DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES

VOLUME 2 HIGHWAY STRUCTURES:

DESIGN
(SUBSTRUCTURES AND
SPECIAL STRUCTURES)
MATERIALS
SECTION 4 PAINTS AND OTHER
PROTECTIVE COATINGS

PART 3

BA 85/04

COATINGS FOR CONCRETE HIGHWAY

STRUCTURES AND ANCILLARY
STRUCTURES

SUMMARY

This Advice Note covers the use of coatings on new

concrete highway structures and those in service, and
ancillary structures such as service buildings.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE

This Advice Note is to be incorporated in the Manual.

1. This document supersedes BE 8/75.

2. Remove Contents pages for Volume 2, dated

February 2004.

3. Insert new Contents pages for Volume 2, dated

May 2004.

4. Insert BA 85/04 into Volume 2, Section 4, Part 3.

5. Please archive this sheet as appropriate.

Note: A quarterly index with a full set of Volume

Contents Pages is available separately from The
Stationery Office Ltd.

May 2004
 DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES BA 85/04

THE HIGHWAYS AGENCY

SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE

WELSH ASSEMBLY GOVERNMENT

LLYWODRAETH CYNULLIAD CYMRU

THE DEPARTMENT FOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

NORTHERN IRELAND

Coatings for Concrete Highway

Structures and Ancillary Structures

Summary: This Advice Note covers the use of coatings on new concrete highway
structures and those in service, and ancillary structures such as service
buildings.
Volume 2 Section 4
Part 3 BA 85/04 Registration of Amendments

REGISTRATION OF AMENDMENTS

Amend Page No Signature & Date of Amend Page No Signature & Date of
No incorporation of No incorporation of
amendments amendments

May 2004
 Volume 2 Section 4
Registration of Amendments Part 3 BA 85/04

REGISTRATION OF AMENDMENTS

Amend Page No Signature & Date of Amend Page No Signature & Date of
No incorporation of No incorporation of
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May 2004
 DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES

VOLUME 2 HIGHWAY STRUCTURES:

DESIGN
(SUBSTRUCTURES AND
SPECIAL STRUCTURES)
MATERIALS
SECTION 4 PAINTS AND OTHER
PROTECTIVE COATINGS

PART 3

BA 85/04

COATINGS FOR CONCRETE HIGHWAY

STRUCTURES AND ANCILLARY
STRUCTURES

Contents

Chapter

1. Introduction

2. Guidance

3. References

4. Enquiries

Appendix A Surface Coatings Technology

May 2004
Volume 2 Section 4 Chapter 1
Part 3 BA 85/04 Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 This Advice Note supersedes BE8/75, which is

withdrawn.

Purpose and scope

1.2 The Advice Note comprises guidance on the use

of surface coatings on concrete highway structures. It
also deals with coatings to be applied to the internal and
external surfaces of ancillary structures, such as service
buildings. Appendix A consists of a review of
technology and practice outlining the basic principles of
coatings technology, and describes how the constituents
can be combined to produce the wide variety of paints
and other treatments that are commonly used to
decorate and protect cement-based substrates. It also
deals with substrate characteristics that are relevant to
coating performance, and how they affect coating
selection. Finally a synopsis of the current best practice
guidance for the specification of coatings for concrete
and associated substrates is given.

Implementation

1.3 This Advice Note is to be implemented forthwith

for all schemes currently being prepared provided that,
in the opinion of the Overseeing Organisation, this
would not result in significant additional expense or
delay progress. Design and Maintenance Organisations
should confirm its application to particular schemes
with the Overseeing Organisation, and include within
technical approval procedures and Approval in
Principle documentation where appropriate.

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Volume 2 Section 4 Chapter 2
Part 3 BA 85/04 Guidance

2. GUIDANCE

General issues and policy However, where necessary, specialist technical advice
should also be sought from suppliers and manufacturers
2.1 Overseeing Organisations receive numerous of coatings, and reference made to coating data sheets.
proposals to paint or coat concrete structures. The
reasons for this are many and varied: cosmetic (as part 2.4 A smooth dense concrete surface with compliant
of refurbishment and regeneration schemes on existing cover to steel reinforcement enhances durability,
and new structures), decorative (murals), protective (to without the need to resort to coatings, other than the
provide enhanced durability or as part of measures to appropriate use of a pore lining impregnant, in
mitigate graffiti) and to address technical issues such as aggressive environments where structural elements are
improved light reflectance and cleaning properties in subject to deicing salt spray or in marine environments.
specialist structures such as tunnels. (Surface protection using a pore lining impregnant is
not specifically dealt with in this Advice Note -
2.2 Previous guidance given in BE8/75 advised that reference should be made to BD43 and the MCHW
in general concrete should not be painted, primarily Volume 1 Specification for Highway Works and the
because: related Volume 2 Notes for Guidance). Concrete is best
left with a natural smooth defect free ‘as struck’ finish
• inspection may be hampered; (no further surface treatment after removal of the
shuttering), albeit that in some situations special
• structural defects may be obscured; concrete surface treatment finishes may be required and
can be used. Contrasts can be provided by the use of
• additional maintenance liability may be incurred moulding, features and textures in the concrete surface
- recoating and cleaning; to give areas of light and shade or by using different
aggregates and cements. Further advice is available in
• coating performance was not generally very the ‘Appearance of Bridges and other Highway
satisfactory; Structures’ produced by Highways Agency and
published by HMSO.
• limited service life of paints and coatings;
2.5 The main circumstances where coatings may be
• painted surfaces tended to appear dirty and considered and used are as follows:
shabby after a short period;
• anti-graffiti coatings (as part of a management
• monitoring of remedial treatments may be strategy to deal with specific graffiti problems on
hampered. new or existing structures);
2.3 The philosophy behind BE8/75 is still (Although detailed policies on graffiti will vary
appropriate, and although there have been many between Overseeing Organisations, general
advances in coating technology in the interim period, requirements will be to remove obscene,
the current guidance is that in general it is not advisable blasphemous or offensive graffiti as soon as
to utilise coatings on external exposed concrete surfaces practicable after it has been observed. However
of highway structures. The use of paints or any other discretion is required in the handling and timing
applied coatings for coverage of concrete surfaces on of the removal of other graffiti. Non-contentious
highway structures will only be permitted in graffiti should be removed, to meet set levels of
exceptional circumstances, and should be supported by service or intervals prescribed or agreed in
technical justification, whole life costing and particular contracts, or in combination with other
assessment of risks, based on a developed and agreed work where appropriate. Where graffiti is
management strategy for the structure. Where they are persistent or widespread in environmentally
justified and are to be adopted by agreement with the sensitive areas, consideration should be given to
Overseeing Organisation, Appendix A of this Advice different options, other than by frequent removal
Note provides some technical guidance to assist with or obliteration. Possible strategies are initiatives
the preparation of a specification for the coatings. involving local schools, Neighbourhood Watch,

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Chapter 2 Volume 2 Section 4
Guidance Part 3 BA 85/04

