Language Education and Technology 2017 PDF
Language Education and Technology 2017 PDF
Language Education and Technology 2017 PDF
Steven L. Thorne
Stephen May Editors
Language,
Education and
Technology
Third Edition
Encyclopedia of Language and Education
Series Editor
Stephen May
Faculty of Education and Social Work
The University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand
In this third, fully revised edition, the 10 volume Encyclopedia of Language and
Education offers the newest developments, including an entirely new volume of
research and scholarly content, essential to the field of language teaching and learning
in the age of globalization. In the selection of topics and contributors, the Encyclopedia
reflects the depth of disciplinary knowledge, breadth of interdisciplinary perspective,
and diversity of sociogeographic experience in the language and education field.
Throughout, there is an inclusion of contributions from non-English speaking and
non-western parts of the world, providing truly global coverage. Furthermore, the
authors have sought to integrate these voices fully into the whole, rather than as
special cases or international perspectives in separate sections.
The Encyclopedia is a necessary reference set for every university and college
library in the world that serves a faculty or school of education, as well as being
highly relevant to the fields of applied and socio-linguistics. The publication of this
work charts the further deepening and broadening of the field of language and
education since the publication of the first edition of the Encyclopedia in 1997 and
the second edition in 2008.
v
vi Editor in Chief’s Introduction to the “Encyclopedia of Language and Education”
geographical focus and location of its authors, all chosen as experts in their respec-
tive topic areas, also continues to expand, as the Encyclopedia aims to provide the
most representative international overview of the field to date.
To this end, some additional changes have been made. The emergence over the
last decade of “superdiversity” as a topic of major concern in sociolinguistics,
applied linguistics, and language education is now a major thread across all volumes
– exploring the implications for language and education of rapidly changing pro-
cesses of migration and transmigration in this late capitalist, globalized world. This
interest in superdiversity foregrounds the burgeoning and rapidly complexifying
uses of language(s), along with their concomitant deconstruction and (re)modifica-
tion, across the globe, particularly (but not exclusively) in large urban environments.
The allied emergence of multilingualism as an essential area of study – challenging
the long-held normative ascendancy of monolingualism in relation to language
acquisition, use, teaching, and learning – is similarly highlighted throughout all
ten volumes, as are their pedagogical consequences (most notably, perhaps, in
relation to translanguaging). This “multilingual turn” is reflected, in particular, in
changes in title to two existing volumes: Bilingual and Multilingual Education and
Language Awareness, Bilingualism and Multilingualism (previously, Bilingual Edu-
cation and Language Awareness, respectively).
As for the composition of the volumes, while ten volumes remain overall, the
Language Ecology volume in the 2nd edition was not included in the current edition,
although many of its chapter contributions have been reincorporated and/or
reworked across other volumes, particularly in light of the more recent developments
in superdiversity and multilingualism, as just outlined. (And, of course, the impor-
tant contribution of the Language Ecology volume, with Angela Creese and the late
Peter Martin as principal editors, remains available as part of the 2nd edition.)
Instead, this current edition has included a new volume on Language, Education
and Technology, with Steven Thorne as principal editor. While widely discussed
across the various volumes in the 2nd edition, the prominence and rapidity of
developments over the last decade in academic discussions that address technology,
new media, virtual environments, and multimodality, along with their wider social
and educational implications, simply demanded a dedicated volume.
And speaking of multimodality, a new, essential feature of the current edition of
the Encyclopedia is its multiplatform format. You can access individual chapters
from any volume electronically, you can read individual volumes electronically
and/or in print, and, of course, for libraries, the ten volumes of the Encyclopedia
still constitute an indispensible overarching electronic and/or print resource.
As you might expect, bringing together ten volumes and over 325 individual
chapter contributions has been a monumental task, which began for me at least in
2013 when, at Nancy Hornberger’s invitation, Springer first approached me about
the editor-in-chief role. All that has been accomplished since would simply not have
occurred, however, without support from a range of key sources. First, to Nancy
Hornberger, who, having somehow convinced me to take on the role, graciously
agreed to be consulting editor for the 3rd edition of the Encyclopedia, providing
advice, guidance, and review support throughout.
Editor in Chief’s Introduction to the “Encyclopedia of Language and Education” vii
development, with his work focused primarily in the United States and Europe. And
for Research Methods in Language and Education, principal editor, Kendall King,
has research interests in sociolinguistics and educational linguistics, particularly with
respect to Indigenous language education, with work in Ecuador, Sweden, and the
United States. Finally, as editor-in-chief, I bring my interdisciplinary background in
the sociology of language, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, and educational
linguistics, with particular interests in language policy, Indigenous language educa-
tion, and bilingual education, along with my own work in New Zealand, North
America, and the UK/Europe.
In addition to the above, my thanks go to Yi-Ju Lai, coeditor with Kendall King,
and Iair Or, coeditor with Elana Shohamy. Also, to Lincoln Dam, who as editorial
assistant was an essential support to me as editor-in-chief and who worked closely
with volume editors and Springer staff throughout the process to ensure both its
timeliness and its smooth functioning (at least, to the degree possible, given the
complexities involved in this multiyear project). And, of course, my thanks too to the
approximately 400 chapter contributors, who have provided the substantive content
across the ten volumes of the Encyclopedia and who hail from every continent in the
world and from over 50 countries.
What this all indicates is that the Encyclopedia is, without doubt, not only a major
academic endeavor, dependent on the academic expertise and good will of all its
contributors, but also still demonstrably at the cutting edge of developments in the
field of language and education. It is an essential reference for every university and
college library around the world that serves a faculty or school of education and is an
important allied reference for those working in applied linguistics and sociolinguis-
tics. The Encyclopedia also continues to aim to speak to a prospective readership that
is avowedly multinational and to do so as unambiguously as possible. Its ten
volumes highlight its comprehensiveness, while the individual volumes provide
the discrete, in-depth analysis necessary for exploring specific topic areas. These
state-of-the art volumes also thus offer highly authoritative course textbooks in the
areas suggested by their titles.
This 3rd edition of the Encyclopedia of Language and Education continues to
showcase the central role of language as both vehicle and mediator of educational
processes, along with the pedagogical implications therein. This is all the more
important, given the rapid demographic and technological changes we face in this
increasingly globalized world and, inevitably, by extension, in education. But the
cutting edge contributions within this Encyclopedia also, crucially, always situate
these developments within their historical context, providing a necessary diachronic
analytical framework with which to examine critically the language and education
field. Maintaining this sense of historicity and critical reflexivity, while embracing the
latest developments in our field, is indeed precisely what sets this Encyclopedia apart.
ix
x Volume Editor’s Introduction to “Language, Education and Technology”
volume emerges from the unquestionably constitutive ways in which many areas of
educational practice, and life activity more broadly, are now affected by digital
mediation, a condition that creates opportunity but also friction, resistance, and
evidence for continuing global inequalities across world regions and social classes.
a resource for the production of identities and exploration of various ethnic, sexual,
and socioeconomic themes and societal conditions.
Part 2, Plurilingual Practices in Digital Contexts, remains focused on school
externalities. All chapters in this part continue many of the themes addressed in
Part 1, including use of multiple literacies, multimodality, and identity formation in a
variety of digital settings, here ranging from web-based communities to online
fandom and social media sites such as Facebook. A defining quality of the chapters
in this part, however, is an explicit emphasis on the use by participants of multiple
languages. As a brief meta-commentary, while multingualism is pervasively evident
in digital environments, terminology associated with the use of multiple languages
within and across communicative encounters has become increasingly complex. In
common usage, “plurilingualism” and “multilingualism” are often seen as semanti-
cally equivalent, but both terms have been critiqued in recent sociolinguistics
research as problematic ideological abstractions, as they evoke the notion of multiple
discrete and stable linguistic varieties rather than the mixing and hybridity that are
often evident in contemporary communicative repertoires (e.g., Blommaert 2010;
May 2014; Pennycook and Otsuji 2015). Terminology describing mixing and
hybridity include translanguaging, a descriptor for bilingualism that does not
observe diglossic functional separation of the linguistic resources used into separate
monolingual idealizations of independent languages (for a discussion, see
Blackledge and Creese 2010). Use of multiple semiotic resources from diverse
linguistic varieties within and across utterances has been described by García as
transglossia (2009), while the term polylingualism (e.g., Jørgensen 2008) refers to
the intentional use of multiple languages that may not typically be found in combi-
nation with one another (in digital contexts, see Thorne and Ivković 2015). The
chapters in this part use differing terminology, but each addresses the Internet as a
massive language contact zone and each illuminates various aspects of the multilin-
gual and linguistically hybridized communicative activity visible in many online
environments.
Wan Shun Eva Lam and Natalia Smirnov review research on migrant and
diaspora youth and address issues of mobility, transnationalism, and identity con-
struction in online interaction. Describing primarily ethnographic research, this
chapter emphasizes the resourcefulness illustrated in online participatory practices
and shows how young people access, remix, and propagate language and cultural
practices as they create transnational pathways and relationships across digital
spaces. In an examination of digitally mediated multilingual and multimodal prac-
tices, Sirpa Leppänen, Samu Kytölä, and Elina Westinen review investigations of
informal, interest-driven participation in contemporary technology contexts that
include issues of heteroglossia, resemiotization, and agentive opportunities for
exploration of multiple positionalities. This chapter also critically frames challenges
associated with the compatibility of informally acquired competences in relation to
formal education, the problem of Anglophone centrism, and the need to remain
vigilant regarding inequalities of access and participation in geopolitical peripheries
(i.e., the Global South). Concentrating on themes of popular media and participatory
culture, Shannon Sauro explores burgeoning online fandom communities that
Volume Editor’s Introduction to “Language, Education and Technology” xiii
include fanfiction archives, gaming forums, and online interest groups within social
media platforms. Research on such affinity spaces (Gee 2005) shows significant
relevance for language learning, opportunities for language socialization, and explo-
ration of identity construction that may be particularly helpful for marginalized
youth (see also Thorne et al. 2015). Sauro touches on pedagogical approaches for
interaction with fandom communities and elsewhere has designed curricula that
bring together task-based language teaching with participation in interest-driven
fandom communities (e.g., Sauro and Sundmark 2016). The final chapter in this
part, by Brook Bolander, continues to explore identity construction through an
examination of multimodal and often multilingual participation on the social net-
working site Facebook. By far the largest social networking site, with two billion
reported monthly users, Facebook use is perhaps most importantly positioned as
interwoven with identity construction in offline contexts (Bolander and Locher
2015). Bolander traces the global evolution of Facebook use, describes specific
Facebook practices such as status updates, reactions to status updates, and the
template-driven “about” section as acts of positioning and identity claims. The
chapter concludes with an insightful discussion of methodological and ethical
challenges to research on social networking sites and encourages continued and
internationally focused diachronic and longitudinal research on the relationship
between changes to the Facebook interface, mobile versus computer-based access
of the site, and effects on patterns of linguistic and multimodal communication.
Part 3, Technology in World/Second Language Education Contexts, is the largest
in this volume and comprises 13 chapters. While the previous two parts primarily
outlined broader themes and informal learning in digital contexts that are generally
exogenous to formal education, this part presents an array of pedagogical uses of
digital tools that interface with, or are situated within, instructed language-learning
settings. Also included are chapters focusing on teacher professional development,
computer-assisted assessment, open educational resources, and various second lan-
guage acquisition research perspectives on computer-assisted language learning (i.e.,
sociocultural theory and complex dynamic systems theory). This part begins with
two chapters addressing overarching issues, namely distance (or location indepen-
dent) language education and open education resources. Robert Blake synthesizes
research on the digital delivery of second language instruction across traditional,
blended, and fully online formats. He notes that there is an increase in student
interest (e.g., flexible scheduling), that digital materials can serve multiple instruc-
tional formats, and that despite understandable hesitation on the part of some
instructors, multimodal digital teaching and learning environments are here to stay
and have been demonstrated to foster learner autonomy and developmental benefits.
In his chapter, Carl Blyth describes the history and evolution of the open education
movement, focusing particularly on digital open education resources for foreign/
world language education. Supported by an ethos that promotes the openness of
intellectual property, open education encourages collaboration between educational
stakeholders, the creation of free and adaptable content for widely taught languages,
and makes available curricular resources for less commonly taught languages that
are less well served or entirely ignored by commercial publishers.
xiv Volume Editor’s Introduction to “Language, Education and Technology”
future of research in this area. Frederik Cornillie brings the focus back to education-
ally oriented or “serious” game environments and in particular, game-generated
feedback designed to support specific second language learning skills. As Cornillie
notes, for language educators, the key issue is how to harness game mechanics in
order to maintain a primary focus on meaning and communication while also
supporting attention to linguistic form. This chapter highlights the specific
affordances of different game genres, such as mini-games for focused practice on
form (e.g., DuoLingo), text-only games for reading, and fully immersive games for
collaborative activity and sustained engagement. The history, present, and near-
future state of virtual worlds is the subject of Randall Sadler’s contribution. The
chapter begins with a genealogy of virtual worlds, starting with a discussion of early
text-based virtualities that were the precursor to contemporary virtual worlds and
massively multiplayer online games. Sadler usefully contrasts present-day virtual
worlds with online gaming environments, noting both similarities – such as three-
dimensional rendered spaces and customizable avatar embodiment for players – but
also describes key differences, for example, that virtual worlds include little pre-
structured goal-directed activity and are primarily places for social interaction.
Sadler suggests that the next evolutionary step in virtual world interaction will likely
include virtual reality (VR) technologies, where users will have fully immersive
experiences with VR headsets that may also include haptic interfaces and a move
from “looking at the screen to feeling that they are part of the scene” (Sadler, this
volume).
The final two chapters in Part 1 address social networking sites (SNS), Twitter,
and microblogging, with an overarching focus on how such sites and the networks of
individuals and communities they bring together might be exploited for purposes of
second language learning. Jon Reinhardt acknowledges that social media is a broad
term referencing any Web 2.0 digital environment that enables the creation and
sharing content, from textual messages (e.g., Twitter) to video clips, remixes and
mashups (e.g., YouTube). He therefore bounds his focus to SNS as defined by Boyd
and Ellison’s (2007) criteria that include user profile construction, connection
traversing (friending others), and connection articulation and rearticulation
(commenting on and liking posts and status updates). Within this narrowed domain,
Reinhardt synthesizes second language research on uses of vernacular sites such as
Facebook and SNS designed specifically for language learning. Findings regarding
SNS use within instructed learning settings suggest that both vernacular and educa-
tionally designed SNS potentially make available opportunities for high engagement
social-relational uses of the target language. A cautionary note is pertinent, however,
in that students focused on curricular driven objectives and/or high stakes tests may
consider social media and the genre of language used in such settings tangential to
their academic goals. Lara Lomicka examines research on microblogging environ-
ments, the most dominant of which is Twitter. She acknowledges that robust second
language acquisition studies of Twitter use have been largely inconclusive, but notes
that Twitter use has been shown to enhance communication between students and
teachers, increase student production of language, and, through analysis of tweets,
has increased students’ awareness of aspects of the target language.
xviii Volume Editor’s Introduction to “Language, Education and Technology”
Part 5, the final in this volume, is titled Methods and Methodologies in Technol-
ogy and Language Education and includes four chapters that describe methodolog-
ical issues related to digital tools and environments. These chapters are diverse in
that they include conversation analytic methods for analyzing computer-mediated
communication, corpus linguistic methodologies for exploration of second language
acquisition, the use of digital instrumentation for the study of language awareness,
and eye-tracking technology applied to the analysis of computer-assisted language
learning activity. Given the complexity of analyzing the structure and patterns of
language use, the sequential dynamics of multiparty communication, and the many
cognitive and social factors and processes contributing to language acquisition, all of
which are relevant to any holistic account of human language development, it is
fitting to conclude the volume with these contributions.
Ethnomethodological conversation analysis (CA) has developed over the past 50
or so years to become one of the primary approaches for the study of naturalistic
conversation. Premised on core concepts such as language use as social action, turn
taking, the orderliness of sequence organization, and forms of repair (to name only a
few), CA began with an exclusive focus on face-to-face and voice (telephone)
communication. Following the advent of the Internet and explosive rise of digitally
mediated communication, CA has been applied to computer-mediated contexts as
well. Vincenza Tudini and Anthony Liddicoat orient their chapter toward CA studies
related to digital interaction in second language contexts, including voice and text
chat, video conferencing, intercultural communication in online exchanges, and
other elements of computer-mediated and computer-generated discourse (see also
Tudini 2010). In her chapter, Sylviane Granger describes uses of learner corpora
serving two primary functions, for making visible the mechanisms of second
language acquisition for researchers and as a source of data for language educators
that can help them directly address students’ attested linguistic difficulties. Various
learner corpora and their many research and pedagogical applications are described,
including contrastive interlanguage analysis, frequency analysis showing over and
underuse of linguistic elements, and studies that describe patterns of language use
not available in traditional approaches to grammar.
Christina Sanz and Beatriz Lado outline the benefits of various technologies for
the study of awareness in second language acquisition research. They begin by
describing the slippery nature of awareness and propose the definition that awareness
is an internal phenomenon that can be enhanced, or at least potentially affected, by
external attention-focusing techniques. They trace the incorporation of technologies
into language awareness research such as computers for reaction time studies,
tracking performance by click behavior, and most recently in neurolinguistic
research, the use of eye tracking and instrumentation. The latter include, among
others, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related potentials
(ERP) for mapping regions and networks of brain activity and isolating processes
associated with specific sensory, cognitive, and motor events. Speaking of eye
tracking, in the final chapter of this volume, Marije Michel and Bryan Smith review
research on computer-assisted language learning that employs this methodology.
Based on the existence of the linkages between eye movement behavior and
Volume Editor’s Introduction to “Language, Education and Technology” xix
allocation of attentional resources, eye tracking can help researchers know the focus
of current cognitive processing via analysis of fixations (stable eye movement on, for
example, a word of portion of the screen), saccades (movement between fixations),
and regressions (reinspection of earlier text). The authors posit that eye tracking
provides access to behaviorally observable evidence that in part mitigates the
problem of relying on a static written language interaction record when in fact real
time language processing, in both production and comprehension modes, is a
dynamic and time-sensitive event (Smith 2012).
