Mar 2018 PDF

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PSYCHOLOGY NOTES < The most important contribution of functionalism was

Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior changing the focus of psychology to learning, motivation,
and mental processes. and thinking and veered away from the structuralists’
< Scientific psychology was borne of the idea that mind emphasis on individual perception and sensations.
and behavior could be the subject of scientific analysis. Psychoanalysis (1900-present)
< Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological < Sigmund Freud, a famous physician and psychiatrist,
laboratory and relied heavily on introspection in his attempted to find the cause and cure of personality
experiments. disorders. He postulated on the existence of unconscious
mental processes which influenced an individual’s
Psychology behaviour in various indirect ways.
< Is derived from the Greek words psyche and logos, < His method of treatment, called “psychoanalysis”,
meaning soul and study. emphasizes free association. This is letting the patient
< Psychology is defined as the scientific study of the freely associate on his thoughts and experiences, and with
behaviour of living organisms, with special attention to the help of the psychiatrist, analyzes the causes of his
human behaviour. difficulty.
< Psychology is a science because it is systematic and
empirical, and it is dependent upon measurement. Behaviourism (1913-present)
< The school of behaviourism was founded by John B.
Behaviour refers activities that can be observed Watson.
objectively, such as the reactions of the muscles and the < He argued that the psychologist should use only
glands, as well as the organized patterns of responses as objective methods and that their observations and
a whole. measurements should be in form which could be checked
-It also includes internal processes such as thinking, and verified by other psychologists.
feeling and other reactions which cannot be directly
observed but can be inferred from external behaviour. Gestalt (1912-1940)
-It may be classified as overt or covert and intrinsic or < In 1912, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler, and Max
extrinsic behaviour. Wertheimer founded the Gestalt school which maintained
that psychology should study the whole pattern of
behaviour or experience or the perception of organized
School Proponent/s configuration.
STRUCTURALISM - the analysis of < Its fundamental principle states that the whole is more
E.B. Titchener than the sum of all its parts.
mental structures
FUNCTIONALISM - studying how the
mind works so that an organism can William James Humanistic (1950-present)
adapt to and function in its environment < Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow emphasized the
unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom of
BEHAVIORISM - study of behavior
James Watson choice and decision making, as well as their potential for
without reference to consciousness
personal growth.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY - focuses on Max Wertheirmer,
the patterns formed by stimuli and on the Kurt Koffka,
Cognitive (1950-present)
organization of experience Wolfgang Kohler
< Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, and Herbert Simon
PSYCHOANALYSIS - emphasizes the
focused on thought and mental processes. Human
role of unconscious processes in Sigmund Freud
behaviour cannot be fully understood without analyzing
personality development & motivation
how people acquire, store and process information.
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Biological (1950-present)
< James Olds and Roger Sperry theorized that much of
In the 19th century after a few studies on human
human and animal behaviour can be explained in terms of
behaviour have been conducted, several schools of
bodily structure and biochemical processes.
psychology emerged. These schools study human
behaviour at different perspectives and with different
Purposivism
emphasis and method. They are the following:
< William McDougall believed that objects, movement and
behaviour have a definite purpose and that the ductless
Structuralism (1875-1930)
glands in people produce hormones which give them
< Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Bradford Titchener.
purpose.
“Mind is made up of building blocks in the form of various
types of sensation and perception, and that these building
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
blocks could be discovered through introspection or
looking into one’s own mind.”
1. Introspection: Is a method of mental self-analysis
wherein the psychologist studies himself, records his
Functionalism (1890-1930)
feeling and experiences, analyzes these and later
< Was developed in the United States.
interprets them.
< Its main leaders were William James, Stanley Hall,
2. Observation :Is the most widely used method in the
James McKeen Cattell, James R. Angell, John Dewey and
study of behaviour. There are several kinds of
Harvey Carr.
observation: uncontrolled or informal observation.
LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB – NMAT REVIEW
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Naturalistic observation and controlled or formal unconscious motives or desires. He compared the human
observation. mind with an iceberg in order to explain this. According to
him, only a part of our mind is conscious of things that we
3. Life-History Method: Is the extensive study of do. The rest are not conscious about painful experiences.
individuals by tracing the development of a particular form However, they are manifested through the words we
of behaviour. Life history methods are of three forms: the unconsciously blurt out, or through dreams or even
daybook method, the clinical method or the biographical through actions. For example, a victim of insects may
method. grow up to be a man hater merely because she associates
every male with her father. This feeling of hatred could
4. Survey Method: Uses data obtained from respondents have stemmed from the traumatic experience she had
through written questionnaires or interviews. repressed.
5. Experimental Method :Is the study of behaviour inside 5. PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH – focuses on the
the laboratory under controlled conditions. It involves subjective and personal experience of events, known as
variables which can be measured quantitatively. Variables the individual’s phenomenology. It is concerned more with
may be either independent or dependent. describing the inner life experiences of individuals rather
than with developing theories of predicting behaviour. This
6. Statistical Method : Statistics is the science that deals approach is related to Carl Rogers’ and Abraham Maslow’s
with the collecting and handling of numerical data and HUMANISTIC approach which emphasize the uniqueness
making inferences from such data. and the capability of the person of “becoming”. Of the five
CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES: approaches, this is the most difficult to measure (having
1. Biological – actions and events related to body the belief that humans should not be measured) and the
processes. most unscientific (being subjective of human experience).
2. Behavioural – measurable behaviour.
3. Cognitive – mental processes (e.g. perceiving, GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
remembering, reasoning). OF SENSE BEHAVIOR
4. Psychoanalytic – emphasizes unconscious motives –
sex and aggression. 1. ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD – a minimum amount of
5. Phenomenological – focuses on subjective sensory stimulation is needed in order to evoke any
experiences and motivation toward self-actualization. response. For example, a noise may only be heard if it
reaches the minimum intensity or decibels for our ears to
Several approaches are used by psychologist to study hear it.
human behaviour. Each approach has its own emphasis 2. DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD – there should be a certain
and method of analysis. These are: amount of difference between stimuli in order to
distinguish one from the other. Thus, we may know
1. BIOLOGICAL APPROACH – this is concerned with which of the two perfumes smells better if there is
the physiological processes inside the body. It explains minimal difference between them.
human behaviour as a result of the events in the nervous 3. SENSORY ADAPTATION – our sense receptors will no
system particularly inside the brain. Other systems such as longer be sensitive to any other stimulation after one
the sensory and the endocrine are factors being given simulation has already persisted through a period of
attention to have affected specific human behaviour. An time. This characteristic explains why the people in
example would be a, woman experiencing PMS or pre- Smokey Mountain can withstand the stinking smell of
menstrual syndrome may show some signs of depression their place.
or irritability, not because of some factors but because of
hormonal changes happening in her body. FACTUAL EXPERIENCES
2. BEHAVIORAL APPROACH – any human activity that The nerve endings for factual experiences are
can be directly observed (overt behaviour) or indirectly spread all over our skin, though sometimes they are
behaviour (convert behaviour) is known as BEHAVIOR. interlocking and overlapping. Some people may
John Watson claimed that in using Science to study experience pain and pressure at the same time.
human behaviour, objectivity should be maintained. Sometimes, either pain or pressure may only be
Important here in the Stimulus- Response (S-R) which experienced. There are speculations that pain is a result
states that a significant stimulus may yield a specific of persisting or too much pressure. There are two kinds
response such that a person would ran as fast at the sight of pain: direct pain and referred pain.
of frightening stimulus.
Direct pain results from direct stimulation such as prick
3. COGNITIVE APPROACH – in contrast to the or a cut. Whereas referred pain is felt at the area
behavioural approach, the cognitive approach focuses on different from where the stimulation is applied, such as
the unobservable processes or the covert behaviour such headache, backache, toothache or what we term as
as mental processes in explaining human behaviour. Thus “kulani”.
it explains John’s aggressive as a result of his perception
of a situation rather than a product of his own trait. A theory known as gate control theory explains why
people experience pain. According to this theory, a
4. PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH – Freud explained neural gate along our spinal cord opens up when the
human behaviour as a product of the person’s pain receptors are stimulated. Otherwise it is closed, thus
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we feel pain. Pain relievers such as paracetamol or the difference between the bell tone and other similar
aspirin and anesthesia have chemicals which may affect sounds.
the neurotransmitter that could inhibit impulses before
these impulses reach the neural gate, thus pain is either Adaptation – a term referring to the ability to adjust to
relieved or avoided. new information and experiences. Learning is essentially
adapting to our constantly changing environment.
LEARNING Through adaptation, we are able to adopt new behaviours
What the possible instinctual component to that allow us to cope with change.
human life, it is very clear that learning is the
predominant component. And it isn’t just that we do Extinction – in classical conditioning, when the
more learning than most animals; we even do it in more occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or
different ways! disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a
All learning ultimately boils down to association conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an
and differentiation. These are the two basic unconditioned stimulus. For example, of the smell of food
mechanisms of learning (and memory) that have been (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the
proposed over the centuries. Association is learning sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), it would
that two things go together. For example, we learn that eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of
spoons go with knives, cups go with saucers, thunder hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell
follows lighting, and pain follows injury, and so on. of food) were no longer paired with the conditioned
Differentiation is learning to distinguish one something stimulus (the whistle), eventually the conditioned
from another. We learn that green, not red, means go, response (hunger) would disappear.
that cats, not dogs have sharp claws, that soft speech,
not yelling, is approved of by one’s association and Stimulus Generalization – in classical conditioning, the
differentiation are two sides of the same coin, but tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
sometimes one is more obvious and sometimes the it’s responses after the response has been conditioned. For
the other. example, if a rat has been conditioned to fear a stuffed
There are several things that help us to retain rabbit, it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the
associations and differentiations: The first is obvious: conditioned stimulus.
Repetition or rehearsal. Practice makes perfect! Then
there are things like vividness and intensity: We are Spontaneous Recovery - in classical conditioning, the
more likely to remember someone’s name if they are reappearance after a rest period or period of lessened
loud and colorful than if they are quiet and ordinary. And response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned
finally, we have conditioning that is, associating the stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur
whole association or differentiation, with something that very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.
motivates us, whether it is food, companionship, money,
a sense of pride, a fear of pain, or whatever. Habituation – a decrease in response to a stimulus after
The simplest kind of learning, which we share repeated presentations. For example, a novel sound in
with all animals, we could call environmental: your environment, such as a new ringtone, may initially
Environmental conditioning adds a positive or draw your attention or even become distracting. After you
negative consequence to the learning that it in: You run, become accustomed to this sound, you pay less attention
expecting a 100 yards of open field, when you suddenly to the noise and your response to the sound will diminish.
smack into a tree you hadn’t noticed. You will be more This diminished response is habituation.
careful in the future!
For a social animal, much of this learning comes FOOD FOR THE BRAIN – SOME BIOPSYCHOLOGY
from others – i.e. it is social conditioning, also known as
rewards and punishments. So, instead of learning not to ■ Basic unit of the nervous system: NEURON
run across streets by getting punished as you begin to run ■ A cluster of cell bodies in the CNS is called a nucleus
across the street. Or, instead of learning sex roles by (pl. Nuclei). A cluster of cell bodies outside the CNS
accident (!), you are gently shaped by signs of SOCIAL (meaning in the PNS) is called a ganglion (pl. ganglia).
APPROVAL: “My, aren’t you pretty!” or “Here’s my little ■ A bundle of axon to the CNS is called a tract; in the
man!” PNS it’s called a nerve. (Extra: How many cranial nerves
do you have? How many spinal nerves? )
IMPORTANT TERMS TO REMEMBER: ■ Apart from neurons, support cells are also found in
the nervous system. They provide structural and
Acquisition – refers to the first stages of learning when a functional support for the neurons. In the CNS, they are
response is established. In classical conditioning, called glial cells. In the PNS, they are referred to as
acquisition refers to the period of time when the stimulus satellite cells.
comes to evoke the conditioned response. ■ Oligodendrocytes supply the myelin sheath for cells in
the CNS. One oligo... wraps axons of several neurons. In
Discrimination – in classical conditioning, the ability to the PNS, Schwann cells perform this function. The
differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other correspondence is 1:1.
stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned
stimulus. For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned Here are some facts you have to remember about
stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell ACTION POTENTIALS:
<It is caused by depolarization.
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<Once started, it travels down the axon to the terminal excited, why we feel hungry and many more. It consists of
buttons that release neurotransmitters (either excitatory three main divisions:
or inhibitory) that diffuses across the synapse (the small
gap between two neurons). IMPORTANT PARTS OF NEURON TO REMEMBER:
<They exhibit all-or-none response, not graded Nerve cells – basic structural unit or building block of the
response. nervous system.
<Transmission is non-decremental. Cytoplasm – the living material forming the body of the
<Temporal and spatial summation is possible. cell.
<It is followed by an absolute refractory period and then a Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the cell body of a
relative refractory period. neuron.
Axons – conduct impulses away from the cell body.
■ For the neurotransmitters remember: Synapse – the junction through which impulses pass
▲Glutamate is the most prevalent excitatory between any two neurons.
neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system;
GABA is the most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: Is a complex communications
▲ Acetylcholine is seen in neuromuscular junctions and network controlling the body’s internal environment as
is prevalent in the hippocampus. It is generally excitatory well as its responses to its surroundings.
and is observed to degenerate in Alzheimer’s disease
leading to serious memory loss. Three Types of Neurons:
▲ Norepinephrine is produced by brainstem neurons. < Afferent Neurons – conduct nerve impulses from
Increased levels in the brain correlated with heightened receptors to the brain or spinal cord. These are the points
mood, decreased levels with depression. in the body where a decision (voluntary or involuntary) is
▲ Dopamine excess is related to schizophrenia while made as to what the response should be.
deficiency is related to Parkinson’s disease. (Think of < Internuncial or Associative Neurons – responsible for
Michael J. Fox and Muhammad Ali.) what we commonly call thought. It carries information
▲ Serotonin deficiency leads to depression. within the system.
< Efferent Neurons – conduct nerve impulses from the
■The nervous system is divided into CNS (brain + spinal decision points to the effects.
cord) and PNS (nerves connecting the brain and spinal
cord to other parts of the body). PNS is subdivided to CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
somatic – carries messages to and from sense receptors, <Includes the brain and the spinal cord.
muscles, and the surface of the body – and autonomic – <It is the decision-maker. Tracts or pathways of fibers run
connects with the internal organs and glands – nervous between the various levels of the spinal cord and brain.
systems. The ANS consists of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems. Because it control the actions of PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
the smooth muscle and the glands, the ANS is particularly < Is composed of two parts: the autonomic system and
important in emotional reactions. The sympathetic arm the somatic system.
is active during excitement and the parasympathetic is < Autonomic system is a motor system supplying
dominant during quiescence. impulses to most of the internal organs and smooth
muscles of the body. It is an involuntary system. It is
BODY SYSTEMS AS BASIS OF BEHAVIOR composed of two principal divisions:
In order to understand human behaviour, it is important > Sympathetic Nervous System – becomes active when
to look at the different factors governing a certain one is in danger or is about to engage in something like
behaviour. an athletic contest (e.g., increased heartbeat, slowed
down digestive processes, and increased blood flow to the
1. SENSORY NEURON (AFFERENT NEURONS) – muscles).
incoming neurons which receive impulses: from the sense > Parasympathetic Nervous System – is connected to the
organs and direct the impulses to the brain and spinal same organs of the sympathetic nervous system, but
cord. activity of the parasympathetic system has opposite
2. CONNECTOR NEURONS (ASSOCIATION) – effects (e.g., slows heartbeat, increases digestive
neurons which connect the sensory and motor neurons. processes and diverts blood from the muscles toward the
3. MOTOR NEURONS (EFFERENT) – outgoing neurons, stomach and intestines).
which carry impulses away from the brain and spinal cord < Somatic System – controls skeletal muscles.
and send them to the motor organs or muscle fibers.
BRAIN
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: The nervous < It has an average weight of about three pounds.
system is composed of the spinal cord where almost all < It contains at least 15 billion nerve cells called neurons.
nerve fibers are connected and the center of the CNS < It is composed of three principal sections: the hindbrain,
which is the brain whose function are; to identify, to midbrain and the forebrain.
organize, to interpret and to respond to the experience of >Hindbrain – is the closest to the spinal cord. It is also
sensory stimulation. This three pound mass inside our relays efferent messages from those levels to the effectors
skull is regarded as the “CPU” of our body where mental, and performs a number of reflex actions including such
conscious and unconscious processes occur. This is responses as blinking of the eyes.
responsible why we still remember our birthday last year, >Midbrain – is located just above the hindbrain, forming
why we can understand this hand out, why we feel the upper part of the brain stem. It serves to relay
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afferent and efferent messages. It performs some reflex