local councils, and the Police. Physical measures 2.7 The guidance in this Advice Note applies both to
include the use of anti-graffiti coatings, special new construction and in-service structures. However
cleaning materials, gritblasting, and the provision where consideration is being given to the application of
of alternative surfaces such as tiling, and murals. coatings on in-service structures, the existing condition
Care must be taken to ensure compatibility of of the structure must be assessed. Key issues to be
applied materials and cleaning techniques, with addressed are the identification of the cause of any pre-
the concrete substrate, and to avoid surface existing defects in the concrete, their method of
deterioration. The remedial action should not rectification, desired service life, costs and appearance.
encourage further graffiti, eg Overpainting with Coatings are only one of a number of remedial options
light coloured coatings is often seen as providing available, either used alone or in combination with
a ‘new blank canvas’. It may be appropriate in other techniques and materials.
some circumstances where a coating or mural has
been applied to also use an anti-graffiti coating. Performance criteria
More information is provided in ‘Appearance of
bridges and other Highway Structures’).
2.8 In specifying a coating for concrete, key
• anti-carbonation coatings (in association with considerations will be the suitability of the proposed
specific remedial treatment such as material for application on concrete, durability, effect
electrochemical chloride removal, or where on the performance characteristics of the concrete,
carbonation has been identified as a specific and performance characteristics of the coating, appearance,
significant risk); maintainability, costs, application constraints, and
health and safety issues. These topics are discussed in
• tunnel finishes (tunnel walls or tunnel approaches more detail in Appendix A.
where light reflectance and suitability for use
with washing detergents are prime considerations 2.9 When specifying coatings it is essential to ensure
- whilst the principles of coatings are dealt with that the physical, chemical and electrochemical
in this Advice Note more specific requirements condition of the substrate material, and the
are included in the Tunnel Specification and environmental conditions for the coating application are
related Notes for Guidance Volume 5 MCHW, appropriate. Some general guidance is given in
BD78 and BA72); Appendix A, however as there is a wide range of
materials available, used for different purposes, it is
• buried concrete surfaces; usually necessary to seek specialist advice from an
experienced materials consultant, or directly from
• other inaccessible surfaces subject to potential coating suppliers. Where necessary detailed technical
water and deicing salt damage such as ends of specifications should be consulted and research data
decks and ballast walls; sought. On larger schemes trials would be prudent and
are strongly recommended, and also where appearance
• environmental schemes including the use of and performance are critical. Additional testing may
murals in subways or on retaining walls (other also be required to assess the performance of proposed
treatments such as tiling could also be coatings.
considered). In this case a careful study will be
required to assess the potential aesthetic and 2.10 Many coatings provide some form of physical
social benefits, as against technical barrier, which prevents ingress of chlorides and carbon
considerations and costs, including future dioxide, and allows concrete to breathe, and reduces its
maintenance liabilities; moisture content. In addition to economic requirements
such as ease of application, ease of overcoating and
• specialist applications such as anti-climb and long service life, the main selection criteria for coatings
anti-bill posting coatings. can be summarised as follows:

2.6 Where coatings are considered they should be • chemical resistance (eg to salt);
assessed in whole life cost terms as well as by
development of a technical specification, to meet the • diffusion resistance (eg to water, CO2, O2,
design requirements. They should be reviewed as part chloride ions);
of the developed management strategy for the structure
concerned. • weathering resistance (eg to UV light, variable
temperature and humidity, water);

2/2 May 2004

Volume 2 Section 4 Chapter 2
Part 3 BA 85/04 Guidance

• resistance to expansive forces (eg to freezing and requirement for pore-lining impregnants and provide an
thawing, alkali aggregate reaction); anti-graffiti capability.

• aesthetic appearance; 2.14 In many United Kingdom locations, in areas

prone to graffiti, community schemes have been set up,
• crack bridging ability; often involving schools and local artists to produce
murals on retaining walls and subways. This has often
• adhesion strength; been carried out in the design of new schemes, but has
also been applied to in-service structures. The emphasis
• abrasion resistance. has usually been on the design aspects rather than the
choice of materials, but both are important. Designs
Appearance which have large blocks of colour, particularly light
colours, may still be the target of graffiti. Persistent
2.11 Where a coating has been agreed, consideration graffiti may also deface good designs, unless the source
should be given to the final appearance. This will of the problem is addressed, or unless an anti-graffiti
depend on the purpose of the coating, the location of coating is used as well. Also some paints used for
the structure and its environment. Colour and texture murals have not proved durable and far from enhancing
may be issues to be addressed and whether a matt or a neighbourhood, present a shabby appearance. Murals
glossy finish is required. Further guidance on the do present some difficulties in terms of maintenance of
subject is available in the reference document ‘The the mural itself, and inspection and repair of the
appearance of bridges’. Trials to assess the appearance concrete substrate.
of the coating insitu on the structure may be required.
Anti-carbonation coatings
Anti-graffiti coatings
2.15 Anti-carbonation coatings are usually only used
2.12 Unless there is a proven or anticipated problem in association with specialised remedial treatments such
with vandalism and graffiti, it is still preferable to avoid as electrochemical chloride removal, or if concrete
the use of coatings wherever possible. As indicated in deterioration by carbonation is likely or has occurred.
2.5 above, and if there are no other options, anti-graffiti The latter is a relatively rare occurrence on highway
measures including the use of coatings may be structures. Some generalised guidance on anti-
necessary. In selecting a suitable coating care must be carbonation coatings is given at Appendix A clause
taken. Appendix A section A12 indicates that some A13.
materials, particularly permanent coatings based on
urethane may alter the appearance of the concrete Tunnels
surface, and so should only be considered where
appearance is not critical. So called ‘sacrificial 2.16 When selecting coatings for use within concrete
coatings’, often wax based, are removed or partially tunnels the key criteria is the ease of cleaning and the
removed when cleaning and removing graffiti, and colour and reflectivity to enhance the tunnel lighting.
therefore incur additional liabilities for cleaning and Impermeability to aggressive agents is also important
renewal of the materials in the future. They generally and thought should also be given to the type of
have less visual impact and are preferred where detergents to be used for tunnel cleaning operations.
appearance matters. Areas of the tunnel walls extending to not less than 4
metres above the carriageway level shall be of a
2.13 Issues to be considered are the need to make consistent light colour and have a reflectance of not less
special arrangements for the procurement of services than 0.6 (the method of measurement of reflectance is
for graffiti removal and coating replacement, and the given in MCHW Volume 5). Above the light area shall
technical and health and safety aspects of the use of be a consistent dark colour. It is also necessary to
solvents and other cleaning materials and the need for demonstrate that the surface finish will avoid problems
compatibility of materials. If extensive use of anti- of excessive specular reflection or ‘glare’ due to the
graffiti coatings is to be made, and particularly where reflection of daylight, vehicle lights, or illuminated
appearance is important it is worth undertaking a trial, signs. Smooth finishes are preferable, as textured
to assess appearance and performance of the material surfaces may not be suitable as they will tend to retain
when subject to graffiti. Combination materials may dirt.
also become available which will address the

May 2004 2/3

Chapter 2 Volume 2 Section 4
Guidance Part 3 BA 85/04

Buried concrete surfaces Other applications

2.17 Buried concrete surfaces, or faces of walls below 2.21 There may be other specialised applications
ground, or in contact with soil or groundwater should which require the use of a coating on concrete. They
receive a waterproof coating before backfilling - refer will need to be assessed on their merit, based on the
to Appendix A clause A11. Straight run bituminous and principles and guidance in this Advice Note. In most
tar based compounds are generally effective, economic cases they will require detailed discussions with the
and durable. In the past bituminous emulsions have manufacturer or supplier, and examination of research
been used, but may be susceptible to failure in damp, evidence to ensure their suitability in meeting the
wet or cold conditions. The acceptable materials must performance requirements, and in achieving the desired
be carefully applied in accordance with the durability.
manufacturer’s recommendations, generally with a
primer and two coats, to provide a defect free surface Other substrates
without holidays. These coatings should comply with
MCHW1 Clause 2004 and be applied in accordance
2.22 Although this Advice Note deals specifically with
with Clause 2006. Similar coatings may also be
the application of coatings on concrete, many of the
required in inaccessible areas of bridges, which may be
principles relate to other substrates, such as masonry,
subject to water and other contaminants, such as
brickwork and other cement based finishes. Appendix A
bearing shelves, deck ends and ballast walls.
provides some general advice, but it is recommended
2.18 Where concrete is at risk of attack from that guidance is sought from specialists or suppliers.
contaminants in the ground or from sulfates, specialist
advice should be sought and reference made to BRE Historic structures
Special Digest SD1 ‘Concrete in aggressive ground’.
The Digest gives guidance on Protective Measures to be 2.23 Where a coating is to be used on the concrete
applied to different mixes of concrete in varying ground surface of a historic structure, and particularly if it is
conditions, including the use of waterproofing coatings. listed or scheduled, the relevant planning and heritage
authorities should be consulted, and any necessary
Box sections approvals obtained. Appearance and colour will be
important, as will be the respect to the historic fabric of
2.19 Generally it is not necessary to coat accessible the structure, and the selection of appropriate coating
interior surfaces of concrete box sections such as material and its compatibility with the substrate.
beams, tanks and cellular abutments. It is more
important to provide a stable and benign environment, Buildings
and consideration needs to be given to the provision of
adequate ventilation and drainage. If a coating is 2.24 This Advice Note is not intended to provide
required then the use of a pore lining impregnant is guidance in relation to the use of coatings on the
preferred. internal and external surfaces of buildings, although the
technical guidance provided in Appendix A may assist
Concrete in contact with water in the formulation of the requirements.

