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Ager87
14/02/2012
Guide to the use of
EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions
September 2006
Department for Communities and Local Government: London
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On 5th May 2006 the responsibilities of the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM)
transferred to the Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG)
Department for Communities and Local Government
Eland House
Bressenden Place
London
SW1E 5DU
Telephone: 020 7944 4400
Website: www.communities.gov.uk
Guide to use of EN 1991-1-4 April 2005
It should be noted that this guidance has been based on the latest draft at the time
(which was close to the publicised Eurocode); together with the draft National Annex.
Crown Copyright, 2006
Copyright in the typographical arrangement rests with the Crown.
This publication, excluding logos, may be reproduced free of charge in any format or medium
for research, private study or for internal circulation within an organisation. This is subject to
it being reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. The material must be
acknowledged as Crown copyright and the title of the publication specified.
Any other use of the contents of this publication would require a copyright licence. Please apply
for a Click-Use Licence for core material at www.opsi.gov.uk/click-use/system/online/pLogin.asp,
or by writing to the Office of Public Sector Information, Information Policy Team, St Clements
House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich, NR3 1BQ. Fax: 01603 723000 or email:
[email protected]
If you require this publication in an alternative format please email
[email protected]
DCLG Publications
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Tel: 08701 226 236
Fax: 08701 226 237
Textphone: 08701 207 405
Email: [email protected]
or online via the DCLG website: www.communities.gov.uk
September 2006
Product Code: 06 BD 04021 (c)
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 5
1.1 Eurocode terminology and symbols 6
1.2 Eurocode annexes 6
CHAPTER 2 EN 1991 ACTIONS ON STRUCTURES -
PART 1-4: WIND ACTIONS 7
2.1 Definitions 7
2.2 Scope of EN1991-1-4 8
2.3 UK National Annex to EN1991-1-4 9
2.4 Main differences between EN1991-1-4
(with the UK NA) and BS6399-2 11
2.4.1 Section 1 General 11
2.4.2 Section 2 Design situations 11
2.4.3 Section 3 Modelling of wind actions 11
2.4.4 Section 4 Wind velocity and velocity pressure 12
2.4.5 Section 5 Wind actions 14
2.4.6 Section 6 Structural factor c
s
c
d
15
2.4.7 Section 7 - Pressure and force coefficients 15
2.4.8 Annexes 17
2.5 Road map 17
CHAPTER 3 REFERENCES 21
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Introduction
5
1. Introduction
The project which led to the production of this report arose with the intention of producing a handbook to
encourage the safe and consistent adoption of EN 1991-1: Eurocode 1 - Actions on Structures: Part 1:
General Actions, in the UK. The project was modified to consider only two specific sections of EN 1991-1,
which were:
EN 1991 Actions on structures - Part 1.4: Wind Actions
EN 1991 Actions on structures - Part 1.7: Accidental actions
However, both of these sections require information from EN 1990 Basis of Structural Design , hence EN
1990 also had to be considered.
Although the original intention had been to produce one handbook, it became apparent that the various parts
of the Eurocode could not be treated in a consistent manner. For example, parts of EN 1991-1-4 can be
compared with BS6399-2, but EN 1991-1-7 has no equivalent UK code; hence, it was felt appropriate to
prepare separate reports for each section. This would also allow further parts of EN1991-1 to be considered
later. The reports, which have been produced so far, are for EN 1990, EN 1991-1-4 and EN 1991-1-7.
An initial requirement was that the handbook should be concise, user friendly and summarise the major
differences between EN1991-1 and existing UK codes. Therefore, information given in EN 1991 that does
not conflict with UK codes is simply referenced and no explanation is given about its derivation. For this
latter type of information, the reader is referred to the Thomas Telford publications on the Structural
Eurocodes (www.eurocodes.co.uk).
Although several parts of EN1991 and their respective National Annexes are complete, others are still being
processed. The current state of progress is given in Table 1. A consequence of starting the work before the
codes with their National Annexes are published by BSI is that the work can only be based on the latest
editions of the code, and some details may change when the Codes are finally issued.
Table 1 Current status of the various sections of EN 1991
Section Title
Final text released by
CEN
Anticipated publication
date by BSI along with
associated National Annex
EN 1990 Basis of structural design April 2002 April 2004
EN 1991-1-1
Densities, self-weight and
imposed loads
April 2002 April 2004
EN 1991-1-2
Actions of structures exposed to
Fire
Nov 2002 ~ Nov 2004
EN 1991-1-3 Snow Loads July 2003 ~ Dec 2004
EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions ~ May 2004 May 2006
EN 1991-1-5 Thermal Actions Oct 2003 Oct 2005
EN 1991-1-6 Actions during execution Sep 2004 Sep 2006
EN 1991-1-7
Accidental actions due to impact
and explosion
Jun 2005 Dec 2007
Because EN1991-1-4 is not yet finalised, little guidance on its background and usage has been produced. A
series of designer s guides on the various Eurocodes is being prepared by Thomas Telford and some user
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Guide to the use of EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions
6
manuals are planned by the Institution of Structural Engineers (www.istructe.org.uk). It is recommended that
these web pages be checked to obtain up-to-date information on the available publications
1.1 Eurocode terminology
Most of the definitions given in the Eurocodes derive from
ISO 2394(1998) General principles on reliability for structures
ISO 3898 (1997) Bases for design of structures -- Notations -- General symbols
ISO 8930 (1987) General principles on reliability for structures -- List of equivalent terms
EN 1990 provides a basic list of terms and definitions which are applicable to EN 1990 to EN 1999, thus
ensuring a common basis for the Structural Eurocode suite. Sections of EN 1991-1 contain terms and
definitions which are specifically related to that section.
Attention is drawn to the following key definitions, which may be different from current national practices:
Action means a load, or an imposed deformation (e.g. temperature effects or settlement)
Effects of Actions or Action effects are internal moments and forces, bending moments, shear
forces and deformations caused by actions
Strength is a mechanical property of a material, in units of stress
Resistance is a mechanical property of a cross-section of a member, or a member or structure.
Execution covers all activities carried out for the physical completion of the work including
procurement, the inspection and documentation thereof. The term covers work on site; it may also
signify the fabrication of components off site and their subsequent erection on site.
1.2 Eurocode annexes
There are two categories of Annex used by the Structural Eurocodes. One type is labelled I and is
Informative (i.e. for information and not as a mandatory part of the code). The second type I labelled N and
is Normative (i.e. a mandatory part of the code). In their National Annex (NA), a country can choose to make
an Informative annex Normative if they so wish.
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EN 1991: Actions on structures Part 1.4: Wind Actions
7
2 EN 1991 Actions on structures Part 1.4: Wind Actions
The aim of this section of the report is to review the provision of EN1991-1-4 [1] in comparison with current
UK practice and to summarise the major differences. EN1991-1-4 must be used in the UK in conjunction with
the UK National Annex. This guidance is based on the December 2004 version of EN1991-1-4 which may
not be technically complete. The National Annex gives alternative procedures known as National Determined
Parameters (NDPs) for many clauses in EN1991-1-4; this report includes a commentary on the rationale for
the choice of these NDPs. The scope of this report is limited mainly to static building structures for which
BS6399-2 [2] is the corresponding UK standard. Bridges are excluded and dynamic response of structures
has been limited to a brief overview.
2.1 Definitions
Some of the terminology, symbols and definitions used in EN1991-1-4 will be new to UK engineers. This
Chapter sets out the major differences between EN1991-1-4 and UK practice. The clause numbers indicate
where the term is first mentioned in EN1991-1-4. P indicates that the clause is a Principle. Principles are
general statements and definitions for which there is no alternative, as well as requirements and analytical
models for which no alternative is permitted unless specifically stated. Clauses without the letter P are known
as Application Rules and are generally recognised rules which comply with the Principles and satisfy their
requirements.
Background response factor B (6.3.1(1)): accounts for the lack of correlation of the wind gusts over the
surface of the structure or element. There is no equivalent value in BS6399-2.
Basic velocity pressure q
b
(4.5(1): derived from the basic wind velocity (q
b
= 0.613 v
b
2
). There is no
equivalent value in BS6399-2.
Basic wind velocity v
b
(4.2(2)P)