In Closing
The 3rd edition of the Encyclopedia of Language and Education presents a unique
opportunity to bring together the expertise of internationally visible scholars in a
wide range of language- and education-related areas. This volume, Language,
Education and Technology, contributes 34 chapters that represent tremendous the-
matic, conceptual, theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical coverage, each
helping to form an expansive mosaic topology that maps ways in which language,
education, and technology interrelate with one another.
The contexts and empirical research discussed above represent many issues
relevant to language, technology, and education. Technology has catalyzed new
communicative hybridities and areas of scholarly inquiry; enabled new research
methodologies, assessment practices, and instructional formats; created new forms
of social connection and relationship maintenance; and altered the daily practices of
students and teachers. Participation in social media and online gaming environments
has the potential to propel language learners beyond the confines of the institutional
identity of “student” by fraying the boundaries separating language study from social
life, student from player, and information consumer from knowledge contributor. As
has also been mentioned at various points in this introduction, in some cases
technology has also exacerbated inequalities, increased disenfranchisement, and
produced dystopic social and psychological effects, suggesting that continued vig-
ilance and the cultivation of empathy and criticality are necessary as we move
forward in our collective production of a preferred future.
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Acknowledgment
xxiii
Contents
xxix
xxx About the Editors
Martin East
John Hellerman
Jon Reinhardt
Lawrence Williams
xxxiii
Contributors
Karin Tusting
Abstract
This article outlines research on digital literacies which takes a social practice
perspective, approaching digital literacies in real-life contexts as part of ecologies
of communicative practices, and draws out the implications of this work for
education. Early contributions are summarized, including analyses of hypertext
and multimodality and debates around the extent to which language online
changed from more speech-like to more writing-like forms. Major contributions
are then described. These include work on young people’s everyday literacy
practices, showing how these can transform established understandings of social
status and expertise, work which focuses on literacies for informal learning in
online settings and in video gaming, the nature of learning in communities in
online communicative contexts, and challenges to dominant discourses and moral
panics. Current areas of work in progress are identified including gaming and
virtual worlds, curation, multilingual digital literacies, and language learning
online. Challenges include clashes between the understandings generated by
this research and drawn on in some policies and the powerful accountability
regimes based on pen-and-paper testing which still frame many educational
systems, the need to develop appropriate research methods and ethical challenges
in this area, and the imperative of continuing to ensure a diversity of research sites
to avoid focusing only on the practices of the privileged. Future directions for
research are briefly addressed including the role of digital literacies in social
movements and the need for more research in coding literacies.
Keywords
Digital literacies • Multimodality • Information and communication technologies •
New Literacy Studies • Digital pedagogies
K. Tusting (*)
Literacy Research Centre, Department of Linguistics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Early Developments Including Initial Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Introduction
The possibilities afforded by digital technologies have transformed the way we work,
learn, and live. Our social world is mediated by texts, and much of this depends on
digital supports (Barton and Lee 2013). Mobile devices like smartphones and tablets
have become embedded in our everyday lives. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and
YouTube have made it easy for anyone to publish online. As Greenhow and Robelia
(2009) argue, there are important implications of these shifts for education. People
are bringing into education practices of participation and identities that are shaped by
their engagement in online environments.
The broad arena of research in language and technology has developed into a
range of fields, many of which focus on the language used in digital settings, drawing
on content, discourse, or narrative analysis (e.g., Herring 2004). The predominant
focus in this chapter is not on this discourse-focused research but on research which
addresses digital literacies as social practices, that is, as ways in which people draw
on and use material meaning-making resources in particular social, cultural, and
economic contexts (Barton 2007), with attention to the values, ideologies, power
relationships, and cultural understandings tied up in these practices. This perspective
is associated with research which engages with users directly, in addition to analyzing
online content. Jones and Hafner (2012) underline that we always draw on technol-
ogies, tools, and platforms in relation to each other, so it is important to think about
digital technological practices as part of complex ecologies, rather than to focus on
the affordances of single tools in isolation. Studies of literacies in social context
therefore engage with the use of digital devices and technologies as part of the
broader ecology of communicative practices.
In early work researching the Web, attention was given to the possibilities offered by
hypertext for making new kinds of reading possible. These are explored in Kaplan’s
(1995) piece on “e-literacies.” Unlike many technologically deterministic commen-
tators of the time, she insists on the social origins and effects of electronic literacy.
Ecologies of Digital Literacies: Implications for Education 5
Her punning title, “e-literacies,” refers both to the reading and writing resources
specific to electronic texts and to the socioeconomic elites whose interests might be
served by these. Her hypertext links include extended passages from the authors she
cites, so it is a useful essay to look back on for an overview of debates at that time.
One key early area of debate around online literacies was the nature of language in
digital settings, particularly whether language online mixes characteristics of speech
and writing. An influential article from Baron (1998) addresses the language of email,
claiming that email brings together characteristics of written and spoken language.
Crystal (2006, first edition 2001) argued that a new language variety called “Netspeak”
is emerging. This shows characteristics of both speech and writing, is associated with a
particular lexicon including many acronyms, has ways of signaling paralinguistic
features with the use of symbols and emoticons, and has distinctive spelling.
Other early works focused on multimodality. Snyder (1998) looks at the implica-
tions of the shift from page to screen in a context of rapid change, addressing the
widening gulf between expert students and novice teachers. Multimodal communi-
cative practices in a globalized networked world were further explored in Snyder and
Beavis (2004), showing the uneven distribution of information and communication
technologies across the world. Chapters address what it takes to become competent in
a domain where words, symbols, images, and artifacts combine to create complex-
situated meanings; how different skills and experiences in this area can transfer
across domains, for instance, between home and school; and where these processes
are being blocked.
Work by Kress (2000) and colleagues has been particularly significant in this area.
He identified how the multimodal possibilities afforded by new technologies alter our
whole approach to communication, with school textbooks often looking more like a
Web page than like a traditional written text. Building on this, Jewitt (2005) argues
writing is becoming increasingly visual in character, with the traditional domination
of the word being unsettled by the predominance of the image, and that educators
need to develop new understandings of this.
A pedagogical approach to the multimodal communicative landscape was devel-
oped in Cope and Kalantzis (2000). This work is framed by an analysis of the
contemporary communicative situation as characterized by multimodality, multilin-
gualism, diversity, and post-Fordism. They develop a detailed framework for a
pedagogy of multiliteracies which aims to enable students to engage in new literacy
practices, producing, using, critiquing, and challenging multimodal texts.
Some early work in this area, particularly in the speech/writing debate, was fairly
technologically determinist, addressing changes to literacy and language practices as
if technology itself were responsible for generating these differences. Other work
insisted on the importance of the social context in shaping the practices which
emerged. Reinking et al. (1998) explored key differences between printed and
electronic texts, such as the interactivity, multimodality and nonlinearity of digital
forms, and the implications of these for redefining what it means to read and write,
inside and outside classrooms. The case studies in the book demonstrate that trans-
formations in technology, society, culture, and literacy need to be understood as part
of a sociocultural tapestry.
6 K. Tusting
Major Contributions
Major contributions of work in this area from a literacy studies approach have
developed this perspective, through studying digital literacy practices in real-life
contexts. As Barton and Lee (2013) and Gillen (2014) point out, work which seeks to
understand digital literacy and language in its social and discursive context enables
effective engagement with and critique of unsupported generalizations, both in
giving close attention to the specific details of how language is used and in under-
standing the contexts and structures within which this takes place.
Research which studies people’s everyday digital literacy practices has helped us
to understand their characteristics. Often, these studies have worked with young
people, exploring the implications of their practices for education and aiming to
understand how young people are adopting and adapting new literacies. Early studies
such as those in Alvermann (2002) showed how “new” literacies were rapidly
becoming part and parcel of everyday life for adolescents. Articles in Carrington
and Marsh (2005) similarly identified a “paradigm shift” in communicative practices,
showing how in a range of settings the production and use of digital texts by young
people were becoming not “new” but “normal.”
In the Digital Youth Project (Ito et al. 2010), nearly 40 researchers collaborated in
a range of ethnographic studies working with hundreds of young people to under-
stand their engagement with new media, digital literacies, and learning. They iden-
tified three different genres of engagement characterizing these patterns. Most young
people engaged in “hanging out,” using digital literacies to engage with their existing
Ecologies of Digital Literacies: Implications for Education 7
social networks of friends and extending these networks online. A lot of them were,
in addition, “messing around” – following up a wide variety of interests, using digital
literacies to access information online. And a smaller number ended up “geeking
out,” following up an interest such as programming in depth, linking into networks of
other experts and developing expertise together online. These practices turned
traditional social norms upside down, with social status emerging from being expert
within the community, rather than from other aspects like age or class. All these
genres of participation and learning involved social engagement with others online,
driven by young people’s own interests and concerns.
Taking an ecological perspective on new literacies has helped to develop new
understandings of learning, by examining the ways people learn to engage with new
literacies, which are often very different from traditional ideas about how people
learn. Barton and Lee (2013) underline the importance of the learning which is going
on constantly in online spaces using language and literacy, informally and in com-
munities, in a predominantly self-directed and autonomous way. For instance, Barton
(2012) explores the nature of informal learning on Flickr, showing how people
extend their learning both of photography and of writing (including in different
languages) through participation in informal social engagement and following delib-
erate learning projects which change over time as they develop expertise.
Meyers et al. (2013) highlight the importance of informal learning using digital
literacies in contemporary society, arguing that the boundaries of learning spaces are
fluid and that informal learning through digital literacy needs to be understood as
being an intrinsic part of our learning ecosystem, requiring a broader definition of
“literacy” than many contemporary discourses adopt. They highlight the need to
move beyond a focus on skills and instead to understand how people take advantage
of the possibilities afforded to them by socio-technical networks for learning and for
connecting with others. Papers in this special issue study a range of informal learning
contexts, including a fan writers’ forum (Lammers), gaming within and beyond
classrooms (Reynolds), and learning on YouTube (Tan), to show interactions
between formal and informal learning contexts.
A different perspective on learning is developed in Gee’s (2003) video games
research. Video games can be long, hard to master, and frustrating. Yet many are very
popular, with gamers devoting huge amounts of time to mastering them, in contrast to
much of what goes on in schools, where keeping students’ attention can be a
challenge. Gee argues that by understanding the principles of learning of game
design, we can understand more about all learning. He develops 36 principles of
learning, including active, critical learning, seeing interrelationships, being rewarded
for achievement, incremental learning of tasks at an appropriate level of difficulty,
discovering situated meanings, and being part of a learning community. Thomas’
(2005) study of adolescents playing online role-playing games shows their learning
in community as they engage in both playing their characters and in discussions on a
Web-based forum, including poetry recitals and storytelling, fan fiction, and critique.
She claims that the level these children reach in this arena may exceed the expecta-
tions of their teachers in schools and that this participation fulfils needs for belonging
and development which schools do not address. Similar arguments are made through
8 K. Tusting
Bulfin and North’s (2007) case studies of the literacy practices of teenagers in
Melbourne, Australia, which show students engaging in practices which flow
between home and school environments, leveraging their expertise to renegotiate
the affordances of school systems and find ways of drawing on their out-of-school
practices in the classroom, in ways which both support and challenge the agendas of
teachers.
The social aspect of much of this learning is very clear.
Early work by Rheingold (1993) identified the centrality of communities even
from the earliest days of the Internet, and this has remained a common theme. From
the mid-2000s, the shift to Web 2.0 and the participatory Internet has led to a huge
expansion in the online communities and networks people interact with. These are
new kinds of social groupings which require new ways of thinking about how we
interact together. Gee’s (2005) work on affinity spaces and semiotic social spaces
opened up this area for exploration, showing how affinity spaces could be associated
with different social languages. Davies (2006) showed the rise of communities of
photo-sharers learning together on Flickr, with the site enabling reciprocal teaching
and learning partnerships, generating new meanings and discourses, in a dynamic
multimodal learning community. Black’s (2006) analysis of online learning in the
communities on fanfiction sites illustrates how second language learning is supported
in an interest-driven space. Ito et al.’s (2010) research, described above, identifies the
importance of “voluntary spaces of participation,” peer and interest-driven networks
in which people choose to learn together.
Work with families and young children has shown how digital literacies extend
into the lives of the very young, providing new sets of affordances for children’s
learning from an early age. Burnett (2010) highlights the gap between the multi-
modal, screen-based experiences of sensemaking and literacy of many children at
home, revealed by studies such as Marsh (2004) and Carrington (2005a), and their
book- and paper-based experience of literacy in early years education. In a useful
review of research, she argues that educational settings which do not engage with
these practices, whether because of policies, dominant discourses about dangers of
screen-based learning in the early years, lack of knowledge, or lack of resources,
become increasingly anachronistic.
A significant amount of public discourse around digital and online literacy
practices highlights fears and concerns, with “moral panics” (Cohen 1972) arising
regularly in media and policy discourses around new technologies. Often these are to
do with changes in language, suggesting, for instance, that “text language” is starting
to be used in inappropriate settings, or with the effects on users of such transforma-
tions, such as losing the capacity to spell correctly or to concentrate on extended
texts. It is often suggested that language itself is being negatively affected by online
interaction, a position challenged by linguists such as Thurlow (2006) and Jones and
Hafner (2012). Other “moral panics” have included the effects of video games
(particularly “violent” ones) on young people’s social and moral development and
damaging social practices like bullying and sexual shaming on social media.
Research in new literacies from a social practice perspective can test out these
issues by observing people’s actual practices. Carrington (2005b) analyzes public
Ecologies of Digital Literacies: Implications for Education 9
discourses about mobile phone texting, critiquing a discursive chain linking texting,
youth, declining standards, poor academic achievement, and social breakdown.
Beavis and Charles (2005) challenge the notion that simulation games like The
Sims encourage gendered patterns in game play, showing how teenagers playing
the game in Australian schools used it to subvert traditional gendered practices. But
in a social situation where the dominant discourse includes this level of fear and
suspicion, it can be hard for the positive messages of research to be taken up in
constructive ways.
Work in Progress
Work in progress in this area addresses new and emerging practices and their
implications for education. Gaming is attracting increasing attention, with
researchers exploring learning and literacy in virtual worlds like Minecraft (Dezuanni
et al. 2015), Club Penguin (Marsh 2012), and massively multiplayer online role-
playing games (MMORPGs, Steinkuehler 2007). Merchant et al. (2013) bring
together a range of studies of children and young people learning in virtual worlds
and other interactive online spaces. They highlight the role of young people as active
agents, engaging in playful and creative ways with the possibilities afforded by these
spaces to build new kinds of social relationships and new forms of meaning-making.
By bringing together studies of vernacular and informal settings with research in
innovative educational environments using virtual worlds, they show the need to
rethink pedagogies and teacher-student relationships in these new kinds of
environments.
Another emergent theme is curation. Potter and Gilje (2015), introducing a special
issue of E-learning and Digital Media, claim that curation – “collecting, cataloguing,
arranging and assembling for exhibition and displaying” (p. 125) – is a new kind of
literacy practice, with new learning identities and authorships developing as people
collect and display online artifacts. This special issue explores curation in a range of
online settings including digital media production (Terras, Ramsey, and Boyle),
discussions of Minecraft on- and off-line (Dezuanni, O’Mara, and Beavis), film
and media production in school contexts (Doerr-Stevens, Dejayne), and Facebook
and learning management systems (Birkeland, Drange, and Tønnessen).
Increasing attention is also being paid to the multilingual nature of literacies online
and the potential of this for language learning. Researchers are beginning to see the
Internet as an “ecology of multilingual environments” (Thorne et al. 2015: 215),
providing spaces in which people can curate their online identity drawing on the
different linguistic resources available to them, engaging with communities of
speakers of different languages, and engaging in language learning both explicitly
and implicitly. Thorne et al. (2009) show how informal contexts such as fanfiction
forums, virtual worlds, and online gaming are characterized by intense socialization
into new forms of communicative practices, supporting language learning through
creativity, identity development, and management. Lee (2007) shows Hong Kong
teenagers creatively mixing English and Chinese writing in their instant messaging
10 K. Tusting
practices, and Barton and Lee (2013) develop the significance of the Internet as a
multilingual space.
The research described above suggests that the way to prepare students for the digital
world is to facilitate playful, explorative communities of peers following up their
interests, moving from expert-novice relationships to a relationship of equals explor-
ing together, with activities being realistically responsive to the broader social
ecology, and teachers and students prepared to go in unexpected directions. Many
national educational policies do now highlight the need to develop twenty-first-
century skills (Jenkins 2009) in discourses that echo those of transnational organi-
zations (OECD 2013).
However, this is difficult to achieve in a world in which more and more central-
ized, prescriptive curricula are being introduced, assessed by pen-and-paper skills
testing at increasingly regular intervals, which leaves little space for unstructured,
fluid explorations of ecologies of new literacies in the classroom (Luke 2002) – what
Lankshear and Knobel (2011: 9) call the “standards-testing-accountability-perfor-
mance” model. Bigum (2002) argues that schools have often “domesticated” new
technologies, adapting them to fit in with existing school culture and practice rather
than using them as they are used in the world beyond schooling. Burnett et al. (2014)
present a collection of studies of “twenty-first-century literacies” around the world to
support a critique of traditionalist discourses around education and literacy and
particularly the associated accountability and testing regimes, calling for pedagogical
approaches which recognize the range of practices students bring with them and the
diversity of meaning-making possibilities, supporting the development of an
empowering literacy education which adopts a critical perspective on the social
context of literacies. Furthermore, given the rapid pace of change in this field,
many teachers know far less about this area than (some of) their students.
Questions also remain open as to the most appropriate methods to use to research
this rapidly changing and developing area. Much of the work outlined above draws
on ethnographic methods, but how to incorporate the traditional participant-
observation approach to understand communicative practices that take place both
on- and off-line, in a range of virtual and real spaces in different and rapidly changing
communities, remains a challenge. A variety of approaches have been developed to
address this. Androutsopoulos (2008) has developed “discourse-centered online
ethnography,” which begins with a systematic analysis of the discourse online
(in his case working with linguistic analysis of hip-hop Websites and their networks)
and then engages more directly with the people who produced these texts through
interviews. Davies and Merchant (2007) used auto-ethnographic methods to research
their own blogging, highlighting their development of public identities as academic
bloggers, their membership of networks and communities, and their affective expe-
riences. Other approaches focus on the mediated action as the site of research
engagement. Jones (2004) highlights the need to begin from the perspective of seeing
Ecologies of Digital Literacies: Implications for Education 11
online engagement as actions rather than texts while at the same time addressing the
multimodal nature of the communications that these actions construct.
