Standardisation of Deep Mixing Methods

Sven Hansbo
Lyckov. 2, SE 18273 Stocksund, Sweden
[email protected]

K. R. Massarsch
Geo Engineering AB, Ferievägen 25, SE 16841 Bromma, Sweden
[email protected]

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the objectives and main aspects of the code on “Execution of special geotechnical works —
Deep mixing” (prEN 14679). The standard establishes general principles for the execution, testing, supervision and monitoring
of deep mixing works. Both dry and wet methods by rotary mixing are included in the standard. In two annexes, Practical as-
pects of deep mixing (A) and Aspects of design (B), additional information is provided.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 GEOTECHNICAL EUROCODES

In 1975, the Commission of the European Community initi- In many European countries, the introduction of the Euro-
ated a programme to produce a set of technical codes, code on Geotechnical Design, EN 1997 will represent a
which in the future could serve as an alternative to existing marked change in practice. EN 1997 – Geotechnical design,
national codes and eventually replace them. In 1989, the consists of two parts (international publication dates indi-
Commission decided to transfer the preparation and publi- cated in brackets):
cation of the Eurocodes to the European Committee for - EN 1997-1: Geotechnical Design Part 1 – General
Standardization (CEN). CEN, whose members are National Rules (End 2005)
Standard Bodies (NSBs), was founded in 1961 by the na- - EN 1997-2: Ground investigation and testing (2006?).
tional standards bodies in the European Economic Commu- The European Federation of Foundation Contractors,
nity and EFTA countries. (EFFC) has, on behalf of CEN, prepared codes on “Execu-
Ten Eurocodes are presently in different phases of tion of Special Geotechnical Works”. CEN Working Group
preparation. All Eurocodes were initially published as trial TC 288 covers execution aspects, which are not addressed
codes, known as ENVs. A minimum of two years after pub- in EN 1997. They are being developed independently of EN
lication of each ENV, NSBs submitted comments on its 1997 and focus on the practical application of a selected
contents and use. In many cases, the final EN will be sig- number of geotechnical construction methods. Since Euro-
nificantly different from corresponding ENVs. Following code EN 1997 covers geotechnical design, these aspects are
the publication of the Eurocodes together with its National addressed in the Application Codes only where execution
Annexes, there will be a period (known as the coexistence affects the design. At the time of preparation of this paper,
period), during which they can be used alongside the exist- the following seven codes have been approved (interna-
ing national codes. At the end of the coexistence period, tional publication dates indicated in brackets):
which may last a maximum of three years, NSBs are re- - EN 1536: Bored Piles (Feb 1999)
quired to withdraw their national standards. - EN 1538: Diaphragm Walls (Jan 2000)
NSBs are not permitted to change any part of the text in - EN 1537: Anchors ( Dec 1999)
the Code Document. However, it is recognised that the - EN 12063: Sheet Piles (Feb 1999)
level of safety in a country remains its prerogative. Conse- - EN 12699: Displacement Piles (Dec 2000)
quently, some safety factors and a number of other parame- - EN 12715: Grouting (July 2000)
ters, such as those reflecting differences in climatic and - EN 12716: Jet Grouting (May 2001).
geological conditions, are left open in the Eurocodes for In addition, the following six codes are presently under
selection at a national level. These are termed Nationally preparation, subjected to national inquiries or submitted for
Determined Parameters (NTPs). The National Annex of formal voting (anticipated date of international publication
each Eurocode lists the NTPs and other points on which an indicated in brackets):
element of national choice exists. The National Annex may - prEN 14199: Micro-Piles (2004)
also include reference to non-conflicting complimentary - prEN 14475: Reinforced Soil (2004)
information (NCCI) such as national standards or guidance - prEN 14490: Soil Nailing (2004)
documents. - prEN 14679: Deep Soil Mixing (2005)
- prEN xxxxx: Vertical Drainage (2005)
- prEN 14731: Deep Vibration (2006).
3 CODE ON DEEP MIXING 4 CONTENTS OF THE CODE
This paper describes the objectives and main aspects of the
code on “Execution of special geotechnical works — Deep 4.1 Scope
mixing” (prEN 14679), which was prepared by Working As an introduction to the document, chapter one, Scope,
Group 10 of CEN/TC288. The implementation of this stan- addresses the relevance and limitations of deep mixing. The
dard was sponsored by the Development Fund of the Swed- code covers dry mixing and wet mixing methods executed
ish Construction Industry (SBUF), who nominated the by means of rotating mechanical mixing tools. Other meth-
Technical Editor (Sven Hansbo) and Convenor (K. Rainer ods, such as shallow mixing or hybrid methods (e.g. com-
Massarsch). Work was started in 2000 and experts from 9 bination of mixing and jet grouting or mixing by other than
European countries participated. Also members of a Japa- rotary tools), are not covered. Stabilized elements can have
nese Mirror Group have taken part in the preparation of the different shapes and configurations, but must have a mini-
draft document and contributed with their extensive experi- mum depth of 3 m.
ence. The work was also followed by several European
mirror groups. The draft was prepared within less than three 4.2 Normative References
years and submitted to national inquiry in 2003. After revi- In the second chapter, Normative References, other applica-
sion of the document, taking into consideration the com- ble codes and standards are given.
ments by the NSBs, the standard is now being submitted to
CEN member countries for formal approval. 4.3 Terms and Definitions
The objective of the code is to establish general princi- The third chapter lists in alphabetic order (English) deep
ples for the execution, testing, supervision and monitoring mixing terms in English, French and German. The terms are
of deep mixing works. Both dry and wet mixing methods defined, in order to clarify their relevance and to facilitate
are included in the standard, Figure 1. the understanding of the provisions pf the code. The degree
of obligations of the provisions can have the following lev-
els: “Requirements” (the verb shall is used), “Recommen-
dations” (the verb should is used), “Permissions” and “Pos-
sibilities” (the verb can is used), and “Statements” (infor-
mative text).