: is the fundamental basic wind velocity modified to account for seasonal
and directional effects. There is no direct equivalent value in BS6399-2.
Directional factor c
dir
(4.2(2)P): used to modify the basic wind velocity to produce wind speeds with the
same risk of being exceeded in any wind direction. c
dir
is the same as S
d
in BS6399-2.
Exposure factor c
e
(z) (4.5(1)): accounts for the effect of terrain, orography and building height. Similar to
S
b
2
in BS6399-2. Note: orography is equivalent to topography in BS6399-2
Force coefficient c
f
(5.3(2)): the ratio of the force acting on a structure or element to the peak velocity
pressure multiplied by an appropriate area. There are no equivalent values in BS6399-2.
Friction coefficient c
fr
(5.3(2)): the ratio of the frictional drag on surfaces aligned parallel with the wind to
the peak velocity pressure multiplied by an appropriate area. Corresponds to C
f
in BS6399-2.
Fundamental basic wind velocity v
b,0
(4.2 (1)P): this is the mean wind velocity for a 10 minute averaging
period with an annual risk of being exceeded of 0.02, at a height of 10m above ground level in flat open
country terrain (terrain category II). There is no direct equivalent value in the main body of BS6399-2. For
use in the UK, v
b,0
= v
b,0
*
. c
alt
where v
b,0
*
is the mean wind velocity for a 10 minute averaging period with an
annual risk of being exceeded of 0.02, at a height of 10m above sea level in terrain category II, c
alt
is the
altitude factor which accounts for the effects of altitude on the fundamental basic wind velocity.
Mean wind velocity v
m
(z) (4.2(2)P Note 4): is the basic wind velocity modified to account for terrain
roughness category and orography effects (defined below). There is no direct equivalent value in BS6399-2.
Orography factor c
o
(z) (4.3.1(1)): used to account for the increase in wind speed due to topographic
features such as hills, cliffs and escarpments. c
o
(z) is obtained using the same method for calculating
topographic effects as included in the S
a
factor in BS6300-2.
Pressure coefficients c
pe
and c
pi
(5.2(1)): the ratio of the pressure acting on the external or internal
surfaces to the peak velocity pressure. Corresponds to C
pe
and C
pi
in BS6399-2.
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Guide to the use of EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions
8
Peak velocity pressure q
p
(z) (4.5(1)): is the site wind velocity taking account of the terrain and building
size. q
p
(z) corresponds to q
s
in BS6399-2.
Probability factor c
prob
(4.2(2)P Note 4): used to modify the basic wind velocity to change the risk of the
wind speed being exceeded. c
prob
is the same as S
p
in BS6399-2.
Resonant response factor R (6.3.1(1): accounts for the effects of wind turbulence in resonance with the
vibration of the structure in its fundamental mode of vibration. There is no equivalent value in BS6399-2.
Roughness factor c
r
(z) (4.3.1(1)): used to modify the mean wind speed to account for the terrain roughness
upwind of the site and the height of the building or structure under consideration. c
r
(z) corresponds to S
c
in
the BS6399-2 directional method.
Season factor c
season
(4.2(2)P): used to modify the basic wind velocity to produce wind speeds with the
same risk of being exceeded in any specific sub-annual period. c
season
is the same as S
s
in BS6399-2.
Structural factor c
s
c
d
(5.3(2)): takes account of the effect of non-simultaneous wind action over the
surfaces of the structure or element combined with the effect of dynamic response of the structure or
element. c
s
and c
d
correspond to C
a
and (1 +C
r
) respectively in BS6399-2.
Turbulence intensity I
v
(z) (4.4(1)): is the standard deviation of the wind turbulence divided by the mean
wind velocity and is a measure of the gustiness of the wind. I
v
(z) corresponds to S
t
T
t
in the BS6399-2
directional method.
Wind force F
w
, F
w,e
, F
w,I
, F
fr
(5.3(2): the wind force acting on the overall structure or element (F
w
), on the
external surfaces (F
w,e
), on the internal surfaces (F
w,i
) or due to frictional forces (F
fr
). Corresponds to P and P
f
in BS6399-2.
Wind pressure w
e
and w
i
(5.2(1)): the wind pressure acting on external and internal building surfaces
respectively. Corresponds to p
e
and p
i
in BS6399-2.
2.2 Scope of EN1991-1-4
EN1991-1-4 is applicable to:
Building and civil engineering works with heights up to 200m
Bridges with spans of not more than 200m (subject to certain limitations based on dynamic
response criteria)
Land based structures, their components and appendages
The specific exclusions are:
Lattice towers with non-parallel chords
Guyed masts and guyed chimneys
Cable supported bridges
Bridge deck vibration from transverse wind turbulence
Torsional vibrations of buildings
Modes of vibration higher than the fundamental mode
The scope of EN1991-1-4 is much wider than BS6399-2, it includes wind actions on other structures, which
in the UK are given in a number of other British Standards and design guides. In some cases, for example
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EN 1991: Actions on structures Part 1.4: Wind Actions
9
dynamic response of buildings, there is no equivalent UK standard. Table 2 shows the scope of EN1991-1-4
compared with current UK practice, (where no direct equivalent UK current standard is available, the nearest
other guidance is shown in brackets).
Table 2 Comparison between EN1991-1-4 and current UK practice
EN1991-1-4 UK Practice
Buildings (static)
Buildings (mildly dynamic)
Buildings (dynamic)
Bridges
Chimneys (Steel)
Chimneys (concrete)
Scaffolding
Structural elements
Lattice structures (not towers)
Spheres, domes, barrel vaults
BS6399-2
BS6399-2
No direct equivalent (ESDU)
Design manuals for roads and bridges, BD49, BD37
BS4076, CICIND
CICIND (Int. Committee for Industrial Chimneys)
BS5975, BS5973, BS EN 12811
Limited guidance in BS6399-2 (CP3-V-2)
No direct equivalent (CP3-V-2)
No direct equivalent (reference books, papers)
2.3 UK National Annex EN1991-1-4
EN1991-1-4 must be used in the UK with the accompanying National Annex. The National Annex (NA)
contains information on National Determined Parameters (NDPs) such as:
Values and/or classes where alternatives are given in the Eurocode
Values to be used where only a symbol is given in the Eurocode