2.20 Unless there is a specific chemical problem, then Compatibility with impregnants
concrete in contact with above ground non-potable
water will generally not require the use of a coating. 2.25 Where silane or another pore-lining impregnant
The emphasis should be on the use of good design and has been used, and a coating is also proposed, then it
detailing of the concrete surfaces and drainage, should be ensured that there is compatibility between
materials selection and good construction techniques to the materials. It is particularly important to assess that
ensure durability. Routine maintenance is also the vapour transmissibility and hydrophobic properties
important. Where a coating is deemed necessary, of the impregnant are not adversely affected or
specialist advice must be sought and contact made with impaired, and that the performance of the coating,
and approval sought from the relevant responsible water particularly long term adhesion, is effective. Any
authorities. maintenance of the coating should not adversely affect
the impregnant.

2/4 May 2004

Volume 2 Section 4 Chapter 2
Part 3 BA 85/04 Guidance

Specification Health and safety

2.26 The use of pore lining impregnants (clause 1709) 2.31 Some of the materials referred to in this Advice
and buried concrete coatings (clauses 2004/2006) are Note and Appendix A may be injurious to health if
covered by the Specification for Highway Works and adequate precautions are not taken. The Appendix only
Notes for Guidance. Specification clauses for anti- refers to technical suitability and performance
graffiti coatings are in preparation, and it is intended to requirements, and in no way absolves the designer,
add these clauses to the published Specification in due producer, supplier or the contractor from statutory
course. All other coatings are not covered by the obligations relating to health and safety at any stage in
Specification for Highway Works and Notes for the manufacture or use of the coatings.
Guidance, and will be subject to agreement with the
Overseeing Organisation, using departure procedures or 2.32 A particular consideration will be the need for
as otherwise agreed. protection of the substrate and other structural
components, third parties, the local environment and
Testing and trials the workforce. Environmental considerations may also
affect the selection of coatings and the method of
application.
2.27 Where the use of coatings is being considered it
may be necessary to undertake performance trials to
ensure that the specification requirements are met. Such Records
trials should be described in the specification, and
specific requirements identified. 2.33 Any structure to which a coating has been
applied, whether new construction or in service shall be
2.28 Where manufacturer’s data sheets and test especially noted in the as-built records and Health and
information are insufficient it may on occasion be Safety file. The structural elements coated shall be
necessary to subject the coating material to additional recorded, together with requisite details of the materials
testing. These tests must be related to the specification used, manufacturer’s certificates and test data, Safety
requirements, and the tests described in the Data Sheets, source of supply, and details of any in
specification. service requirements or restrictions, such as inspection,
testing and replacement
Substrate preparation
Inspection
2.29 It should be ensured that concrete surfaces to
which coatings are to be applied are dry and free from 2.34 Concrete structural elements that have been
contamination, such as dirt, spillages, salts, leachates coated should be inspected as part of the normal
and rust staining, as well as residues of curing structural inspection regime (BD63/BA63). Inspectors
membranes and mould oils. Where required repairs to should be alert to signs of deterioration in the coatings
the concrete should be carried out. The subsequently such as colour fading, dirt build up, graffiti, physical
applied coating should be compatible with the concrete damage, chemical damage, loss of adhesion, cracking,
substrate and the repair materials used. peeling, moisture and leachates, and mould growth etc.
Assessment of the continued satisfactory performance
Workmanship of some coatings may require specialist tests to be
carried out.
2.30 Details of the method and standard of application
of coatings is generally outside the remit of this Advice Maintenance
Note, but must be considered in terms of the
development of the specification requirements. Where 2.35 Concrete structural elements which have been
possible the specification should be performance based, coated should be maintained as necessary to ensure
but for some specialist materials this is impractical and continued fitness for their intended purpose. Graffiti
it will be necessary to produce a method and material should be removed in accordance with the prescribed
based specification, on a generic basis to allow as wide service levels. Where defects in coatings have been
a range of materials to be offered for selection. noted during inspections, maintenance should be
planned and undertaken as soon as practicable, and
would normally be carried out whilst other maintenance
operations are undertaken.

May 2004 2/5

Volume 2 Section 4 Chapter 3
Part 3 BA 85/04 References

3. REFERENCES

Design Manual for Roads and Bridges

DMRB Volume 2 BD 43 Criteria and material for the

impregnation of concrete highway structures

DMRB Volume 2 BE 8/75 Painting of concrete

highway structures

DMRB Volume 1 BD 57/BA57 Design for durability

DMRB Volume 3 BD 63/BA63 Inspection of highway

structures

DMRB Volume 3 BA 72 Maintenance of Road Tunnels

DMRB Volume 2 BD 78 Design of road tunnels

Model Contract Document Highway Works

MCHW Volume 1 Specification for Highway Works for

Roads and Bridges

MCHW Volume 2 Notes for Guidance for Highway

Works for Roads and Bridges

MCHW Volume 5 Specification for Highway Tunnel

Construction and Maintenance (Civils Works) (in
preparation)

MCHW Volume 5 Notes for Guidance on Specification

for Highway Tunnel Construction and Maintenance
(Civils Works) (in preparation)

Other references

‘Appearance of Bridges and other Highway Structures’

published by HMSO

Concrete Society Report TR50 ‘Guide to surface

treatments for protection and enhancement of concrete’

BRE Special Digest SD1 ‘Concrete in aggressive

ground’

May 2004 3/1

Volume 2 Section 4 Chapter 4
Part 3 BA 85/04 Enquiries

4. ENQUIRIES
All technical enquiries or comments on this Advice Note should be sent in writing as appropriate to:

Divisional Director
Research & Development of Standards Division
The Highways Agency
Sunley Towers
Piccadilly Plaza A JONES
Manchester M1 4BE Divisional Director

Chief Road Engineer

Scottish Executive
Victoria Quay
Edinburgh J HOWISON
EH6 6QQ Chief Road Engineer

Chief Highway Engineer

Transport Directorate
Welsh Assembly Government
Llywodraeth Cynulliad Cymru
Crown Buildings J R REES
Cardiff Chief Highway Engineer
CF10 3NQ Transport Directorate

Director of Engineering
Department for Regional Development
Roads Service
Clarence Court
10-18 Adelaide Street G W ALLISTER
Belfast BT2 8GB Director of Engineering

