TVI); the possibility of interaction with
nearby metallic masses in the same plane; a
desired pattern; reduction of noise pickup from
power lines and accessories; the area available, in the city where buildings reflect signals, short
or ease of mounting. range VHF/UHF communications retain their
Vertical antennas have only one mounting original polarization.
point and, properly placed, radiate uniformly
toward the horizon in all compass directions;
their low angle of radiation favors distant com-
Dipoles
The most common basic antenna is the
munications.
half-wave dipole, a length of wire at low fre-
Horizontal wire antennas must be elevated
quencies, or tubing at VHF/UHF, which is cut
at least a half-wavelength above the earth for
at the center and connected to a transmission
a low angle of radiation and reception; they
line. Such an antenna matches coax well for
utilize at least two suspension points, and radi-
about +/-5% of its design center frequency,
ate primarily at right angles to the wire axis.
but the impedance steadily rises beyond that,
It is more practical to make a long horizontal
requiring an antenna “tuner” (transmatch) for
antenna than a tall vertical antenna because of
transmitting.
the support requirements.
On odd harmonics (3rd, 5th, etc.) of the
At high frequency (shortwave), there is
fundamental design frequency, the impedance
little difference in performance between prop-
Most vertical antennas are unbalanced, lowers again, making the antenna multiband
erly installed horizontal and vertical antennas.
often making use of radial systems as an artificial even without a tuner.
Distant signals arrive with mixed polarization
ground reference. There is nothing inherently A half-wave dipole is a half-wavelength
from multiple reflections, and sometimes even
superior about one over the other; it is merely long only at one frequency; that same length is
the compass direction (azimuth or bearing) is
a question of whether they are best fed by twin a full-wavelength at twice the frequency, and a
unpredictable.
lead (balanced) or coax (unbalanced). Balun quarter-wavelength at half the frequency.
For VHF/UHF, vertical polarization is the
(balanced-to-unbalanced) transformers, which The theoretical length in feet of a half-
rule since mobile communications dominate
we will discuss later, as well as transmatches wave dipole in free space is found by dividing
this part of the spectrum, and it is easiest to
can be used to match balanced to unbalanced 492 by the frequency in megahertz. But sup-
mount a whip antenna on the vehicle. Except
circuit elements, and to match impedances. port insulators and wires at the
What is the penalty for misbalancing the ends (“end effect”) makes the
feed point? It may cause some RF current to antenna about 5% capacitively
flow on the surface of the feed line, or some stray shorter. Divide, instead, 468 by
radiation from the feed point, producing some the frequency in megahertz;
distortion in the pattern’s symmetry, affecting Thus, a 7 MHz, half-wave
gain somewhat. dipole would be 67 feet long.
Since it is more convenient
at VHF and UHF to calculate in
Next Month inches, divide 5616 (468 times
The last part of this series. Choosing an 12 inches) by the frequency in
antenna to match the task. How about acces- megahertz. Thus, a 146 MHz
sories? Final take-home points. dipole would be 38 inches long.
The polarization of an antenna is simply its relationship to the At its design frequency and
surface of the earth. below, the radiation and receiv-