Country specific geographical or climatic data
Procedures to be used where alternative procedures are given in the Eurocode
Decisions on the application of informative annexes
References to non-contradictory complementary information to assist the user
A National Annex cannot change or modify the content of the EN text in any way other than where allowed
for above.
In EN1991-1-4 there are 61 NDPs; 51 in the main body and 10 in the annexes. In most cases a
recommended procedure or value is given, although national choice is allowed. The UK National Annex
provides an alternative for a number of these procedures. These are listed in Table 3 with a commentary on
the reasons for the alternative procedures (additional alternative procedures are also given in Section 8 Wind
actions on bridges and in the annexes, but these are outside of the scope of this report).
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Guide to the use of EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions
10
Table 3 Clauses where the UK National Annex gives alternative rules or guidance
EN1991-1-4 Commentary
Clause number
4.1(1) Peak velocity pressure qp - Procedures for directly obtaining qp are given in 4.5
4.2(1)P Note 2 Fundamental value of the basic wind velocity vb,0 this is the wind velocity at a height of
10m above ground level. The UK wind velocity map is for a height of 10m above sea level
(Figure NA1); an expression is given to adjust the UK map velocity using the altitude factor.
4.2(2)P Note 1 Altitude factor calt an expression is given for calt for use in the UK. Note that this is not the
same as the factor used in BS6399-2, it now allows a reduction in calt with height above ground
4.2(2)P Note 2 Directional factor cdir - an expression is given for cdir for use in the UK
4.2(2)P Note 3 Season factor cseason - an expression is given for cseason for use in the UK
4.3.2(1) Note 1 Roughness factor cr(z) - Expressions 4.4 and 4.5 are replaced by two figures, NA3 and NA4,
which directly give cr(z). These figures account for the upwind distance to sea and for urban
sites, the distance to the edge of the urban area. The opportunity has also been taken to
simplify the five terrain categories to Sea, Country and Town.
4.4(1) Note 2 Turbulence factor ki/ln((z-hdis)/zo) a new turbulence factor has been introduced to account
for up wind distances to sea and edge of town, this is given in Figures NA5 and NA6.
4.5(1) Note 1 Peak velocity pressure qp - Expression 4.8 has been replaced by expression NA3. This was
necessary because 4.8 is a linearised form of the equation for qp which underestimates wind
pressures, particularly in Town terrain. NA3 corresponds with the approach used in BS6399-2.
A new term, the exposure factor for flat terrain ce,flat(z), has been introduced in Figures NA7 and
NA8. This greatly simplifies the determination of qp(z) for sites on flat terrain or on hilly sites at
heights above ground of up to z= 50m.
4.5(1) Note 2 Air density The value for air density in the UK is 1.226kg/m
2
(as used in BS6399-2)
5.3(5) Lack of correlation between windward and leeward faces - the recommended procedure
only allows the reduction factor in 7.2.2(3) to be applied to walls. In the UK, the reduction will be
applied to all horizontal components of the wind force acting on walls and roofs. This will
reduce overall wind loads and is similar to the approach used in BS6399-2.
6.6(1) Structural factor cscd In the UK cscd may be separated in to a size factor, cs, and a dynamic
factor, cd, using Table NA3 and Figure NA9. This simple approach avoids the need to use the
complex dynamic procedures in 6.3 and can give significant reductions in wind loads on large
buildings or elements that are not dynamically sensitive. The cs and cd factors correspond to the
size effect factor, Ca, and dynamic augmentation factor ,Cr, in BS6399-2.
7.1.2(2) Asymmetry No decision has yet been made for the UK National Annex
7.2.1(1) Note 2 Determining the external pressure coefficient cpe the recommended procedure requires
pressure coefficients to be calculated for every loaded area between 1m
2
and 10m
2
using
logarithmic interpolation. This would increase the calculation effort significantly in the UK
cladding and glazing industry. There is no scientific evidence to support this rule, therefore in
the UK, the cpe,1 value should be used for all loaded areas 1m
2
and the cpe,10 value for areas
>1m
2
. This new procedure was developed in consultation with the UK glazing industry.
7.2.2(2) Note 1 External pressure coefficients for walls - Table 7.1 is replaced by Table NA4. This was done
to allow the inclusion of net pressure coefficients, which can give significant reductions in overall
wind loads. This corresponds with the new Table 5a in BS6399-2.
7.2.8(1) Vaulted roofs - Figure 7.11 is replaced by Figures NA10 and NA11. These new figures give
better estimates of pressure coefficients on vaulted roofs based on recent wind tunnel studies.
7.2.9(2) Permeability - Table NA5 gives typical permeability values for UK construction
7.2.10(3) Note 2 Multiskin walls and roofs Experience in the UK has shown that the recommended
procedure does not apply to tiled and slated roofs or masonry cavity walls. The EN1991-1-4
procedure should not be used in the UK for these situations. The existing guidance in BS5534
and BS5628-1 should continue to be used.
7.13(2) Effective slenderness length - Figure 7.16 is replaced by NA6. This is because the values in
Figure 7.16 are of uncertain origin and are significantly different from the values currently used
in the UK. The revised values given in NA6 correspond with those given in BS6399-2
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2.4 Main differences between EN1991-1-4 (with the UK NA) and BS6399-2
When considering wind loads on static building structures there are many similarities between EN1991-1-4
and BS6399-2, there are also a number of obvious differences, such as the change from mean hourly to 10-
minute mean wind speeds plus other more subtle differences in the methodologies and expressions used;
some of which will not be immediately obvious to the user. The UK National Annex also gives some
alternative procedures which change EN1991-1-4 to make it applicable for use in the UK. This Chapter