responses that are controlled by the hindbrain and Monozygotic or Identical Twins: This is the splitting of one
controls more complex responses such as walking. zygote into two separate cells which develop into two
>Forebrain – most complex and the biggest part of the individual organisms.
human brain. It is composed of three parts: the thalamus,
the limbic system and the cortex. Dizygotic or Fraternal Twins: Develop from two separate
- Thalamus – is a relay station where afferent messages zygotes, each produced by the union of a separate sperm
pass. It serves as a major “switching point”. Messages cell with a separate egg cell.
from all the senses, except smell, are relayed directly from Environment: Includes all the conditions in the world that
here to the cortex, the highest part of the brain. influence behaviour, growth, development or life
- Limbic System – its most important portion is the processes in any way. Heredity x Environment x Time =
hypothalamus, which is involved in a variety of complex Developmental Level
human processes which controls eating, drinking and
certain sexual activities. Maturation: follows an orderly sequence. New structures
- Cortex – it is made up of four lobes which are separated and functions always appear in a definite order, so that
by deep valleys or fissures. These are the: each new development sets the stage for the next.
> Frontal Lobe (control centers for voluntary motor
(muscles) activity). Motor Development: motor refers to movement, such as
> Parietal Lobe (somesthetic or “body sense” area). walking, swimming, grasping, etc. Motor skills appear in a
> Occipital Lobe (the primary visual center and the definite order but at different rates.
association center and an association for visual
recognition). Prehension: refers to grasping objects. Its simplest form is
> Temporal Lobe (it is thought to be the center for palmar grasping. By using the thumb in opposition to the
memory recall). index finger, a finer grasp is developed, as when picking
up a piece of paper.
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Sensation – results when any of the sense organs are Language Development: infant begin life with no other
stimulated. For a sensation to occur, there must be language than their cries and grunts. As their language
receptors, which are specialized sensitive cells that mechanism matures, they make more and more sounds
respond to stimulus. and begin to comprehend the meaning of words they
Receptors – are classifies as exteroceptors, interoceptors hear.
and proprioceptors.
< Exteroceptors – are located on the outer surface of the GROWING UP: DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY
body and are stimulated by stimuli external to the
organism. ▲ Maturation is a process referring to the innately
< Interoceptors – are located in the linings of the determined sequences of growth or other changes in the
viscera—the digestive, respiratory and circulatory systems. body that are relatively independent of the environment.
< Proprioceptors – are found in the linings of the muscles, Infants are born with all their sensory systems
tendons and joints and are stimulated by energy changes functioning.
resulting from the movements of these structures.
■ Piaget's Model of Cognitive Development
PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ▲ Much of modern cognitive theory, including its
Heredity: Is the transmission of traits from parents to relationship to socialization, stems from the work of the
offspring. It gives the human individual a similarity to Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget. In the 1920s Piaget
other organisms and also uniqueness. observed children reasoning and understanding
differently, depending on their age. He proposed that all
Genes: Are submicroscopic particles in chromosomes. children progress through a series of cognitive stages
They are the unit carriers of heredity. Their chemical of development, just as they progress through a series
influence is exerted most directly upon the jelly-like of physical stages of development. According to Piaget,
substance, called cytoplasm, which surrounds the nucleus. the rate at which children pass through these cognitive
stages may vary, but they eventually pass through all of
Dominant Gene: Is one whose characteristic will be them in the same order.
dominant when paired with another gene. ▲ Piaget introduced several other important concepts.
Recessive Gene: Is one whose characteristic will not be According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs from
produced when paired with a dominant gene. two processes: adaptation and equilibrium. Adaptation
involves the child's changing to meet situational demands.
XX Chromosome: If the two chromosomes are identical or Adaptation involves two sub-processes: assimilation and
if both are X-chromosomes, the result is female. accommodation. Assimilation is the application of
XY Chromosome: If the pair is an X and a Y-chromosome, previous concepts to new concepts. An example is the
the result is male. child who refers to a whale as a “fish.”
Accommodation is the altering of previous concepts in
Note: The genes of a normal male have two X- the face of new information. An example is the child who
chromosomes or one Y- and one X-chromosome, while discovers that some creatures living in the ocean are not
that of a normal female has two X-chromosomes. That is fish, and then correctly refers to a whale as a “mammal.”
why the male genes alone determine the sex of a zygote. Equilibrium is the search for “balance” between self and
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the world, and involves the matching of the child's Stage A period in a child's development in which
adaptive functioning to situational demands. Equilibrium he or she is capable of understanding some
keeps the infant moving along the developmental things but not others
pathway, allowing him or her to make increasingly
effective adaptations.
Piaget's Model of Cognitive Development