May 2004 4/1

Volume 2 Section 4 Appendix A
Part 3 BA 85/04 Surface Coatings Technology

APPENDIX A: SURFACE COATINGS TECHNOLOGY

INDEX extremely diverse range of substrates and end-use

applications. Coatings for the decorative/trade market
A1. Basic principles are applied on site or in-situ to buildings and other
A2. Composition of surface coatings structures by professional painters and decorating
A3. Binders contractors (trade) or by the general public (do-it-
A4. Pigments yourself). These coatings are inherently simpler in
A5. Solvents composition, tend to be applied by traditional methods
A6. Additives such as brush or roller, and are used on a more
A7. Coatings for concrete and masonry restricted range of substrate types than their industrial
A8. Substrate considerations - concrete counterparts.
A9. Substrate considerations - concrete blocks and
concrete bricks A2. Composition of surface coatings
A10. Substrate considerations - Portland cement
rendering A2.1 Coatings can be considered as composed of a
A11. Below ground considerations polymeric binder (resin) which is normally dissolved or
A12. Anti-vandal treatments dispersed in a liquid carrier phase (solvent); a paint
A13. Anti-carbonation coatings coating will also contain finely dispersed particulate
A14. Performance characteristics materials (pigments). These basic constituents would
A15. Performance assessment of coatings: test methods form the bulk of the composition, though all coatings
A16. Performance specifications contain minor additives to control and modify the
A17. Health and Safety properties of the final product.
A18. References
A3. Binders
A1. Basic principles
A3.1 The binders used in coatings are polymeric
A1.1 Surface coatings comprise an extremely diverse complexes which provide integrity to the dried film and
range of product types designed to decorate and/or bond it to the surface to which it is applied; binders are
protect substrates to which they are applied or to often referred to as resins or polymers. A wide variety
provide information. They are often known generically of binders are used in the manufacture of coatings and,
as “paints”, though strictly this defines a product that with some exceptions, these are all organic in
contains colouring and opacifying materials. Clear composition. Binders can be divided into two broad
coatings such as varnishes, lacquers and water- groups of convertible and non-convertible types.
repellents are also produced and can be considered to Convertible binders are materials that are used in an
be non-pigmented “paints”. unpolymerised or partially-polymerised state and
which, following application, undergo a reaction to
A1.2 A wide variety of terms are used to describe form a polymerised (solid) film. Non-convertible
coatings products. These are often based on the use to binders are pre-polymerised materials that are dispersed
which they are put, examples being “car finishes”, or dissolved in a carrier solvent; following application,
“marine coatings” and “decorative gloss paints”, the carrier evaporates to leave a coherent film on the
descriptors that are so wide as to be meaningless except substrate surface.
in the most general of terms. Coatings are produced for
two main sectors: the decorative/trade market and the A3.2 Examples of the main types of convertible and
industrial market which, in the UK, is split non-convertible binders used in surface coatings,
approximately 50:50 in terms of volumes produced per together with an indication of their end-use
annum. Industrial coatings include all those that are applications, are summarised in Table A1.
applied by controlled processes or operations, usually
within a factory environment. Coatings used in A3.3 Two other resinous materials are of importance
industrial applications are often based on exceptionally in paint technology although they are not strictly
complex technologies, generally applied using classified as polymers, namely bitumens (USA:
sophisticated equipment, and are produced for an asphalts) and inorganic silicates.

May 2004 A/1

Appendix A Volume 2 Section 4
Surface Coatings Technology Part 3 BA 85/04

Table A1: Binders used in surface coatings

Binder classification and type Composition Application

Convertible

Alkyd polyester-oil complex Main binder in solvent-borne

decorative coatings

Amino eg urea-formaldehyde Industrial coatings

Epoxy diglycidyl ethers of Industrial and some specialised site

epichlorhydrin coatings

Oil eg linseed, soya or tung complex fatty acids Basis of traditional paints

Phenolic eg phenol-formaldehyde Industrial coatings

Polyurethane complex isocyanates Industrial and some specialised site

coatings

Resins eg rosin or copal mixtures of complex acids Combined with oils to produce
varnishes

Silicate ‘mineral’ binder, complex Specialised decorative coatings

silica-carbonate

Non-convertible

Acrylic eg polymethyl methacrylate Water-borne decorative coatings

Cellulose ester eg nitrocellulose Industrial coatings

Rubber eg chlorinated rubber Specialised decorative coatings

Vinyl eg polyvinyl acetate Water-borne decorative coatings

A4. Pigments pigments can be either organic or inorganic. Coatings

for cementitious substrates may contain pigments and
A4.1 A pigment can be defined as a solid material in extenders, though the pigments are most likely to be of
the form of small discrete particles, which remain the inorganic type due to their greater durability and
insoluble in the resin and solvent constituents of the resistance to chemicals. A summary of the types of
coating. Pigments are added to impart colour and pigments and extenders most commonly encountered in
opacity and/or modify the protective efficacy of the coatings for concrete and masonry is given in Table A2.
coating on the substrate. There is a further class of
pigment which, whilst modifying the properties of the
coating by, for example, supplying water resistance,
confers little or no colour or opacity; these are called
extenders. Extenders are inorganic in origin but

A/2 May 2004

Volume 2 Section 4 Appendix A
Part 3 BA 85/04 Surface Coatings Technology

Table A2: Pigments and extenders used in surface coatings

Classification Pigments Extenders

Natural inorganic Iron oxides (yellows, reds, Barytes

browns and black) Whiting (chalk)
China clay
Mica
Talc

Synthetic inorganic Titanium dioxide (white) Blanc fixe (synthetic barytes)

Iron oxides (yellows, reds, Paris white (synthetic whiting)
browns and black)
Chromium oxide (greens)
Ultramarine (blues)

Natural organic None None

Synthetic organic Wide variety of yellows, oranges, None

reds, greens, blues, and blacks

A5. Solvents dispersion, stabilise the finished product during storage,

control application characteristics and aid film
A5.1 Solvents are low viscosity liquids, often formation after application. In some coatings solvents
referred to as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), may be the major component of the final product
though water is an important “solvent” in many modern though, increasingly, coatings with low solvent content
coatings and is not considered to be a VOC. The have been made available to users.
function of solvents is to carry or dissolve the resin
component, provide appropriate conditions for pigment A5.2 The solvents most widely used in coatings are
shown in Table A3.

Table A3: Solvents used in surface coatings

Class of solvent Examples

Aliphatic hydrocarbons Cyclohexane, mixtures of aliphatic hydrocarbons of

specific boiling point ranges

Aromatic hydrocarbons Toluene, xylene, styrene, mixtures of aromatic

hydrocarbons of specific boiling point range

Chlorinated hydrocarbons Dichloromethane, 1,1,1-trichloroethylene,

trichloroethylene

Alcohols and glycols Methanol, ethanol, iospropanol, butanol, ethylene,

diethylene and triethylene glycols, propylene glycols,
ether derivatives of glycols

Ketones Acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone,

cyclohexanone

Esters Ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, esters of glycol ethers

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Appendix A Volume 2 Section 4
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A6. Additives settlement can be offset by adjusting the paint viscosity.

In the case of pigments, further adjustments can be
A6.1 Many additives are used in coatings in order to made to the formulation to counteract settlement.
control or modify properties such as viscosity, flow and
the drying time of the coating, and to inhibit biological Viscosity can be increased by means of thickening
growths. These additives are generally used in low agents which increase the viscosity (ie decrease flow)
concentrations relative to the main formulation without introducing thixotropy.
ingredients described above. The uses of some of the
important types of additives are summarised below. Pigment-dispersing agents: Paint formulations
obviously require an even dispersion of pigments and
Plasticisers: Plasticisers are organic additives that are extenders throughout the liquid medium. This involves,
used to increase the film flexibility of paints, during paint manufacture, dispersion of the pigments
particularly those based on binders that otherwise and extenders in the liquid medium to break down
would yield brittle films. agglomerates and uniformly wet all the particles. For
this to occur, the medium must displace any moisture,
Driers: Driers, or drying accelerators, are oil-soluble occluded gases and fine debris on the particle surfaces;
metal salts of organic acid added to oxidation-curing how readily this process is effected is thus of practical
systems, such as alkyd resins, to increase the curing importance. While most (but not all) pigments and
(drying) rate of the applied film. extenders are olephilic, that is, they are wetted by
solvent-media, only a proportion are hydrophilic or
Bioactive additives: Most coatings are susceptible to wetted by water: for example, many organic pigments
attack by micro-organisms such as fungi and bacteria. are hydrophobic or water-repellent.
Apart from the obvious impairment of appearance,
paint coatings may suffer degradation by micro- Pigment-dispersing agents, or surface-active agents, are
organisms. Bioactive additives are required to prevent used to facilitate pigment and extender dispersion
this attack. where wetting by the medium is poor or even non-
existent. They are often used routinely even when there
Biocides or anti-bacterial agents are incorporated is good wetting, to ensure good dispersion.
within water borne emulsion paints to prevent bacterial
(and fungal) attack on the thickener. Biocides function A7. Coatings for concrete
by interfering with bacterium metabolism thereby
preventing enzyme synthesis, enzymes (rather than the A7.1 Whilst some cement-based surfaces are
bacteria themselves) being the active agent in paint inherently weatherproof, durable and aesthetically
degradation. acceptable, others are painted for a variety of reasons;
to provide colour or surface texture, to waterproof
Fungal growth will contribute to the degradation of a them, to reflect or absorb light, to facilitate cleaning or
paint coating but more commonly it impairs its for hygiene.
appearance. In certain circumstances there may be an
associated health hazard, as in kitchens, dairies and
breweries. Fungicides are toxic agents that are included A8. Substrate considerations - concrete
in paint formulations to inhibit the colonisation and
proliferation of fungi. A8.1 Concrete is considered a durable, permanent
material but long-term deterioration, especially in acid-
Viscosity modifiers and anti-settling agents: Paint polluted air, is possible; it may, therefore, require
formulations may yield liquid paints that are too fluid. protection. Following deterioration and repairs, or even
With a liquid of low viscosity the flow may be when new in the absence of sufficient cover to protect
excessive for some purposes, although high flow may reinforcement, there is often a requirement to provide
be advantageous in some circumstances. Thus low protection against penetration by water, carbon dioxide,
viscosity is desirable in sealers, but not in high-build sulphur dioxide and salts. There is also an increasing
coatings and brush-applied paints. Settlement of need for decorative or colouring treatments to improve
pigments in storage, particularly if they are dense, the quality of the surroundings where these contain
occurs readily in low-viscosity paints, and heavy large areas of concrete, or even for colourless
settlement can cause problems in redispersing the waterproofing treatments to prevent accumulation of
pigment. These problems of flow and pigment dirt and biological growths.