Ethical issues around researching digital literacies remain matters for debate.
People may, for instance, post on public forums which are potentially available to
researchers to analyze, without any expectation that their words will be analyzed in
this way, making the notion of “informed consent” problematic. Such issues are
considered in ongoing fashion by organizations like the Association of Internet
Researchers (e.g., Markham and Buchanan 2012) and addressed in more detail in
publications like Page et al. (2014) and require careful consideration in all research in
this area.
One of the challenges raised by research in this area is the need to ensure focus is
broadened beyond the practices of Western privileged middle-class in well-resourced
countries. Prinsloo and Rowsell (2012: 271), introducing a special issue on technol-
ogies in marginalized contexts, claim that “Much of the digital and new media
research takes place in predominantly Anglo-American or middle-class contexts,”
and their collection of papers shows how inequalities of power, pedagogy, and
resources are clearly shaping the affordances available. Nevertheless, Mills (2010),
in a survey of empirical research in this area published between 1999 and 2009,
argues that a lot of work addressing digital literacies from a New Literacy Studies
perspective is carried out in diverse contexts, challenging dominant assumptions
about digital literacies.
Future Directions
Future directions in this area can be hard to predict. Digital literacy practices are
changing faster than research can follow them. We do not know what changes may be
ahead, but we do know that there will be changes – what Alvermann (in the preface to
Lankshear and Knobel 2011) calls the “permanency of the new.” The meanings of
such practices are open and emergent, developing unpredictably as people work with
and reconfigure the affordances of the platforms they are using for their own purposes
(Santo 2011). It is impossible to predict the affordances which people will perceive
from new technologies, some of which – such as using hashtags on Twitter to identify
particular topics – may be completely unforeseen even by the designers of the
technologies (Greenhow and Gleason 2012). And it can be difficult to tell which
practices will remain and develop and which are short-lived trends.
Having said this, though, there are areas of research which appear potentially
fruitful at the moment. Interest in the area of digital literacy practices in the devel-
opment of critical social movements has been sparked by the role of Twitter,
Facebook, and other social networks in movements such as the Arab Spring and
Occupy, in which digital literacy practices made possible rapid informal learning and
communication across multiple networks (Gleason 2013). More generally, the impor-
tance of drawing on this research to maintain a critical stance toward social media
remains (Burnett and Merchant 2011). There has to date been little work from this
perspective on the more technical aspects of digital literacy practices such as coding
12 K. Tusting
(currently being introduced into many school curricula), and this is clearly an area for
future development. Questions are arising around the use of “big data” by corpora-
tions and governments to produce representations of ourselves that we have little
control over and to shape the affordances made available to us. Further analysis is
needed of the way the designs of digital platforms, and the algorithms driving them,
shape particular kinds of ideologies and approaches to the world and therefore
change the nature of people’s practices. These areas, along with many of those
mentioned above, will continue to make the study of digital literacies and their
implications for education a significant area.
Cross-References
Kevin Leader and Cynthia Lewis: Literacy and Internet Technologies. In Volume:
Literacies and Language Education
Brian Street: New Literacies, New Times: Developments in Literacy Studies.
In Volume: Literacies and Language Education
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Language, Ideology, and Critical Digital
Literacy
Ron Darvin
Abstract
Technology has revolutionized the way we produce and exchange information
and developed new modes of communication and socialization. Implicated in
relations of power, these digitally mediated practices are not ideologically neutral.
They shape the representation of meanings and identities, the circulation of
knowledge, the construction of social networks and formations, redefining
notions of private and public space, while privileging and marginalizing ideas,
cultures, and people. As technology increasingly becomes an integral component
of learning, this chapter asserts that learners must develop a critical digital
literacy to become more aware of how power operates in digital spaces, shaping
ways of thinking and doing that are implicated in social and cultural reproduction.
By sharpening this critical lens, learners equip themselves with the capacity to
examine linguistic and nonlinguistic features of digital media, their biases and
assumptions, in order to verify information and access the truth.
Keywords
Critical Literacy • Digital Literacy • Language • Power
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Representation of Meaning and Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
The Circulation of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Construction of Social Networks and Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Issues of Control and Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
R. Darvin (*)
Department of Language and Literacy Education, University of British Columbia, Education Centre
at Ponderosa Commons, Vancouver, BC, Canada
e-mail: [email protected]
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Introduction
Technology has instigated a fourth revolution in knowledge production (Harnad
1991), and by accelerating the speed through which ideas are processed and shared,
it fortifies a knowledge economy where the production, distribution, and exchange
of information are vital. As people and ideas traverse transnational spaces with
greater fluidity, new means of representation and spaces of socialization also provide
greater opportunities for the construction of identities and networks. These practices
of “communicating, relating, thinking and ‘being’ associated with digital media”
(Jones and Hafner 2012, p. 13) or digital literacies have not only reconfigured
epistemological and social landscapes but also transformed identifications, alle-
giances, and notions of citizenship. As social practices (Street 2003), these new
literacies are implicated in the power structures of the different contexts where they
are developed, performed, and valued (Heath and Street 2008; Norton and Williams
2012; Prinsloo and Rowsell 2012; Warschauer 2009). To examine how power
operates in these multiple spaces requires a more critical understanding of the
“differentiated, situated and enculturated ways in which digital practices happen”
(Snyder and Prinsloo 2007, p. 173).
Because of the shared capacity to construct, redesign, and disseminate infor-
mation through the digital, truth becomes more open to interpretation and rein-
vention. In an era of “post-truth,” not only is knowledge acquisition now more
contextual and situational (Luke 2014), but the ideological mechanisms that
govern the production of truth within digital spaces become more invisible. To
dissect how power operates in these processes of digital production, consumption,
and socialization, learners need to develop a critical literacy that will allow them
to filter through the abundance of information, to contest, deconstruct, and
critique in order to discover legitimate knowledge (Luke 2003). Recognizing
how language and other symbolic forms can be a powerful means to maintain
and reproduce modes of exclusion, critical literacy also confronts how issues of
access, diversity, and design are implicated in structures of power (Janks 2000),
shaping identities, relationships, and interactions in unequal ways. As a conver-
gence of both digital and critical literacies, critical digital literacy examines how
the operation of power within digital contexts shapes knowledge, identities, social
relations, and formations in ways that privilege some and marginalize others. It
equips learners with the tools to examine the linguistic and nonlinguistic features
of digital media, to identify their embedded biases and assumptions, in order to
access the truth.
Language, Ideology, and Critical Digital Literacy 19
Early Developments
When electronic text forms and practices were just beginning to change the commu-
nication landscape, Peters and Lankshear (1996) called for a critical literacy that
would respond to the shifting textual environment and challenge “enclosured” forms
of consciousness. Highlighting the dematerialized, interactive, integrative, and
manipulable nature of the digital text, these scholars explained how these features
enabled greater intertextuality and hybridity, while posing new possibilities and
challenges for language and literacy education. Recognizing the attendant dangers
of the new digital environment – increased state surveillance, vulnerability to break-
down and sabotage, and risks of cultural imperialism, the paper posited the need for a
critical literacy that continually analyzed and evaluated how the digital transforms not
only textual and discursive practices, but ultimately ways of doing and being.
In the same year, the New London Group (1996) highlighted how the increasing
variety of text forms linked to information and multimedia technologies had great
implications for teaching literacy. In proposing a pedagogy of multiliteracies, this
group articulated critical framing as an important objective. Through this goal,
learners are able to link situated practice and overt instruction to the “historical,
social, cultural, political, ideological, and value-centred relations of particular sys-
tems of knowledge and social practice” (p. 34). Recognizing that website content
may manipulate readers and obscure an ideological agenda, Labbo et al. (1998)
pointed out how digital literacy requires being both a critical consumer and producer
of information. They defined critical digital literacy as “the ability to recognize,
interpret, and evaluate underlying ideologies in various types of hypertextually
linked information as it is presented in various data sources” (p. 282). Primarily
concerned with being able to bridge the digital literacies learned at school with those
required in the workplace, the authors assert that this critical approach is necessary to
20 R. Darvin
strategically navigate through data, and that teachers need to receive the support
necessary to develop these literacies.
Luke (2003) observed that with new media, meaning making and knowledge are
deterritorialized, and that the fluidity and plurality of engagement are marked by
simultaneous decoding, production, and interactional contexts. Making meaning
from hypertexts thus require greater lateral thinking – a cognitive mobility across
disciplines, genres, modalities, and cultural zones. Recognizing the risks and poten-
tial of information and communication technologies (ICTs), Luke proposed a critical
ICT literacy that would include “a metaknowledge, a critical and self-reflective
analysis of the sociocultural and political contexts of ICTs at global and local levels”
(p. 399). Beyond skills training and use of collaborative tools, she asserted the need
for critical analyses of power relations, identity politics, and language generated by
and through engaging with technology. Challenging the assumption that online
communication is hierarchy-free, she believed there should be a way to investigate
whether this equity exists, and if students of different cultural or linguistic back-
grounds are able to participate freely in these spaces. Activating this critical ICT
literacy requires a metaknowledge, a self-reflective analysis of the sociocultural and
political contexts of technologies at local and global levels. As online literacies
evolve, educational theorizing and research must devise more flexible concepts and
methodologies that involve a provisional and transformational epistemology.
In a report on media education in the twenty-first century, Jenkins (2006)
suggested that new media literacies should be considered a social skill and that to
engage within participatory cultures should involve a capacity to think critically
about information that is shared within these diverse spaces. Learners need to
acquire a critical understanding of how media representations “structure our percep-
tions of the world, the economic and cultural contexts within which mass media is
produced and circulated, the motives and goals that shape the media they consume”
(p. 31). By developing a critical awareness of how media frames worldviews and
reshapes experience according to its code and conventions, learners are able to
evaluate the quality of information technology has made highly accessible. Drawing
from Giroux’s (1994) notion of critical pedagogy, Merchant (2007) identified critical
digital literacy as an important component of literacy education. Developing a
critical lens is a responsibility of the educational system, and this entails providing
learners with tools to analyze discourses related to wider social issues, power
relationships, and inequities. While there is a need to nurture and preserve new
digital spaces, there should also be a means to understand their constructed nature.
As learners participate in these spaces, critical digital literacy enables them to
critique and challenge the dominant discourses circulating within these domains.
Major Contributions
for 21st Century Skills 2011) identify information, media, and ICT literacies as
including both functional and critical thinking skills. In this context, developing new
literacies is viewed as necessary to participate as a productive member of the
knowledge economy. Concerned with how technology contributes to the collective
intelligence in a knowledge society, Poore (2011) refers to these two tiers of digital
literacy. Functional digital literacy deals with developing technical skills and chang-
ing mindsets and attitudes towards technology through workshops and training.
Critical digital literacy, on the other hand, examines digital contexts in a more
cultural sense and requires having teachers equipped with philosophical and ethical
frameworks for understanding digital cultures. As teachers guide learners through
the emerging knowledge space, they need to help bridge a digital divide constructed
by differential access to information, relationships, and networks.
Addressing this gap is also important to Facer (2011), who believes critical skills
are key to building strategic knowledge that will contribute to social change. Given
the ubiquity of online information, learners need to develop the capacity to discern
the relationship of information to other information, to goals and interests, and to the
contexts in which it is used. By understanding how the management of information
flows impacts the lives of other people, learners are able to participate in a new
culture of informal learning where technology can transform homes, neighborhoods,
and workplaces into an integrated learning society that benefits diverse groups of
people.
Because new technologies provide an immersive, interactive experience,
Wohlwend and Lewis (2011) use critical engagement to describe the critical inter-
pretation and production of digital literacies. As visual and embodied texts and
virtual spaces circulate through global flows, they become both universalizing and
fragmenting. Critical engagement enables an examination of how the motives of
information and communication providers can shape the dissemination of knowl-
edge, how participatory cultures can expand or limit the construction of texts and
social networks, and how power relations are inscribed in the practices and norms of
digital environments. Subscribing to the notion that emotion is structured through
ideology, these scholars posit that the critical interpretation and production of digital
literacies is bound to complex desires, and should therefore examine how digital
practices are tied to expressions of passions, attachments, and affiliations.
Because digital media does not just enable the production and consumption of
texts, but facilitates ways of thinking, relating, and interacting with others, critical
digital literacy encompasses these affordances. Research in this area examines how
power and ideology operates in the digital practices of representing identities,
producing and circulating knowledge, constructing social networks and formations,
and managing control and access.
At the very heart of critical literacy is the examination of how meanings are
represented in ways that maintain and reproduce relations of power. While the
22 R. Darvin
Another way technology can limit the perception of the world is the systematic
filtering of knowledge through algorithms. While people generally regard the Inter-
net as open arenas where free exploration is the norm, online search technologies
choose routes that are determined by programmed algorithms. The algorithmic
assessment of information represents a specific logic built on certain presumptions
of what knowledge is and the categories in which specific information belongs. By
deciding what the categories are and what belongs in each one, this fundamental
component of database design and management becomes a powerful semantic and
political intervention. It makes assertions of the nature of things, while concealing
these evaluative criteria, which are held as trade secrets. The “trending” algorithm of
Twitter, for instance, cannot be made public because this would leave them vulner-
able to those who may want to manipulate the system to get their sites to the top of
the search results or want their hashtags to appear on the trends list (Gillespie 2014).
Because of these conditions, the algorithm becomes a legitimate knowledge logic,
where commercial interests are integrated and protected. Search directory editors
and website designers lobby for specific sites and sponsored links to appear at the top
of search results. Some studies have also noted how structural biases of search
Language, Ideology, and Critical Digital Literacy 23
engines can prioritize commercial information providers and English language sites
(Granka 2010). By operating through these biases, public search tools lead to a
hegemonic rationality that privileges certain sources of information, while excluding
others (Kirkpatrick 2008).
Work in Progress
Drawing from the New London Group’s (1996) conception of design as a key
component of literacy education, Pangrazio (2016) proposes critical digital design
as a political model of digital literacy where understandings of discourse, ideology,
and power are scaffolded in the critique. Multimodal features of digital texts are
analyzed in parallel with the general architecture of technology and the Internet to
dissect how these structures reproduce systems of power and privilege. Rather than
focusing on specific technologies, the critical framework also begins with a more
personal position that reflects on one’s beliefs and emotions and refers to individu-
alized practice. Recognizing that ideology is intrinsic to the affective experiences of
texts, it links personal responses to digital texts to broader ideological concerns.
Through a “transcendental critique,” (p.8) learners create a sense of distance from
Language, Ideology, and Critical Digital Literacy 25
not just ignore but stigmatize the literacy practices in these social networking sites
(Thorne 2013).
Another challenge in developing this critical digital literacy is that it necessitates
an understanding of complex technical processes and political economic mecha-
nisms. Luke (2014) points out that mere digital engagement is not a critical literacy
approach. Critical literacy uses media “to analyze, critique, and transform the norms,
rule systems, and practices governing the social fields of institutions and everyday
life” (p. 20). It seeks to reshape political consciousness, material conditions, and
social relations, and examines how new literacies can transform both local and
geopolitical relations of power. Because they are developed through a historical
materialist lens, critical literacies have no universal model and are contingent on
local realities. As digital practices of knowledge circulation, identity representation,
and social network construction are carried out within capitalist infrastructure and
are implicated in consumer culture, the power asymmetries of digital contexts
intersect with a complex political economic order. The challenge in dissecting
these contexts is that it requires a new vocabulary to critique the economic structures,
flows, and forces through which the digital thrives. At the same time, a critical
approach also involves an examination of the complex interplay of information
processing, software dynamics, linguistic processes, and cultural practices that are
at work within these digital platforms. Software has become a technocultural actor
that shapes users’ cultural experiences of and through the web and reflects assump-
tions of roles, hierarchies, and practices. To examine how these biases and assump-
tions are embedded in digital platforms thus requires technical knowledge that is not
highly accessible (Langlois 2013).
Apart from the challenge of developing technical and political economic knowl-
edge, Pangrazio (2014) points out that current terms in digital studies mask their
ideological underpinnings and impede critical thought. Labels such as “participatory
culture” (Jenkins 2006) and “networked public” (Boyd 2014), for instance, connote
freedom, democracy, and civic engagement while concealing the gatekeeping mea-
sures and fragmented nature of these spaces. The word “user” reflects neoliberal
ideology that positions the individual as a consumer of resources rather than an
engaged citizen. To challenge these connotations, critical discourse analysis needs to
dissect assumed meanings of concepts like free, friend, link, like, and open in digital
contexts and to rearticulate these concepts with a counterhegemonic impetus.
Future Directions
Responding to the need for a more critical understanding of how power operates in
digital contexts, Darvin and Norton (2015) have developed a model of learning that
locates investment at the intersection of identity, capital, and ideology (See Fig. 1).
Extending theories of identity and investment developed in Norton’s earlier work
(Norton Peirce 1995; Norton 2013) to address the realities of a digital age, the model
recognizes that as learners retreat into private, isolated spaces and navigate both
online and offline worlds, the mechanisms of ideology become more invisible. This
Language, Ideology, and Critical Digital Literacy 27
affordances /
perceived benefits
IDENTITY CAPITAL
INVESTMENT
systemic patterns
positioning of control
IDEOLOGY
Recognizing how digital practices have the power to privilege some and margin-
alize others, Hull and Stornaiuolo (2014) have invoked the construct of cosmopol-
itanism to guide digital production and consumption. By enabling a “global culture
of open-mindedness” (Hansen 2010) and an awareness of one’s role as “citizen of
the world,” cosmopolitanism calls for an understanding of the ethics of communi-
cating and participating in a digitally mediated world. Hence, while critical digital
literacy exposes how power operates in this world, cosmopolitanism shapes dispo-
sitions that allow learners to navigate this world with greater respect and responsi-
bility. It enables them to value diverse knowledges, cultures, and identities, and
develop a greater openness to the world (Delanty 2006), while addressing the
material inequalities that circumscribe it. By complementing critical digital literacy
with a cosmopolitan imagination, learners are able to understand that critique is not
an endpoint, but a means to achieve genuine social transformation in an increasingly
digital world.