8 from the archives of Bob Grove

 numbers of lobes and nulls, making it very Raising the position of the loading coil
directional. Not only that, but most VHF/UHF changes the current distribution along the an-
signals are vertically polarized. tenna, increasing the radiation resistance, but
Even if it were suspended vertically, the the longer loading coil requirement introduces
longwire antenna pattern would favor VHF/ more resistive loss. A position approximately
UHF signals off its ends—above and below, 2/3 the way up the whip may be an optimum
not off its sides. And finally, impedance mis- compromise.
A 67-foot dipole is half-wavelength at 7 MHz, match would cause considerable signal loss in But as the frequency of operation lowers,
but 1-1/2 wavelengths at 21 MHz. As the fre- the transmission line at VHF and even more at choosing a high-power-rated coil with low
quency increases, wavelength decreases. UHF. resistive loss becomes increasingly important,
even for receiving and low-power transmitting.
ing pattern is perpendicular to the element, but
as the harmonic multiple increases, the pattern Ground planes
changes, and the lobes now favor the ends of The ground plane antenna may be thought
the antenna with resultant gain. This should be of as a vertical dipole in which the bottom ele-
taken into consideration for wide ment is replaced by an array of horizontal (or
frequency applications. nearly so) elements, or even a sheet of metal,
Such an antenna can be erected to favor simulating a perfectly conductive earth.
ground-wave communications at the lower Like the dipole, a ground plane designed
frequencies, and sky-wave DX at higher fre- for a specific frequency will experience an
quencies. increase in feed-point impedance and radiation The mobile radio enthusiast has a number of
While it may be tempting to erect the angle toward its ends as the applied frequency antenna location choices with rooftop the best.
longest dipole we can, consistent with available increases, reducing effectiveness on harmonic Other spots include rear bumper, trunk lid, rear
real estate, a quarter-wave dipole captures only operation, except for working or monitoring and front cowls, and rear window.
3 dB (half and S-unit) less than a half-wave overhead aircraft and orbiting satellites!
dipole. We won’t hear much difference. For When all resistive losses are kept low and
transmitting, if properly matched, the radiated the reactances are tuned out, the typical input
power is virtually identical. impedance of an HF mobile antenna remains in
the 10-20 ohm range. A broadband impedance-
matching transformer is recommended for
The “Longwire” transmitting.
Many shortwave enthusiasts mistakenly
In a poorly-designed mobile antenna in-
refer to a random wire antenna as a “longwire,”
stallation, resistive losses may be high enough
but it doesn’t qualify unless it is at least one full
to match the impedance requirements of the
wavelength long at its operational frequency.
radio and coax, negating the need of a matching
Thus, a 150 foot antenna is just a half-wave
network—but the performance is awful!
dipole at 3 MHz, but it is a longwire above 6
MHz. The angle of the radialelements affect the feed
point impedance of a ground plane vertical. Grounded Antennas
It is actually possible to connect one end
of an antenna to a solid earth ground with ex-
cellent results. This is the principle behind the
Mobile Antennas Beverage antenna.
In an automotive environment, the vehicle Why doesn’t the ground trickle off all the
body is the ground plane; its contours and an- signal voltage? Because of standing waves. We
tenna placement influence the radiation (and are dealing with high frequency alternating
reception) pattern of the signal. Directivity current, not DC. The element is long enough
generally favors the mass of metal—a roof- to utilize reflected signal voltage to cancel any
mounted whip has a basically omnidirectional short-circuiting to ground.
pattern, while a rear-bumper mount favors the Just as with a dipole or vertical in which
forward direction of the vehicle. one element set is connected to the grounded
At frequencies above 10 MHz or so, the shield of the coax transmission line, this an-
surface area of the vehicle and the length re- tenna detects the voltage difference between
quirements for a vertical antenna are practical the elements, and that is what is sensed by the
for efficient operation; a quarter-wave whip is receiver as a signal.
resonant, exhibiting a feed point impedance of That is why a car body, in spite of the
about 36 ohms, a good match for conventional fact that it is “grounded” to the frame, and
50-ohm cable. thus to the radio, can be used as an antenna
But as frequencies lower, the electrically- at VHF and UHF frequencies. Arriving radio
short antenna possesses less and less radiation waves create standing waves – voltage points
resistance (less than one ohm at 2 MHz) and that can be tapped for their energy and fed to
more and more capacitive reactance which a receiver, or reciprocally, will accept energy
A halfwave dipole (A) as seen from above has must be cancelled by a series inductance (load- from a transmitter and radiate it into space.
a classical figure-eight pattern at right angles ing coil). However, the unpredictable signal patterns
to the curve. The same antenna at twice the Base-loading the whip requires less induc- as well as interference from ignition noise and
frequency, now a full wavelength, has a clo- tance than center- or top-loading because the automotive electronics make the car-body
verleaf pattern. upper whip section’s capacitance with the car antenna a poor choice.
body reduces its own capacitive reactance; but
So why doesn’t a long, horizontal short- the radiation resistance remains low (in some
wave antenna make a great scanner antenna? cases a few ohms), so that coil and transmission Traps
For one thing, as you use a given length antenna line resistances contribute a proportionately- For multiband operation, a trap (a coil and
at higher and higher frequencies, it has large higher loss. capacitor in parallel) may be placed between