4.4 Information needed for the execution of the

work
This chapter discusses the most important provisions re-
quired for planning and implementing a deep mixing pro-
ject. All provisions given are requirements and divided into
General Requirements and Particular Requirements. In-
formation, which must be provided before the execution of
the work, is listed.
The General Requirements comprise definitions of envi-
ronmental conditions, e.g. restrictions on noise, vibrations,
pollution and conditions of structures, roads, services, etc.
a) Dry mixing b) Wet mixing adjacent to the work. The Particular Requirements include
Figure 1. Examples of dry and wet mixing machines. documentation of previous experience and of possible un-
derground contamination and a definition of the instructions
The document consists of the following main chapters: that have to be given for the work.
1. Scope
2. Normative References 4.5 Geotechnical Investigation
3. Terms and definitions Chapter 5, Geotechnical Investigation, addresses informa-
4. Information Needed for the Execution of the work tion that is of importance for the execution of the work, e.g.
5. Geotechnical Investigation identification and classification of the soil in compliance
6. Materials and Products with EN ISO 14688-1-2, mapping of any kind of obstacles
7. Considerations related to Design to be expected during deep mixing (e.g. tree roots, cobbles,
8. Execution boulders, cemented layers, etc.) and information about the
9. Supervision, Testing and Monitoring variations in piezometric level.
10. Records It is also recommended that the environmental chemical
11. Special Requirements. and biological characteristics should be stated, e.g. ground-
The standard contains also two informative Annexes: water quality (contamination, aggressiveness, chemistry,
- Annex A: Practical aspects of deep mixing etc.).
- Annex B: Aspects of design.
4.6 Materials and products during installation of each column. In dry mixing the air
Chapter 6 deals with admixtures, water, filler and structural pressure shall be kept as low as possible to avoid problems
reinforcement. It is required that all material and products of air entrainment and ground movement. In wet mixing the
used comply with relevant European or national standards. slurry shall be delivered by pumping in a continuous flow
They must conform also to national environmental regula- to the soil to be treated. In both cases the speed of the rotat-
tions and design specifications. Water must be suitable for ing unit(s) and the rate of penetration and retrieval of the
the intended use. mixing tool shall be adjusted to produce sufficiently homo-
geneous treated soil.
4.7 Considerations related to design In some cases, structural reinforcement may have to be
The goal of the provisions in chapter 7 is to create deep- installed into the fresh mixed-in-place columns or elements.
mixed columns and structures having the maximum
strength and minimum load-deformation characteristics 4.9 Supervision, testing and monitoring
possible under prevailing soil conditions at the site. In the Quality control aspects are addressed in chapter 9. The deep
design, loading conditions, climatic effects, hydraulic con- mixing work shall be supervised by experienced and quali-
ditions, acceptable limits of settlement have to be taken into fied personnel. Unforeseen conditions encountered during
account. Possible consequences of chemical and physical the work have to be reported in order that the problems can
exposure of the columns have to be considered. be taken care of.
The properties of the binder selected for the project Testing of the strength characteristics, the deformation
must be investigated by laboratory and in-situ tests of the properties and the homogeneity of the columns is essential
treated soil. If deep mixing is used to immobilise contami- and shall be performed continuously during the work to
nants or to stabilise waste deposits, site-specific test pro- check that the agreement with the design assumptions is
grammes are required. acceptable. If overlap of adjacent columns is essential, the
Important details should be stated in the design, such as width of overlapping must be checked. In connection with
performance objectives, geometry of the treatment and immobilisation and containment, relevant chemical tests
specification of the deep mixing materials or products se- should be carried out.
lected. Moreover, a schedule of testing and monitoring pro- The execution shall be monitored, preferably automati-
cedures during execution as well as acceptance procedures cally, with regard to air tank pressure or, in wet mixing,
for the materials used should be provided. slurry pressure, penetration and retrieval rate, rotation speed
Limiting values of geotechnical design parameters shall and quantity of binder (slurry) per meter of installation.
be stated and steps to be taken if these values are exceeded.
General design aspects, however, are not addressed by the 4.10 Records
code, as they are covered by EN 1997. Relevant information as to the construction execution of the
columns, test results and observations during the work shall
4.8 Execution be available at the site. After completion of the work, de-
Aspects of Execution are discussed in chapter 8. Before the tails regarding the as-built columns, material and products
execution of deep mixing, a method statement shall be de- used and relevant geotechnical soil conditions shall be left
livered, which among other matters includes the objective on record.
and scope of the work, the deep mixing method and the
binder to be used, the working procedure and the installa- 4.11 Special requirements
tion accuracy. The special requirements deal with the safety of personnel
The site of deep mixing has to be prepared in order to operating close to heavy equipment and heavy tools. Envi-
create suitable access for plant and equipment. A working ronmental restrictions and consequential environmental
platform has to be created with adequate bearing capacity protection are other objects to be taken into account, includ-
for equipment, receipt, quality control and storage of mate- ing noise, vibrations, pollution of air and water and impact
rial. on adjacent structures.
When experience of previous, comparable deep mixing