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A8.2 When painting concrete, the substrate surface A9.2 Aerated (and lightweight) concrete requires
may be either hard and smooth with poor adhesion for paints with some filling action; emulsion paints may
paints (eg pre-cast components) or rough and porous suffice indoors and for purely decorative purposes, but
with large voids, as in mass concrete. Residues of if resistance to rain penetration is a requirement,
mould oil can seriously reduce paint adhesion; they are especially in exposed situations, thick textured
best removed by abrasion rather than solvents but relatively impervious coatings may be necessary, with
detergents or emulsifying agents may be useful. Curing the alternative of a rendering. These will delay drying
membranes tend to degrade rapidly when exposed to out and should therefore only be applied when the
light but traces may persist in the pore structure of moisture content of the aerated concrete is at a suitable
concrete, where they could interfere with penetration of safe level.
applied coatings. Abrasion may be the only way of
removing such residues, but the issue is best addressed A10. Substrate considerations - Portland cement
at the specification stage where the choice of coating rendering
system and curing methods are jointly considered. (It
should be noted that abrasion should be considered as a
A10.1 The alkalinity of Portland cement is, with rare
last resort as it will damage the surface of the concrete
exception, so high that precautions against alkali attack
and affect durability).
of paints by new cement-based products should always
A8.3 The application of cement-based paints, or be taken. Because of the caustic alkali present,
‘bagging’ with a cement/sand mix, will help to fill voids carbonation of the lime content on ageing is not always
and blowholes. Larger defects may be filled with mortar sufficient to prevent the saponification of oil-paints and
or epoxy-resin mortars, or, indoors in dry conditions even when the surface pH falls to about 9, there may be
only, with gypsum plaster or water-mixed powder further alkali at a greater depth which will affect paints
fillers. Alternatively, thin-wall plasters (indoors) or as moisture moves through. The free lime usually
textured paints (either indoors or out) may be used to present in cement plasters is a cause of the lime bloom
hide surface blemishes. However the acceptability of which is particularly noticeable on emulsion paints. If
defects and issues of durability versus appearance must carbonation is allowed to occur before painting it can
be assessed. greatly reduce this effect and also reduce surface
porosity but may produce shrinkage crazing.
A8.4 Surface treatments can be used to reduce
ingress of materials to concrete that may promote A10.2 Cement paints are suitable for very early
corrosion of reinforcements. For reducing ingress of decoration; acrylic emulsion or other alkali-resistant
water to concrete impervious coatings based on porous paints can be used after about four weeks
chlorinated rubber, two-pack epoxy resins or drying. For a glossy finish the moisture content must be
polyurethanes are suitable provided the concrete is down to a safe level and several months drying may be
fairly dry, with a potential life of seven to 10 years to necessary. An alkali-resistant primer is needed under oil
first maintenance. Their benefit will be more doubtful paints, hence non-saponifiable (eg chlorinated rubber)
where chlorides are the cause of corrosion. Coatings paints are preferable. Chemically-resistant wall finishes
which are less impervious, to allow drying-out, but with require a hard base: cement rendering is normally
a claimed degree of resistance to the passage of carbon suitable if dry but if a very smooth finish is needed for
dioxide to minimise carbonation of concrete, have been internal walls, an anhydrous plaster can be used on top.
used with success. The technology and use of these
A10.3 It is often argued that the craze patterns and
protective coatings is discussed in detail in later
eventual cracks which develop on painted rendering are
sections of this review.
unavoidable and not a fault of the paint. However, many
comparative tests have shown that paints differ greatly
A9. Substrate considerations - concrete blocks in their ability to retard the crazing, which may appear
and concrete bricks within one or two years under thin emulsion or masonry
paints, but not for many years where the coating is
A9.1 Dense concrete blocks and bricks may be thick, flexible and not highly permeable to moisture and
painted as for concrete. Some lightweight blocks allow carbon dioxide.
rain penetration treatment, which may be complete (eg
a thick bituminous coating, with decorative coats if
needed) or merely rain shedding and vapour permeable
(eg thick textured emulsion paints).

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Appendix A Volume 2 Section 4
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A11. Below ground considerations A12.4 It is advisable to undertake trials of anti-graffiti

coatings to check its effectiveness, and the effects on
A11.1 Buried concrete surfaces, walls below ground appearance.
and surfaces in contact with soil or groundwater should
be sealed on the outside before backfilling; straight run A13. Anti-carbonation coatings
bituminous and tar based compounds are generally
effective, economic and durable. In the past bituminous A13.1 Carbonation is a process whereby carbon
emulsions have been used, but may be susceptible to dioxide in the air penetrates the pores of the concrete
failure in damp, wet or cold conditions. The acceptable and reacts with calcium hydroxide forming calcium
materials must be carefully applied in accordance with carbonate and water. In homogeneous concrete,
the manufacturer’s recommendations, generally with a carbonation proceeds inwards from the surface along a
primer and two coats, to provide a defect free surface front roughly parallel to it. The rate of carbonation
without holidays. These coatings should comply with depends on several factors, particularly concrete
MCHW1 Clause 2004 and be applied in accordance permeability (the more permeable the concrete, the
with Clause 2006. faster it will carbonate) and the relative humidity
around the concrete (carbonation occurs most rapidly
A11.2 Where concrete is at risk of attack from when the relative humidity is around 55-75%).
contaminants in the ground or from sulfates, specialist
advice should be sought and reference made to BRE A13.2 To minimise the risk of subsequent
Special Digest SD1 ‘Concrete in aggressive ground’. deterioration, a coating may be applied over the whole
The Digest gives guidance on Protective Measures to be exterior surface of the concrete to reduce the rate of
applied to different mixes of concrete in varying ground carbonation by acting as a barrier to the penetration of
conditions, including the use of waterproofing coatings. carbon dioxide. It should also prevent ingress of liquid
water, but allow water vapour to pass through it. This
A12. Anti-vandal treatments will prevent entrapment of liquid water in the concrete
and between the coating and substrate. The coating
A12.1 Graffiti on untreated plain concrete surfaces treatment must, of course, be suitable for application to
can be removed by application of solvents or by high- concrete. Furthermore, for coatings to serve as a barrier
pressure cleaning with water, but will be more difficult to carbon dioxide they must form a defect-free film.
on textured or featured concrete. It is virtually The surface of concrete is irregular and uneven;
impossible to remove graffiti completely from porous blowholes and other surface imperfections are quite
substrates such as brick and stone, without spoiling common, so multiple coats reduce the risk of coincident
their appearance. Graffiti and spills may have to be defects.
dealt with by painting over, and some manufacturers
will supply paints specially matched to the colour of the A14. Performance characteristics
substrate.

A12.2 To resist graffiti, a surface which will allow Basic principles

removal of most inks and paints can be produced by
coatings that form a hard and chemical-resistant film. A14.1 The durability of a paint system is its ability to
Polyurethane coatings have been used for this purpose, provide decoration and/or protection to its substrate
and are supplied by several specialist manufacturers. over the period of time known as its effective service
Anti-vandal, or anti-graffiti, coatings generally have a life. This period is the interval between the time of
high sheen finish; even unpigmented (clear) variants application of the paint system and the moment at
must be expected to cause some alteration to the natural which, through deterioration, it ceases to perform its
appearance of the substrate. required function. The durability of paint films is
dependent upon a number of factors. These can be
A12.3 “Sacrificial” treatments based on waxes are divided into ‘internal’ factors, such as formulation
also available, which tend to be less visible; when details and their effects on the physio-chemical
soiled by graffiti the surface is completely cleaned off characteristics of the coating, and ‘external’ factors
including some or all of the coating and the wax such as the nature of the substrate, substrate
treatment reapplied. Removal of large areas of graffiti preparation, location effects and weather. The latter two
generally requires the use of specialist cleaning factors and their influence on paint durability will be
contractors. considered in this section, the other factors having
already been discussed in other sections of this report.