provides an overview of the first seven sections of EN1991-1-4 (excluding section eight on bridges) and
identifies and discusses the major differences from BS6399-2. Table 4 shows some of the main differences
between EN1991-1-4 and BS6399-2. For a detailed commentary on EN1991-1-4, the reader is referred to
Cook [3].
2.4.1 Section 1 General
This section gives the scope, normative references, assumptions, rules for design assisted by testing and
measurements, definitions and symbols. The differences in definitions, symbols and scope have already
been explained in section 1 of this report. Section 1.5 Design assisted by testing and measurements, allows
wind tunnel testing, validated numerical methods or full scale testing to be used to obtain the wind loads and
the structural response. This is essentially the same as the guidance given in BS6399-2 which allows other
equivalent methods to be used. However, whereas BS6399-2 gives guidance for wind tunnel testing in
Annex A, EN1991-1-4 does not give any guidance. It is likely that guidance on this and other parts of
BS6399-2 which contain non conflicting complementary information (NCCI), such as wind effects on irregular
shape buildings, inset stories, multipitch roofs, etc. will be published as a residual standard.
2.4.2 Section 2 Design situations
The general requirement of this section is that the relevant wind actions be determined for each design
situation identified in EN1990 (Basis of Structural Design), such as persistent, transient and accidental
design situations. In EN1991-1-4, the following specific design situations should also be taken in to account:
other actions (such as snow, traffic or ice) which will affect the wind loads
changes to the structure during construction which modify the wind loads
where doors and windows that are assumed to be shut are open under storm conditions then they
should be treated as accidental actions
fatigue due to wind actions should be considered for susceptible structures
This section does not have a direct equivalent in BS6399-2. The guidance for doors and windows
accidentally left open or which break during a wind storm is different from that given in BS6399-2. In
BS6399-2 this is treated as a serviceability limit state and a reduced probability factor of 0.8 used which has
the effect of reducing the mean recurrence interval from 50 to about 2 years. In EN1991-1-4 this is treated as
an accidental design situation.
2.4.3 Section 3 Modelling of wind actions
This Section describes wind actions and defines characteristic values of wind velocity and velocity pressure
according to EN1990. Wind actions are classified according to EN1990 as variable fixed actions; this might
seem like a contradiction in terms but it essentially means that for a given structure in a given location the
wind action is fixed except where a range of values is given. For example on a pitched roof both positive and
negative pressure coefficients are given for many roof zones, both of which should be considered in design.
The information given in this section is consistent with BS6399-2, although there is no direct equivalent to
this section in BS6399-2. Definitions of fixed and variable actions are given in EN1990.
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2.4.4 Section 4 Wind velocity and velocity pressure
This section gives the procedures for determining the wind velocity and the peak velocity pressure.
Alternative procedures have been given in the NA for a number of clauses in this section in order to give a
more realistic representation of wind conditions for the UK, these are described below.
2.4.4.1 Basic wind velocity
The starting point for the determination of the wind velocity is the map of fundamental basic wind velocity
given in Figure NA1 of the NA. This map corresponds to the map of basic wind speed given in BS6399-2,
except that it is based on a 10-minute mean velocity instead of the mean-hourly map used in BS6399-2 and
a slightly increased terrain roughness (z
0
= 0.05 instead of 0.03). These changes do not account for the
major differences between these maps. This is caused by a reanalysis of the meteorological wind speed
data which has resulted in slightly higher windspeeds over most of the country except for the Southeast
where quite large reductions are seen.
The map wind speed is adjusted using the altitude factor (given in the NA) which differs from that given in
BS6399-2 because it now reduces with height above ground. This new altitude factor is based on a study
[10] which showed that the old altitude factor in BS6399-2 was very conservative, especially for site altitudes
above 200m.
The basic wind velocity is determined from expression (4.1), which is essentially the same as equation (8) in
BS6399-2.
0 , b season dir b
v c c v = (4.1) from EN1991-1-4
b p a s d s
V S S S S V = (8) from BS6399-2
Where vb,0 = Vb = map wind speed (vb,0 is adjusted for altitude in the NA using calt)
cdir = Sd = direction factor (the same procedure is used in both standards)
cseason = Ss = season factor (the same procedure is used in both standards)
calt = Sa = altitude factor (calt uses an improved, less conservative, version of the BS6399-2 procedure)
cprob = Sp = probability factor (the same procedure is used in both standards) note that cprob is not included
in expression 4.1 but is allowed in Note 4 of 4.2 (2)P
2.4.4.2 Mean wind velocity
There is no direct equivalent of the mean wind velocity term in the main body of BS6399-2. However,
multiplying S
o
, the terrain and building factor for hourly mean windspeeds given in Annex C.2.1 by the site
windspeed v
s
gives the mean wind velocity corresponding to the EN1991-1-4 value. In EN1991-1-4 the mean
windspeed is used extensively in Annexes B, C and E for determining inwind and vortex shedding response.
It is also used to determine the peak velocity pressure as described in 4.4.4 below.
The mean wind velocity v
m
is given by expression 4.3.
b o r m
v ) z ( c ) z ( c ) z ( v = (4.3)
where c
r
(z) is the roughness factor which accounts for the ground roughness of the upwind terrain
c
o
(z) is the orography factor which accounts for the effects of topography at the site
The procedure for determining the orography factor is given in Annex A.3 of EN1991-1-4 and is the same as
that used in BS6399-2.