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Multimodal Discourses Across
the Curriculum
Carey Jewitt
Abstract
Multimodality approaches representation and communication as something more
than language. It attends to the complex repertoire of semiotic resources and
organizational means through which people make meaning – image, speech,
gesture, writing, three-dimensional forms, and so on. A social semiotic approach
to multimodality sets out to reveal how processes of meaning making (i.e.,
signification and interpretation or what is called semiosis) shape individuals
and societies. In this chapter, we use multimodality to refer to “multimodal social
semiotics” (Kress, Multimodality: A social semiotic approach to contemporary
communication. London: Routledge, 2010). Its basic assumption is that meanings
derive from social action and interaction using semiotic resources as tools. A
variety of disciplines and theoretical approaches can be used to explore different
aspects of the multimodal landscape (Jewitt, The Routledge handbook of multi-
modal analysis. London: Routledge, 2014). Psychological theories can be applied
to look at how people perceive different modes or to understand the impact of one
mode over another on memory, for example. Sociological and anthropological
theories and interests can be applied to examine how communities use multi-
modal conventions to mark and maintain identities. The term multimodality is,
however, most strongly linked with theories rooted in linguistics, notably sys-
temic functional linguistics, social semiotic theory, and conversation analysis
(Jewitt et al., Introducing multimodality. London: Routledge, 2016a). Examining
multimodal discourses across the classroom makes more visible the relationship
between the use of semiotic resources by teachers and students and the production
of curriculum knowledge, student subjectivity, and pedagogy.
C. Jewitt (*)
UCL Knowledge Lab, Institute of Education, University College London, London, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
Keywords
Multimodality • Literacy • Curriculum knowledge • Classroom research • Social
semiotics
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Early Developments: A Visual Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Major Contributions: Key Themes in the Study of Multimodal Discourses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Mode and Semiotic Resources for Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Shapes of Knowledge, Pedagogy, and Subjectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Multimodality and New Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Multimodal Learning and Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Developing Theory and Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Work in Progress: Distinctive Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
New Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Introduction
Multimodality approaches representation and communication as something more
than language. It attends to the complex repertoire of semiotic resources and
organizational means that people make meaning through – image, speech, gesture,
writing, three-dimensional forms, and so on. Strictly speaking, multimodality refers
to a field of application rather than a theory, and over the past decade, it has become a
widely used term in the academic world. A variety of disciplines and theoretical
approaches can be used to explore different aspects of the multimodal landscape
(Jewitt 2014). Psychological theories can be applied to look at how people perceive
different modes or to understand the impact of one mode over another on, for
example, memory. Sociological and anthropological theories and interests can be
applied to examine how communities use multimodal conventions to mark and
maintain identities. The term multimodality, however, is most strongly linked with
theories rooted in linguistics, notably systemic functional linguistics, social semiotic
theory, and conversation analysis (Jewitt et al. 2016a). In this chapter, we use
multimodality to refer to “multimodal social semiotics” (Kress 2010).
Multimodality is concerned with signs and starts from the position that like
speech and writing, all modes consist of sets of semiotic resources – resources that
people draw on and configure in specific moments and places to represent events and
relations. From this perspective, the modal resources a teacher or student chooses to
use (or are given to use) are significant for teaching and learning. In this way, a
multimodal approach rejects the traditional almost habitual conjunction of language
and learning. Using a multimodal approach means looking at language as it is nestled
and embedded within a wider social semiotic. Examining multimodal discourses
Multimodal Discourses Across the Curriculum 33
across the classroom makes more visible the relationship between the use of semiotic
resources by teachers and students and the production of curriculum knowledge,
student subjectivity, and pedagogy.
key questions for a multimodal agenda, and began to define conceptual tools for
thinking about teaching and learning beyond language.
The call to understand pedagogy as multimodal was radical when it was first
made. A key design element of a future pedagogy of multiliteracies was heralded as
“designs for other modes of meaning” (New London Group 1996). In part this call
was a response to the social and cultural reshaping of the communicational land-
scape (related to globalization, new technologies, and new demands for work). In a
sense, the conclusion that reading this “new” multimedia, multimodal landscape for
its linguistic meanings alone is not enough was inevitable. A special issue of
Linguistics and Education on multimodality was an important publication (and
one of the first) to provide tools for educational researchers wanting to undertake
multimodal research (Lemke 1998).
Attempting to understand the relationship between image and text was central to
the development on multimodality. The redundancy of “nonlinguistic” modes was
argued against, and the idea that the meaning of modes is incommensurable was key.
Reading Images (Kress and van Leeuwen 1996) opened the door for multimodality
in the way that it discusses key concepts such as composition, modality, and framing.
This work offers a framework to describe the semiotic resources of images and
analyzes how these resources can be configured to design interpersonal meaning, to
present the world in specific ways, and to realize coherence. It demonstrates and
generates a series of semiotic network maps showing the semiotic resources of image
in play and how discourses are articulated visually through the design of these
resources.
Work by Kress on literacy and young children’s meaning making also helped
highlight the potential of multimodality for literacy. His concern with font, style, the
spatial design of the page, and the materiality of the written text positioned writing as
multimodal. This work began to make connections across multimodality and New
Literacy Studies – a combination that now offers a distinct theoretical “accent” to
multimodality (Street et al. 2014).
From early 2000, there has been an explosion of interest in multimodality within
educational research, and this approach has been actively taken up educational
researchers across a wide range of learning contexts. Some of the major contribu-
tions made by this work are discussed below (see also Jewitt 2014; Jewitt et al.
2016a).
The ways in which modes are newly configured and made available for teaching and
learning via new technologies are a focus of multimodal research (Kress 2003; Jewitt
36 C. Jewitt
2008, 2013; Jewitt et al. 2016b). Burn and Parker’s (2001) work on media education
and digital animation explores how students design meanings across different sites
of display and semiotic resources and what this means for learning and literacy.
Multimodal research into new technologies and learning also explores the meaning
potential of a text’s structure: the semiotic facilities of linking, hypertext, and the
design of hyperlinks (Jewitt 2002; Lemke 2002; van Leeuwen 2005). These links
and structures create relations and continuity or discontinuity between elements,
what Lemke calls “hyper-modality” (Lemke 2002). Another term useful to multi-
modality is “resemiotization” (Iedema 2003), which focuses on how new technolo-
gies remediate discourses via multimodal representation and communication across
media. A multimodal approach has been used to investigate learning through the
analysis of student interaction with a wide range of technologies in the school and
informal learning environments (e.g., museums), including iPads and tablets
(Crescenzi et al. 2014), mobile technologies (Sakr et al. 2015), tangible technologies
(Price and Jewitt 2013), and whole body interaction (Price et al. 2015). Multi-
modality has also been applied to the analysis of social media and online commu-
nication environments (Adami 2009, 2015; Jewitt and Henriksen 2016). This work
has explored the changing relationships of image, text, color, and layout and the
interactional possibilities of digital texts.
the distinction between mode and medium and the formulation of the relationship
between discourse, production, dissemination, and design. Multimodal theory has
opened up the question of what constitutes a mode. The idea of mode has also been
expanded in van Leeuwen’s Introducing social semiotics (2005) to look at semiotic
resources such as food, dress, everyday objects, as well as image, music, gesture, and
writing.
Ethnographic methods have been combined with multimodality to look at semi-
otic literacy practices as well as texts (Street et al. 2014; Flewitt 2011). Stein (2003),
for example, explores how students in South African townships express complex
narratives of identities and culture through multimodal texts, highlighting the links
between representational means and the production of identities. This work explores
how multimodal pedagogy can reconnect linguistically disenfranchised learners –
through the use of performance, semiotic artifacts, and visual representation.
Scollon and Wong-Scollon (2004) combined multimodal semiotics and
intercultural communication to explore how the physical and material characteristics
of language as situated in the world give meaning to people’s actions. Norris (2004,
2014) takes up this approach to multimodal discourses and introduces several
interesting concepts to the multimodal debate, one of which is the idea of modal
density (intensity and complexity), a conceptual tool for separating out the modes as
analytical units. This sets out a way of thinking about the relationships between
modes in terms of a scale of low to high intensity and contributes to the theorization
of the relationship across and between modes. Additionally, Newfield (2014) has
developed the concept of the transmodal moment, which can be used in the exam-
ination of processes of modal translation in which meaning is materialized in a range
of differently modalized texts.
where significant work is continuing (e.g., Bezemer and Mavers 2011). The work of
conceptualizing modal hierarchies and relations, problematizing the concept of
semiotic resource, and moving toward multimodal corpus-based approaches to
multimodal meaning making is underway (Bateman 2014).
The need to rethink what it means to learn and to be literate is a thread that runs
through much multimodal educational research. This raises numerous research
questions in relation to learning including: how do representations impact on
thinking and learning? What kinds of opportunities do different modes present for
dialogue? How are modes “valued” in and out of the school? And what kind of
learners do schools want to “produce”? It also raises questions about what literacy is
and could be in a multimodal and multilingual communicational landscape. This line
of questioning has in turn led to research that sets out to ask what multimodality has
to offer as a pedagogic resource and how it can be shaped as a force for change.
The need to engage with social questions (beyond the role of description) is
realized in research that attempts to move from notions of critique to design. As
already described, multimodality can be used to build inventories of semiotic
resources and to understand how resources are used to articulate discourses across
the curriculum. Multimodality can also contribute to the development of new ways
of using semiotic resources. Focusing (through historical analysis) on how semiotic
resources come to be as they are, multimodality can ask why they are as they are.
This is a powerful approach enabling people to see how it is that a “reality” comes to
be represented and offers the potential to imagine it differently and to redesign
it. Highlighting the implications for the learning of how semiotic resources are used
can help to bring resources into the awareness of educational practitioners, and this
brings with it the potential for new ways of using and configuring – designing –
multimodal pedagogy.
image means that? In part, this is an issue of the linguistic heritage of multimodality,
that is, how do you get from linguistics to all modes. In part, it is the view of semiotic
resources as contextual, fluid, and flexible – which makes the task of building “stable
analytical inventories” of multimodal semiotic resources complex. It is perhaps
useful to note that this problem exists for speech or writing as well. The principles
for establishing the “security” of a meaning or a category are the same for multi-
modality as for linguistics (or Philosophy or Fine Art). It is resolved by linking the
meanings people make (whatever the mode) to context and social function. Increas-
ingly multimodal research looks across a range of data (e.g., combining textual/
video analysis with interviews) and toward participant involvement to explore
analytical meanings as one response to this potential problem.
Linked with the problem above is the criticism that multimodality is a kind of
“linguistic imperialism” that imports and imposes linguistic terms on everything.
But these critics overlook the fact that much of the work on multimodality has its
origins in a particular strand of linguistics, namely, the social semiotic theory of
communication first proposed by Halliday (1978). This strand of research on
language and communication foregrounds meaning and the ways in which language
contributes to the construction of social life. The social component of this approach
to language sets it apart from narrower concerns with syntactic structures, language
and mind, and language universals that have long dominated the discipline. From a
multimodal perspective, this view of communication can be applied to all modes, to
gesture and image no less and no more than to speech and writing. That said, the use
of language as a starting point can lead to problems in that it can lead to the
shoehorning of other modes into linguistic concepts and categories – we therefore
need to be sensitive to the particularities of modes and to use linguistic concepts as a
loose framing to support a broader conceptualization of processes of meaning
making.
Description is theoretically grounded and contributes to theory building. There is
a need to actually ask questions of and through detailed description. For instance, to
ask what kind of discourses are being articulated in a classroom and why and what is
the social function of the representations being described. For example, to ask how
the multimodal design of the English classroom shapes what school English is, what
texts are included in English, and how do these choices and processes shape what it
might mean to be student in a particular classroom. This analytical focus is important
to show how discourses are articulated across the curriculum so that they can be
made explicit, shared or challenged, and redesigned. However, multimodal research
can be problematic if it offers an endless detailed description that fails to make clear
the broad questions it seeks to answer.
The question of where the boundaries of its effective work are located is key for
multimodality (as with any approach). In part, this is a question of scale. Multimodal
analysis works best with small elements or with larger level elements treated as
small, namely, as “signs.” But even this approach tends to exclude questions of
aesthetics and ephemeral experiences that are central to lived material experiences, a
gap that exploring synergies between the social sciences and the arts may help us to
40 C. Jewitt
understand (Jewitt et al. 2017). When the aims of enquiry shift to larger-level
relations in process, and historically over time, it may be necessary to shift theoret-
ical paradigms and combine multimodality with other theoretical approaches (Jewitt
2014). Introducing multimodality (Jewitt et al. 2016a) sets out a variety of
approaches to multimodality and how such approaches can be combined.
New Directions
The combination of multimodality with theories that attend to the social at a macro-
level is an area for development. Multimodal theories of communication and repre-
sentation emerged at a “pivotal moment” when boundaries were fraying across the
communicational landscape: modes were being recast, revalued, and redesigned by
the social demands on communication (the remaking of boundaries between nation
states, languages, work and leisure, as well as the use of new technologies). Such
moments and shifts have happened in the past and will continue to happen in the
future. The use and conventions of semiotic resources are established over time and
are fluid and situated as well as being shaped by community and culture. The work of
describing modes and semiotic resources as they are used in education is therefore an
ongoing and important one. To realize the full potential of multimodality research
also suggests the need to make links between what is happening in the classroom and
why it is happening – to ask how the micro-social interactions of the classroom
inflect, reflect, and connect with the concerns of macro-educational and broader
social policies.
The “change potential” of multimodal semiotics is another aspect that may be
developed more in the future. The potential for multimodal research to impact on
teacher training, the design of learning, and curriculum and software design is
immense. By challenging the exclusivity of the link between language and learning,
multimodality opens up the need to better understand the relationship between
multimodal pedagogy and learning. This raises significant questions about the
impact of modes of representation on learning: what does it mean for learning to
have all these modes operating in the classroom? What mode is best for what? How
does the move between modes impact on shapes of knowledge? What does all this
mean for cognitive load and learning? What forms of communication are students
being expected (often implicitly) to understand? Questions concerning what educa-
tionalists want learning to be and how a knowledge of multimodal semiotics could
enable it to be redesigned asks: How can students best be taught the skills to make
and interpret multimodal texts? A future direction for multimodality is to theorize the
relationship between semiosis and learning. This is needed to find pedagogically
productive ways to connect, on the one hand, the ways that students select, adapt,
and transform information in the classroom (including the resources that they bring
into the classroom for learning) and, on the other hand, the expectations and
demands of curriculum subjects.
As the technological landscape evolves, the potential of multimodality to explore,
identify, and explain new semiotic resources for learning and communication is
Multimodal Discourses Across the Curriculum 41
brought to the fore. For instance, new technologies are increasingly drawing the
semiotic features and capacities of touch into digital learning and communication
(Crescenzi et al. 2014). This points to a new direction for research on multimodal
learning, namely, how sensory resources are configured into semiotic modes.
Multimodality provides a pathway to explore this connection between the sensory
material character of communication and the social semiotic character of
communication.
The connection between student practices, curriculum, and pedagogy fore-
grounds the notion of assessment. There is a glaring disjuncture between multimodal
pedagogy, multimodal learning, and a primarily written language assessment pro-
cess. This is a growing focus within multimodal research across the curriculum and a
key direction for research in the future is to tackle the issue of assessment or
“recognition” (Archer 2014; Bezemer and Kress 2016) to ask how best to assess
students’ learning in a multimodal classroom.
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Multimodal Discourses Across the Curriculum 43
Abstract
The term “digital divide” is used to describe unequal access to digital technology
and information. Simple binary constructions of access, whether of devices or the
Internet, have evolved to cover more complicated and nuanced discussions of
device density, Internet speed, and even relevant skills and social support. Current
concerns about the digital divide no longer simply relate to access to a device or
the Internet but rather to people’s ability to make use of the device and Internet to
engage in meaningful social practices. As such, rather than being understood as a
binary concept, in actuality, the “digital divide” is full of gradations and types of
divides. With the rapid growth of the Internet as a medium for both economic and
social transactions, being part of this network has become essential for inclusion
and participation.
Keywords
Digital divide • Digital technology • Access • Social inclusion
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Digital Divide or Divides? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Performativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Introduction
The term “digital divide” is used to describe unequal access to digital technology
and information. Originally focused primarily on the issues of hardware (e.g.,
computers) and Internet access, it has evolved to cover the broader context of their
effective use, including skills, knowledge, and social support. With the rapid
growth of the Internet as a medium for both economic and social transactions,
being part of this network has become essential for inclusion and participation.
This chapter will describe the initial construct of the digital divide and the
evolving broadening of the concept. It then explores some of the components of
the digital divide, including home access, school access, school use, the gender
gap, the generation gap, and other potential gaps of concern. Efforts to address
this digital divide are discussed, particularly focusing on the issues facing
teachers: workability, accessibility, and performativity. Finally, the chapter con-
cludes with a discussion of future directions.
Early Developments
With the growing popularity and use of the Internet following the introduction of
World Wide Web browsers in the 1990s, officials became increasingly aware of the
potential consequences of unequal access to digital information. The term “digital
divide” began showing up in the popular press and was used in a speech by both Al
Gore and Bill Clinton in 1996 (http://www.ntia.doc.gov/legacy/ntiahome/101096clin
ton.htm); the same year sociologist Manuel Castells laid out a compelling analysis of
the critical role of information technology access and use in generating wealth, power,
and knowledge in the current era.
The simplest and earliest construct of the digital divide focused on devices and
physical access to devices. This construct allowed for clear lines demarcating
haves and have-nots and easy counting of who has how many. Similarly, access to
the Internet is only somewhat more complicated to measure in binary terms,
although the differences between dial up and broadband access have been
acknowledged.
The degree of access to computers by diverse demographic groups has been well
documented in the United States through reports issued by the National Telecom-
munications and Information Administration (NTIA, www.ntia.doc.gov) based on
the Current Population Surveys (CPS) of about 50,000 US households conducted by
The Digital Divide in Language and Literacy Education 47
the US Bureau of Labor Statistics and the US Census Bureau. Another widely cited
source of related information comes from the telephone surveys of the Pew Internet
& American Life Project (www.pewinternet.org). These reports show increasing
computer ownership and Internet access, with differences largely reflective of
socioeconomic levels (reflecting differences both in economic status and educational
attainment).