Stage Characteristics of Stage Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: Stages of
Moral Reasoning
Sensorimotor The child learns by doing: looking,
▲ Kohlberg extended Piaget’s work to include
touching, and sucking. The child also
adolescence and adulthood. He proposed three levels of
has a primitive understanding of
moral judgment: pre-conventional, conventional, and
cause-and-effect relationships.
post-conventional.
Preoperational The child uses language and symbols,
including letters and numbers. Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience
Level One:
Egocentrism is also evident. Orientation
Pre-
Concrete Operations The child demonstrates conservation, conventional
reversibility, serial ordering, and a Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist
Morality
mature understanding of cause-and- Orientation
effect relationships.
Formal Operations The individual demonstrates abstract Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl
Level Two:
thinking, including logic, deductive Orientation
Conventional
reasoning, comparison, and
Morality
classification. Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
Piaget’s Key Ideas Level Three: Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

Adaptation Adapt to the world by assimilation & Post-
accommodation Conventional Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle
Assimilation The process by which a person takes Morality Orientation
material into their mind from the
environment, which may mean changing the 1. Pre-conventional Level
evidence of their senses to make it fit. (up to age nine): ~Self Focused Morality~
Accommodation The difference made to one's mind or ● Morality is defined as obeying rules and avoiding
concepts by the process of assimilation.
negative consequences. Children in this stage see rules
Note: assimilation & accommodation go
together: you can't have one without the set, typically by parents, as defining moral law, that which
other. satisfies the child’s needs is seen as good and moral.
Classification The ability to group objects together on the
basis of common features. 2. Conventional Level
Class Inclusion The understanding more advanced than (age nine to adolescence): ~Other Focused Morality~
simple classification, that some classes or ● Children begin to understand what is expected of them
sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger by their parents, teacher, etc. Morality is seen as
class. (E.g. there is a class of objects called achieving these expectations.
dogs. There is also a class called animals.
● Fulfilling obligations as well as following expectations
But all dogs are also animals, so the class of
animals includes that of dogs) are seen as moral law for children in this stage.
Conservation The realisation that objects or sets of objects
stay the same even when they are changed 3. Post-conventional Level
about or made to look different. (adulthood):~Higher Focused Morality~
Decentration The ability to move away from one system ● As adults, we begin to understand that people have
of classification to another one as different opinions about morality and that rules and laws
appropriate. vary from group to group and culture to culture. Morality
Egocentrism The belief that you are the centre of the is seen as upholding the values of your group or culture.
universe and everything revolves around
● Understanding your own personal beliefs allow adults to
you: the corresponding inability to see the
world as someone else does and adapt to it. judge themselves and others based upon higher levels of
Operation The process of working something out in morality. In this stage what is right and wrong is based
your head. Young children (in the upon the circumstances surrounding an action. Basics of
sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) morality are the foundation with independent thought
have to act, and try things out in the real playing an important role.
world, to work things out (like count on ▲ An infant’s tendency to seek closeness to particular
fingers): older children and adults can do people and to feel more secure in their presence is called
more in their heads.
attachment. There are three different attachment styles:
Schema The representation in the mind of a set of
SECURE AVOIDANT / AMBIVALENT
(or scheme) perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go
together. ATTACHMENT INSECURE ATTACHMENT

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ATTACHMENT
Able to separate May avoid May be wary of ■ Cones operate at high intensities, lead to sensations of
from parents parents strangers color, and are found only in the center (or fovea) of the
Seek comfort Does not seek Become greatly retina. Rods operate at low intensities, lead to colorless
from parents much contact or distressed when sensations, and predominate in the periphery of the
when frightened comfort from parents leave retina. Naturally, our sensitivity to light’s intensity is
parents mediated by rods and cones.
Greets return or Shows little or Do not appear ■ More rods connect to ganglion cells than do cones;
parents with no preference to be comforted because of this difference in connectivity, visual sensitivity
positive for parents over when parents is greater when based on rods than cones, but visual
emotions strangers return acuity is greater when based on cones than rods.
▲Gender identity is the degree to which one regards < The stimulus for audition (hearing) is a WAVE OF
oneself as male or female. It is distinct from sex typing, PRESSURE CHANGES (a sound wave).
the acquisition of characteristics and behaviors that < PITCH
society considers appropriate for one’s sex. Different views -It is the most striking quality of sound.
on the development of gender identity and sex typing are -It increases with the frequency of the sound wave.
described below: -Two theories explain pitch perception:
■ Freud’s psychoanalytic theory holds that gender >Temporal theory: Pitch heard depends on the temporal
identity and sex typing develop from the children’s pattern of neural responses in the auditory system, which
early discovery of the genital differences between the itself is determined by the temporal pattern of the sound
sexes and children’s eventual identification with the same- wave. This accounts for perception of low frequencies.
sex parent. >Place theories: Each frequency maximally stimulates one
■ Social-learning theory emphasizes the rewards and place along the basilar membrane, and the place of
punishments that children receive for sex-appropriate maximum movement determines which pitch is heard.
and sex-inappropriate behaviours, as well as a process of This accounts for perception of high frequencies.
identification with same-sex adults that is based on -The stimuli for smell are the MOLECULES GIVEN OFF
observational learning. BY A SUBSTANCE.
■ A cognitive-developmental theory of gender identity -The stimulus for taste is A SUBSTANCE THAT IS
and sex typing holds that once children can identify SOLUBLE IN SALIVA.
themselves as male or female, they are motivated to -Two of the skins senses are pressure and temperature.
acquire sex-typed behaviours. This underestimates -Any stimulus that is intense enough to cause tissue
children’s degree of understanding. damage is a stimulus for pain.
■ Gender schema theory, developed by Sandra Bem,
seeks to explain why children base their self-concept on PERCEPTION
male-female distinction in the first place. It emphasizes The study of perception deals with two major functions of
the role of culture in teaching children to view the world the perceptual system: LOCALIZATION, or determining
through lens of gender. Like cognitive-developmental where objects are, and RECOGNITION, determining
theory, gender schema theory sees children as active what objects are. The study of perception also deals with
agents in promoting their own sex typing; like social- how the perceptual system keeps the appearance of
learning theory, it rejects the conclusion that objects constant, even though their retinal images are
traditional sex typing is inevitable and changing (PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES). Another area
unmodifiable. of study is how our perceptual capacities develop.
SENSE AND SENSITIVITY LOCALIZATION

< To localize objects we must first separate them from
Sensation... one another and then organize them into groups. For
■ At the psychological level, sensations are experiences example, into figure and ground, or into groups based on
associated with simple stimuli. At the biological level, proximity, closure, similarity, good continuation,
sensory processes involve the sense organs and and closure.
connecting neural pathways, and are concerned with thin < Localizing an object requires that we know its distance
initial stages of acquiring stimulus information. The senses from us – depth perception. Monocular depth cues are:
include vision; audition (hearing); olfaction (smell); relative size, interposition, relative height, linear
gestation (taste); the skin senses; which include pressure, perspective, shading, and motion parallax. An example of
temperature, and pain; and the body senses. a binocular depth cue is binocular disparity – an object
■ One property that can be used to describe all sense is produces slightly different images on the two retinas.
SENSITIVITY as measured by the absolute threshold. < Localizing an object sometimes requires that we know
■ Every sense modality must recode or transducer its the direction in which an object is moving. Motion
physical energy into neural impulses. perception can be produced in the absence of an object
■ The stimulus for vision is LIGHT – electromagnetic moving across our retina. One example is stroboscopic
motion, in which a rapid series of still images induces
radiation in the range from 400-700 nanometers.
apparent movement; another example is induced
motion, in which movement of a large object induces
apparent movement of a smaller stationary object.
COMPARING RODS AND CONES
(VISUAL RECEPTORS) Perception of real motion is implemented by specific