from the archives of Bob Grove MONITORING TIMES 9

The Beverage is an example of a high performance, low frequency, grounded receiving antenna.

sections of an antenna to provide automatic electronic appliances. Don’t use an active

selection of appropriate lengths for given fre- antenna if an adequate passive antenna is
quencies. The trap is high Q (sharply tuned) available.
to the resonant frequency of the length closest
to the feed point, providing several hundred
ohms impedance isolation from the adjoining Invisible Antennas
section(s). Appearances or deed restrictions some-
At other (non-resonant) frequencies, the times require a hidden antenna. Receiving
coil simply adds slight electrical length be- antennas are much less demanding and easier
tween the adjoining elements, all of which now to hide, but even transmitting antennas can
add to the total antenna length. In this manner, be inconspicuous. Of course, VHF and UHF
a combination of elements and traps allow antennas, because of their compact sizes, are
resonant operation on several bands without easier to hide than HF antennas, but even HF
the need of antennas can be unimposing.
a transmatch. The sections are arranged in An attic crawl space is the first recom-
frequency order with the highest frequency mendation provided the antenna can be sepa-
closest to the feed point. rated from large metal surfaces and electrical
wiring.
Always use low-loss, well-shielded coax
transmission line to prevent appliance noise
pickup during receive, and stray radiation
during transmit. A balun transformer and
ferrite-bead choke may be useful as well.
Wire antennas may be run along base-
Traps are used to isolate antenna element boards, ceiling molding, behind curtains,
lengths for multiband operation. and even under eaves, rugs or carpeting. If
outdoors is accessible, a thin, high wire is vir-
If a transmatch is available, a trapped tually invisible, especially if it is covered with
antenna is undesirable since it suffers from grey (neutral color) insulation; run it from the
the traps’ resistive losses, gaps in frequency roof to a tree. A ground rod would be virtually
coverage, more components to fail, and higher invisible by its nature.
cost than a simple dipole. A wire antenna in a tree is also incon-
spicuous. It can be run vertically up the trunk,
suspended in the branches, or even constructed
Active or Passive as a wire array for gain and directivity. An
Antennas? antenna element doesn’t have to be perfectly
With one singular exception, all antennas straight. The coax feed line can be trenched
are passive; that is, they have no amplifying just beneath the soil.
electronic circuitry. They simply reflect, re- Resourceful hams, SWLs and scanning
fract, radiate or conduct the electromagnetic enthusiasts have often resorted to make-do
energy which reaches them. antennas. Bed springs, filing cabinets, rain
The exception is the active (voltage probe gutters and downspouts, aluminum window
or E-field) antenna which consists of a short frames, curtain rods, disconnected telephone
(a few inches to a few feet) receiving element or power lines, metal flagpoles, aluminum lad-
coupled to a wideband, small-signal amplifier. ders, fences, wheelbarrows, grocery carts, and
It is not used for transmitting. even vehicle-mounted antennas coax-fed into
While active antennas may have small the radio room have been called into service!
size and wide bandwidth, and can deliver
large signals to the receiver, they have their Next Month: Now that we’ve discussed an-
disadvantages. They are expensive, they re- tenna systems, what recommended accessories
quire power, they may burn out or degrade in can improve both transmission and reception?
performance from nearby lightning or strong And finally, what are the take-home points
signals, they generate noise and intermodula- that mean the most? Don’t miss next month’s
tion interference (“intermod”), and they are conclusion to this MT exclusive series on
usually placed close to interference-generating antennas!