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A14.2 The environmental conditions to which paint films to withstand location effects is primarily
films are exposed during service are of great dependent upon their chemical resistance, a
importance in determining their performance. characteristic dictated by the nature of the ingredients
Knowledge of the anticipated service conditions is used in the formulation.
essential when formulating or specifying paint coatings.
Environmental factors can be subdivided into the A14.7 Most types of coating systems are resistant to
effects of location, that is, atmospheric pollution, and the dilute acidic environments which can occur in
the effects of weather. certain exposure conditions, for example, an industrial
or urban conurbation where sulphur-containing fossil
Influence of location on durability fuels are burned. However, the presence of sulphur
oxides in the atmosphere can cause increased drying
times and premature loss of gloss in recently applied air
A14.3 The prevailing atmospheric conditions to which drying, oxidative systems, although, in general, these
a paint film is subject can be categorised into four effects do not reduce the effectiveness of coating
groups, namely, very severe, severe, moderate and mild. performance.
A14.4 Very severe and severe exposure conditions are A14.8 The formulation of paints, in particular those
experienced in coastal situations, within industrial based on oleoresinous varnishes and alkyds, are
regions, near to areas of heavy industrial pollution and susceptible to attack in dilute alkaline conditions.
where complete immersion in water or chemicals may Where alkali resistance is required, alternative resin
occur. Paint systems required to withstand severe types such as the polyurethane, chlorinated rubber and
exposure have to possess the highest durability. vinyl copolymers have to be used. In situations where
Typically, this necessitates the use of paints based on air drying oxidative formulations are required, alkyds
chemical resistant binders such as the epoxide, modified with these more resistant resins can be used to
polyurethane, vinyl or chlorinated rubber resins, and produce resistant paint systems. Resistance to
these materials are used in situations where limited concentrated alkalis, however, is more difficult to
access makes maintenance difficult or when cost achieve since this medium tends to attack all coating
considerations dictate a long maintenance-free service types, particularly on prolonged immersion.
life. However, often conventional alkyd type paints are
used, of necessity, in such severe exposure conditions. A14.9 Coatings resistant to oils and organic solvents
The durability of these alkyd paints is not normally are also required in certain service situations and, as a
considered to be of the highest order but improved generalisation, coatings with a complex cross-linked
performance and an initial high degree of protection is structure provide the highest resistance. Paint films can
conferred on the substrate by the provision of extra film suffer severe attack from solvents, especially the
thickness. This is most conveniently achieved by the chlorinated hydrocarbons (which are the basis of many
application of two, rather than one, finishing coats over paint strippers), ketones, esters and the aromatic
the undercoat and primer coats. In general however, hydrocarbons. Non-convertible coatings rarely provide
their use under such conditions should not be good resistance to solvents.
encouraged.
A14.10 The pigmentation of paints can also be
A14.5 Moderate exposure conditions are experienced adversely affected by pollutants, in particular, acids and
in light industrial and urban regions away from heavy alkalis. Oils and solvents generally have little chemical
industrial conurbations and coastal areas. Mild effect on pigments, although with certain organic
conditions are found in sheltered exterior areas away pigments the phenomenon known as ‘bleeding’ can
from pollution, and in most interior situations. occur on overcoating. This effect is caused by solvents
in the freshly applied coating solubilising the
A14.6 Paint systems for the moderate and mild pigmentation in the underlying film. This solubilised
exposure conditions are, typically, based on alkyds, pigment can be carried through the freshly applied film
oleoresinous varnishes and emulsion resin binders. as it dries, usually resulting in a patchy surface
However, it is not uncommon for a paint system to be discolouration. The phenomenon of ‘bleeding’ is
required to exhibit a greater durability than suggested especially prevalent where aromatic hydrocarbon, ester
by its immediate environment. Typically, interior paints and ketone types of solvents are present in the paint
which need to withstand abrasion or frequent washing formulation.
down fall into this category, and here high durability
paints would have to be specified. The ability of paint

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Influence of weather on durability 350 mm. Binders without these structures are inherently
more durable although in many instances, other
A14.11 The effects of weather on paint films is often performance aspects may render them unsuitable for
marked and can lead to rapid degradation of coating use in exterior situations.
systems. All of the components of weather -
temperature, moisture and radiation (sunlight) - can Resistance to moisture
influence paint film performance and, clearly, since
weather is a complex of these components, interactions A14.14 Moisture also adversely affects paint film
can occur which render particular combinations severe durability, particularly when it is present in the form of
and others relatively mild. rain or condensation. Consideration must also be given
to moisture levels within concrete and the location and
Resistance to ultra-violet radiation effectiveness of structural drainage systems. The
presence of moisture on a substrate during paint
A14.12 Prolonged exposure of many types of paint application is, generally, detrimental to paint durability
films to sunlight results in their rapid degradation, and since it will usually reduce the adhesion of the coating
this is primarily attributable to the ultra-violet system. This effect is particularly marked on ferrous
wavelengths. Ultra-violet degradation of paint films is a metal substrates, where underfilm corrosion processes
complex process involving both an increase in the can be initiated. With porous substrates such as
cross-link density of the internal molecular structure of concrete and other cement-based materials, surface
the film binder and, concomitantly, a tendency for moisture, unless present in excess, is generally not
certain constituent structural bonds to rupture. The detrimental to durability.
result of this process is that the film becomes tough
during the early stages of exposure. Eventually, A14.15 Condensation of atmospheric water vapour or
however, the film becomes brittle, cracks, and rainfall onto the surface of freshly applied paints can
ultimately, as water permeates through the film, it loses effect a premature loss of gloss in all types of coating
adhesion and delaminates (flakes) from the substrate. system due to disruption of the surface. Normally
To offset this process, it is common practice to add however, this would not result in any long term
pigmentary materials having the ability to absorb ultra- reduction in paint durability.
violet radiation to paints designed for exterior exposure.
A14.16 Painting in conditions of high atmospheric
Titanium dioxide is an example of such a pigment and it
humidity, that is greater than 90%, generally increases
functions by both absorbing the ultra-violet light and
the drying times of air drying oxidative paint systems.
reflecting it away from the film, thus protecting the
polymer. Invariably with this pigment, back-scatter However, the drying process is not entirely suppressed
from pigment particles in lower levels of the film and provided that the film is not damaged mechanically
results in a certain amount of polymer degradation and or by prolonged precipitation of rain, snow, frost, etc.
whilst in the wet condition, then subsequent durability
this process releases small amounts of the pigment from
is not likely to be affected.
the matrix. This reaction, known as ‘chalking’, is
exhibited to varying degrees by all types of titanium
dioxide but it can be used to provide a degree of self- Temperature effects
cleansing within coatings. It is, of course, detrimental to
the performance of coloured paints containing titanium A14.17 The combination of low temperature and high
since the colour of the film could alter markedly with humidity can also present drying problems, especially
prolonged exposure. However, by careful selection of within the aqueous emulsion paint systems where film
pigments, this chalking process can be reduced to a formation is due to evaporation of the aqueous phase
minimum so that, for example, colour changes and coalescence of the resin particles. With many
attributable to this mechanism will not be detectable for emulsion systems, optimum coalescence will not occur
a period of several years. at temperatures below about 5°C and since the film
formed is not in a coherent state and will not
A14.13 Selection of the binder type is also important in subsequently become so, then the durability will be
determining the susceptibility of the paint film to ultra- abnormally low.
violet light degradation. Polymers containing aromatic
ring structures are particularly susceptible to ultra- A14.18 Low ambient temperatures can also adversely
violet degradation since they strongly absorb in the affect the curing rate of many types of two pack epoxy-
ultra-violet wavelength region of sunlight, that is 290- and polyurethane-based paint systems and certain of