Policy initiatives quickly followed the awareness of a gap in digital device access
in the United States. Many of these initiatives focused on schools, such as the E-rate
program, which has provided funding to assist Internet connectivity in schools and
libraries since 1996. Later, the National Broadband Plan, released by the Federal
Communications Commission in 2010, aimed to use stimulus funds to bring broad-
band connectivity and technology education to underserved populations, particularly
in rural areas. Other initiatives during the early years of public access to computing
and the Internet focused on creating low-cost devices to increase the affordability of
device ownership (e.g., Brazil’s People’s Computer, India’s Simputer, and the XO
computer used by One Laptop per Child, www.laptop.org).
Some digital technology advocates, particularly during this earlier period, believe
that access alone can improve education and other social problems. This belief is
exemplified by the “Hole-in-the-Wall” project in New Delhi in 2000, in which an
outdoor computer kiosk was placed in one of the poorest slums without teachers or
instruction. The idea was to allow children to teach themselves at their own pace and
was hailed as groundbreaking by many (e.g., Mitra 1999). Unfortunately the results
were less clear (Warschauer 2003), with many researchers and parents concerned by
the lack of supervision, instruction, collaboration, and value. Similar US projects
with little curricular integration, teacher development, or communication among
stakeholders such as the Birmingham, Alabama One Laptop per Child effort resulted
in dismal results (Warschauer 2011). However, researchers continue the quest for
what they call “minimally invasive education” through projects such as the School in
the Cloud project, which won the 2013 TED prize.
Major Contributions
Home Access
Computer access in the home allows a degree of flexibility and autonomy difficult to
replicate elsewhere. For example, while teachers in higher socioeconomic commu-
nities generally assume home access, teachers in lower socioeconomic communities
have to be more cautious when facilitating homework and projects requiring home
use of digital technology and provide alternative assignments or access. Students
with home access may also have the ability to explore and create in ways that school
access rarely accommodates.
Census data from the United States shows that while progress has been made
providing computer and Internet access to low-income and minority households,
access remains uneven. Computer ownership continues to grow, with 79% of
households reporting computers at home in 2012 according to NTIA, a 3 percentage
point increase from 2011 and 28-point increase from 2000. Computer use tends to be
higher in households with children (e.g., 2010 data shows 86% of families with
school-age children had computer access compared to 78% of households without
children according to Pew). Low-income households (less than $25,000/year) were
significantly less likely (57%) than higher-earning ($100,000 or more/year) house-
holds (97%) to have a home computer in the 2012 NTIA data. Educational levels
also correlate with ownership; households with no high school graduates (49%) are
far less likely than households with college graduates (94%) to own a computer in
2012. Racial breakdowns show Asian-Americans with the highest computer own-
ership and African-Americans with the lowest. International data swings even more
dramatically with 42% of students in Mexico, 29% of students in Turkey, 74% of
students in Indonesia, and 61% of students in Vietnam not having a computer at
home (OECD 2016).
The density of usage, or people per computer, affects the amount of time a
computer is available for use by schoolchildren, for example, rather than adults, or
for homework versus unstructured uses. One study suggests that there are dramatic
differences in household members per computer by racial/ethnic group (Warschauer
and Matuchniak 2010). White families have roughly one household member per
computer, and Hispanic families have nearly four people per computer. This dispar-
ity would certainly restrict computer time available to Hispanic children particularly
for nonschool-related exploration and creation, which can be particularly useful for
students learning a new or second language. The age, quality, and specifications of
the actual hardware owned also impact the quality of home computer access.
Robust computer access requires more than simply owning a computer, it requires
access to the Internet, preferably reliable, fast access. Internet use is similar to
computer use: The percentage of Internet users generally increased with higher
family income levels. For example, in 2012, approximately 76% of people with
family incomes from $40,000 to $49,999 used the Internet, compared to 91% of
people with family incomes of $100,000 or more (NCES 2015). The percentage of
Internet users tended to increase with higher levels of educational attainment. For
example, 55% of persons who had not completed high school used the Internet,
The Digital Divide in Language and Literacy Education 49
compared with 66% of those who had completed only a high school diploma or
equivalent and 93% of those with a bachelor’s or higher degree (NCES 2015). In
2012, 72% of US households used broadband at home according to NTIA, while 2%
of households continued to rely on dial-up service. Broadband access allows for
easier, faster use, especially of applications requiring large amounts of data such as
video and sophisticated multimedia content of the type most commonly considered
valuable for school-age children.
Social and contextual factors are also important in shaping the quality of home
computer access (see discussion in Attewell and Battle 1999). Family and friends
influence the amount and type of computer usage by students. Indeed, home
computers may generate another “Sesame Street effect” or “Matthew effect,”
where advantaged students gain more from the innovation than disadvantaged
students (Attewell and Battle 1999). For example, research suggests that students
in lower socioeconomic areas tend to use computers more for content consumption
(passively viewing text, images, video, etc. created by others) and social uses (social
media, texting, etc.) and less for content creation (authoring their own text, images,
and video to express their own ideas) and interest-driven uses (learning more about a
subject of interest, exploring personal passions; see, e.g., Witte and Mannon 2010;
Zillien and Hargittai 2009). In order for students to use their home computers
successfully for more challenging, creative, and constructive purposes, they require
not only a higher level of technological resources (quality graphics, multimedia
capacity, digital recorders, etc.) but also social resources such as a community that
values and enables the sharing of media knowledge and interests. Family and friends
also provide resources for troubleshooting as issues inevitably arise and support is
critical in developing important digital literacy skills.
School Access
School access refers to the availability of digital technology in schools. If public
schools can help compensate for unequal access to computers at home, they can
provide an important means for promoting social inclusion and equality. As of 2009,
97% of teachers reported having a computer in the classroom every day, and the ratio
of students to computers in the classroom was 5.3:1 according to the National Center
for Education Statistics (2010). Despite improved access to computers and the
Internet, however, disparities between the quality of hardware, density of hardware,
and bandwidth remain.
School Use
Persistent achievement gaps exist in the United States particularly for non-Asian
minorities and students from low socioeconomic backgrounds (Chapman et al.
2011). Digital technology offers one avenue to meet these goals through its power
to facilitate personalized learning experiences. However, according to a recent meta-
analysis (Means 2010) of online learning studies, average students in online learning
conditions perform only modestly better than those in face-to-face instruction, and the
magnitude of the difference varies depending on several contextual factors. Thus,
increases in student outcomes depend on more than simple access to digital
50 T. Tate and M. Warschauer
Gender Gap
Do boys and girls use digital technology differently? Early studies raised concerns
that girls were being shut out of computer use, and current efforts to increase the
The Digital Divide in Language and Literacy Education 51
number of girls learning to code, majoring in computer science, and working in the
information technology industry reflect similar concerns. Today research tends to
show that both genders use computers roughly the same amount but often in
different ways. In general, girls seem to use digital technology for social, relational
uses and boys tend to use it more for information and gaming (Lehnart et al. 2005).
Teachers should be cognizant that it is important to use collaborative games and
simulations in ways that allow boys to leverage their interest in gaming and girls
their relational interests to improve academic engagement and achievement.
Generation Gap
Finally, there is a gap between teachers and students: their comfort with digital
technology and background knowledge may be quite different (Prensky 2001). This
can be an important opportunity to model life-long learning, the value of making
mistakes, and problem solving techniques while empowering students – and often
the less academically engaged students may be the ones showing leadership in
digital technology if permitted.
Other Gaps
Additional gaps have been suggested as relevant to understanding digital technology
usage. Perhaps there is also a linguistic divide, because the confluence of the
Internet allowing for more international communication and the increase in the
prevalence of English has served to accelerate and amplify the dominant role of
English as a global lingua franca (Crystal 1997). Broad international forums are
often predominantly conducted in English. This reality can be leveraged by teachers
of English as a second language to provide authentic practice for their students.
Conversely, the Internet also protects linguistic pluralism by connecting small
numbers of speakers over wide distances and allowing the archiving and sharing
of minority and endangered languages (Warschauer 2003).
For both students and teachers, learning is as much about enculturation as it is about
transmission or discovery. It takes place in communities through a process of appren-
ticeship. An ideal learning situation provides the kind of scaffolding needed for
apprenticeship learning to take place in a safe, supported way. This scaffolding might
include the provision of models and resources, the organizing of learning activities in
desirable sequences, and the use of conversation and discussion to tackle difficult
questions. In addition, learning environments that include a great deal of informal
peer networking maximize students’ opportunities to learn (Means et al. 2014). Schools
must create these types of environments to break down the digital divides. However,
US schooling has been highly resistant to reform, and meaningful reforms that are
enacted primarily benefit economically privileged students (Cuban 2013). Reforms in
low-socioeconomic schools generally take place on the margins of the educational
process and fail to seriously transform the learning process (Cuban 1986). The require-
ments to cover curriculum, prepare for standardized tests, and maintain discipline while
under significant funding constraints limit the ability of teachers to engage in creative,
meaningful technology projects.
52 T. Tate and M. Warschauer
Work in Progress
The reasons for the disparities discussed above are varied and involve issues of
economics, infrastructure, politics, education, and culture (Warschauer 2003).
Schools have been a major focus of efforts to overcome the digital divide. Recent
political and policy efforts have been aimed at K-16 educational settings. In June
2013, President Obama announced the ConnectED initiative, which is aimed at
getting 99% of American students access to next-generation broadband by 2018.
EveryoneOn is a related private effort, with national partners working together to
increase access to free or low-cost home Internet access nationwide. The E-rate
program expanded its goals when renewed in 2014 as the E-rate Modernization
Order to include provision of high-speed broadband, particularly Wi-Fi to school
and libraries. Future Ready Schools is a multipronged effort led by the Alliance for
Excellent Education and the US Department of Education designed to maximize
digital learning opportunities and provide schools with support to align technology
and digital learning plans with instructional best practices and quality implementa-
tion. These are examples of some of the initiatives currently aimed at improving
some of the issues related to the digital divide.
The digital divide(s) create(s) a daunting task for teachers, especially in low income
and linguistically diverse communities. Some of the problems and difficulties faced
by educators include issues of workability, complexity, and performativity.
Workability
Complexity
Even if all the digital technology works and is available, it is difficult to integrate
quality usage into the (ever-evolving) curriculum. Students have different levels of
content knowledge, technology skills, etc. The current environment places a great
deal of importance on standardized test scores, many of which are not testing the
type of skills best suited to digital technology and only recently are the assessments
administered digitally (requiring modality-shifting by students who may not be used
to writing on computers, e.g.). Nonetheless, designing technology-enhanced lessons
The Digital Divide in Language and Literacy Education 53
for culturally and linguistically diverse students can be done and can lead to
meaningful learning. In addition, teachers may be able to help students use out-of-
school time to improve literacy skills through introduction to authentic communities
like fan fiction (Thorne et al. 2009). But educators should note that there is a
distinction between basic interpersonal communication skills and academic lan-
guage skills: Even though students may learn conversational skills by chatting
online, most require explicit instruction in using cognitively challenging language
necessary for fully participating in academic discourse contexts.
Performativity
Future Directions
As predicted (Warschauer 2003), with the use of the Internet becoming more
widespread, it has also become stratified, with some using it principally as an
entertainment and social communication device and others using it to seek and
create new knowledge. Thus, digital inequality research is increasingly looking at
the use of digital technology, moving beyond simple access to look at which groups
are using information online, for what purpose and for what length of time. Zillien
and Hargittai (2009) refer to this as the “Internet in practice.” Variations in use and
outcomes for different subpopulations are also being explored. For example, the
“digital production gap” – who is creating digital content – is one focus of current
research (Schradie 2011).
In order for all students to participate in educationally relevant uses of the Internet
(broadly construed), it must be accessible to people with various disabilities. Uni-
versal Design for Learning is a framework for the design of digital learning tools and
environments that are flexible and powerful enough to meet the challenge (and
opportunity) of personalized and socially interactive learning (Rose and Meyer
2002). The roots of UDL lie in several decades of research and development on
learning designs for the most marginalized and unsuccessful of students – students
with disabilities, English-language learners, and so forth. The UDL framework takes
advantage of developments in two complementary fields: (1) advances in the modern
“learning sciences” (especially cognitive and affective neuroscience as they relate to
variability in learning) and (2) advances in the technologies available for teaching
and learning (especially those technologies that expand the options and supports
54 T. Tate and M. Warschauer
available for “non-average” students, Meyer et al. 2014). UDL stresses the impor-
tance of optimizing individual choice and autonomy and fostering collaboration and
community. Neither of these design features are yet pervasive in cyber-learning
environments. For example, many “adaptive learning environments” preclude sig-
nificant choice on the part of the learner – and thus the engagement that comes with
it. Similarly, many cyber-learning environments “individualize” learning in ways
that preclude meaningful social interaction and support. As is often the case in
instructional interventions, many tasks in digital-learning environments are designed
for a mythical average student. In contrast, the UDL framework emphasizes that
there are no “average” learners in practice and that effective designs must take into
account the fundamental differences that actually exist in any population of learners,
especially to achieve equitable results with the most vulnerable and disenfranchised
(Rappolt-Schlichtmann et al. 2013).
Future directions in school use focus on optimizing blended learning – which
combines in class and online learning environments. Blended learning seems par-
ticularly well suited to providing opportunities to personalize learning so that it
meets the needs of a diverse range of students, particularly students who are low
performing, underrepresented minorities, and poor (e.g., Walkington 2013). Prom-
ising advances are being made in adapting instruction based on the characteristics of
individual learners, including their prior knowledge, preferences, goals, motivation-
related beliefs, mindsets, and interests (Wigfield et al. 2015). Digital technology
offers the opportunity to allow educators and learners to interact with, customize,
and control digital learning environments. Digital technologies used in conjunction
with evidence-based practices offer unprecedented opportunities to support the
mastery of and interest in content areas in personalized ways. Digital media that
are dynamic, individualized, and interactive can support motivation and skill acqui-
sition across a diverse range of learners (Graham et al. 2004). Integrating digital
learning opportunities into ongoing classroom practices if implemented with adher-
ence to UDL principles can allow teachers and students to access content that is
interesting, relevant to each student’s life spaces and identities, within each student’s
zone of proximal development, and scaffolded to allow each student to reach higher
levels of learning than otherwise possible (Means et al. 2014).
The concept of a digital divide has helped focus public attention on a critical
social issue: the extent to which the diffusion of digital technology and the Internet
fosters stratification and marginalization or development and equality (Warschauer
2003). The policy challenge is not to overcome the divide but instead to expand
access and use for promoting inclusion.
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Sociolinguistic Insights into Digital
Communication
Lawrence Williams
Abstract
This article provides an overview of research in two interrelated areas of
language learning and teaching: digital communication (sometimes referred
to as computer-mediated communication or CMC) and sociolinguistics. The
research selected for inclusion in this article is primarily centered around the
development of the sociolinguistic competence of learners of French because
this simply happens to be the focus of major contributions in this field. None-
theless, many of the studies reviewed here represent the use of a range of
different types of digital communication for many different types of tasks and
educational configurations.
The early developments and major contributions in this area of inquiry all deal
with the analysis of sociolinguistic dimensions of language. This means that the
research reviewed in this article is not preoccupied with aspects of communication
that are right or wrong. Instead, these are features of language and discourse that
are variable and, therefore, can only be considered appropriate or inappropriate
according to any number of contextual factors (e.g., age, location, political
affiliation, region, social standing, etc.).
Keywords
Computer-mediated communication • Language learning • Sociolinguistics
L. Williams (*)
Department of World Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, University of North Texas, Denton, TX,
USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Introduction
Early Developments
Although the main contributions to this area of research have been produced in the
context of (text based) synchronous chat, one early study (Kinginger 1998) took
advantage of videoconferencing technology to link a class of 14 learners of French in
the Midwest of the United States and a class of 10 learners of English in Brittany,
France. As noted by the author, videoconferencing had already been adopted as a
widely used tool for language instruction, but it was typically used within a one-way
transmission paradigm. “In [such a] model, although there may be interaction
between teacher and student, there is no expectation that the rules of classroom
Sociolinguistic Insights into Digital Communication 59
language use will be altered. The physical arrangement may be different, but the main
business of teaching and ‘studenting’ remains the same” (Kinginger 1998, p. 502).
Therefore, one goal of Kinginger’s study was to promote active engagement by the
learners in both classrooms. “Specifically, during the videoconferencing event, the
objective is to encourage topical, relevant, face-to-face exchanges among the mem-
bers of classes in two (or potentially more) locations” (p. 502).
The motivation for this type of research stems from observations by Kinginger
(1998) and others (e.g., Di Vito 1991, 1992; Gilmore 2007; Kramsch 1985) that
textbooks often provide a limited range of discourse options for students. In the case
of French, for example, dialogs that are presented in textbooks as models for spoken
interaction typically reflect more formal, written language. Moreover, various struc-
tures and lexical items are often presented to students without contextual information
that could allow learners to make decisions regarding which items are more or less
appropriate in general or specific circumstances. “The initial decision to include
spoken forms must overcome prejudice concerning the ‘correctness’ of spoken
language” (Kinginger 1998, p. 503). Another issue highlighted by Kinginger is the
choice that must be made on the part of teachers to include or exclude different
varieties of spoken French. In sum, previous “studies suggest both that spoken
French has its own characteristic structure and forms, and that these forms are not
routinely included in American French language instruction, despite the ubiquity of
the forms and despite emphasis on speaking in communicative and proficiency-
oriented teaching” (Kinginger 1998, p. 504). Therefore, the overarching goal of
this study was to create an interactive communication space that would allow
students greater access to authentic discourse, and at the same time, a recorded
version of this videoconferencing event could be used as a basis for additional
learning.
Kinginger’s (1998) study is based on a 30-min period of time (half of the class
meeting) when French was used during the videoconferencing session and subse-
quent work done in the American classroom. An analysis of the interaction led
Kinginger to “conclude that the only attempt at learner-learner scaffolding during
the videoconference resulted in a difficult and face-threatening event for [one of
the American learners]” (p. 507). The difficulties encountered by the American
students highlight the importance of understanding sociolinguistic dimensions of
(transcultural) communication. Learners who interact only with their own teacher
and classmates do not necessarily gain an awareness of the consequences related to
choosing and using appropriate or inappropriate structures, styles, and registers.