8
cells in the visual system, as indicated by single-cell < There are four stages of sleep + REM (rapid eye
recordings and experiments on selective adaptation. movement).
< REM and NREM are as different from each other as each
RECOGNITION is from wakefulness.
< Recognizing an object amounts to assigning it to a NREM sleep is characterized by an idle brain in a very
category based mainly on the shape of the object. In early relaxed body. REM sleep is characterized by a brain that
stages of recognition, the visual system uses retinal appears to be wide awake in a virtually paralyzed body.
information to describe the object in terms of features like Sleepers awakened during REM sleep almost always report
lines and angles; neurons that detect such features having a dream, but when awakened during NREM sleep
(feature detectors) have been found in the visual cortex. they will report having a dream only about 25% of the
In later stages of recognition, the system matches the time.
description of the object with shape description stored in NREM dreams are more like normal thinking, neither as
memory to find the best match. visual nor as emotionally charged as REM dreams, and
-Bottom-up recognition processes are driven solely by more related to what is happening in waking life.
the input, whereas top-down recognition processes
are driven by a person’s knowledge and expectations. COMMON SLEEP DISORDERS
< Insomnia – characterized by difficulty in falling asleep
ATTENTION initially, difficulty in remaining asleep and persistent early
< Selective attention is the process by which we select morning awakening.
some stimuli for further processing while ignoring others. < Narcolepsy – sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep
Selective looking and selective listening (e.g. cocktail during normal waking periods.
party phenomenon) both exist. Our ability to selectively < Sleep Apnea – frequent reflexive gasping for air that
attend is mediated by processes that occur in the early awakens a person and disrupts sleep.
stages of recognition as well as by processes that occur < Night Terrors – abrupt awakening from REM sleep
only after the message’s meaning has been determined. accompanied by intense autonomic arousal and feeling of
panic.
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION < Nightmares – anxiety arousing dreams that lead to
Sensation – results when any of the sense organs are awakening usually from REM sleep.
stimulated. For a sensation to occur, there must be < Somnambulism – or sleep walking occurs when a
receptors, which are specialized sensitive cells that person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep.
respond to stimulus.
DREAMS: remembered images and fantasies are
Receptors – are classifies as exteroceptors, interoceptors temporarily confused with external reality
and proprioceptors. <Everybody dreams
-Exteroceptors – are located on the outer surface of the <Dreams last about as long as they would in real life
body and are stimulated by stimuli external to the <Sometimes, people do know when they are dreaming.
organism. <People can control the content of their dreams.
-Interoceptors – are located in the linings of the viscera— <Dream content, as explained by Freud, are a disguised
the digestive, respiratory and circulatory systems. attempt at wish fulfilment.
Proprioceptors – are found in the linings of the muscles, Dream: Is a mental experience during sleep that includes
tendons and joints and are stimulated by energy changes vivid visual images.
resulting from the movements of these structures
THEORIES OF DREAM
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES: < Sigmund Freud – stressed the wish-fulfilling function of
dreams. Ungratified needs are expressed thru dreams.
< Lightness constancy – object appears equally light < Rosalind Carthwright – emphasized the problem-solving
regardless of how much light it reflects functions of dreams. According to her, dreams provide an
< Color constancy – object looks roughly the same color opportunity to work through everyday problems.
regardless of the light source illuminating it < J. Allan Hobson and Rober McCarley – assert that
< Shape and location constancy dreams are merely products of periodic neural activation
< Size constancy – object’s apparent size remains the that produces “wide awake” brain waves during REM
same sleep.
CONSCIOUSNESS: THE TIP OF THE ICEBERG Sleep: To take the rest afforded by a suspension of
< A person’s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings at any voluntary bodily function, and the natural suspension,
given moment constitute that person’s complete or partial, of consciousness.
CONSCIOUSNESS.
< ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS is said to THEORIES OF SLEEP
exist when mental functioning seems changed or out of < Restorative Theories – purpose of sleep is to restore
the ordinary to the person experiencing the state. energy and body resources depleted by waking activities.
Examples are dreams and sleep, meditation, hypnosis and < Circadian Theories – sleep occurs because of survival
the use of drugs. value. To conserve energy and serve as protection from
dangers. Our body is synchronized within a 24-hour cycle.
SLEEP

9
Two Process Theory of Sleep – the need for slow wave ESP (ExtraSensory Perception)
sleep reflects the restorative function of sleep and the Response to externalstimuli without any known sensory
need for REM sleep reflects the circadian regulation of contact.
sleep. ■ Telepathy: Thought transference from one person to
another without the mediation of any known channel of
MEDITATION: an effort to alter consciousness by sensory communication (for example, identifying a playing
following planned rituals or exercises such as those card merely being thought of by another person) involves
of yoga or Zen. Meditation refers to a family of mental the direct transmission of thought from one person to
exercises in which a conscious attempt is made to focus another.
attention in a non-analytical way. ■ Clairvoyance: Perception of objects or events that do
HYPNOSIS: a responsive state in which individuals not provide a stimulus to the known senses (for example,
focus their attention on the hypnotist and his or identifying a concealed playing card whose identity is
her suggestions unknown to anyone).The ability to perceive objects or
< Some people are more readily hypnotized than others, events
although most people show some susceptibility. ■ Precognition: is the ability to foretell future events.
< Characteristic hypnotic responses include: Perception of a future event that could not be anticipated
enhanced or diminished control over movements, through any known inferential (for example, predicting
distortion of memory through posthypnotic amnesia, age that a particular number will come up on the next throw of
regression, and positive and negative hallucinations. dice)
Reduction of pain is one of the beneficial uses of hypnosis. ■ Psychokinesis (PK): Mental influence over physical
Hypnosis – is a systematic procedure that typically events without the intervention of any known physical
produces a heightened state of suggestibility. It may lead force (for example, willing that a particular number will
to passive relaxation, narrowed attention and enhanced come up on the throw of dice).
fantasy.
TESTS : Psychologists use ability testing to study
THEORIES OF HYPNOSIS individual differences.
< Hypnosis as role-playing – role expectations produce a SPECIFICATIONS OF TESTS

hypnotized subject who behaves as like his or her concept < Reliability – is whether or not the test scores are self-
of a hypnotized person. consistent. It gives the same results on different
< Hypnosis is an altered state of awareness that creates occasions.
dissociation in consciousness – Hilgard (1986) theorized < Validity – is how well the tests come up with what they
that hypnosis splits consciousness into two streams. One are supposed to measure, and how well they predict
stream is a communication with the hypnotist and the according to an acceptable criterion.
external world, while the other is a difficult to detect < Standardization – is the establishment of uniform
“hidden observer”. conditions for administering the test to all respondents, as
well as a uniform method for evaluating responses. If a
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS test is not administered according to a standardized
procedure, both the reliability and validity of the test are
Drug dependence is characterized by tolerance, affected.
withdrawal and compulsive use. Drug abuse is continued < Norms – provide a frame of reference for interpreting
use of a drug despite serious consequences by a person the results obtained on any particular individual or group.
who has not yet reached the stage of dependence. The
most commonly used and abused psychoactive drugs are: KINDS OF TESTS
< Depressants: alcohol, barbiturates (e.g. seconal), < Aptitude Tests – attempt to predict the success of an
tranquilizers (e.g. valium, miltown), inhalants (e.g. paint individual in a kind of performance not yet attained, as in
thinner) judging how much an individual will profit from training
< Opiates (narcotics): opium, codeine, heroin, morphine, before training is undertaken.
methadone < Achievement Tests – measure present attainment, or
< Stimulants: amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine what the respondent has learned after the completion of
< Hallucinogens: LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, PCP training.
< Cannabis: marijuana and hashish < Projective Tests – are used in determining personality
traits.
ASC (Altered States of Consciousness) < Intelligence Tests – intended to measure intellectual
ability.
<Include dreaming, daydreaming, sensory deprivation,
sleep, hypnosis, meditation, and drug-induced IQ (Intelligence Quotient) – as an index of mental
experiences. development is obtained by expressing intelligence as a
<It is defined as any mental state caused by physiological, ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA).
psychological or pharmacological intervention that can be
recognized either by the person experiencing it or by an 𝑀𝐴
𝐼𝑄 = × 100
objective observer as substantially different from the 𝐶𝐴
individual’s behaviour when in a normally alert, awake Intelligence – refers to a complex group of primary
state of mind. abilities which are relatively independent of each other.