The roughness factor assumes an equilibrium wind velocity profile, which implies that the boundary layer is
in equilibrium at all heights and does not change with distance downwind. Such a profile could only be
established with an upwind fetch of approximately 200km of flat uniform terrain; such conditions do not occur
in the UK. Thus in order to more realistically account for changes in wind speed with terrain, the UK NA gives
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13
an alternative procedure for determining c
r
(z) using Figures NA3 and NA4. Because of this alternative
procedure, expression (4.4) for the roughness factor and (4.5) for the terrain factor are not to be used in the
UK.
Other points worth noting in this Section are:
The terrain categories - Table 4.1 defines five terrain categories ranging from sea 0, to city centre IV.
For ease of use, the NA reduces the number of terrain categories to three which approximately
correspond to the three terrain categories in BS6399-2. These are Sea (category 0), Country
(categories I and II) and Town (categories III and IV).
Increased wind speeds from surrounding buildings - Section 4.3.4 gives guidance to account for the
wind speed-up caused by large and considerably taller neighbouring structures. The recommended
procedure, given in Annex A.4, is simple to use and generally conservative. This should prove to be
more helpful to the user than the guidance given in BS6399-2 which just gives a warning and
suggests that specialist advice should be sought.
Shelter effects - Section 4.3.5 allows the effects of shelter from closely spaced surrounding buildings
to be taken in to account. The recommended procedure, given in Annex A.5, is the same as the
procedure used in BS6399-2 and uses the displacement height h
dis
. However, EN1991-1-4 does not
give any guidance on how h
dis
should be used. In general the building height z may be replaced with
z h
dis
. The new figures for the roughness factor, Figures NA3 and NA4, are both given in terms of z
h
dis
.
2.4.4.3 Wind turbulence
The turbulence intensity given in EN1991-1-4 by expression (4.7) is for equilibrium conditions, which as
discussed above do not occur in the UK. The effect of distance to sea and distance to edge of town may be
accounted for by the turbulence factor, k
i
, which has a recommended value of 1.0. In the UK this
recommended value is not used. Instead, the NA gives an alternative procedure for determining k
i
.
However, to make calculation easier graphs of the factor k
i
/ln((z-h
dis
)/z
o
) are given, which for terrain where
orography is not significant gives the turbulence intensity directly. This factor is given in Figure NA5 for sites
in Country terrain with a correction factor for sites in Town terrain given in Figure NA6.
2.4.4.4 Peak velocity pressure
EN1991-1-4 uses a simplified expression for the peak velocity pressure given in expression 4.8
q
p
= 1/2 v
m
2
[1 + 7I
v
(z)] = c
e
(z) q
b
(4.8)
Where c
e
(z) is the exposure factor which corresponds to S
b
2
in BS6399-2; except that in EN1991-1-4 a
linearised version is used which disregards second order turbulence effects and consequently can
significantly underestimate the wind pressure, particularly in urban terrain where the turbulence is greatest.
This additional turbulence term is included in the BS6399-2 method (see box).
For this reason expression 4.8 in EN1991-1-4 is not used in the UK and has been replaced by expression
NA3
q
p
= 1/2 v
m
2
[1 + 3I
v
(z)]
2
= c
e
(z) q
b
(NA3)
To simplify the calculation of q
p
, the NA introduces a new term, c
e,flat
which is the exposure factor for sites
where orography is not significant. c
e,flat
is obtained directly from Figures NA7 and NA8 and replaces c
e
(z) in
expression NA3. When orography is significant but the height of the structure is less than 50m then the NA
gives a simplified conservative procedure for determining q
p
using expression NA4.
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14
q
p
= [q
b
c
e,flat
(z)] [(c
o
+ 0.6)/1.6] (NA4)
For structures higher than 50m then expression NA3 should be used.
2.4.4.5 Value for air density
The recommended value for air density, , in EN1991-1-4 is 1.25kg/m
3
. The UK has historically used a value
of 1.226kg/m
3
since the first metric version of CP3: Chapter V: Part 2 (1970). Therefore the recommended
value for air density should not be used in the UK, a value of 1.226kg/m
3
should be used instead.
2.4.5 Section 5 Wind actions
This section gives the rules for determining the wind pressures on internal and external surfaces, the wind
forces and frictional forces. The approaches used in EN1991-1-4 to calculate wind pressures, wind forces
and friction forces are essentially very similar to those used in BS6399-2. However, there are important
differences in each of these approaches as described below:
Wind Pressure - Expressions (5.1) and (5.2) for external and internal wind pressures do not include
the equivalent of the BS6399-2 size effect factor; this factor, called the size factor in EN1991-1-4, is
only allowed for external pressures and is included in the equations for wind force.
Wind Force - The 0.85 factor used in BS6399-2 Equation (7) to account for the non-simultaneous
effects of wind forces on windward and leeward faces is not included in the EN1991-1-4 expressions
for wind force. In EN1991-1-4 this factor is applied directly to the pressure coefficients and varies
between 1.0 and 0.85 depending on the slenderness of the building. It is recommended in clause
5.3(5) of EN1991-1-4 that this factor only be applied to vertical walls, however, this decision is left to
national choice. The UK has decided that this factor may be applied to the horizontal force
component from both walls and roofs. This is the same as the approach used in BS6399-2.
Friction Force - The frictional coefficients used in EN1991-1-4 are the same as those used in
BS6399-2. An inconsistent approach is used in BS6399-2 whereby the friction effects on the roof are
Comparison between c
e
(z) and S
b
2
In EN1991-1-4 the exposure factor c
e
(z) corresponds to the terrain and building factor S
b
2
in BS6399-2
From BS86399-2 equation 28, S
b
2
= S
c
2
(1 + (g
t
S
t
) + S
h
)
2
(for Country terrain)
Making the substitution S
0
= (1 + S
h
) gives
)
S
S g
( 1 S S S
2
o
t t 2
o
2
c
2
b 1
]
1