10 from the archives of Bob Grove

 All about Antennas Part 5:
Accessories, Connectors and Adaptors
By Bob Grove W8JHD

I n the four previous issues we’ve covered

just about every aspect of antennas and
their permutations. In this final chapter
we’ll discuss the best ways to connect them to
radio equipment, and review the most important
The PL-259 (the so-called “UHF” con-
nector), developed during the 1930s, is still
a favorite for HF ham and CB transceivers as
well as shortwave receivers. It works well up
to at least 50-100 MHz.
facts to remember. Low-cost, TV-type F connectors work
At audio frequencies, any kind of connec- extremely well through at least 1 GHz, but they
tor will work as long as it can handle the voltage require solid-center-wire cable, and adaptors
and current. But at radio frequencies, connector are always needed to interconnect communica-
design is critical. Audio connectors, such as tions equipment and accessories.
RCA phono connectors and earphone plugs, Some imported nickel-plated connectors
become increasingly deficient with frequency are poorly made; their loose fittings and out-of-
and have no specific impedance characteristics. tolerance thread pitches can add noise, intermit-
They are usable up to about 30 MHz for receiv- tent performance, signal loss, and electrolytic
ing purposes. corrosion to the system. On the other hand, a
Motorola connectors, developed for AM lab test at Grove Enterprises showed only a
car radios, were grandfathered into VHF use fraction of a dB loss at 1 GHz from five differ-
when FM coverage was added to those radios. ent, imported, nickel-plated adaptors cascaded
Early VHF converters needed Motorola con- in series. A preamplifier should only be used in excep-
nectors in order to interface with the car radios; But, to be safe, it’s always better to choose tionally weak signal areas.
then mobile scanners adopted them since the a branded, silver (or gold) plated connector or
car antenna could be called into limited service adaptor if available. Better yet, use a cable with unnecessary.
for local scanner reception. Marginal in per- the correct connectors instead of adaptors. A preamp must have a lower noise figure
formance at VHF/UHF frequencies, Motorola (self-generated “hiss”) than the receiver, or
plugs have been abandoned by scanner manu- the only thing it accomplishes is increasing
facturers in favor of infinitely superior BNC Preamplifiers both signal and noise, just as if you had merely
connectors. A preamplifier (“pre-amp” or “signal turned up the receiver’s volume control.
The BNC was named for its configura- booster”) is simply a small-signal amplifier It must have wide dynamic range – the
tion and inventors – it is a (B)ayonet design placed between the antenna and receiver. When ability to amplify weak and strong signals
by (N)eill and (C)oncelman and is excellent integrated with a small receiving antenna, the equally without becoming overloaded and thus
for applications through at least 1,000 MHz combination is called an active antenna (previ- generating spurious signal products, known as
(1 GHz). Neill also contributed his initial to ously discussed). intermodulation (intermod), which interfere
the N connector, developed during World War A preamplifier connected to a poorly- with normal reception.
II for military UHF communications. It is an located antenna will not perform as well as At VHF and especially UHF frequencies
excellent waterproof choice through at least a well-placed, larger “passive” (unamplified) and above, where transmission line losses may
2 GHz, but harder to assemble since it is de- antenna, but it may be the only alternative become significant, a preamplifier mounted at
signed for large RG-8/U and R-213/U cables. when the better antenna is not practical. If a the antenna will boost signals above the loss
Concelman’s initial adorns the less popular C shortwave receiving antenna is at least 20 feet characteristic of the line. Still, the preamp is
connector of World War II. long and in the clear, a preamplifier is probably vulnerable to all the problems described above.
Even when working perfectly, a preamp
can cause the receiver to overload and generate
intermod of its own, desensitizing it to weak
signals, aggravating images, or even damaging
its delicate RF amplifier circuitry. Use it as a
last resort.