One tremendous advantage of videoconferencing for the learners, as explained by
Kinginger, was that they were able to study authentic spoken French discourse
(interrogatives, pronouns, negation, etc.) at their own pace after the session had
ended. Although this study raised several issues, the two most important of these
are the following: “Foreign languages will need to be explained to learners in ways
that account for social and situational variation. Ultimately, if [native speaker]
models are available and are adequately described, the qualities of desired com-
municative ability can themselves become a matter of choice” (Kinginger 1998,
p. 511).
60 L. Williams
Major Contributions
In a series of three articles (Belz and Kinginger 2002, 2003; Kinginger and Belz
2005) focusing primarily on the development of the use of second-person pronouns
in French and German, Belz and Kinginger offer substantial insights into learners’
abilities to determine appropriate ways of interacting in intercultural communication
environments. This type of research – and many of the other studies reviewed later in
this section – demonstrates the close ties between sociolinguistics and pragmatics,
two areas of (applied) linguistics that are inextricable linked. In the present article, the
acquisition or development of pragmatic competence has been included with the
acquisition or development of sociolinguistic dimensions of discourse, language, and
communication.
In the first article (Belz and Kinginger 2002) of this series, the authors explore L2
pragmatic development in the context of telecollaborative learning. “In particular, we
focus on the ‘microgenesis’ or development of the T/V (i.e., instantiations of you)
distinction in pronouns of address as a test case representative of broader L2
pragmatic concerns” (p. 189). The article offers two case studies, one using data
from learners of French (tu vs. vous) and the other using data from learners of German
(du vs. Sie). The case studies in this article demonstrate that even when students are
told specifically that the use of T (e.g., tu for French and du for German) would
probably seem normal to their telecollaboration partners, some students alternated
between different forms of T and V, sometimes within the same communicative
activity or episode. However, Belz and Kinginger observed that direct contact with
native speakers appeared to have had a positive influence on the US learners’
development of appropriate second-person pronoun use. The authors specifically
argue for greater emphasis on language awareness. “It is not rules that must be
acquired, but awareness of complexity, sensitivity to social cues, and the form-
meaning pairings that serve to index this knowledge within particular settings”
(p. 209).
In the second article of this series, Belz and Kinginger (2003) once again focus on
sociolinguistic and pragmatic development, but this time using only data from the
learners of German in their 3-year telecollaboration project. This study “examines the
microgenetic development of second-person pronoun use in a German-American
telecollaborative partnership” (p. 591) over a 2-month period. Data used for the
analysis by Belz and Kinginger were collected from Web-based biographies, e-mails,
student-designed websites, and multiroom, synchronous chat.
At the beginning of this study, the authors highlight the fact that the German
learners of English who initiated contact with the American learners of German used
only T forms. “Furthermore, there are no instances of V use by any of the German
students over the entire course of the partnership” (p. 617). Nonetheless, the authors
observed that in messages from American students, V use was present, sometimes
along with T use. This finding is very similar to what had been reported in the first
study in this series (Belz and Kinginger 2002).
62 L. Williams
Two main findings can be drawn from this work. First, even if learners have
mastered the morphological and syntactic structures of a particular language, they
may not be able to deploy those structures in sociolinguistic and pragmatically
appropriate ways. Second, this study provides a clear reminder that telecollaboration
can be a powerful learning context for something as complex as the development of
sociolinguistic and pragmatic dimensions of language and communication.
In the third article of this series, Kinginger and Belz (2005) once again explored
second-person pronoun use in a telecollaboration learning context (case study 1).
This article also includes data from study abroad research (case study 2); however,
that part of the analysis is not summarized here.
Case study 1 focuses on a learner of German, Grace, “a 19-year-old white woman
in her third year of undergraduate university study with a major in history and a minor
in German” (p. 378). This particular learner was chosen as the focus of this study
because she did not necessarily fit neatly into one of the three categories of develop-
ment (abrupt development, gradual development, and persistent variation), proposed
in the previous article in this series (Belz and Kinginger 2003). “In particular, we
were interested in investigating the relationship between Grace’s socio-pragmatic
knowledge (In what circumstances and with what interlocutors should a speaker of
German use T? When should V be used?), her pragmalinguistic knowledge (Which
of the ten forms for ‘you’ in German are T forms? Which are V forms?), and her
grammatical knowledge (What are the appropriate forms of ‘you’ in the various cases
in German and for the category of number?) . . . as well as her metapragmatic
awareness of all three types of knowledge” (p. 379).
A microgenetic analysis of Grace’s trajectory during the period of the tele-
collaboration project revealed that the inability to classify or understand her devel-
opment was due to the fact that several dimensions of second-person pronoun use are
interrelated. For example, the inappropriate use of a form of address may be due to a
lack of grammatical competence or pragmalinguistic knowledge. For Grace, “gram-
matical competence with respect to number for the T form (‘du’ vs. ‘ihr’) and case
(‘ihr’ vs. ‘euch’) [was] not yet firmly established” (p. 404). Moreover, “once she
adopt[ed] the T form, she still need[ed] to develop her pragmalinguistic knowledge
with respect to the ‘ihr’ form since this form is polysemous in German and can index
both T and V” (p. 404). The authors found that although Grace received explicit peer
assistance from her German telecollaboration keypals, she was not always able to
understand their feedback and see its relevance to her own sociolinguistic and
pragmatic development. The authors note that their findings align with work by
Aljafreh and Lantolf (1994), “who found that the relevance of explicit and implicit
correction in L2 tutoring varied for different pairings of novice learners and expert
teachers such that the type and amount of feedback had to be negotiated for each
individual pair” (p. 405).
Overall, the three articles focusing on sociolinguistic and pragmatic development
in telecollaboration contexts by Belz and Kinginger serve as models for future
research in other languages, and they also demonstrate the complexities of sociolin-
guistic dimensions of communication. The most important is the awareness that this
series of articles has raised concerning the importance of giving students access to
Sociolinguistic Insights into Digital Communication 63
interest in this study is the observation that “all but one learner was able to define and
describe ne variation accurately by the end of the semester, and the majority of them
were also able to identify ne variation as an index of (in) formality in the analysis of
two texts. Further, some learners developed an understanding of ne presence versus
absence that transcended the formal/informal distinction, describing ne presence in
terms of emphasis or the evocation of one’s identity at the time of utterance”
(van Compernolle and Williams 2012, p. 200). This type of pedagogical intervention
revealed that learners’ conceptual understanding of variation does not immediately
carry over into the discourse that they produce, “especially when [they] are struggling
to unlearn what has been learned previously” (p. 192), a phenomenon that has been
explored in depth by Negueruela (2003). For this reason, van Compernolle and
Williams argue that “variation ought to be systematically introduced at the earliest
stages of L2 education” (p. 200).
As an expansion of their work on learners’ awareness of and control over the
variable features of French, van Compernolle and Williams (2009a) have also
explored yes/no questions and the subject pronouns nous “we” and on “one”/“we.”
In this study, 30 US university students in their first, second, or third year of French
instruction “engaged in several [50-minute] interlearner synchronous chat discus-
sions over the course of one semester” (p. 479). A corpus of noneducational data
(approximately 78,000 words) was used as a point of comparison with the data
produced by learners.
Not surprisingly, the first- and second-year learners used informal features of
French (i.e., those typical of everyday conversation) much less frequently than the
participants in their third year of French instruction. Even the third-year learners
were, for example, still quite far below (presumed) native speakers’ (in synchronous
chat rooms) use of the informal subject-verb interrogative structure (73.9% for third-
year learners vs. 97.7% for participants who produced the discourse in the corpus of
noneducational data). The difference between learners’ and non-learners’ use of on
was even greater in the case of third-year learners (64.2%) compared to data from the
noneducational corpus (95.7%). The analysis also revealed that learners seem to learn
sociolinguistic variables separately rather than producing discourse that includes
parallel levels or types of variation.
The series of articles by van Compernolle and Williams confirms that the typical
elementary and intermediate language curriculum (at least for French, in this case)
does not provide students with sufficient awareness of sociolinguistic dimensions of
language and discourse. Nonetheless, their work also demonstrates that learners can
develop sociolinguistic competence through explicit instruction supplemented by
opportunities to explore how variable features of language are and can be used in
different communication environments.
Work in Progress
Several scholars in the area of sociolinguistics have recently begun to pay more
attention to the linguistic landscape as a way to view, analyze, and appreciate
66 L. Williams
Future Directions
One suggestion for future research was suggested by van Compernolle and Williams
(2009a), “using complementary analyses of performance (i.e., production) and com-
petence (i.e., understanding or awareness) in sociolinguistic variation would contrib-
ute to [a greater and more complete] understanding of the development of
sociolinguistic awareness in L2 users” (p. 497). This is quite important because
there is a noticeable trend in foreign language education research to focus solely on
68 L. Williams
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Elementary Language Education in Digital
Multimodal and Multiliteracy Contexts
Heather Lotherington
Abstract
Early childhood education is intrinsically multimodal. The kindergarten discov-
ery orientation to learning emphasizes play and embodied multisensory learning,
but this is traditionally retracted as children gain control of alphabetic print in the
early grades. The introduction of digital tools and networks is more recent in
elementary education. Digital mediation affords a powerful lens on hands-on
learning, augmenting, expanding, and complicating multimodal learning and
introducing new tools, textual products, and spaces for reflection and communi-
cation. Digital multimodal literacies also challenge fundamental assumptions
about the starting point of emergent literacy, which is assumed to be the ABCs.
Keywords
Coding • Digital literacies • ECE • Emergent literacy • Game learning • Inquiry-
based learning • Multiliteracy/multiliteracies • Multimodality • Multi-semiotic •
Play-based learning
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Changing Literacies in Elementary School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Exploring Digital Worlds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
New Literacies, New Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
H. Lotherington (*)
York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
e-mail: [email protected]
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Multimodality in Elementary Curricular Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Multisensory, Play-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
DIY Learning and Social Media Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Conceptualizing Multimodality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Cohesion in Educational Policy, Practice, and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
The Pace of Digital Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Introduction
children grow up we start to educate them progressively from the waist up, and then
we focus on their heads, and slightly to one side” (Robinson 2006, 9:15–9:25).
Contemporary attention to multimodality speaks to rapid digitization, which has
dramatically reshaped how we communicate, beginning with the fundamental tools.
Powerful, portable networked digital devices enable novel connections, interactions,
and modes of expression. Though there is a clear push for digital tools in the school,
the incorporation of digital communication in elementary education comes up
against the centuries-held notion that learning the ABCs is the starting point for
literacy learning. Does this still hold true?
Early Developments
The changing face of literacy was a topic of fertile discussion and debate at the close
of the twentieth century. New literacy studies, working from an anthropological
perspective, theorized literacy as social practice, opposing the position that literacy
was an autonomous cognitive skill (Street 1984). Critical scholars argued identity
politics and social justice perspectives in literacy and education (Lankshear 1997;
Muspratt et al. 1997). Cultural theorists and media literacy scholars were engaging
with the rising tide of pop culture and the onset of the digital revolution
(Buckingham and Sefton-Green 1994), and concurrently, ECE researchers were
documenting the yawning gap between children’s preschool literacy socialization
in pop culture worlds and the agenda of emergent literacy instruction (Dyson 1997;
Marsh and Millard 2000).
The galvanizing call to action was the New London Group’s 1996 manifesto on
multiliteracies, written collaboratively by a collective of eminent scholars to alert
educators to the disconnect between the monolingual print-based literacy education
of tradition, the culturally diversifying school population given increasing global
mobility, and the onslaught of the digital revolution. The New London Group
plaintively posed the question of what it meant to be literate at the dawn of the
twenty-first century. Their manifesto catalyzed scholars in language arts, critical
theory, cultural studies, second language learning, and new media literacies who
resounded the alert, pointing to particular and varied aspects of how globalization
and the digital revolution were radically changing communication and work
patterns.
By 2000, the members of the New London Group had revisited the conceptual
terrain and extrapolated the why, what, and how of multiliteracies (Cope and
Kalantzis 2000), moving toward an actionable agenda for changing educational
practice. Design elements were described in terms of linguistic, visual, audio,
gestural, and spatial meaning-making processes and interrelating multimodal pat-
terns; these constituted an elemental framework of multimodality. Scholars,
researchers, and educators were actively thinking and writing about how literacy,
learning environments, semiotic resources, discourses, and texts were changing.
Following Kress and Van Leeuwen’s (1996) foundational theorizing of visual
74 H. Lotherington
design, for instance, Unsworth (2001) extrapolated semiotic links between alpha-
betic print and image in the study of English literature for children in Australia.
It is important to remember that technological development at this time was Web
1.0: basically a searchable, self-publishing bulletin board in a networked world that
connected developed nations via wired computers. Documents at the turn of the
century could be searched, self-posted, and retrieved but not collaboratively
authored or interactively engaged with. Digital civilization had not yet reached the
development of Web 2.0 with its dynamic texts, shared authorship, multimodal
interaction, and machine-enabled translation, let alone the near future of ubiquitous
wireless access on wearable mobile devices. Thus, early theorizing of multiliteracies
and multimodality occurred in a climate of whirlwind technological change when the
greatest part of the upheaval had not yet hit.
But what was actually happening in school classrooms? When I walked into an
elementary classroom in Toronto, Canada, in the fall of 2002, with a research agenda
to document where and how trendsetting writing on multiliteracies was affecting
educational policy and teaching practice, I discovered that not much had changed,
despite the mushrooming professional and research literature. I had had the good
fortune to survey two public schools located in communities characterized by
immense cultural and linguistic diversity and low socioeconomic status in different
corners of Toronto for a comparative international study documenting schools at the
forefront of digital technology in 1999–2000 (Granger et al. 2002). Both schools had
been at the beginning of impressive journeys into digital literacies, and the admin-
istrators, teachers, and children had hugely impressed the researchers, who candidly
admitted to each other that the university needed to take a few lessons from
kindergarten on emerging digital literacies. Returning later (2002) to conduct eth-
nographic research in one of these digitally ahead-of-the-curve schools on how the
literature on multiliteracies was reshaping instructional practices in the classroom, I
realized that governing educational policy (in Ontario) had been moving in a
contrary direction, instituting standardized tests, and looking back to basics. The
digital literacies the school had been surging ahead with earlier were now being
shoehorned into the standards of print literacies.
The term multiliteracies had ignited scholarly zeal, but the concept was logisti-
cally problematic. The centrality of multiliteracies was appealing to researchers,
looking at patterns and crosscurrents in sociocultural communication, but confusing
to put into teaching practice, and antithetical to the back to basics lobby behind the
standardized testing movement that was sweeping across North America. Precisely
what multiliteracies indexed was vague: one could aspire to a multiliteracy approach
doing almost anything that was not traditional monolingual print literacy.
Major Contributions
multiliteracies looked, sounded, and felt in practice and how multiliterate practices
could be taught and learned. Fieldwork informing educational practice emerged
from studies designed to develop multiliteracy pedagogies in school; studies
whose pedagogical trajectory led organically to a multimodal stance; studies based
in disciplines that informed multiliteracies, such as digital pop culture and multilin-
gual education; and explorations of digital trends and practices in online
communities.
Gee (2003) began extolling the virtues of video games for learning well over a
decade ago when he began to play them with his young son. Gee, a member of the
New London Group, brought a distinguished record of discourse analysis research to
his focus on gaming as literacy. He applied his conceptualization of the affinity group
(p. 27) to video gamers’ identification as insiders to games and groups and described
the sophistication and value of the knowledge bases activated in gaming lifeworlds,
listing 36 learning principles of video games, including the multimodal principle.
This brief summary only skims the surface of important and detailed research
undertaken in the first decade of the twenty-first century that has led to better
educational understanding of multiliteracies and multimodality. What common
threads emerge in these studies?
Incorporating multimodal literacy projects in elementary school contexts is
transformative: multiliteracy projects encourage collaborative inquiry and transfer
agency to the learner. Multimodality enables textual hybridity that accommodates
multiple languages in the array of semiotic choice, thus supporting plurilingual
designs that positively support language learners and invite a global audience.
Digital technologies and social media platforms are sophisticated tools that require
knowledge of multiple semiotic resources and invite creative design. Multimodal
literacies support play-based learning, both on- and offline. Multimodal literacies, in
short, call for new competencies in elementary learning.
Though multimodality is not new in elementary education, it has traditionally
been corralled in early childhood education, with the apex of play centered in
kindergarten. The play-based orientation of kindergarten is increasingly being held
up as a model for learning more generally (de Castell and Jenson 2003). This
includes the growing recognition of the salience of creativity in formal education
and serves as a clarion call for approaches to learning that encourage innovation.
Work in Progress
the emerging 21st Century Competencies necessary for the globalised world we live in. . . .
Online DIY forums have transformed how teachers are learning, teaching and
connecting with learners, teachers, parents, and community members. Online social
media sites that offer teachers advice; invite them into conversations; and connect
them with ideas, resources, and people run the spectrum from creative industry
affiliated educational blogs, such as Edutopia,2 to state online learning sites, to
individual teacher’s blogs. Crowd-sourced, cloud-based learning resources and
solutions offer a cornucopia of ideas for learning designs.
John Andrews3 is a teacher in the Greater Toronto area with 26 years of experi-
ence across the K-grade 8 elementary panel. He began tweeting his grade 2 class’s
work in 2008 for paperless communication with parents and as a time-saver on the
class newsletter. Teaching ECE, he took sole responsibility for the class Twitter
handle for privacy reasons but also to avoid young children’s confusion in learning
to write, given the syntax of a 140 character tweet. In junior and intermediate
1
http://minecraftedu.com/software
2
http://www.edutopia.org/
3
Pseudonym
80 H. Lotherington
Conceptualizing Multimodality
4
Scratch: https://scratch.mit.edu/
Elementary Language Education in Digital Multimodal and Multiliteracy. . . 81
the move from page to screen (Kress 2010; Kress and Van Leeuwen 1996; Jewitt
2006).