10
LEARNING is defined as a relatively permanent change given in a stimulus situation. Proponent was Burrhus F.
in behaviour that is the result of practice: There are four Skinner for his experiment called the “Skinner Box”.
basic kinds of learning:
1. Habituation – an organism learns to ignore familiar Four Kinds of Instrumental Conditioning:
and inconsequential stimulus
2. Classical conditioning – an organism learns that one 1. Primary Reward Conditioning – where the learned
stimulus follows another response is instrumental in obtaining a biologically
3. Operant conditioning – an organism learns that a significant reward such as a pellet of food or an amount of
particular response leads to a particular consequence water.
4. Complex learning – involves more than the formation 2. Escape conditioning – is one where the organism learns
of associations a response that is instrumental in getting out of a place
one prefers not to be in.
LEARNING AND THINKING 3. Avoidance conditioning – is a kind of learning where a
response to a cue is instrumental in avoiding a painful
Learning – process which brings about a change in the experience.
individual’s way of responding as a result of practice or 4. Secondary Reward Conditioning – is where there is
other experiences. instrumental behaviour to get at a stimulus which has no
Classical Conditioning – the simplest form of learning. biological utility itself but which has in the past been
Proposed by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian associated with a biologically significant stimulus.
physiologist and Nobel Prize awardee to conduct
systematic studies on conditioned responses. The contemporary analysis of learning includes cognitive
factors and biological constraint as well as behaviourist
a. CR-Conditioned Response – a learned response from a principles.
conditioned stimulus. Conditioned response is the learned
response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our Classical Conditioning in the Real World
example, the conditioned response would be feeling
hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle. These techniques are also useful in the treatment of
b. US-Unconditioned Stimulus – a stimulus which is phobias or anxiety problems. Teachers are able to apply
adequate at the outset of training to produce the response classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive
in question. The unconditioned stimulus is one that classroom environment to help students overcome
unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation,
response. For example, when you smell one of your such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant
favourite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In surroundings helps the student learn new associations.
this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations,
response the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.
c. CS-Conditioned Stimulus – is one which is initially
inadequate to evoke the response in question but will do Operant Conditioning
so if paired with the unconditioned stimulus. The
conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, Operant Conditioning (sometimes referred to as
after becoming associated with the unconditioned instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning
stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned that occurs through rewards and punishments for
response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an association
smelled your favourite food, you also heard the sound of a is made between behaviour and a consequence for that
whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the behaviour.
food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times
with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the Examples of Operant Conditioning
conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the We can find examples of operant conditioning at
whistle is the conditioned stimulus work all around us, such as children completing
d. UR-Unconditioned Response – the response elicited homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher or
from the unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned employees finishing projects to receive praise or
response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally promotions. In these examples, the promise of possibility
in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our of rewards causes an increase in behaviour, but operant
example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of conditioning can also be used to decrease behaviour. The
food is the unconditioned response. removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of
e. Stimulus Generalization – the response which will occur punishment can be used to decrease or percent
to stimuli which are similar to the original stimulus once undesirable behaviours. For example, a child may be told
conditioned response to a stimulus of a certain kind is they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in
established. class. The potential for punishment may lead to a
f. Discrimination – refers to eliciting different responses to decrease in disruptive behaviours.
two different stimuli.
g. Extinction – responses that are no longer reinforced Components of Operant Conditioning
tend to disappear.
Instrumental Conditioning – (Operant Conditioning) A reinforcer is any event that strengthens or increases
another kind of simple learning which involves a selection the behaviour it follows. There are two kinds of
from many responses of the one that habitually will be reinforcers:
11
1. Positive reinforcers are favourable events or < Variable-interval schedules occur when a response
outcomes that are presented after the behaviour. is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of
unfavourable events or outcomes after the display of response.
behaviour.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behaviour ▲Cognitive factors play a role in operant conditioning. For
increases. operant conditioning to occur the organism must believe
that reinforcement is at least partly under its control; that
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or is, it must perceive a contingency between its responses
outcome that causes a decrease in the behaviour it and the reinforcement.
follows. There are two kinds of punishment: ▲ Biological constraints also play a role in operant
1. Positive Punishment involves the presentation of an conditioning. There are constraints on what reinforcers
unfavourable event or outcome in order to weaken the can be associated with what responses.
response it follows.
2. Negative Punishment occurs when a favourable ▲COMPLEX LEARNING
event or outcome is removed after behaviour occurs. ■ In complex learning, the mental representations depict
In both of these cases of punishment, the behaviour more than associations, and the mental operations may
decreases. constitute a strategy.
■ When learning relationships between stimuli that are not
Reinforcement – is any stimulus that will maintain or perfectly predictive, people often invoke prior beliefs. This
increase the strength of a response. can lead to spurious associations.
Schedules of Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are
on important component of the learning process. When SAY WHAT? – MEMORY, LANGUAGE, AND
and how often we reinforce behaviour can have a THOUGHT
dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the Language and thought...
response. Certain schedules of reinforcement may be ■ Language, our primary means for communicating
more effective in specific situations. There are two types thoughts, is structured at three levels. At the highest level
of reinforcement schedules: are sentence units, words and parts of words that
carry meanings and at the lowest level are speech
1. Continuous Reinforcement – in continuous sounds.
reinforcement, the desired behaviour, is reinforced every
single time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used ■ Language development occurs at three different
during the initial stages of learning in order to create a levels. Infants come into the world preprogrammed to
strong association between the behaviour and the learn phonemes, but they need several years to learn the
response. Once the response is firmly attached, rules for combining them. When children begin to speak,
reinforcement is usually switched to a partial they learn words that name familiar concepts. In learning
reinforcement schedule. to produce sentences, they begin with one-word
utterances, progress to two-word telegraphic speech, and
2. Partial Reinforcement – in partial reinforcement, then elaborate their noun and verb phrases
the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned .
behaviours are acquired more slowly with partial Thought occurs in different modes, including
reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to propositional, imaginal and motoric.
extinction. There are four schedules of partial
reinforcement: ■ A concept includes both a prototype (properties that
describe the best examples) and a core (properties that
< Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is are most essential for being a member of the concept).
reinforced only after a specified number of responses. ■ In reasoning, we organize our propositions into
This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding deductively valid or inductively strong arguments.
with only a brief pause after the delivery of the ■ Not all thoughts are expressed in propositions; some are
reinforcer. manifested as visual images.
■ Problem solving requires breaking down a goal into
< Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is subgoals that are easier to obtain.
reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.
This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Three stages of memory:
Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a Encoding, Storage and Retrieval
reward based on a variable ratio schedule. ▲ Damage to the hippocampal system impairs
performance on long-term memory but not on working
< Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first memory tasks.
response is rewarded only after a specified amount of
time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of ▲ SHORT-TERM MEMORY
responding near the end of the interval, but much slower ● Information tends to be encoded acoustically
responding immediately after the delivery of the ● Capacity is 5+2
reinforce. ● Loss of information can be due to decay or replacement
with new information
12
● Retrieval slows down as the number of items in working (3) Interference effects (retroactive and proactive
memory increases inhibition)
● Involved in mental arithmetic, geometric analogies, and (4) Motivated forgetting
answering questions about text; does not seem to be Retroactive Inhibition – new learning interfering with
involved in the understanding of relatively simple prior ones.
sentences. Proactive Inhibition – prior learning interfering with
learning and recall of new materials.
▲ LONG-TERM MEMORY Motivated forgetting – may be induced by repression
● Information is encoded according to meaning and is the effect of goal-seeking on retention.
● Forgetting in LTM are due to retrieval failures that
usually occurs with interference; some forgetting is due to THINKING
loss from storage < It is a type of behaviour that uses symbols as “inner
● Retrieval failures are less likely when items are representations” of objects and events.
organized during encoded and when the context at the < It reflects and elaborates on what is present in
time of retrieval is similar to the context at the time of perception and movement.
encoding.
Kinds of Thinking
< Directed Thinking – has an aim, goal or end point. It
includes the kind of critical thinking when making
▲ EXPLICIT VS IMPLICIT MEMORY judgments or propositions.
● Explicit memory refers to the kind manifested in recall or <Creative Thinking – which attempts to discover new
recognition, in which we consciously recollect the past. relationships, achieve new solutions to problems, invent
● Implicit memory refers to the kind of memory that new methods or devices and produce new artistic forms.
manifests as an improvement on some perceptual, motor,
or cognitive task, with no conscious recollection of the Thinking Process involves:
experiences that led to the improvement. Usually spared -The presence of problem;
in amnesia. - A definition of the problem;
■ Although we cannot increase the capacity of STM, we - A weighing of relevance and probabilities; and
can use recording schemes to enlarge the size of the - Verification
chunk and thereby increase the memory span. LTM for Theories on Differing Functions of the Brain
facts can be improved at the encoding and retrieval < Peripheralist – hold that all thinking goes on in muscular
stages. One way to improve encoding and retrieval is to movement and all that psychology requires is a stimulus-
use imagery, which is the basic principle underlying response analysis of thinking.
mnemonic system. < Centralist – hold that thinking goes on inside the brain
■ The best ways to improve retrieval are to attempt to and nervous system, and muscular movements merely
restore the encoding context at the time of retrieval and accompany the “central process”.
to practice retrieving information while learning it.
■ Memories for complex materials, such as stories, are WHY AND HOW – BASIC MOTIVES AND EMOTION
often CONSTRUCTIVE. We tend to use our general
knowledge of the world to construct a more elaborate Basic Motive...
memory of a story or event. Construction can involve ▲ Motivational states direct and activate behaviour. They
adding simple inferences to the material presented; it can arise from two sources: internal drive factors and external
also involve fitting the material into stereotypes and other incentive.
kinds of schemes. ▲ Many types of natural rewards may activate the
mesolimbic dopamine system. Activity in these
REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING neurons may constitute the neural basis for all rewards.
Remembering – showing in present responses some ■ Classification of motives:

signs of earlier learned responses 1. Physiologic: hunger, thirst, temperature, pain
Reintegrative memory – is the recollection of a personal avoidance
experience or event. It reconstructs a past occasion not 2. Social or psychological: achievement, altruism,
only in terms of its content but also its setting in time and affiliation and social approval
place. 3. Neither strictly biological nor social: sex drive
Recognition – is a kind of memory, remembering only a
sense of familiarity. ▲Two regions of the brain are critical to hunger: the
Recall – requires a reinstatement of something learned in lateral hypothalamus and the ventromedial
the past. hypothalamus. Destruction of the lateral hypothalamus
Saving in relearning – is a way of finding out the leads to undereating: destruction of the ventromedial
influence of prior learning. hypothalamus leads to overeating. (Remember: LUVO)
Forgetting – ceasing or failing to remember or being Although these regions were originally thought to be
unable to recall past responses or memory. centers for hunger and satiety, hunger is not destroyed by
Explanations of Forgetting: any lesion.
(1) Passive decay through disuse ▲ People become obese primarily because:
(2) Systematic distortions of the memory trace 1. They are genetically predisposed to be overweight or
2. They overeat (for psychological reason)
13
< Arousal-cognition Theory – this view assumes that there

▲ Anorexia nervosa is characterized by extreme, self- is only one kind of physical excitement or arousal, but the
imposed weight loss. Bulimia is characterized by various stated of arousal are labelled according to our
recurrent episodes of binge eating, followed by attempts knowledge or cognition of the emotion-production
to purge the excess by means of vomiting and laxatives. situation.
Emotion Basic Emotions