Splitters and combiners

A splitter is essentially a broadband RF
transformer which allows one signal source to
be equally divided into two or more paths; this
allows, for example, several receivers to operate
from one antenna.
Since a typical two-way splitter is an RF
voltage divider, each output will be reduced by
3 dB, half the original power level.
Connected in reverse, a splitter becomes
The most common antenna connectors and their maximum recommended frequencies.

from the archives of Bob Grove MONITORING TIMES 11

 fittings that contain a DC-blocking capacitor antenna, feed line,
that may be attached to the splitter. Some split- tuner, and interactive
ters offer a combination of passive and blocked environment (tower,
ports on the same device. nearby wires, trees,
Conventional installations which have no rain gutters, etc.).
DC power requirements on the transmission But the tuner does
line work just fine with either DC passive or not change the anten-
DC blocked splitters. na’s natural feed point
impedance; if there
was a mismatch be-
Balun transformers tween it and the balun
The term “balun” (a contraction for “bal- or feed line before the Balun transformers
anced to unbalanced”) is a wideband RF trans- tune-up, it will remain are used for match-
former that allows an unbalanced transmission even after the tuner is ing coax to antennas.
line (coax) to be used with a balanced antenna adjusted to resonance
(dipole or beam). Many transmatches include and shows a 1:1 match.
Splitters are used to feed one antenna to two balun circuitry.
(or more) receivers; they can also be used in A balun works properly only with resistive
Balun transformers may incorporate a (non-reactive) loads; system reactances can
reverse to combine two (or more) antennas to step-up ratio (typically 4:1) to allow low-
operate one receiver. cause impedance transformation ratios different
impedance coax to correctly match high- from what was intended. Therefore, it is not a
impedance antenna feed points, or a simple 1:1 good idea to use a balun over a wide frequency
a combiner, allowing two signal sources to ratio to connect coax (unbalanced) to a balanced
add commonly. This allows, for example, two range on a narrowband antenna. Baluns also add
feed point. losses, due to wire resistance and possible core
separate-frequency antennas to be used simul- Instead of a 1:1 balun transformer, a ferrite
taneously with one receiver. saturation during transmit.
bead RF choke at the antenna-coax feed point
But, if the two antennas have a similar will reduce RF on the feed line by absorbing
frequency response, they can produce destruc- unbalanced power. Attenuators
tive interference (signal canceling) from certain Like splitters, VHF/UHF TV balun trans- It may seem self-defeating to make re-
directions, while providing 3 dB overall gain formers can be used with VHF/UHF scanners, ceived signals weaker, but under some condi-
in other directions. Basically, they comprise a shortwave receivers down to about 3 MHz, and tions it is advisable. For example, if you live
directional array – a “beam” antenna. even for low-power (a few watts) transmitters. near several broadcast transmitters, or a high-
TV splitters marked “V/U” or “VHF/ If a balun transformer is connected be- powered paging transmitter, or if most signals
UHF” or “54-890 MHz” actually work reason- tween the feed line and antenna, a transmatch in your area are quite strong, they may be too
ably well from the low HF range (typically 3 will still resonate the entire system – balun, hot for your receiver or scanner to handle.
MHz) up through 1 GHz. Receivers may “come
While there are transmitter split- apart” under these conditions, gen-
ters and combiners, those made for erating spurious signals (intermod)
receivers are far more common and or even desensitizing, making weak-
less expensive. They will also allow signal reception virtually impossible.
low power – a few watts – to pass If your outdoor antenna
without much problem, but higher causes either of these symptoms, an
power levels will heat the fine wind- attenuator may be the prescription;
ing and saturate the small ferrite core, some receivers and scanners have
wasting power and even destroying them built in. But if an attenuator is
the device. likely to make desirable weak signals
unreadable, try a filter.
TV Splitters
Splitters used to couple two or Filters
more TV sets to a common antenna A filter is a tuned circuit which
system are quite suitable for general- allows only certain frequencies to
purpose receiving installations. Most pass; their generic names imply what
are marked with their recommended they do.
frequency application. A low-pass filter passes low
Those intended for powering frequencies and attenuates higher
satellite-dish low-noise block down- frequencies, while a high-pass filter
converters (LNBs), marked 950-1450 passes high frequencies and attenu-
MHz, should be avoided for short- ates lower frequencies.
wave and scanning, but those marked A band-pass filter passes a
5-900 MHz work well from shortwave specific range of frequencies, while
right up through VHF/UHF scanning. a band-reject (“suck-out”) filter at-
Such splitters are usually DC tenuates a swath of spectrum.
passive; that is, their windings are A trap, or notch filter, attenuates
electrically interconnected so that a very narrow range of frequencies,
voltage may transferred through the while a peaking filter passes a very
splitter to activate an antenna-mount- narrow range of frequencies.
ed preamplifier or down-converter. Filters can be used with trans-
However, if you have voltage mitters to reduce harmonic and other
on the line but don’t want it to get spurious signal radiation, or with
through your DC-passive splitter, receivers and scanners to selectively
and don’t have a DC-blocked splitter reduce strong, interfering signal
available, there are accessory F-to-F Types of filters.