+

S
S g

S
S g 2
1 S S S
2
o
t t
o
t t 2
o
2
c
2
b
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+
Compare this with expression 4.8 in EN1991-1-4, c
e
(z) = c
r
2
(z) c
o
2
(z) [( 1 + 7I
v
(z)] , where 7I
v
(z)
corresponds with 2g
t
S
t
/S
o
and c
r
2
(z) c
o
2
(z) corresponds with S
c
2
S
o
2
. It can be seen that there is no term
equivalent to (g
t
S
t
/S
o
)
2
. The effect of this missing term is to underestimate the wind pressure. In the worst
case of a very low building in category V terrain this could be by up to 30% (depending on the turbulence
intensity).
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15
only considered on those parts of a roof whose length exceeds the smaller of W/2 or H, and for walls
on those parts whose length exceeds the smaller of W or 2H. In EN1991-1-4, friction effects on walls
and roofs are only considered when the roof or wall length exceeds the smaller of 2W or 4H.
EN1991-1-4 also has a simple rule allowing friction effects to be disregarded when the area of the
surfaces parallel to the wind (i.e. roof and side walls) is equal to or less than 4 times the area of all
surfaces perpendicular to the wind (i.e. windward and leeward walls). The area over which the
friction force is assumed to act is smaller in EN1991-1-4 than BS6399-2, however EN1991-1-4 does
not allow the use of the size factor when calculating friction forces, these are counteracting effects
but there will be differences between friction forces calculated from these two methods.
2.4.6 Section 6 Structural factor c
s
c
d
This section gives rules for determining the structural factor c
s
c
d
which accounts for the effect of non-
simultaneous occurrence of peak pressures over the surface of the structure or element combined with the
effect of dynamic response of the structure or element due to turbulence. For the majority of traditional low-
rise or framed buildings c
s
c
d
may conservatively be taken as 1.0 . Clause 6.2(1) of EN1991-1-4 gives a list of
building and element types for which c
s
c
d
may be taken as 1.0. For other building types, or where a more
precise value is required, c
s
c
d
must be determined using the detailed procedure given in clause 6.3.1. Two
alternative procedures are given in Annexes B and C of EN1991-1-4 for determining the parameters required
for the calculation of c
s
c
d
, the recommended procedure is given in Annex B. The UK NA allows Annex B but
not Annex C for use in the UK.
The factor c
s
c
d
is generally treated as a single factor unless otherwise specified in the NA. In the UK it has
been decided to allow c
s
c
d
to be separated into a size factor c
s
and a dynamic factor c
d
. This is similar to the
approach used in BS6399-2, where the size effect factor, C
a
, corresponds to the size factor c
s
and the
dynamic augmentation factor, (1 + C
r
) corresponds to the dynamic factor c
d
. The decision to allow c
s
c
d
to be
separated was not taken just to promulgate the BS6399-2 approach but because of the positive benefits to
be gained from reduced wind loads and also because the procedure for determining c
s
and c
d
in Annex B is
complex and not suited for hand calculation. The NA gives Table NA3 for determining c
s
values and Figure
NA9 for determining c
d
. These have been derived using the detailed procedure in Annex B. In Figure NA9,
graphs are given for four classes of structure which correspond to the classes given in Figure 1 of BS6399-2.
The benefits of separating c
s
and c
d
are greatest for large plan area low-rise buildings. For example consider
wind loads on the long face of an office building 10m high with plan dimensions of 60m x 20m in Town
terrain, using the NA c
d
= 1.0 and c
s
= 0.77 giving a c
s
c
d
value of 0.77. This will give a 23% reduction in wind
load on this face compared with the c
s
c
d
value of 1.0 recommended in clause 6.3.1 of EN1991-1-4.
2.4.7 Section 7 Pressure and force coefficients
This section gives pressure and force coefficients for a wide range of buildings, structures and elements
(note that force coefficients for bridges and related structures are given in Section 8).
EN1991-1-4 uses four separate types of aerodynamic coefficient:
Internal and external pressure coefficients
Net pressure coefficients
Friction coefficients
Force coefficients
The first three will be familiar to users of BS6399-2. Force coefficients give the overall load effect on a
structure or element and include friction effects, whereas pressure coefficients do not. Therefore friction
coefficients may be applied in conjunction with pressure coefficients but should never be used with force
coefficients.
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2.4.7.1 Pressure Coefficients
Pressure coefficients are given for buildings in Section 7.2. There are many similarities between the
EN1991-1-4 and BS6399-2 pressure coefficients, because they were largely based on those given in the
BS6399-2 standard method. The layout of the tables and figures and the size of the roof and wall zones will
therefore be familiar to UK engineers. There are some omissions and differences, for example, EN1991-1-4
does not include directional pressure coefficients, information on inset stories, polygonal plan shapes, re-
entrant corners, irregular faces or multipitch roofs. The major differences are:
Pressure coefficients
Two sets of pressure coefficients, c
pe,1
and c
pe,10
are given in EN1991-1-4 for most building forms.
c
pe,1
values are intended to be used for the design of small elements and fixings, and c
pe,10
values
are for design of loaded areas over 10m
2
. In general the c
pe,10
values are similar to those given in