▲ Components of emotion include: subjective One question that is asked repeatedly is “what are the
experience of emotion, automatic arousal, cognitive basic emotions.” There have been dozens of answers to
appraisal, and emotional expression, general reactions to this, none of which have been completely satisfying. This,
the emotions and actions tendencies. is, no doubt, due to the facts that emotional response is
complex to begin with, and is made even more complex
EMOTIONS by the fact that we add our thoughts and interpretations
- Comes from the Latin word “emovere” meaning “to to them as well as just “experiencing” them as they are. I
move out”. It conveys the idea of an outward expression suggest that we can organize emotions into seven
of something inside, which is one aspect of emotion. families:
Four Aspects of Emotions: The Surprise Family - Surprise, startle, astonishment,
(1) Personal emotional experiences bewilderment, confusion, shock
(2) Physiological or bodily changes The Fear Family - Fear, threat, terror, anxiety, doubt,
(3) Behaviour of the person caution, suspicion
(4) Motivational Aspect The Anger Family - Anger, rage, frustration, hatred,
hostility, envy, jealousy, disgust, contempt, annoyance,
Physiological Changes that take place during emotion: indignation
Galvanic Skin Response, Blood Pressure and Volume, The Sadness Family - Sadness, sorrow, depression,
Heart Rate, Respiration, Pupillary Response, Salivary anguish, despair, grief, loneliness, shame,
Secretion, Pilomotor Response, Gastrointestinal Motility, embarrassment, humiliation, guilt, remorse, regret
Muscle Tension and Tremor, and Blood composition The Eagerness Family - Eagerness, anticipation,
excitement, confidence, hopefulness, curiosity, interest
CLASSES OF EMOTIONAL REACTIONS The Happiness Family - Happiness, elation, joy,
gladness, contentment, satisfaction, self-satisfaction,
< Fear – distressing emotion aroused by impending pride, love, affection, compassion, amusement, humor,
danger, evil, pain, etc., whether the threat is real or laughter
imagined. The Boredom Family - Boredom, ennui, complacency,
< Anger – a strong feeling of displeasure and belligerence persistent and uncontrollable emotions may inflict
aroused by a wrong; wrath; ire psychological harm.
< Grief – keen mental suffering or distress over affliction e.g: persistent fear – phobia
or loss; sharp sorrow; painful regret Too much sadness – depression
< Love – a profoundly tender, passionate affection for Too much love – obsession
another person Too much anger – aggression
THEORIES OF EMOTION Too much agitation – anxiety; neuroticism
< James-Lange Theory – emotional experience occurs
after bodily changes. The sequence of events in emotional ▲ Our mood affects our judgements about the frequency
states are: (1) perception of the situation which will of various risks in the world. Furthermore, our mood
produce the emotion; (2) reaction to the situation; and (3) affects our evaluations of people. Also, when experiencing
perception of the reaction is the basis of emotional an emotion, we tend to pay more attention to events that
experience. fit our mood than to events that do not.
< Canon-Bard’s Thalamic Theory – the nervous impulses ▲ Moderate levels of emotion arousal are most
coming into the hypothalamus from the receptors compatible with optimal performance.
stimulate that center to send impulses to the cortex and ▲ AGGRESSION: A typical action tendency in response
viscera simultaneously. When the impulses reach the to anger (although it can occur for other reasons as well)
cortex, an emotion is generated. ● According to the psychoanalytic theory, aggression
< Cognitive Theory of Emotions – emotions are is a drive produced by frustration; according to social
interpretations of stirred-up bodily states. The bodily state learning theory, aggression is a learned response.
of emotional arousal is much the same for emotions. The
state of bodily arousal is ambiguous, but we interpret or STRICTLY PERSONAL – PERSONALITY AND
have cognitions about the physiological state. The phases INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
in the emotional process are: (1) perception of the
emotion-producing situation; (2) a stirred-up bodily state Three dynamic processes of personality-environment
which is ambiguous; (3) interpretation and labelling of the interaction are:
bodily state that fits the perceived situation. 1. Reactive interaction – different individuals exposed
< Activation Theory of Emotion – this theory holds that to the same environment, experience it, interpret it, and
emotion associated with the activity of reticular activating react to it differently;
system (RAS) which is a part of the brain stem. Emotion 2. Evocative interaction – an individual’s personality
then is considered as an increased arousal or activation of evokes distinctive responses from others; and
the cortex by the RAS.
14
3. Proactive interaction – individuals select or create the ego develops from the Id and ensures that the
environments of their own. impulses of the Id can be expressed in a manner
acceptable in the real world. The ego functions in the
▲ PERSONALITY refers to the distinctive and conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour The ego operates based on the reality principle,
that define an individual’s personal style of interacting which strives to satisfy the Id’s desires in realistic and
with the physical and social environments. socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the
costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon
Theories of Personality or abandon impulses. In many cases, the Id’s impulses
A. Body Types Theory (William Sheldon) can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification
1. Endomorphic – refers to the prominence of the – the ego will eventually allow the behaviour, but only in
intestines and other visceral organs. (Fat) the appropriate time and place.
2. Mesomorphic – refers to bones and muscles. (Muscular) The ego also discharges tension created by
3. Ectomorphic – is based on the delicateness of skin, fine unmet impulses through the secondary process, in which
hair, and sensitive nervous system. (Thin) the ego tries to find an object in the real world that
matches the mental image created by the Id‘s primary
B. Behaviour Types Theory (Carl Jung) process.
1. Introverts – tend to withdraw into themselves especially
in times of emotional stress or conflict. They are shy and The Superego
prefer to work alone. The last component of personality to develop is
2. Extroverts – are very sociable, well-dressed, and the superego. The superego is the aspect of personality
outgoing. Their decisions and actions are determined that holds all of our internalized moral standards and
primarily by objective relationships. ideals that we acquire from both parents and society – our
sense of right and wrong. The superego provides
C. Body Chemistry Theory guidelines form making judgements. According to Freud,
1. Sanguine – person is warm-hearted and pleasant; has a the superego begins to emerge at around age five. There
prominence of blood. are two parts of the superego:
2. Phlegmatic – person is listless and slow. These qualities 1. The Ego Ideal – includes the rules and standards for
are attributed to phlegm. good behaviours. These behaviours include those which
3. Melancholic – suffers from depression and sadness are approved of by parental and other authority figures.
because of having too much black bile. Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride, value, and
4. Choleric – is angered or temperamental as influenced accomplishment.
by yellow bile. 2. The Conscience – includes information about things
that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These
D. Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud) behaviours are often forbidden and lead to bad
The Id is the only component of personality that consequences, punishments, or feelings of guilt and
is present from birth. This aspect of personality is entirely remorse.
unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious,
behaviours. According to Freud, the Id is the source of all and unconscious.
psychic energy, making it the primary component of
personality.
The Id is driven by the pleasures principle, which strives
for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and THE INTERACTION of the ID, EGO and SUPEREGO
needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the With so many competing forces, it is easy to see
result is a state of anxiety or tension. how conflict might arise between the Id, ego and
For example an increase in hunger or thirst superego. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to
should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink. The the ego’s ability to function despite these duelling forces.
Id is very important early in life, because it ensure that an A person with good ego strength is able to effectively
infant needs are met. If the infant is hungry or manage these pressures, while those with too much or too
uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the little ego strength can become too unyielding or too
Id are met. disrupting.
However, immediately satisfying these needs is According to Freud the key to a healthy
not always realistic or even possible. If we are ruled personality is a balance between the Id, the ego, and the
entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves superego.
grabbing things we want out of other people’s hands to
satisfy our own cravings. This sort of behaviour would be THE CONSCIOUS and UNCONSCIOUS MIND
both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to
Freud, the Id tries to resolve the tension created by the The Structure of the Mind According to Freud
pleasure principle through the primary process, which Many of us have experienced what is commonly
involves forming a mental image of the desired object as a referred to as a Freudian slip. These misstatements are
way of satisfying the need. believed to reveal underlying, unconscious thoughts or
feelings. Consider this example:
The Ego
The ego is the component of personality that is
responsible for dealing with reality. According to Freud,
15
James has just started a new relationship with a woman c. Initiative vs. Guilt – during play age which
he met at school. While talking to her one afternoon, he encourages child’s interests and give evidence of adult
accidentally called her by his ex-girlfriend’s name. confidence in him/her.
d. Industry vs. Inferiority – during school age wherein
If you were in this situation, how would you encouragement and guidance in learning basic intellectual
explain this mistake? Many of us might blame the slip on and social skills.
distraction or describe it as a simple accident. However, a e. Identity vs. Self-diffusion/Negative Identity –
psychoanalytic theorist might tell you that this is much during adolescence stage wherein successful resolution of
more than a random accident. The psychoanalytic view identity diffusion crises.
holds that there are inner forces outside of your f. Generativity vs. Self-Absorption – during adulthood
awareness that are directing your behaviour. For example, years wherein creative life work prevails as well as the
a psychoanalyst might say that James misspoke due to concern with autonomy and growth of others.
unresolved feelings for his ex or perhaps because of g. Integrity vs. Despair – during the senescence stage
misgivings about his new relationship. where there is self-confidence and appreciation of other
The term psychoanalysis is used to refer to many cultures and earlier generations and sense of continuity
aspects of Freud’s work and research, including the with them.
Freudian Therapy and the research methodology he used e. Field Theory
to develop his theories. Freud relied heavily upon his <This theory postulates fields of force which are in
observations and case studies of his patients when he dynamic and constantly shifting equilibrium. Psychological
formed his theory of personality development. events, like physical events, are thought to represent a
Before we can understand Freud’s Theory of balance and interaction of many forces. A change in the
Personality, we must first understand his view of how the system will affect the whole system.
human mind is organized.
Jung’s Analytic Theory – “the person lives by aims
According to Freud, the mind can be divided into two main as well as causes”
parts: Personality structure:
1. The Conscious Mind includes everything that we are 1. Ego: conscious mind
aware of. This is the aspect of our mental processing that 2. Personal unconscious: repressed experiences that
we can think and talk about rationally. A part of this were too weak in the first place to make a conscious
includes our memory, which is not always part of impression.
consciousness but can be retrieved easily at any time and 3. Complexes: constellation of feelings, thoughts,
brought of consciousness but can be retrieved easily at perceptions, and memories that exist in the personal
any time and brought into our awareness. Freud called unconscious
this ordinary memory the preconscious. 4. Collective unconscious: most powerful and
2. The Unconscious Mind is reservoir of feelings, influential system of the psyche; storehouse of latent
thoughts, urges, and memories that outside of our memory traces inherited from the ancestral past
conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the 5. Archetypes: universal idea that contains a large
unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as element of emotion
feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, 6. Persona: resembles superego
the unconscious continues to influence our behaviour and 7. Anima and the animus: feminine archetype in men is
experience, even though we are unaware of these anima, masculine archetype in women is animus
underlying influences. 8. Shadow: animal instincts
9 .Self: total personality
10. Attitudes: extraversion or introversion
Personality Development Personality dynamics: Based on the principles of

I. Oral – during which satisfactions center around sucking equivalence and entropy. Energy is expended to maintain
and mouth activities. life and species propagation.
II. Anal – during which bowel control is achieved. ▲Psychologist who take the psychoanalytic approach
III. Phallic – when signs of sexuality appear and there is a sometimes use projective tests, such as the Rorschach
strong attraction to the parent of the opposite sex. Test and the Thematic apperception test (TAT)
IV. Latency – during the early school years
V. Genital – beginning in adolescence when the person BEHAVIORISTIC APPROACH
achieves adult sexuality Higher Forms of Learning
Psychosocial Stages Theory (Erickson) Another ability common to social animals is the
ability to learn by observing others. There is, for example,
a. Trust vs. Mistrust – during infancy stage wherein vicarious learning: If you see a fellow creature get hurt
physical and psychological needs adequately met. or do well, get punished or rewarded, etc., for some
b. Autonomy vs. Doubt/Shame – during early action, you can “identify” with that fellow creature and
childhood stage wherein consistent discipline with learn from its experiences. Even more important is the
opportunity for a reasonable degree of choice in initiating ability called imitation (sometimes called modelling).
and structuring activities. We not only learn about the cosequences of behaviours by
watching others (as in vicarious learning), we learn the
behaviours themselves as well.
16
The person most famous for his studies of ▲ Social learning theory has sometimes been called a
imitation is Albert Bandura; and, of the hundreds of bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning
studies Bandura was responsible for, one group stands out theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and
above the others – the bobo doll studies. He made a film motivation. The theory is related to Vygotsky’s Social
of one of his students, a young woman, essentially Development Theory and Lave’s Situated Learning, which
beating up a bobo doll. In case you don’t know, a bobo also emphasize the importance of social learning.
doll is an inflatable, egg-shape balloon creature with a
weight in the bottom that makes it bob back up when you Key proponents of humanism include Carl Rogers
knock him down. Nowadays, it might have Darth Vader and Abraham Maslow
painted on it, but back then it was simply “Bobo” the Humanism, a paradigm that emerged in the 1960s,
clown. focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential. A
■ Albert Bandura developed social cognitive theory, central assumption of humanism, according to Huitt
which holds that the relationship between environment (2001), is that people act with intentionality and values.
and behaviour is a reciprocal one
● To address the consistency paradox, social learning ▲ Abraham Maslow
psychologists have proposed the following solutions: There is a HIERARCHY OF NEEDS ascending from the
1. Aggregation solution basic biological needs to the more complex psychological
2. Person-centered solution motivations that become important only after the basic
3. Interactional solution needs have been satisfied.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has often been represented
▲Social Learning Theory (Bandura) in a hierarchal pyramid with five levels. The four levels
(lower-order needs) are considered physiological
< Summary: Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that needs, while the top level is considered growth needs. The
people learn from one another, via observation, lower level needs need to be satisfied before higher-order
imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been needs can influence behavior. The levels are as follows
called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning (see pyramid in Figure 1 below).
theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and Self-actualization – morality, creativity, problem solving,
motivation. etc.
< People learn through observing others’ behavior, Esteem – includes confidence, self-esteem, achievement,
attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. “Most human respect, etc.
behavior is learned observationally through modeling: Belongingness – includes love, friendship, intimacy, family,
from observing others, one forms an idea of how new etc.
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this Safety – includes security of environment, employment,
coded information serves as a guide for action.” resources, health, property, etc.
(Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior Physiological – includes air, food, water, sex, sleep, other
in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between factors towards homeostasis, etc. (PS LOVE BEA)
cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
Necessary conditions for effective modeling:

▲ Attention — various factors increase or decrease the
amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness,
affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value.
One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal
level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention.
▲ Retention — remembering what you paid attention to.
Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive
organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
▲ Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including
physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction.
▲ Motivation — having a good reason to imitate.
Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional Characteristics of self-actualizers: resistant to
behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and enculturation, although not purposely unconventional, are
vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model) capable of appreciating basic experiences of life, very
▲ Bandura believed in “reciprocal determinism”, that is, spontaneous in thought and behaviour, a good sense of
the world and a person’s behavior cause each other, while humor, able to look at life from an objective viewpoint,
behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment highly creative, concerned for the welfare of humanity,
causes one’s behavior, Bandura, who was studying problem-centered rather than self-centered.
adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in Transient moments of self-actualization are called PEAK
addition he suggested that behavior causes environment EXPERIENCES.
as well. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an
interaction between three components: the PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH: This is concerned
environment, behavior, and one’s psychological with the individual’s subjective experience.
processes (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and
language).

17
Carl Rogers theory of personality: Central concept is fight-or-flight reaction, perhaps because of serotonin
the “self” consisting of all ideas, perceptions, and values deficiencies in the limbic system. People with obsessive-
that characterize “I” The other self is the “ideal self” compulsive disorder may have serotonin deficiencies in
Incongruence between the self and the experiences of area of the brain that regulates primitive impulses.
reality as well as between the self and the ideal self may ● Cognitive and behavioral theories suggest that people
develop. with anxiety disorders are prone to catastrophizing
Unconditional positive regard is necessary for more cognitions and to rigid, moralistic thinking.
fully functioning individuals.
MOOD DISORDERS
The basic force motivating the human organism is Divided into depressive disorders and bipolar disorders
the ACTUALIZING TENDENCY. (alternating depression and mania).
■ DEPRESSION:
STRESSED OUT: PSYCHOPATHOLOGIES AND Sadness, loss of gratification in life, negative thoughts,
THERAPY and lack of motivation are the main symptoms of
● Common psychological reactions to stress include depression.
anxiety and aggression, apathy and depression, and Cognitive distortion in depression, according to Beck,
cognitive impairment. includes overgeneralization, selective abstraction,
● The body reacts to stress with the fight-or-flight magnification and minimization, personalization
response. The sympathetic nervous system causes and arbitrary inference.
increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, dilated
pupils, and the release of extra sugar from the liver. The SCHIZOPHRENIA
adrenal-cortical system causes the release of ACTH. ● Characterized by disturbances in thought, including
● People with TYPE A behavior patterns tend to be disorganized thought processes, loosening of associations,
hostile, aggressive, impatient individuals who are over- delusions and lack of insight. Other symptoms include
involved in their work. perceptual disturbances (such as hallucinations),
● Coping strategies are divided into problem-focused inappropriate emotional expression, bizarre motor activity,
strategies and emotion-focused strategies. People withdrawal, and impaired functioning.
who take active steps to solve problems are less likely to ● It is clearly transmitted genetically. People with
experience depression and illness following negative life schizophrenia also have problem with dopamine regulation
events. People who use rumination or avoidance as well as two types of brain abnormalities: the prefrontal
strategies to cope with negative emotions show longer cortex is smaller and less active, and the ventricles are
and more severe distress after negative events. enlarged. Difficult environments probably cannot cause
schizophrenia, but they may worsen the disorder and
Psychoanalytic theory describes defense mechanisms that contribute to relapses.
people use to cope with negative emotion
Narcissistic Denial, distortion, projection PERSONALITY DISORDERS
defences Personality – consistent and stable pattern of behaviour
Immature Acting out, blocking, hypochondriasis, shown by a person in meeting a variety of challenges and
defenses introjection, passive-aggressive behavior opportunities, consistent over long periods of his or her
, regression, schizoid fantasy, life and recognized as special to each person.
somatization Common characteristic of personality disorders are:
Neurotic Controlling, displacement, < A deeply ingrained, inflexible, maladaptive response to
defenses externalization, inhibition, anxiety.
intellectualization, isolation, < Maladaptation that is most apparent within an
rationalization, dissociation, reaction interpersonal or social context.
formation, repression, sexualization < The capacity to induce others to feel extreme irritation
Mature Altruism, anticipation, ascetism, humor, and annoyance.
defenses sublimation, suppression < A self-centered, inflexible approach to work and
interpersonal relationships.
ANXIETY DISORDERS
1. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): constant Specific types of personality disorders:
worry and tension A. Obssessive-Compulsive Personality – tendency to be
2. Panic disorders: sudden attacks of overwhelming over-inhibited, over-conscientious, over-dutiful, rigid, and
apprehension have difficulty relaxing.
3. Phobias: irrational fears of specific objects or
situations, classified into simple phobia, social phobia and B. Passive-Aggressive Personality – characterized by both
agoraphobia (literally means “fear of the marketplace”) passivity and aggression which is typically expressed non-
4. Obsessive-compulsive disorders: persistent violently e.g., by procrastination, obstructionism, pouting,
unwanted thoughts, or obsessions, combined with urges, intentional inefficiency or stubbornness.
or compulsions, to perform certain acts
● Biological theories of anxiety disorders attribute them to C. Antisocial Personality – refers to an aggressive
genetic predispositions or to biochemical or neurological behavioural pattern which is described as the “acting-out
abnormalities. Most anxiety disorders run in families. kind of a person, the adventurer, the explorer, the athlete,
People who suffer from panic attacks have an overreactive the soldier, and the pioneer”, as well as the delinquent
and the criminal. Non-verbal, antisocial persons appear
18
cold, callous, and insensitive to the feelings and values of ■ Cognitive behavior therapies use behavior
others. modification techniques but also incorporate procedures
for changing maladaptive beliefs.
B. Paranoid Personality – characterized by suspiciousness, ■ Humanistic therapies help clients become aware of
hypersensitivity, rigidity, envy and excessive self- their real selves and solve their problems with minimum
importance, plus a tendency to blame others for one’s intervention by the therapists.
own mistakes and failures and ascribe evil motives to ■ Biological therapies include electroconvulsive therapy
others. (ECT) (memory loss is most problematic effect) and the
use of psychotherapeutic drugs.
C. Schizoid Personality – the individual manifests
seclusiveness, shyness, oversensitivity, avoidance of FRUSTRATION, CONFLICT AND STRESS
competitive or close interpersonal relationships and often,
egocentricity. Autistic thinking and daydreaming are Frustration is a condition of being thwarted in the
common, although the individual does not lose capacity to satisfaction of a motive that results from environmental or
recognize reality. personal conditions, or both operating at the same time.
Stress is a state that occurs when people are faced with
D .Explosive Personality – this behaviour pattern is events they perceive as endangering their physical and
characterized by gross verbal or physical aggressiveness psychological well-being and are unsure of their ability to
and outbursts of rage. deal with these events.
Environment frustrations are caused by conditions external
E. Hysterical Personality – characterized by immaturity, to the person that keeps him from fully satisfying his
excitability, and self-dramatization. needs (eg: famine, floods, death, war, etc…)
Personal Frustration are caused by personal limitations
F. Asthenic Personality – low energy level, easily tired, and disabilities which thwart an individual’s aspiration (eg:
lack of enthusiasm, oversensitivity, to physical and physical handicaps, low intelligence, lack of skill, feelings
emotional strain and a marked incapacity to enjoy life. of insecurity and adequacy, etc…)
H. Inadequate Personality – characterized by ineffectual Sources of Frustrations: Physical environment,

responses to stress particularly to emotional, intellectual, social
social and physical demands. environment and organism itself
Conflict – when a person is made to choose between two
I. Cyclothimic (Affective) Personality – a milder version of opposing desires but finds it difficult to make a choice, he
manic-depressive reactions, and is characterized by is said to be in a state of conflict.
alternating periods of elation and depression.
■These are lifelong patterns of maladaptive behavior that
constitute immature and inappropriate ways of coping
with stress or solving problem
Kinds of personality disorders:
TYPES OF CONFLICTS
ODD AND DRAMATIC, ANXIOUS AND < Conflicting attraction or approach-approach conflict –
ECCENTRIC EMOTIONAL & FEARFUL two desirable but mutually exclusive goals.
ERRATIC < Approach-avoidance conflict – when there is an
1. paranoid 1. antisocial 1. avoidant attraction to an object or state of affairs and at the same
2. schizoid 2. borderline 2. despondent time repulsion towards something associated with it.
3. schizotypal 3. histrionic 3. obsessive- < Avoidance-avoidance conflict – when there are two
4. narcissistic compulsive unpleasant alternatives and one cannot be avoided
without encountering the other.
PSYCHOTHERAPY is the treatment of mental disorders < Multiple conflict – when there are two courses of action
by psychological means. One type is psychoanalysis, each of which has both pleasant and unpleasant
which was developed by Freud. Through the methods of consequences.
FREE ASSOCIATION and DREAMS, repressed thoughts
and feelings are brought to the patient’s awareness. The RESPONSES TO FRUSTRATION
analyst helps the patient gain insight into his or her 1. Aggressive Reactions – as an overt expression of
problems. frustration, can be directed at the source of frustration or
can be displaced.
■ Behavior therapies apply methods based on learning Displaced Aggression – when circumstances block direct
principles to modify the client’s behavior. These methods attack on the cause of frustration and the aggressive
include systematic desensitization (the individual learns to action is made against an innocent person or object
relax in situations that previously produced anxiety; instead.
effective for phobias), reinforcement of adaptive behavior,
modelling and rehearsal of appropriate behavior, and 2. Withdrawal Reactions – type of defensive reaction is
techniques for self-regulation of behaviour. withdrawal from the frustrating situation. It may be in the
form of physical flight or retreating within a “shell” of
psychological defences.