project is not available, representative field trials must be 4.12 Annex A - Practical aspects of Deep Mixing
performed in order to confirm that the design requirements Annex A, which supplements the code, deals with practical
can be fulfilled. aspects of deep mixing projects. It contains a historical re-
The execution control of deep mixing includes penetra- view of the development of the deep mixing methods and a
tion and retrieval speed of the mixing tool, rotation speed of presentation of the fields of application. The generic classi-
the mixing units, air pressure in dry mixing and feed rate of fication of the equipment is shown in Figure 2.
binder/slurry. A variety of applications for deep mixing exists for
The equipment and the mixing tool shall be correctly temporary or permanent works either on land or marine,
positioned at each column location in accordance with the Figure 3. A detailed description is given of the various exe-
geometrical execution tolerances specified in the design. cution methods and equipments utilised as well as the pur-
The quantity of binder along the column shall be measured pose behind the application of deep mixing and the princi-
ples of execution. Nordic and Japanese dry mixing tech- avoid that possible planes of weakness in some columns
niques are compared in detail as well as European and installed could have a negative influence on the stability. In
Japanese wet mixing techniques. Various possible execu- the stability analysis it is important to take into account the
tion patterns of installation applied are shown. differences in stress vs. strain relationship between treated
Dry mixing is normally carried out in accordance with and untreated soil. For excavation support, the most impor-
general principles, which are summarised in Figure 4. As tant parameters are the compressive strength of the treated
can be seen in the flow chart, the binder is fed into the soil soil and arching. Figure 5 indicates the iterative process
in dry form with the aid of compressed air. Two major tech- combining functional design and process design.
niques for dry mixing exist at present: the Nordic and the A presentation is made of the execution process and of
Japanese techniques. the choice of binder in dry and wet mixing of various kinds
Finally, construction problems, such as possible stability of soil. Testing on a laboratory scale of laboratory mixed
and settlement problems, chemical reactions and personnel samples is carried out before the execution of deep mixing
safety are taken into consideration. in order to find out which binder to be used to achieve the
Annex A contains also examples of so-called hybrid strength and deformation characteristics required for the
methods, not covered by the code, for example mass stabili- intended structure.
sation (a method of surface mixing, used in Sweden and During execution, both laboratory and field testing
Finland), Jet grouting combined with mechanical mixing methods are used to investigate if the homogeneity and
and the CDM-LOD IC method (both these methods used in strength characteristics of the columns are satisfactory. The
Japan) and, finally the Cut-Mix-Injection (used in Ger- deformation properties of the columns are investigated on a
many). laboratory scale.
Finally, an overall presentation of the problems in-
4.13 Annex B - Aspects of Design volved in the design with regard to how the settlement
Annex B deals with overall aspects related to functional and process is affected by deep mixing on one hand and how
process design, choice of binder, laboratory and field test- stability problems can be treated on the other. Problems like
ing and influence on the design of column layout and per- column separation; structural wall and block type applica-
formance. tions are discussed.
The object of design is to make sure that the ground
treated fulfils the requirements for the intended purpose of
deep mixing. Supported structures shall be fit for use during 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
their intended life with appropriate degree of reliability and The standard on deep mixing was prepared by WG 10 of
sustain all actions and influences that are likely to occur the CEN Technical Committee TC288. The following nine
during execution and use. Iterative design, based on a fol- experts have contributed to the successful and efficient
low-up of the results obtained by testing during the execu- preparation of this document: Dr. E. Falk (Austria), Mr. I.
tion period, is an important part of the design. Vähäaho (Finland), Mr. S. Lebon (France), Mr. P. Scheller
The requirements for the serviceability and ultimate (Germany), Mrs. R. Granata (Italy), Mrs. A. Eggen (Nor-
limit states are to be specified by the client. The design way), Mr. D. M. Moore (Switzerland), Dr. H. L. Eriksson
shall be in accordance with the requirements put forward in (Sweden) and Mr. V. Troughton (United Kingdom).
ENV 1997-1, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design — Part 1: The members of a Japanese Mirror Group, Dr. Masaki
General rules. Kitazume and Dr. Masaaki Terashi, have taken part in the
So-called iterative design, based on a follow-up of the preparation of the draft document and contributed with their
results obtained by various testing methods, is an important extensive experience. The work has also been followed by
part of the design. Here, the main focus is placed upon several European mirror groups. Gratitude is also extended
those factors that are important for the execution and the to the national mirror groups, which attended meetings and
purpose of deep mixing. The design is made for the most reviewed the draft documents.
unfavourable combinations of loads, which could occur The work of preparing the standard was sponsored by
during construction and service. the European Federation of Foundation Contractors
The deep mixing process may involve a short-term de- (EFFC), the Swedish Federation of Foundation Contractors
creasing resistance to failure in consequence of induced and the Swedish Construction Industry (SBUF). Their sup-
excess pore water pressure and soil displacements. The port is acknowledged with appreciation.
mixed-in-place columns should be arranged in a way to
 Soil mixing
methods