The definition of a mode, though, is left to cultural agreement. As Kress (2010,
p. 79) explains, “Mode is a socially shaped and culturally given semiotic resource for
making meaning. Image, writing, layout, music, gesture, speech, moving image,
soundtrack and 3D objects are examples of modes used in representation and
communication.” While this exemplification is intuitively useful, there is crossover
and inconsistency in identification of modes, e.g., music and soundtrack overlap,
moving images contain still images. Virtually everything is complexly multimodal in
this view, including traditional print, which utilizes font, layout, print size, and, in the
case of school texts, pictures, charts, graphs, maps, tables, and similar nonalphabetic
visual data.
Concepts of multimodality based in linguistic communication are generalized
to still and moving images, auditory, and performance arts from language.
Elleström (2010) focuses on fine and performing arts in his intermediality para-
digm and defines four modes that describe all basic media: material, sensorial,
spatiotemporal, and semiotic. In the intermediality paradigm, the semiotic cate-
gory, wherein linguistic meaning is largely contained, is but one of the categories
that must be considered.
Norris (2012), who conceptualizes multimodality from a perspective of mediated
discourse theory, maintains that modes do not in fact exist but they are heuristic
devices that “are not separate units. All communication is based on perception and
the embodied senso-motory [sic] processes, making it impossible in practical terms
to dismantle them into isolated parts” (p. 4). Despite their inseparability, Norris
discusses modes, identified as visual and touch, which are sense data. Indeed,
involvement of the senses looms large in the identification of multimodal literacy
practices. The sensory alphabet is an analytical tool that Marcus (2009) offers to
describe new media from a design perspective. This tool provides a means of
analyzing what she calls “pattern language,” (p. 1934) invoking “line, color, texture,
movement, sound, rhythm, space, light, shape” (p. 1934).
Modality and multimodality are thus slippery concepts, and multimodal literacies
subsume a range of projects, interfaces, and approaches. Nonetheless, varied multi-
ple approaches constitute a monumental step forward from the traditional portrait of
monolingual, alphabetic print literacy that continues to feature in much of language
testing.
(OECD 2014, p. 3). The PISA results in mathematics, science, reading, and problem-
solving rank 65 participating countries according to performance.
The latest published PISA results are from 2012; the ten top scorers in reading were
Shanghai, China; Hong Kong, China; Singapore; Japan; Korea; Finland; Chinese
Taipei, Canada; Ireland; and Poland (OECD 2014). These top-billed nations have
different educational histories, curricular approaches, and assessment paradigms, span-
ning education systems that are highly centralized and standardized with strong
examination cultures (e.g., China, Singapore, Japan), to those who devolve authority
to teachers and schools (e.g., Finland). Analyzed OECD results indicate “schools with
more autonomy over curricula and assessments tend to perform better than schools with
less autonomy when they are part of school systems with more accountability arrange-
ments and/or greater teacher-principal collaboration in school management” (2014,
p. 24). Nonetheless, strong testing lobbies persist, and the disjuncture between inquiry-
based curricula facilitating collaborative, across-the-curriculum projects that invite
creative textual products, and standardized testing of discrete language items and
grammatical usage creates a significant tension.
Future Directions
5
Snap!: http://snap.berkeley.edu/
84 H. Lotherington
Cross-References
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Popular Culture and Teaching English
to Speakers of Other Language (TESOL)
Abstract
A review of current research on popular culture and TESOL shows that the
recurrent themes revolve around pedagogical affordances of popular cultural
resources in TESOL, evaluation of popular culture’s pedagogical potential, and
construction of learner identities via ESL/EFL popular culture. However, there is
a dearth of discussion on development of critical literacies when popular culture
is used in English classrooms and existing studies focus mainly on popular
cultural resources that are based on Anglo-American and European cultures.
Moreover, issues relating to how to use popular culture in school teaching
contexts that are constrained by the need to meet official curriculum requirements
and preparation for high-stake tests remain under-investigated. It is proposed that
more classroom-based and narrative-based research should be done to look into
the experiences and desires of EFL/ESL students from various sexual, ethnic, and
socioeconomic backgrounds as they learn English via popular culture. In addi-
tion, critical literacies and common meaning-making conventions of popular
culture can be introduced to TESOL programs so that learners can become
critical, active analysts, and producers in the popular cultural world that they
are immersed in.
Keywords
Popular culture • Digital literacies • Learner identity • TESOL • Language
education • Agency
Y. Liu (*)
School of Education and Languages, The Open University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
e-mail: [email protected]
A.M.Y. Lin
Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Pedagogical Affordances of Digitally Mediated Popular Cultural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Evaluation of Popular Culture’ Pedagogical Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Construction of Learner Identities via ESL/EFL Popular Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Work in Progress: Digital Language Learning via Popular Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Introduction
Early Developments
material. The following quote from Sandsberry (1979) captures well this rising
trend:
More recently, however, several concurrent trends have resulted in a new view toward using
non-specialized materials for teaching language, trends such as the emphasis upon teaching
language in context; the shift of interest from small to increasingly larger units of discourse;
the goal of communicative competence taking precedence over that of linguistic compe-
tence; and bilingual education, in which students learn the second language through content
courses. One consequence of these trends, the move away from strictly controlled language,
means that not only can language activities focused upon everything from model villages to
recipes now be considered appropriate for elementary as well as very advanced classes, but
also that such activities need not be considered second-rate, slated for the last ten minutes on
Fridays. (pp. 501–502)
Early studies thus focused on how to use popular cultural resources to facilitate
L2 comprehension, enjoyment, and learning, capitalizing on learners’ interests while
offering grammatically correct and yet authentic materials to consolidate English
communicative competence. Research studies in this tradition mainly elucidated the
ways in which language teachers used popular cultural resources fruitfully in
language classrooms. Specifically, (pop) songs proved to be the pop culture genre
that guaranteed most pedagogical potentials. Richards (1969), for example, argued
that songs could help to teach children new sounds, rhythm and stress, polite forms,
and vocabulary due to its pleasurable nature. However, nonstandard grammatical
structures in songs were thought to hinder language learning, and teachers were
asked to adapt songs in classroom presentations. In addition, pop songs were seen as
“affective, simple and repetitive” (Murphey 1989), and teachers were asked to
design various song-based activities (e.g., role-play, grammar/listening comprehen-
sion drilling, teaching vocabulary/translation) for classroom use that would align
with learners’ preference. On the other hand, pop songs were considered to have the
“song-stuck-in-my head” (SSIMH) effect, or in Barber’s (1980) term “Din in the
head” (Murphey 1990), and so they were thought to be able to assist teachers in
instilling some information into learners’ minds (Murphey 1992). In the context of
Mexican secondary schools, Domoney and Harris (1993) reported that Spanish-
speaking students lacked interest in learning English because it was seldom used
outside the classroom, and teachers explored how to capitalize on students’ interest
in rap music to bridge the gap between out-of-school English exposure and formal
learning. Song-based fill-in the gaps were also found to facilitate language attain-
ment rather than just for atmosphere and mood enhancement among Japanese EFL
university students (Kamel 1997).
TV dramas proved to be useful aids in teaching English listening, pronunciation,
and vocabulary. Handscombe (1975), for example, documented how to appropriate
the TV series The Sunrunners in the Grade 3 ESL classroom in Ontario, Canada, for
exposing pupils to multiple dialects of English as well as consolidating their
grammatical knowledge and vocabulary of English. Videotaped news broadcasts
were also found to be useful materials to enhance students’ listening comprehension
in the classroom. In order to address the uneven development of the four language
90 Y. Liu and A.M.Y. Lin
skills (i.e., listening, speaking, reading, and writing), Brinton and Gaskill (1978)
maintained that compared with artificial language examples, news broadcasts could
bring real language materials to classrooms and enhance students’ English listening
comprehension, vocabulary, and understanding of the target language culture. TV
comedy was also found to present useful resources for teaching English as a foreign
language (McLean 1976).
Earlier research viewed popular culture as exciting and practical and to
provide a proxy environment similar to the actual English-speaking world. It
was assumed that the more students were exposed to authentic language use, the
more competent they would be able to cope with English in real life situations.
For example, Hafernik and Surguine (1979) advocated for the use radio commer-
cials to teach listening in ESL classes due to the high recording quality, the
entertaining nature, and the provision of everyday English in a contextualized
manner. They proposed designing instructional activities such as (1) true/false,
(2) multiple choice, (3) short answer, (4) matching, (5) cloze dictation,
(6) adapted role-play, (7) values clarification, (8) discussion, and (9) contact
assignments based on English radio commercials. In Hong Kong, Cheung
(2001) pointed out that popular culture, such as television, movies, music, gossip
magazines, comics, fashion, computer games, and the Internet, exerted signifi-
cant impact on young people’s feelings, attitudes, and knowledge about society.
Therefore, teachers were advised to tap into students’ “encountered knowledge”
(Cheung 2001) to design meaningful and communicative tasks in classrooms to
enhance their motivation to learn English.
In related research, comic strips were found to have an effect on ESL learners’
reading comprehension (Liu 2004). With a factorial design involving factors of
English proficiency (i.e., high-level or low-level ESL learners), text difficulty
(i.e., difficult or easy English texts), and visual support (i.e., with or without
comic strips), Liu (2004) argued that the reading comprehension of low-level ESL
learners could be significantly enhanced when difficult texts were supported with
relevant comic strips, because key information was abstracted and represented in
comprehensible visuals. However, the high-level ESL learners in Liu (2004) did
not benefit from comic strips because comic strips distracted their attention from
complex language structures and did not provide more information than they
could understand from the texts. It was therefore recommended that teaching
material developers should choose the visual supports that reflected the texts’
linguistic complexities so as to increase the quality of readers’ language input and
output.
Another way of using popular culture in TESOL was to make use of both its
language forms and content. For example, Sandsberry (1979) used magazine
advertisements in ESL classrooms to teach logical thinking and English language
alternately by asking students to interrogate the logics of the advertisement.
Despite the diversity of opinions toward using popular culture in classrooms,
there was general consensus that careful planning and adaption was the key
the successful integration of popular cultural resources in English-language
education.
Popular Culture and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Language (TESOL) 91
Major Contributions
more aware of their agentive role as critical genre analysts of both conventional and
digital text forms. In another study, Wang et al. (2012) maintain that Second Life
supports constructivist learning as it enables a more active student role and supports
students’ knowledge construction via the recreation of public entities and infrastruc-
tures that can include opportunities for intercultural exchange. Based on the princi-
ples of task-based learning, authentic activities, and collaborative learning, a three-
step activity model is proposed for designing foreign-language learning activities
with Second Life, which include Setting the Stage, Acclimating, and Testing the
Waters. “Setting the Stage” refers to giving technological support to novice users and
encouraging ESL students to develop a Second Life user manual in their native
language; “Acclimating” pertains to establishing a safe zone in Second Life where
EFL/ESL learners will be gathered to discuss assigned topics via text messages in
order to achieve higher English proficiency; finally learners will interact with native
English speakers in Second Life, i.e., “Testing the Water.”
While some studies on popular cultural resources counteract the dismissal of popular
culture as purely recreational and underscore learners’ language gains after active
analysis and participation in pop culture, another emerging theme is the assessment
of language gains by analyzing the pedagogical potential of a specific popular
culture genre and exploring the ways in which popular cultural resources can be
effectively used with quantitative research. For example, Rodgers and Webb (2011)
examine the word types, vocabulary reoccurrence, and the vocabulary size necessary
to reach 95% coverage of different English TV series in order to ascertain the value
of watching TV series for learning English vocabulary. Specifically, using the
computer software RANGE (Nation and Heatley 2002), Rodgers and Webb (2011)
compare the frequency of vocabulary in 142 episodes of six TV dramas, 24, Alias,
Crossing Jordan, CSI, Grey’s Anatomy, and House, which are treated as related TV
programs, with 146 episodes of six other randomly chosen TV dramas. Fewer word
types and families and higher vocabulary reoccurrence are found in related TV
programs than the unrelated, randomly chosen TV programs, and a vocabulary
size of the most frequent 3,000 word families is considered sufficient for under-
standing 95% of the words in the TV programs. Therefore, for less proficient
English-language learners, it is better to receive narrow, repeated L2 aural input by
watching different episodes of a single TV program or a single episode multiple
times. However, more advanced English-language learners benefit from receiving
more broad L2 aural input. Furthermore, teachers can design comprehension ques-
tions and pre-teach some low-frequency words from the TV programs as classroom-
based activities to aid students’ comprehension.
Lai et al. (2015) identify the close ties between out-of-school English learning
with information and communication technologies (e.g., the Internet, movies, TV
dramas, songs) and English proficiency with a group of junior secondary EFL
learners in a large city in southern Mainland China with both quantitative and
Popular Culture and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Language (TESOL) 93
qualitative data. In particular, she finds that English movies and English songs are
what this group of students opt for in out-of-school English learning, and parents and
teachers are the most important socialization agents for this group of students. The
study suggests that in learning contexts where in-class instruction focuses heavily on
language forms rather than on language meaning, diversity of out-of-school English
learning activities should be enhanced to facilitate the learning of English-language
meaning. Lai (2015) also posits that teachers play a significant role in undergraduate
students’ digital self-directed foreign language learning (including English) with
semi-structured interviews and online questionnaires. In particular, teachers’ affec-
tive support can improve students’ sense of the perceived usefulness of technologies.
Additionally, teachers’ capacity support and behavior support are found to be
important in facilitating learning conditions and improving students’ computer
self-efficacy. However, quantitative evaluation of popular culture’s pedagogical
potential tends to overlook the effects of learner identities on learning and seems
to regard learners as homogeneous, rendering research findings in this tradition
dubious at a time of “superdiversity” (Blommaert 2013), when learners’ attitudes
and understanding of a popular culture text can vary considerably even within the
same classroom. In the next section we will turn toward a review of studies on the
issue of learner identities.
An important research focus in popular culture and TESOL examines the construc-
tion of English-language learners’ identities, whether in traditional, print-based
media, or in new media environments powered by emerging technologies. Specifi-
cally, this line of work is less concerned with pop culture as an English-language
teaching/learning resource and rather examines the possible ways in which English-
language learners construct their relationship with English and the imagined com-
munities of English speakers via popular culture, including how power relations in
English learning/teaching are implicated in popular culture.
Pioneering work in this tradition is found in Lam (2000, 2004), who explores how
immigrant youths in the United States utilize popular culture to acquire more
symbolic resources, such as English-language competency and friendship. Lam
(2000) contends that computer-mediated communication (CMC) engenders vernac-
ular L2 development and enables users to construct more positive and powerful
identities for themselves compared with the negativity experienced in schools.
Albeit constrained by dominant ideologies, ESL learners manage to transcend their
social marginalization due to low academic English proficiency via connection with
a global English-speaking (including EFL) community. The enhanced social capital
and emotional support they create are central to sustaining a positive learner identity.
This view is also echoed in other recent studies (e.g., Lee 2013, 2014) on EFL
youths’ use of social media, and it is predicted that “newer social media will only
give rise to even greater diversity of both technology users and linguistic practices”
(Lee 2014, p. 180).
94 Y. Liu and A.M.Y. Lin
Hip-hop music genres are also found to have the potential to empower working-
class secondary EFL students, evidence for which is documented in Lin and Man
(2011)’s study. An extracurricular English hip-hop learning activity, called “The ELT
Rap Project,” was piloted in a low performing school in Hong Kong. The authors
investigate the possibility of transforming working-class students’ inferior learner
identities with rap and dance workshops offered by local artists and an English tutor
with dual foci, one on rap and the other on English phonetic skills. With pre-and
post-questionnaires and focus group interviews, it is found that the students have
demonstrated more positive learner identities and more linguistic capital, such as
knowledge of letter-sound relationships, which help to increase their investment in
English.
Popular culture can also help English learners to critically reflect on their identity
formation. Mackie (2003) provides a critical account of the influence of popular
culture on formation of one’s subjectivity after examining how she acquired implicit
knowledge about race from popular American films and her experience of being
othered when teaching English in China. Mackie and Norton (2006) examine the
affordances and complexities when teachers include films as resources for teaching
literacy in the L1 context. In related research, popular culture texts are found to be
conducive to language learning as language learners use these texts to “construct
their identities as learners, users, and consumers of the English language” (Chik and
Breidbach, 2011).
Recent studies have also examined how learners are positioned and position
themselves in second languages when they are involved in consumption and produc-
tion of popular culture texts. In engaging with popular culture in English teaching and
learning, social inclusion or exclusion is a significant dimension. Due to the diversity
of students, more attention over selection of pop culture materials is advocated to
avoid marginalization of learners. Indeed, as pointed out in Duff’s (2002) study on pop
culture and ESL students, teachers should know about the relevance of the popular
culture resources in students’ everyday life, especially when they come from different
sociocultural and linguistic backgrounds; moreover, teachers should unpack the forms
and functions of hybrid pop culture texts for immigrant students, because “relevance
and access cannot be taken for granted. People often do not share the necessary
sociocultural and psycholinguistic repertoires, practices, and abilities, and need assis-
tance from others to understand them. For newcomers to a discourse community,
references to dominant local pop culture are often both intriguing and confusing,
especially in highly intertextual or hybrid oral texts” (p. 486).
In the same vein, Black (2009) discusses the pedagogical value of Internet-
mediated communication for TESOL in the twenty-first century with examples of
English-language learners’ engagement in online fandom. Specifically, Black (2009)
identifies three major benefits of engaging in leisure-time, pop culture-based, tech-
nology-mediated activities in L2 English: improving English-language and compo-
sition skills (i.e., print literacy), developing “the twenty-first century skills” of
information literacy which refers to the ability “to seek out and critically evaluate
information across a range of media” (p. 693), and finally developing positive
identities as “powerful learners, language users, and as active producers of their
Popular Culture and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Language (TESOL) 95
own social, cultural, and ideological materials” (p. 696), i.e., boosting learners’
academic self-concept.
Similarly, Norton and Vanderheyden (2004), in studying the ESL preadolescent
Archie comic readers who newly immigrated to Canada, observe that engaging in
ESL popular culture consumption such as reading L2 English comic books can
benefit English-language learners’ sense of belonging to the new community as well
as their language development. Specifically, they find that reading Archie comics can
help the newly arrived students learn the sociocultural practices of Canadian society.