12 from the archives of Bob Grove

 AC fields from power lines and associated guishable from signals produced by a
equipment and appliances, as well as transmit- perfect 1:1 impedance match.
ted radio fields. 7. Adjusting a transmatch at the radio posi-
Virtually all studies suggest that power tion does not alter the reactance or im-
levels under 100 watts or so into an elevated pedance of either the antenna or the feed
outdoor antenna are safe. Concern mounts line; it brings the entire mismatched and
reactive system into resonance by “conju-
with indoor, attic, mobile, and low-elevation, gate matching,” introducing reactance-
directional, transmitting antennas. canceling capacitances and inductances
Until all the facts are known, it is best to of its own, so that the attached receiver or
follow these guidelines: transmitter senses only a resistive load.
(1) Keep away from antennas and open-wire feed 8. A large antenna does not radiate more
lines that are transmitting. power than a small antenna, nor is more
(2) Elevate well overhead any transmitting an- power radiated from a particular configu-
Filters are used to remove unwanted signal tennas, especially directional beams which
interferences. ration (dipole, vertical, beam, quad, cage,
concentrate their energy. bowtie, rhombic, loop, etc.). But a large
frequencies. (3) Operate nearby transmitting antennas (mo- antenna does radiate a more concentrat-
No filter is perfect in its characteristics; bile, attic, in-room) at low power (nominally ed, directional field than a small antenna,
no more than 25 watts).
desired signals near the edges of the design and it captures more signal energy during
(4) Operate RF power amplifiers with their covers
range (cutoff frequencies) will also be attenu- in place.
reception.
ated somewhat. Even at the center of its attenu- 9. No transmission line needs to be a specific
(5) Hold hand-held transceivers away from your
ation range, some strong signals may still get length if a transmatch is available. Adjust-
head by using extension mikes.
through. A credible manufacturer will publish ing the length of a feed line does not alter
(6) Stay at least two feet away from power trans-
the SWR, just the impedance measured at
the response curves of his filters to reveal their formers.
the tuner/feed line connection.
limitations. 10. High SWR in a coax feed line does not
Take-Home Points – cause RF currents to flow on the outside
Antenna switches Facts, Not Fiction
of the line, nor will the coax radiate. High
SWR on an open wire feed line will not
It is often desirable to select among two
or more antennas for optimum reception or As we close this five-part series on antenna cause the feed line to radiate as long as
transmission. For receiving purposes, or even systems, here are some of the most important the currents are balanced, wire spacing is
parts to remember: small compared to wavelength, and there
for low power (a few watts) transmitting, TV are no sharp bends.
coax antenna switches work admirably from 11. Assuming low-loss feed line, an SWR meter
1. Except for very thin wires, most antennas
DC through 1000 MHz. CB-type antenna are efficient radiators. Virtually all losses in will read the same at the antenna feed
switches work fine up to about 30MHz, for an antenna system occur in the feed line. point, anywhere on the feed line, and at
both receiving and transmitting. 2. A high standing wave ratio (SWR of 3:1, the transmitter.
For higher power, especially at higher fre- 6:1, etc.) merely indicates the presence of 12. Raising or lowering an antenna to adjust
quencies, select a commercial coax switch rated power reflections on the feed line due to its feed point impedance has no significant