Deep mixing

Uniaxial
rotation

WET DRY

Single/multiple shaft Multiple Multiple Single shaft, Multiple shaft,

& single/multiple non-interlocking interlocking auger single or multiple blades
blade auger multiple blades

Hybrid mixing
methods

Uniaxial rotation + Uniaxial rotation + In-plane Linear

hydraulic linear translation rotation + linear translation only
translation

WET DRY

Single shaft, blade Bladed chain/cam Single shaft & Ploughs

& HP jet or wheel(s) blade. Mass
stabilisation

Figure 2. General classification of equipment used by the deep mixing methods included
in the Code and by hybrid mixing methods not included.
 Underground strut
Increase of lateral resistance
Temporary of piles
Prevention of bottom heave
Slope stabilisation
Retaining walls
Stabilisation of excavation

River embankments
Road and rail embankments
Bridge piers
On-land operations Retaining walls
Building foundation
Immobilisation of contaminants
Slope stabilisation
Vibration mitigation
Permanent

Mane-made islands
Marine operations Sea walls
Breakwaters

Figure 3. Applications of deep mixing for various purposes.

 Functional Requirements Geotechnical Design
(Stability, settlements, Soil conditions (strength,
imperviousness, etc.) stress/strain characteristics,
permeability)

Technique Selection Site Constraints

Dry mixing, wet mixing, hybrid, Access, environment, stability,
other alternatives services, obtructions, climate,
etc.

Experience from previous

or similar projects Laboratory Mixing

Preliminary Process Design

Materials and products, such as binder
type, and quantity, mixing energy,
mixing tool, etc.

Experience from previous Site preparation and Field Trials

or similar projects

Final Method Statement Quality Control Plan

Binder type and quantity, mixing energy, Type and frequency of tests, non-
mixing tool, spacing and conformance procedures,
penetration/extraction process, etc. supervision, testing and
monitoring, etc.

Interpretation and Evaluation of Execution of works

Monitoring and Testing Site preparation, Execution and
Verification of design parameters, performance validation testing
variability of properties, obstructions and (sampling and testing),
different ground conditions, ect. supervision, monitoring
documentation

Documentation and final Verification

Long-term monitoring
Experience documentation

Figure 4. Principles of execution of deep mixing.

 Establishment of design
conditions

Standardised laboratory tests Data base on experienced

Results of soil investigations on representative soil layers by strength correlations
different binders between laboratory and
field

Estimate design strength

Assume pattern of installation

and dimension of deep mixing
treatment

Design analysis to fulfill the

overall functional requirements

Modification of mixing Field trials to confirm

properties if strength and strength assumption and
uniformity requirements are uniformity
not fulfilled

Final mix design.

Construction with quality
assurance and quality
control

Figure 5. Iterative design process, including laboratory testing,

functional design, field trials and process design.