BS6399-2. For loaded areas between 1m
2
and 10m
2
EN1991-1-4 recommends that logarithmic
interpolation be used using Figure 7.2. After consultation with UK industry it was concluded that this
would impose a considerable unnecessary burden in calculation effort. Consequently Figure 7.2 is
not to be used in the UK. The NA gives a simplified alternative procedure in which the c
pe,1
values
should be used for all fixings and elements of 1m
2
or less and the c
pe,10
values should be used for all
loaded areas >1m
2
.
Division by parts
The rule on division by parts has been changed, it may now only be applied to the windward walls; in
BS6399-2 it could be applied to all walls but only for determining overall loads
Pressure coefficients for vertical walls
In EN1991-1-4 these values depend on d/h ratio, this is the inverse of the ratio used in BS6399-2.
The effects of wind funnelling are not included in EN1991-1-4. Also note that Table 7.1 should not be
used in the UK. It has been replaced in the NA by Table NA4 which now includes net pressure
coefficients for overall load; this corresponds to Table 5a in BS6399-2.
Pressure coefficients for circular (vaulted) roofs
Figure 7.11 pressure coefficients for vaulted roofs, should not be used in the UK. This has been
replaced in the NA by Figures NA10 and NA11 which provide more reliable data and include the
effects of roof length. Pressure coefficients for vaulted roofs are not given in BS6399-2.
Internal pressures
In BS6399-2 only two possible values for internal pressure, +0.2 and -0.3 are given for the general
case with no dominant openings. It is known that the internal pressure can take values within this
range, or even outside of this range in some circumstances. The approach used in EN1991-1-4 is
based on the permeability of each wall and roof and allows a more precise value of internal pressure
to be calculated depending on the approaching wind direction.
2.4.7.2 Net pressure coefficients
Net pressure coefficients are given for canopy roofs, free-standing walls and parapets. These data are based
on BS6399-2, however, there are some differences, for example:
Monopitch canopies
Some of the pressure coefficients have been increased and the distance of the centre of pressure
from the windward edge has been reduced from 0.3W used in BS6399-2 to 0.25d in EN1991-1-4.
Free-standing walls and parapets
In BS6399-2 a reduction factor is given to account for end effects, in En1991-1-4 this factor has been
combined with the pressure coefficients. The figure for the effect of shelter from upwind walls has
been simplified.
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2.4.7.3 Force coefficients
Force coefficients are given for signboards, structural elements, circular cylinders, spheres, lattice structures
and flags. BS6399-2 does not give any force coefficients; however it does give net pressure coefficients for
signboards and for a limited range of structural elements, which for these cases can be considered to be
equivalent to force coefficients. It should be noted that for slender structures with h/d > 5 the force
coefficients for elements may be used. This causes a discontinuity around h/d = 5 because the loads for
h/d<5 are derived from pressure coefficients and the loads for h/d>5 are derived from force coefficients. This
more likely reflects the uncertainty and lack of information on force/pressure coefficients on tall buildings
rather than an aerodynamic effect.
2.4.8 Annexes
There are six informative annexes in EN1991-1-4:
Annex A - Terrain effects
Annex B - Procedure 1 for determining the structural factor c
s
c
d
Annex C - Procedure 2 for determining the structural factor c
s
c
d
Annex D - c
s
c
d
values for different types of structure
Annex E - Vortex shedding and aeroelastic instabilities
Annex F Dynamic characteristics of structures
Of these Annexes C, D and E will not be used in the UK.
Annex A contains five parts of which part A.2 Transition between roughness categories 0, I, II, III and IV, will
not be used in the UK because transition effects are contained in Figures NA3 to NA8 in the National Annex.
Annex B gives the recommended procedure for determining c
s
c
d
and is based on the procedure given in the
ENV version of EN1991-2-4.
Annex F gives recommendations for determining the basic structural parameters that are required for
determining dynamic response of structures, such as:
natural frequencies
modal shapes
equivalent masses
logarithmic decrements of damping.
Annex E does not include adequate information on aeroelastic response of bridge decks. For this reason
Annex E will not be used in the UK. It will be replaced by a new document based largely on the existing
Annex E but with additional information for bridges. This new document will not be part of EN1991-1-4, but is
expected to be published as a companion document (NCCI).
2.5 Road map
EN1991-1-4 includes two general procedures for calculating wind loads on buildings and structures, these
are:
a) a standard procedure that applies to those structures whose structural properties do not make them
susceptible to dynamic excitation. This procedure applies to the following classes of structure:
Any building of height less than 15m
Fa ade and roof elements which have natural frequencies > 5Hz
Framed buildings with structural walls of <100m in height and whose height is also less than 4
times their in-wind depth.
Circular chimneys with height <60m and whose height is also less than 6.5 times their
diameter
L
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U
n
c
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t
r
o
l
l
e
d