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these coating types will not form films at temperatures Furthermore, the expansion and contraction resulting
below 10°C without the use of additional catalysts. from the temperature cycling of the substrate can
Non-convertible coatings, that is those that dry by induce cracking within brittle paint systems.
solvent evaporation such as those based on chlorinated
rubber and vinyl resins, will dry at very low A14.20 High atmospheric temperature effects can be
temperatures and, as such, are ideally suited for winter reduced by the use of white pigmentation. Typically,
use. However, the drying times of these types of surface film temperature of paints with a white
coatings will be increased at any temperatures in pigmentation are half those with a black pigmentation
stagnant air conditions, since under these under conditions of summer exposure.
circumstances, the solvent released by the coating will
tend to blanket the surface and impede the evaporation A15. Performance assessment of coatings : test
processes. methods
A14.19 Tropical and high heat/high humidity
conditions can also adversely affect the durability of Introduction
paint coatings. Exposure to high air temperatures, that
is, 50°C or above, can result in a rapid embrittlement of A15.1 Standard test methods exist for most of the
paint films. In convertible systems, this would be due to important properties required by coatings for concrete
an acceleration in the cross-linking rate, whereas with and masonry, and are detailed in European Standards,
non-converting coatings, this could be due to a loss of Table A4.
plasticiser or residual solvent from the film.

Table A4: European Standard identification tests for surface treatment of concrete

Test method CEN test numbers

Specific weight prEN 1880-1

prEN 1880-2

Infrared spectrum prEN 1767

Determination of epoxy equivalent prEN 1877-1

Determination of amine products prEN 1877-2

Determination of hydroxyl value -

Determination of isocyanate content -

Determination of volatile and non-volatile matter prEN 1768

Determination of ash by direct calcination prEN 1879

Thermogravimetric analysis prEN 1878

Determination of flow time by use of flow cups -

Determination of viscosity EN ISO 3219

Surface drying - Ballotini method prEN 1769

Determination of pot life as a function of temperature EN ISO 9514

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Appendix A Volume 2 Section 4
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A16. Performance specifications New surfaces

Introduction A16.6 The performance of coatings applied to new

cement-containing substrates, such as concrete, can be
influenced by the type of mix, type of admixture, time
A16.1 It is evident from the previous section that of cure before painting, ambient conditions and type of
European Standards will have a profound impact on the surface preparation.
coatings industry and its clients. There will be standard
requirements for surface treatments applied to concrete A16.7 Assuming that the quality of the concrete is
and, for the first time, coatings used by public bodies good, and that it is not excessively porous, then the
will be able to be specified by CEN standards, and CE most important factor is the surface preparation carried
marking will be used by manufacturers. out before coating. All dirt, grease, and other
contaminants must be removed, and there should be no
CE marking surface laitance. Surface defects such as blow holes
should be made good by filling with a purpose-designed
A16.2 Once the relevant European Standards are filler. The most important factor determining coating
published, masonry coatings that are CE marked will be selection then are the service conditions to which the
made available by manufacturers. The CE mark will coating will be exposed (see later).
demonstrate that the coating conforms to Community
legislation in respect of compliance with the essential A16.8 The other factors will all influence coating
requirements of the Construction Products Directive, selection and performance to some extent, as
however it is not a quality mark as such. Many summarised below:
manufacturers will undoubtedly undertake product
certification to provide extra assurance to users, and it • The type of mix is likely to be of little
is a requirement that any such labelling must be affixed importance.
in such a way that it can be distinguished clearly from
• The type of admixture may have an effect,
the CE mark.
especially waterproofing additives, which might
A16.3 The general principles for specification of adversely affect the adhesion of coatings.
coatings for concrete and masonry are summarised in
• As with any surface to be coated, the ambient
the following sections.
conditions may influence coating selection, and
will certainly affect coating application. For
General principles of coating specification example, water-borne coatings are more
problematic in adverse weather conditions than
A16.4 The general principles of best practice in equivalent but solvent-borne variants.
coating specification for concrete and masonry coatings
can be summarised as: • Concrete can be successfully coated once it has
reached a minimum of 80 per cent of the design
• the substrate must be suitably sound and properly strength.
prepared;
• Saponifiable coatings, such as those based on oil-
• the appropriate coating system must be specified; containing binder systems, should not be used on
new cement-containing substrates, unless the
• the coating must be applied following alkalinity is low and the substrate unlikely to
manufacturers’ recommendations; become wetted in service.
• the coating must be applied under suitable • Coatings of low permeability should not be used
weather conditions; on new substrates of high moisture content
because of the risk of blistering. Manufacturers’
• the coating must be maintained at regular recommendations must be followed.
intervals.

A16.5 These general principles of specification will

vary in detail depending on whether the surfaces to be
painted are fresh or aged/weathered.

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Aged/weathered surfaces Mild: Inland areas (more than 10 km from the coast),
non-industrial, and with average rainfall. All types of
A16.9 The most important consideration when coatings will afford satisfactory service.
painting aged, and especially weathered surfaces, is the
condition of the surface, as summarised below: Moderate: Semi-coastal areas (3 km to 10 km inland),
non-industrial, with average rainfall. Inland areas (more
• Surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned to be free of than 10 km from the coast), urban or light industrial,
all loose material. with mild atmospheric pollution, but not in close
proximity to the source of pollution. Most coatings of
• Moulds, lichens or algal growths must be conventional type are likely to afford satisfactory
removed, and the affected areas treated with an service.
approved masonry biocide.
Severe: Coastal areas subject to salt spray (up to 3 km
• Graffiti, or other contaminants, which may affect inland), non-industrial, with average rainfall. Inland
applied coatings, must be removed or effectively industrial areas with significant atmospheric pollution.
sealed in. Specialist advice may be required. Areas with high levels of rainfall. Conventional
coatings can be used but will have significantly shorter
• Defects such as hollow rendering, large cracks, service life than in Moderate conditions. The use of
failed pointing, should be made good using an specialist coatings may be required if long service
appropriate filler or mortar mix. intervals without maintenance are required.

• Efflorescence should be brushed off and the Very severe: Coastal or industrial areas with significant
source of dampness identified and rectified. No atmospheric pollution. Specialist coatings will be
coating will resist efflorescence. required, supported by expert advice from the
manufacturers.
• Coatings should be specified in accordance with
the substrate, especially its moisture content, Specification of coatings for exterior cement-based
alkalinity and general condition as noted above. substrates
Manufacturers’ recommendations must be
followed.
A16.12 As outlined in the previous sections the
development of coatings specifications is dependant on
Coating specification a number of important factors. This complexity makes
establishing generic specifications that are applicable to
A16.10 A key factor in deciding on a coating all circumstances of use extremely difficult. General
specification is the service environment to which the guidance is possible however, and coating selection in a
coating will be exposed. British Standard BS 6150 systematic manner depending on the substrate condition
identifies four categories of climate; Mild, Moderate, (in respect of moisture content) based on best practice
Severe, Very severe, with implications for coating guidance given in BS 6150.
selection.
A16.13 Assuming that a substrate is sound, and as the
Classification of climatic factors moisture regime in the substrate increases, then the
options for coating selection reduce, as indeed must the
expected time to first maintenance. There are also
A16.11 The four climatic categories identified in
clearly benefits in ensuring that the substrate is “dry” at
BS 6150 can be experienced under both interior and
the time of coating, since this condition provides the
exterior exposure conditions, but it is assumed here that
widest range of coating options, some of which have
the primary interest for the Overseeing Organisations is
the potential for providing maintenance intervals of
the exterior situation. General descriptions of the four
10 years or more.
categories of climate are given below, together with
broad indications of the effect of the climatic conditions
on coating specification for exterior concrete and
masonry.

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Appendix A Volume 2 Section 4
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Specification of impregnation treatments for aggressive chemicals and processes and is best
cement-based substrates undertaken by specialist contractors.