for the frequency range and power required. impedance mismatch. If there are no loss- effect on power radiated, only the shape of
es in the feed line, all reflected transmitter its elevation pattern. However, raising the
power will be returned to and radiated by pattern between 3 and 20 degrees from
the antenna. the horizon can improve DX communica-
For receiving systems, all captured signal tions.
power will be returned to the receiver. If 13. A frequency meter or dip oscillator con-
there is an impedance mismatch between nected at the bottom of a feed line cannot
the receiver and transmission line; how- measure the resonant frequency of the
ever, reflected signal power will return to antenna; it measures only the combined
the antenna where it will be re-radiated resonance of the antenna plus the feed
back into space line.
3. Reflected power does not flow back into 14. A balun transformer on a transmitting
the transmitter and cause damage or antenna will match impedances correctly
Antenna switches should be chosen care- overheating. If damage occurs, it is due only if it is used within its power limitations;
fully, both to handle high power when used to mistuning the amplifier. excessive current may saturate its core,
for transmitting, and for low loss when used 4. A low SWR reading only means that the wastefully heating the balun while giving
at VHF/UHF. transmitter, feed line and antenna system a deceptive SWR reading.
are impedance-matched; it does not nec- 15. A loading coil on a short antenna doesn’t
essarily mean that everything is working add missing length, it adds inductive re-
Biohazards properly. actance to cancel the capacitive reactance
It has long been known that electromag- Corroded or intermittent connectors, of the short antenna.
netic radiation can produce effects in biological ineffective grounds, lossy cable and other 16. A transmatch doesn’t “fool” the transmitter
organisms; of particular concern to radio hob- resistive agents can all give a deceptively or receiver into “thinking” it is connected
byists is the influence of radio waves on the low SWR. Unless an antenna is broadband to the correct impedance any more than
human body. by design, a low impedance maintained an AC wall adaptor “fools” a radio into
over a wide frequency range without retun- “thinking” it is getting 12 volts DC when it
If we consider the adult as an antenna,
ing is particularly suspect. is plugged into 120 volts AC. In both cases
it has a natural resonance between 35 MHz power and impedance transformations
(standing, grounded) and 70 MHz (insulated 5. Neither an antenna nor the feed line
needs to be self-resonant (no inductive or really occur.
from ground).
capacitive reactances) to perform properly.
Body parts, too, are resonant – the head at Virtually any antenna and its feed line, no
around 400 MHz (700 MHz for infants). Since RECOMMENDED READING
matter how reactive, can be brought to
the body is a lossy conductor, it dissipates much resonance by a properly designed trans- The ARRL Antenna Book, published by the Ameri-
of the induced energy as heat. But in most cases match. can Radio Relay League, 225 Main St.,
it is not thermal affects that are of the greatest 6. Using low-loss transmission line, and at Newington, CT 06111.
concern. frequencies below 30 MHz or so, signals Antennas J.D. Krauss, second edition, 1988;
On-going controversy revolves around experiencing an SWR of at least 3:1 and McGraw-Hill Book Co.
whether cancers may be induced by low-level perhaps as high as 5:1 will be indistin-

from the archives of Bob Grove MONITORING TIMES 13