C
o
p
y
.
Guide to the use of EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions
18
b) a detailed procedure that applies to those structures which are likely to be susceptible to dynamic
excitation and which fall outside of the scope of the standard procedure.
It is anticipated that the standard procedure will be used for the design of the majority of buildings and
structures in the UK, including dwellings, low-rise buildings and medium-rise buildings. The detailed
procedure is likely to be used, or at least considered, in the design of tall buildings, chimneys, masts, long-
span bridges and other similarly wind sensitive structures.
The number of steps required in EN1991-1-4 to determine wind loads for the majority of buildings and
structures is the same as in BS6399-2. In general the 6 steps outlined in Table 4 are required (the equivalent
steps in BS6399-2 are also shown in this table for comparison).
Table 4 Summary of calculation steps to calculate wind load using EN1991-1-4 and BS6399-2
EN1991-1-4 Procedure BS6399-2 Procedure
1. Read V
b,map
from map, adjust for altitude
2. v
b
= c
dir
c
season
c
prob
v
b,0
3. q
b
= 1/2 v
b
2
4. q
p
= c
e,flat
(z) q
b
5. W
e
= q
p
(z) c
pe
6. F
w
= c
s
c
d
W A
ref
1. Read V
b
from map
2. V
s
= V
b
S
s
S
d
S
a
S
p
3. V
e
= V
s
S
b
4. q
s
= 1/2 V
e
2
5. p = q
s
C
pe
C
a
6. P = 0.85 ( P
front
- P
rear
) (1 + C
r
)
Table 5 outlines the steps required to determine wind loads on buildings and structures where z < 50m and
orography is not significant. In other cases the number of steps increases, however the NA has greatly
simplified EN1991-1-4 by introducing alternative procedures for determining the design wind load by
presenting parameters such as the roughness factor c
r
, the turbulence factor (k
i
/ln((z-h
dis
)/z
o
), the exposure
factor c
e,flat
and the size and dynamic factors c
s
and c
d
in a tabular or graphical format. This speeds up the
design process, reduces the calculation effort and improves the accuracy over the EN1991-1-4 original
procedures, whilst still being fully compatible with the EN1991-1-4 principles. Figure 1 shows the flow chart
for determining wind loads using the NA and EN1991-1-4 simplified and general methods.
L
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U
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c
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C
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p
y
.
The case study TSTs
19
Figure 1 Flow chart for determining wind loads using the UK NA with EN1991-1-4
Determine fundamental basic
wind velocity v
b,0
NA2.3
Calculate basic wind velocity, v
b
Calculate basic
wind pressure q
b
Apply altitude factor to UK
windspeed map NA2.4
vb,o = vb,map calt
Wind Loads
Find pressure coefficients (c
p
)
or force coefficients (c
f
)
Option 1: c
s
c
d
= 1
Option 2: Table NA3, Figure NA9
Option 3: 6.3.1 and Annex B
Find c
eflat
(z) using
Figures NA7 and NA8 (if
z < 50m and orography is
significant find c
o
(z) (A3))
Check Limits of
applicability 1.1(2)
General Method
(must be used if
orography is
significant and
z > 50m)
Find mean wind velocity,
v
m
(z) using Figures NA3 and
NA4
Simplified
Method
Find turbulence intensity, I
v
using Figures NA5 and NA6
Determine size effect factor cs
and dynamic factor c
d
Determine peak velocity
pressure using expression
NA4
Determine peak velocity
pressure using expression
NA3
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U
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C
o
p
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.
Guide to the use of EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions
20
T
a
b
l
e

5


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r
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I
S
:

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e
r
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,

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o
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t
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g

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r
s
,

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.
References
21
3. References
1. EN1991-1-4, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures General actions Part 1-4: Wind actions, CEN
2005.
2. BS6399-2: 1997, Loading for buildings Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads, BSI, June 2002
3. Cook N J, Designers' Guide to EN1991-1-4 Eurocode 1 Part 4 - Wind actions. ISBN 0727731513
4. Rees J, The assessment of site wind speeds at Bilsdale Mast using computational fluid dynamics,
IASS Working Group 4 for masts and towers, 21
st
meeting, Milan, September 2003.
L
i
c
e
n
s
e
d

c
o
p
y

f
r
o
m

C
I
S
:

A
g
e
r
8
7
,

3
E

C
o
n
s
u
l
t
i
n
g

E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
s
,

1
4
/
0
2
/
2
0
1
2
,

U
n
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
d

C
o
p
y
.