A16.14 The coatings described so far in this review A16.19 Many suppliers of anti-vandal treatments can
have been film-forming, that is intended to deposit on offer detailed advice on specification based on
the surface a layer of appreciable and measurable experience developed over many years. This area of
thickness. There are some products however, that whilst coatings technology is extremely specialised, and
classed as “coatings” protect by absorption into the though the general advice given here outlines the basic
outermost layer of the substrate where they confer some principles of specification and use of anti-vandal
extra property; strictly these are impregnation treatments, detailed recommendations should be sought
treatments rather than coatings, and are dealt with in from manufacturers if use of such products is being
BD43 and the Specification for Highway Works and considered.
related Notes for Guidance clause 1709.
A17. Health and Safety
Specification of anti-vandal treatments
A17.1 When specifying coatings consideration should
A16.15 Consideration of the need for anti-vandal be given to the implications of the relevant Health and
treatments normally arises after an attack has occurred. Safety legislation. Particular attention is drawn to
Special cleaning products are available that are claimed compliance with the Control of Substances Hazardous
to be effective at removing graffiti from unprotected to Health (COSHH) requirements, and the need to
concrete and masonry surfaces, the cleaning products ensure the Health and Safety of operatives, other site
being purpose designed to suit the porosity of the staff and third parties such as motorists, and adjacent
substrate. Once cleaned, an enhanced level of animal and plant life. This may entail the use of
protection against further spoilage can then be obtained physical protection and barriers, to ensure adequate
by application of an anti-vandal treatment. protection, as well as controlled environmental
conditions during coating application. Where work is
A16.16 Two main types of treatment are used for proceeding in the vicinity of live traffic, special traffic
protection against graffiti, the so-called “permanent” management measures may be necessary. Work
treatments and the “sacrificial” treatments. Permanent adjacent to railway lines or water courses requires prior
treatments seal the surface and form a coherent coating consultation with the responsible authorities and
that is not readily penetrated by graffiti in the form of inclusion of any special requirements in Contract
paint or ink. The graffiti can therefore be removed with documents to facilitate safe practices.
cleaning agents leaving the protective coating intact;
depending on the type and severity of the graffiti a two A18. References
stage approach to removal may be required, comprising
initial cleaning with solvents or detergents and then use
of poultices to remove any residual staining within the National, European and International Standards
coating. Sacrificial products are designed to be easily
removed by washing taking any graffiti away in the BS 3900 Part G6 - Methods of Test for Paints:
process. Protection must then be restored by application Assessment of Resistance to Fungal Growth
of fresh coating material.
BS 6150 - Code of Practice for Painting of Buildings
A16.17 Both types of anti-graffiti treatments are
normally supplied in an unpigmented (clear) form DIN 52617 - Determination of Water Absorption
thereby leaving the appearance of the surface largely Coefficient of Construction Materials
unaffected. The service life of anti-vandal treatments
will depend on the exact composition, but some prEN 1062 - Paints and Varnishes: Coating Materials
treatments are claimed to remain resistant to vandalism and Coating Systems for Exterior Masonry
for up to 10 years without re-treatment.
EN 1062-1 - Classification for Masonry Coatings
A16.18 Application of anti-vandal coatings generally prEN 1062-2 - Determination and Classification
requires no special skills and can be undertaken by of Water Vapour Transmission Rate
professional painters. However, removal of graffiti, prEN 1062-3 - Determination and Classification
especially from large areas, often requires use of of Liquid Water Transmission Rate
Parts 4, 5, 6,7.8.9,11 - in development

A/12 May 2004

Volume 2 Section 4 Appendix A
Part 3 BA 85/04 Surface Coatings Technology

prEN 1504 - Products and Systems for the Protection EN ISO 3219 - Plastics: Polymers/Resins in Liquid
and Repair of Concrete Structures State as Emulsions or Dispersions - Determination of
Viscosity Using a Rotational Viscometer with Defined
prEN 1504-2 Classification System for Surface Shear Rate
Treatment of Concrete
ENV 1504-9 - Guidance Note on the Principles EN ISO 6772 - Paints and Varnishes Falling-Weight
of Repair of Concrete Test
prEN 1504-10 - Site Application of Products and
Systems and Quality Control of the Works EN ISO 9514 - Paints and Varnishes - Determination of
the Pot Life of Liquid Systems - Preparation and
prEN 1542 - Products and Systems for the Protection Conditioning of Samples and Guidelines for Testing
and Repair of Concrete Structures - Test Methods: The
Pull-off Test ISO 7783-1 - Paints and Varnishes - Determination of
Water Vapour Transmission Rate - Part 1: Dish Method
prEN 1767- Products and Systems for the Protection for Free Films
and Repair of Concrete Structures - Test Methods:
Infrared Analysis EN 196-1 - Method of Testing Cement: Determination
of Strength
prEN 1768 - Products and Systems for the Protection
and Repair of Concrete Structures - Test Methods: EN 24624 - Paints and Varnishes: Pull-off Test for
Determination of Volatile and Non-volatile Matter Adhesion

prEN 1769 - Products and Systems for the Protection ISO 11507 - Paints and Varnishes - Exposure of
and Repair of Concrete Structures - Test Methods; Coatings to Artificial Weathering - Exposure to
Surface Drying Test - Ballotini Method Fluorescent UV and Water

prEN 1877 - Products and Systems for the Protection ISO 11998 - Paints and Varnishes - Determination of
and Repair of Concrete Structures - Test Methods; Wet Scrub Resistance and Cleanability of Coatings
Reactive Function Relating to Epoxy Resins
BRE publications
prEN 1877-1 Determination of Epoxy Equivalent
prEN 1877-2 Determination of Amine Function
M.H. Roberts, Building Research Establishment,
Using the Total Basicity Number
Information Paper IP 21/86, “Determination of the
prEN 1878 - Products and Systems for the Protection Chloride and Cement Contents of Hardened Concrete”,
and Repair of Concrete Structures - Test Methods; December 1986.
Reactive Function Relating to Epoxy Resins;
K.W.J. Treadaway and H. Davies, Building Research
Thermogravimetry of polymers - Temperature Scanning
Establishment, Information Paper IP 14/88, “Corrosion-
Method
Protected and Corrosion-Resistant Reinforcement in
prEN 1879 - Products and Systems for the Protection Concrete”, November 1988.
and Repair of Concrete Structures - Test Methods;
H. Davies and G.W. Rothwell, Building Research
Determination of Ash by Direct Calcination
Establishment, Information Paper IP 7/89, “The
prEN 1880 - Products and Systems for the Protection Effectiveness of Surface Coatings in Reducing
and Repair of Concrete Structures Carbonation of Reinforced Concrete”, May 1989.

prEN 1880-1 - Test Methods: Specific Weight - R.N. Cox, A.T. Coote, and H. Davies, Building
The Pkyometer Method Research Establishment, Information Paper IP 18/89,
prEN 1880-2 - Test Methods: Specific Weight - “Results of Exposure Tests to Evaluate Repairs to
Immersed Body Method Reinforced Concrete in Marine Conditions”, November
1989.
EN ISO 2812-1 - Paints and Varnishes - Determination
of Resistance to Liquids - Part 1: General Methods Building Research Establishment, BRE Digest 197,
“Painting Walls, Part 1: Choice of Paint”, 1977.

May 2004 A/13

Appendix A Volume 2 Section 4
Surface Coatings Technology Part 3 BA 85/04

Building Research Establishment, BRE Digest 263,

“The Durability of Steel in Concrete, Part 1:
Mechanism of Protection and Corrosion”, 1982.

Building Research Establishment, BRE Digest 264,

“The Durability of Steel in Concrete, Part 2: Diagnosis
and Assessment of Corrosion-Cracked Concrete”, 1982.

Building Research Establishment, BRE Digest 280,

“Cleaning External Surfaces of Buildings”, 1983.

Building Research Establishment, BRE Digest 325,

“Concrete, Part 1: Materials”, 1987.

Building Research Establishment, BRE Digest 326,

“Concrete, Part 2: Specification, Materials, and Quality
Control”, 1987.

Building Research Establishment, BRE Digest 330,

“Alkali Aggregate Reactions in Concrete”, 1988.

Building Research Establishment, BRE Digest 397,

“Standardisation in support of European legislation:
what does it mean for the UK construction industry”,
1995.

Building Research Establishment, BRE Digest 405,

“Carbonation of Concrete and its Effects on
Durability”, 1995.

Building Research Establishment, BRE Digest 408, “A

guide to attestation of conformity under the
Construction Products Directive”, 1995.

A/14 May 2004