19
a. Fantasy – when a person’s desires are frustrated by 2. Psychotic Reactions :Schizophrenia, Manic-
reality, the person may retreat into a fantasy world where depressive Psychosis, Disorders of personal orientation,
the thwarted wishes can be satisfied. Disorders of perception (hallucinations)
b. Beatnik Reaction – the eccentric behaviour of the “beat” Disorders of thinking (delusions: grandeur, reference
generation may be regarded as a withdrawal reaction persecutions), and Disorders of emotions
from the frustration of modern life. 3. Other Maladaptive Behaviours
c. Repression – is the process of excluding from the < Sexual Deviations
consciousness a thought or feeling that causes pain, a. Passive sexual disturbances e.g: Voyeurism
shame or guilt. b. Aggressive sexual behaviours e.g: Exhibitionism, Rape,
d. Apathy – one response to a frustrating situation is the Sadism, Masochism, Molestation
opposite of active aggression. Instead of being destructive c. Sex role preferences e.g: Homosexuality, Transsexuals,
and hostile, the individual may show indifference or Transvestism
inactivity. < Personality disorders (sociopath, anti-social personality,
e. Fixation – tendency to repetitive, stereotype behaviour. anxiety disorder)
f. Identification – one takes on the characteristics of < Hypochondria
another person and thereby enhances self-esteem. < Dissociative reactions (amnesia, fugue, multiple
g. Regression – seeking to return to an earlier, more personality)
secure period of life.
3. Compromise Reactions – without relinquishing the NEUROSES

blocked goals, an individual partially gives in to the threats It is normal for an individual to react in defensive ways. In
that the frustration implies. the case of neuroses, there is serious discomfort or
a. Reaction Formation – disguising motivation and conflict incapacitation that is not due to organic causes.
by believing that their motive is exactly the opposite of
their real motive. < Anxiety Reaction – is a general nervousness with no
b. Projection – when one finds their feelings and thoughts specific reason for the fear and tension.
intolerable, they not only repress them but also convince < Neurasthenia – literally means “nervous weakness”. The
themselves that other people have these thoughts and person complains of general nervousness, fatigue, and
feelings toward them. insomnia.
c. Sublimation – when indirect goals never provide exactly < Hypochondriasis – is a mental state wherein the person
the same satisfaction as the original goals, people tend to finds little relief from anxiety by adopting certain physical
provide an outlet for the expression of frustrated desires. symptoms.
d. Compensation – an attempt to disguise or cover up felt a.Obsessive-Compulsive Reactions – are the persistent
deficiencies or undesirable traits by emphasizing a and senseless repetition of some acts or thoughts.
desirable type of behaviour. b.Conversion Reactions – are reactions wherein the
e. Rationalization – compromising problem by impulse that causes extreme anxiety is “converted” into
intellectualizing them. functional symptoms in organs or other parts of the body.
I. Sour-Grape – denial of true motive.
II. Sweet-Lemon – frustration is considered as a PSYCHOSES
blessing in disguise. Are severe mental disorders where the individual loses
f. Assertiveness – emphasis of a person’s needs or touch with reality. Psychotic behaviour is peculiar and may
thoughts in a manner that is respectful, direct and firm. be dangerous to the self or to others.
Communication styles exist on a continuum, ranging from Main Classes of Psychoses
passive to aggressive, with assertiveness falling neatly in
between. 1. Organic Psychoses – are those directly attributable to
g. Compartmentalization – “divide and conquer” process damage to the central nervous system. Most organic
for separating thoughts that will conflict with one another. psychoses are due to injuries, chemicals and aging.
This may happen when they are different belief or even 2. Functional Psychoses – are disordered behaviour which
when there are conflicting values. appears to be the end result of poor adjustment and
Example: A person who is very religious & also a scientist severe conflict. Common types of functional psychoses are
holds the opposing beliefs in different cognitive manic-depressive and schizophrenia.
compartments, such that when he is in church, he can Manic Depressive – exhibit severe disturbances in mood
have blind faith, whist when he is in the laboratory, he ranging from overactive, manic reactions to underactive,
questions everything. depressed reactions.
< NOTE: Examples of Mature Defense Mechanisms are: Schizophrenia – which means “splitting of the mind”, are
Sublimation, Compensation, and Assertiveness of four kinds:
(1) simple type – involving withdrawal from other people
and deterioration of behaviour with time,
Abnormal Reaction to Frustration and Stress (2) hebephrenic type – where the behaviour regresses to
a childish level
1. Neurotic Reaction: Anxiety neurosis, Phobia, (3) catatonic type – exhibiting negativism, mutism, stupor
Obsessive-compulsive neurosis, Conversion reaction, and and waxy rigidity
Dissociative reactions (amnesia, fugue, multiple (4) paranoid type – which is characterized by
personality) unsystematic delusions of persecution and/or grandeur
and often, hallucinations.
20
▲Social psychology is defined as the study of how

THERAPY - Is the general name for any method used in people perceive, think and feel about their social world
treating an illness. and how they interact and influence one another.
▲ CONCEPTS TO TAKE NOT OF:
PSYCHOTHERAPY is the treatment of mental disorders ● Social thinking: function of attitudes, attitude
by psychological means. One type is psychoanalysis, inoculation, fundamental attribution error, theories on why
which was developed by Freud. Through the methods of attitudes are affected by behavior.
FREE ASSOCIATION and DREAMS, repressed thoughts ● Social influence: social facilitation; groupthink
and feelings are brought to the patient’s awareness. The (symptoms); social loafing; consequences of
analyst helps the patient gain insight into his or her deindividuation; routes of persuasion, when do we
problems. Psychotherapy – employs interviews, conform
discussions, play acting and changes in the patient’s ● Social relations: techniques that increase helping
environment. behavior- foot-in-the door, etc; function of attitudes;
influences on attraction; pluralistic, ignorance, physical
Behavior therapies apply methods based on learning attractiveness stereotype.
principles to modify the client’s behavior. These methods
include systematic desensitization (the individual learns to SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
relax in situations that previously produced anxiety; Is the study of behaviour in a social setting. It studies the
effective for phobias), reinforcement of adaptive behavior, effect of other persons on individuals.
modelling and rehearsal of appropriate behavior, and Social Attitude – is the combination of feelings, beliefs,
techniques for self-regulation of behaviour. and action tendencies towards classes of persons or
Cognitive behavior therapies use behavior modification objects that are directly or indirectly social in nature.
techniques but also incorporate procedures for changing Attitude – has three components:
maladaptive beliefs. a. Beliefs of knowledge
Humanistic therapies help clients become aware of b. Feelings
their real selves and solve their problems with minimum c. Tendencies to act in particular ways on
intervention by the therapists. the basis of knowledge and emotion.
Biological therapies include electroconvulsive therapy Prejudice – is a kind of attitude where one’s mind is made
(ECT) (memory loss is most problematic effect) and the up even before all the facts are known or has come to
use of psychotherapeutic drugs. one’s attention.
Medical Therapy: makes use of laboratory or Love – is an intense emotional state involving attraction,
psychosurgery, shock therapy, narcosis and drugs. sexual desire, and concern for another person.
Role – is a set of behaviours which is typical of the holders
4 Major Kinds of Psychotherapy: of a particular position.
Norm – standards of behaviour and expectations of how
1. Directive therapy – emphasizes the changing of the people in a position should behave.
situation and the re-education of the individual. Conformity – is a rational process reflecting recognition of
2. Client-Centered Therapy – provides a permissive the validity of other viewpoints.
situation for the patient, and attempts to help them about Prosocial – involves actions by individuals that benefit
and solve their personal problems. others without necessarily providing any direct benefit for
3. Psychoanalysis – emphasizes the analysis of free the persons who perform them.
association, resistance, dreams and transference. Compliance – is a form of social influence in which
4. Behavior Therapy – concentrates on the deviant individuals seek to change the behaviour of others
behaviour and attempts to modify it by the use of classical through direct requests.
conditioning and instrumental learning techniques.
MEDICAL APPROACHES IN TREATMENT OF

ABNORMAL BEHAVIORS
1. Psychotherapy: Counselling, Hypnotherapy,

Regression, Catharsis, Free association, and Dream
analysis
2. Behaviour therapy: Conditioning, Reinforcements,
Desensitization, Shaping, and Modelling
1. Group therapy
Psychodrama Family therapy Encounter
groups
2. Other Medical Approaches
< Pharmacotherapy – use of tranquilizers, anti-
depressants, etc.
< Shock therapy – insulin shock and electro shock
< Psychosurgery – pre-frontal lobotomy
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

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1

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES < The most important contribution of functionalism was

afferent and efferent messages. It performs some reflex

Piaget's Model of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Key Ideas Level Three: Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

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SENSE AND SENSITIVITY LOCALIZATION

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< Hypnosis as role-playing – role expectations produce a SPECIFICATIONS OF TESTS

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Remembering – showing in present responses some ■ Classification of motives:

< Arousal-cognition Theory – this view assumes that there

Emotion Basic Emotions

Personality Development Personality dynamics: Based on the principles of

Necessary conditions for effective modeling:

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H. Inadequate Personality – characterized by ineffectual Sources of Frustrations: Physical environment,

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3. Compromise Reactions – without relinquishing the NEUROSES

▲Social psychology is defined as the study of how

MEDICAL APPROACHES IN TREATMENT OF

1. Psychotherapy: Counselling, Hypnotherapy,

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