In addition, the practice of lending the Archie comic books to native English-
speaking classmates’ can empower the ESL learners in terms of fostering interper-
sonal relationships.
As discussed in the previous section, the potential benefits for integrating popular
culture in school-based EFL/ESL teaching have been well documented. Recently,
researchers have attempted, in an emerging body of work, to explore students’ infor-
mal, autonomous learning afforded by digital popular cultural resources. A literature
review on computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and second-language acquisi-
tion (SLA) done by Mroz (2014) identifies two main types of virtual language learning
environments (VLLEs) which can provide opportunities for meaningful use of L2
English, i.e., online commercial video games and non-gaming three-dimensional
multiuser virtual environment (3-D MUVE) such as Second Life. In particular, virtuality
is conceptualized as providing a “holistic and complex” immersive environment and
affording agency to language learners (Mroz 2014, p. 334).
In terms of the relation between gaming and L2 English learning, Sylvén
and Sundqvist (2012, 2016) find that L2 English proficiency is related to the frequency
of gaming and types of games played for a group of well-resourced Swedish fifth
graders. In the naturalistic setting of home life, frequency of gaming (i.e., 5 h/week)
and the variety of games are found to be correlated positively with the acquisition of
L2 English vocabulary. A study on Japanese university EFL learners’ collaborative
interaction in and attitudes toward Second Life conducted by Peterson (2012) reveals
that learners can obtain peer correction and peer scaffolding for unknown lexis.
Additionally, the students hold positive attitudes toward learning on Second Life due
to the appealing personalized avatars and the low-stress environment as compared
with a regular English class.
Despite the generally positive research findings regarding using digital popular
culture for self-directed English learning, and due in part to significant learner
diversity, a number of factors have impeded the effectiveness of learners’ self-
regulated language learning with technology. For example, Lai and Gu (2011)
indicate that lack of digital literacy, unawareness of useful technologies for language
learning, or little metacognitive knowledge about how to use them effectively can
significantly undermine learning foreign language via digital popular culture
resources and platforms. These issues are further explored in the section below.
96 Y. Liu and A.M.Y. Lin
2014). This said, symbolic violence regarding gender, race, and class is of course
present in cyberspaces, and how such power relations are enmeshed in students’ L2
English learning have not yet been adequately and critically investigated. In addi-
tion, the global and local symbolic capital of particular languages and cultures can be
a serious issue: many popular culture resources, whether Web 2.0 technology or
more traditional media such as films and TV drams, are often Anglo-American and
European. A potential corrective action is to utilize popular cultural resources in the
learners’ mother tongue or to incorporate those based on non-Western contexts in
order to decenter dominant cultures while also fostering multilingualism and desires
to learn other languages and cultures (Janks 2004).
Another potential problem lies in the register and language level of popular
culture materials. While most students need to acquire the powerful forms (i.e.,
academic register) of dominant foreign languages (e.g., English, French) for upward
socioeconomic mobility, the style of language in popular culture tends to be vernac-
ular. The vernaculars which students are acquiring through engagement with the
popular culture world are not always appropriate for, or readily transferred to, use in
academic settings (Madge et al. 2009; Thorne et al. 2009). In addition, a mismatch
between the proficiency level of beginning foreign-language learners and the com-
plexity level of authentic popular culture materials is reported by Lai and Gu (2011).
If teachers are not making conscious efforts to provide language support and bridge
the gap between L2 English everyday vernaculars and L2 English academic lan-
guage, students may not be able to benefit from popular culture-inspired language
instruction. English-language teachers should therefore caution against the assump-
tion that exposure to L2 English popular culture is always beneficial for students’
linguistic attainment and teach with more register awareness when popular cultural
resources are used.
Future Directions
Learning language via popular culture in the digital age is not “a lazy throwing open
of the school doors to the latest fad, but rather committing to a principled under-
standing of the complexity of contemporary cultural experience” (Willis 2003,
p. 411). Given the developments and problems in the field, future research should
be conducted toward more understanding of diverse popular culture’s influence on
L2 English learning and teaching, both in terms of students’ language attainment and
their identity development. Specifically, more naturalistic or (design) experimental
research can be done to examine the efficacy of using popular culture in TESOL and
to investigate when and form whom popular culture can be useful and in which
dimensions of the language ability. Additionally, more classroom-based or narrative-
based research can be done to reveal the affect and desires of learners from various
sexual, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds when they learn English via popular
culture so that language teachers can design language curricula accordingly. Another
98 Y. Liu and A.M.Y. Lin
future direction would be further studies and innovative pedagogical practices that
involve multilingual popular culture texts from a wider range of cultural contexts,
which can promote multiculturalism.
Furthermore, popular culture is a powerful source of fun, excitement, fantasies,
and desires as well as social controversies. Students immersed in popular culture
often do not have a chance and/or the analytical tools to critically reflect on how
their own subjectivities and identities, ways of seeing things, and relating to others
are implicitly and ideologically shaped or influenced by the popular cultural texts
that they consume pleasurably every day. Therefore, critical literacies can be
introduced to English-language learning programs so that students can identify
ideologies and biases implicitly embedded in popular culture and contest negative
subject positions which are discursively constructed by some popular culture
texts.
Finally, as Lin (2012) points out, “[l]anguage (e.g., L1, L2, L3) should not be seen
and planned as discrete separate entities but rather as continua (Hornberger 2003;
Canagarajah 2005) and. . .part of multimodal communication (Kress and van
Leeuwen 1996, 2001).” Teachers and researchers are encouraged to explore ways
to equip students with the techniques and meaning-making conventions of popular
culture and to teach them different ways to creatively produce content for the
purpose of promoting social justice and heteroglossia (cf. Lin and Luk 2005). In
this way, students are not merely passive consumers of popular culture but are also
critical, active analysts and producers of the cultural world.
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Part II
Plurilingual Practices in Digital Contexts
Identity in Mediated Contexts
of Transnationalism and Mobility
Abstract
This chapter reviews research on the relation of literacy and identity in the context
of transnational migration and changing linguistic and communicative landscapes
with online connectivity. In particular, we focus on the ways that youth of migrant
backgrounds use digital and online media to construct networks and affiliations
with diverse cultural and language practices. The studies we review have pro-
vided lenses into how youth of migrant backgrounds draw from multiple linguis-
tic and semiotic resources to represent themselves, how they navigate
participation in diverse communities and networks that span national borders,
and how diaspora youth blend their cultural heritage and affiliation with transna-
tional youth culture in online participatory practices. The youths’ digital practices
indicate that they are orienting to different cultural discourses and practices
coming from both local and translocal spaces, across their countries of origin
and settlement, as these discourses and practices are accessed, remixed, and
circulated on new media platforms. We propose that, at a broader level, these
practices point to the ways in which people maneuver differentiated social spaces
within and across countries, how people create their own (cultural and historically
informed) pathways through them, and in the process reconstruct their under-
standing and relationships across these spaces. These processes of traversal and
reconstruction of social spaces have important implications for further research
and educational practice that seek to enhance people’s mobility in a global world.
Keywords
Literacy • Identity • Transnationalism • Mobility • Online practices • Digital
literacy
Contents
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Early Developments
Since the early 1990s, research on international migration has increasingly turned to
the notion of transnationalism to understand the various kinds of cross-border
connections that are created and sustained in the process of migration and how the
identities of individuals and groups of people are negotiated within social worlds that
span more than one place (Levitt and Jaworsky 2007; Vertovec 2009). These
connections are multilayered, multisited, and are influenced by a complex ecology
of labor and capital flow, circulation of ideas, cultural and material goods across the
world, and increasing digitization of social life. Research in diaspora media studies
has explored the adoption of various technologies, such as mobile phones, e-mail,
text messaging, video chat, and Internet websites among migrants to engage in
relationships of care and building cultural and political affiliations with family,
friends, conationals, and others across distances (Miller and Slater 2000; Panagakos
and Horst 2006). The “transnational turn” in anthropological and sociological
research of migration has provided a “new analytic optic” (Caglar 2001, p. 607)
for making visible how people constitute daily routines, activities, and institutional
affiliations that simultaneously connect them to more than one society. These
contexts of migration and mobility gave rise to the impetus to reassess our under-
standing of literacy and communicative practices, and how youth draw upon various
linguistic and multimodal resources to (re)define their identities and relations to
multiple localities and communities.
In educational research, scholars have argued that given the growing scope of
cultural and linguistic diversity in public and private spheres of society, coupled with
the changing communicative landscape, literacy pedagogy needs to move beyond
formalized, standardized, and its largely monolingual and monocultural framework
that currently is centered around the nation state (Cope and Kalantzis 2000; Luke
2003). Scholars associated with the New London Group proposed the concept of
multiliteracies to describe the literate abilities to navigate and negotiate diverse
social practices and representational forms that are integral to our changing societies
(New London Group 1996).The authors argued that mastery of contemporary
multiliteracies demands continual adaptation to new emerging textual forms, com-
fort with hybridization and crossing cultural boundaries, and the ability to reenvision
social futures. Importantly, along with others, they argued that linguistic and cultural
diversity is not a problem that needs to be standardized or normalized but should be
Identity in Mediated Contexts of Transnationalism and Mobility 107
seen as a cultural, civic, and economic resource in organizing literacy pedagogy. The
article (New London Group 1996) proposes three constructs for scholars and
educators researching literacies in the twenty-first century: (1) the construct of
“productive diversity,” which means seeing difference as a capitalizable resource,
(2) “civic pluralism,” which refers to the recognition of a broad range of affiliations,
values, and perspectives beyond national borders or traditions, and (3) the idea of
“multilayered lifeworlds” in which individuals participate and in the process develop
complex, textured subjectivities.
In developing constructs of identity as an analytic lens for educational research, Gee
(2000), who was coauthor of the New London Group article, contended that the
contemporary global economy, popular culture, and youth sociality promote new
contexts for constructing social identities that he termed affinity groups or affinity
spaces. An affinity group identity is developed through networking, collaborating, and
affiliating, sometimes across distances, around common interests, joint endeavors, and
shared causes. The source of this identity is coparticipation in a set of distinctive
practices – practices that are reflected in diverse kinds of youth engagement with
media around hip-hop, anime, music, games, and fandoms. Gee (2000/2001) pointed
out that affinity group identity can coexist with other forms of identity that come from
institutional positions and cultural discourses. In this sense, Gee’s formulation opens up
an analytic space to think about how different kinds of social structures (from societal
institutions, cultural heritage, and affinity group networks) may interact in practices of
cross-border communication, and how people may draw from discourses from these
different sources for representing and enacting identity.
Gee’s notion of affinity space is echoed in the idea of “participatory culture” in the
field of communication studies (Jenkins 2006), which refers to how everyday people
and groups engage in networking, media use and production to pursue their interests
and, in the process, shape the flow and circulation of media. The idea of participatory
culture has spurred educational research to examine digital spaces as important sites
for social connection, literacy practices, and cultural production.
These early developments provided some broad theoretical signposts for studying
the relation of literacy and identity in response to changing demographics and
migratory contexts, linguistic and communicative landscape, spatial affiliations,
and online connectivity. In particular, research began to examine the ways that
youth of migrant backgrounds use digital and online media to construct networks
and affiliations to diverse cultural and language practices. The next section describes
some major themes from this research that have begun to build a complex portrait of
youths’ transnational digital practices.
Major Contributions
their cultural heritage and affiliation with transnational youth culture in online
participatory practices.
A number of studies have focused on the online texts produced by immigrant
youth and shown how young people use their personal profiles and self-produced
narratives in online journals, instant messaging, and social networking sites to
signify their identifications with multiple communities across borders (McGinnis
et al. 2007; McLean 2010; Sánchez and Salazar 2012; Yi 2009). These signifying
practices include written texts, images, and music used by youth to reference the
national symbols and popular culture of their natal countries, and narrative texts that
target different audiences and contain references to the youth’s social relations and
schooling experiences in their different homelands. For example, McGinnis et al.
(2007) profiled how Julia (pseudonym), who migrated to the United States in her
fifth-grade year, used a variety of modalities, such as Latin music, graphics of
Colombian flags, and English and Spanish, to express her Colombian ethnic iden-
tification on Myspace (a social networking site). Her online gallery of friends
reflected her affiliation with other Colombian youths from her high school and
allowed her to maintain relationships with friends in Colombia. Additionally, Julia
expressed her community involvement with immigrant rights by using the site to
promote awareness and mobilize protests. The researchers’ analysis of the multi-
modal and multilingual texts of the youths in their case study led them to assert that
the online environment served as dynamic representational spaces for the youths to
express multiple identities and multiple loyalties and to reflect on the different social
and cultural contexts of their lives.
Besides serving as a narrative space to express one’s multisite and multilayered
affiliations, digital media are also platforms within which young people cultivate
their relationships with different communities. Studies have explored the diverse
online networks of youth and the nature of the communicative practices within these
networks, particularly how social, linguistic, and semiotic resources are accessed and
developed within these networks (Elias and Lemish 2009; Lam 2009; Lam and
Rosario-Ramos 2009; Stewart 2014). In a study of the instant messaging practices of
a 17-year-old girl who had migrated to the United States from China 2 years prior,
Lam (2009) examined how the youth acquired and made choices among different
varieties of Chinese and English to develop simultaneous networks across countries.
The linguistic repertoire that the youth demonstrated in her online communication
includes standard American English and hip-hop English that she used with an
online network of Asian American youth, a combination of Cantonese, Mandarin,
and English with her peers in the local immigrant community, and a blended form of
Mandarin and Shanghainese that she used to interact with her peers and learn about
events in her hometown of Shanghai. The researcher argued that such synchronic
movement across social networks represented the desire of the youth to develop the
literate repertoire that would enable her to thrive in multiple cultural communities
and mobilize social and semiotic resources within those communities. The study also
shows how the youth’s participation in these networks is oriented to diverse linguis-
tic economies where particular language norms, cultural resources, and forms of
creativity are circulated and take on symbolic and functional value.
Identity in Mediated Contexts of Transnationalism and Mobility 109
In an ethnographic study with four high-school youth from Latin America who
had been living in the United States for 9–20 months, Stewart (2014) demonstrated
the diverse networks and forms of literacy practices that youth navigate across online
and offline contexts. By interviewing and observing the youths’ routine activities in
different spaces, she noted how their social networking activities on Facebook
connect them to friends and family back home and those in diaspora communities
across Latin America and the United States, maintain their Latina/o identities
through music and other forms of popular culture, and enable them to cultivate
relationships through English with colleagues in their workplaces. Their online
activities mediate their simultaneous participation in diverse sets of social relation-
ships and institutional practices across geographic space.
These patterns of simultaneity of connection, navigation, and positioning in
different cultural communities through online media are replicated and further
illustrated in interview studies that draw on larger samples (Elias and Lemish
2009; Lam and Rosario-Ramos 2009). Elias and Lemish (2009) interviewed
70 immigrant youth from the former Soviet Union who had been living in Israel
from between 6 months and 5 years, and found that the youths used the Internet to
connect with their homeland and co-ethnics as well as to learn about the host society
and to create friendships with local peers. The youths orient to online media and
communicative platforms both as a source of information about the new society and
a connection to Russian language, information, and cultural symbols of identity.
These forms of continuity and simultaneous affiliations are actively cultivated and
mobilized by the youth to navigate and circumvent the ruptures and social margin-
alization that they experience in relocation. Elias and Lemish (2009, p. 547) suggest
that the youths’ experiences are indicative of “a postmodern experience of diaspora
in which homeland and identity have become fluid” and “new possibilities of
identity formation and notions of belonging that emerge in this process today.”
Other studies have shown how diaspora youth creatively signify their cultural
heritage and affiliation with transnational youth culture in online participatory
practices (Black 2008, 2009; Domingo 2012, 2014). In her study of youth of Filipino
heritage in London who are members of a hip-hop production group that has
transnational membership and affiliations, Domingo (2012, p. 178) proposes the
notion of linguistic layering to describe the “design and circulation of multimodal
texts as rhetorical resources for managing linguistic variety and cultural affiliation
across discourse communities.” The youth call themselves the “Pinoys” and network
with youth of Filipino heritage across Europe, Asia, and North America to engage in
various forms of digital hip-hop production. Their hip-hop music involves hybrid
lyrical and beat-making, visual and textual displays that draw from symbols and
references of diverse discourse communities of Filipino, British, hip-hop, and youth
pop culture. These multimodal ensembles and layering of culturally informed
expressions are produced and circulated in the wider online communities to express
their multiple affiliations and articulate social commentaries on their heritage and
sense of global belonging. By circulating and discussing their projects across online
platforms including Facebook, YouTube, and SoundClick (an online music-based
social networking community), the youth are not only creating messages about their
110 W.S.E. Lam and N. Smirnov
linguistic and artistic identities but also shaping digital and technological platforms
through their collaborative authorship across space.
Black’s (2008, 2009) study of multilingual and diaspora youths’ participation in
anime fan fiction community also shows opportunities for language development
that draws from diverse media genres, cultural knowledge, and linguistic skills. For
example, Black documented how youth of Chinese and Filipino descent who were
studying English as a second language were able to draw on their knowledge of
Asian cultures and languages to construct English texts with multilingual elements,
express pride as Asian-origin writers, and attain expert status in the transnational
anime fan fiction community. These youth, who were located in different countries,
also collaboratively reviewed and supported each other’s development as writers
within the networking spaces of Fanfiction.net. The study shows how the transborder
flows of cultural, symbolic, and ideological material in this online community
influence the identities the youth enact through their fan texts, the global connection
they develop, and the shaping and dissemination of their own media products.
These research studies on the digital literacy practices of youths of migrant
backgrounds show the multiple and complex influences that contribute to the literate
repertoires of these young people. The diverse influences are visible in the use of
multiple languages and hybrid linguistic codes; media genres and multimodal
expressions; as well as the content and cultural references that are represented
through the diverse semiotic forms in the youths’ digital texts. Indeed, the youths’
digital texts indicate that they are orienting to different cultural discourses and
practices coming from both local and translocal contexts, across their countries of
origin and settlement, as these discourses and practices are accessed, remixed, and
circulated in new media platforms.
What we also see from these cases is the creation of social and knowledge
networks across countries. The creation of these networks via digital platforms
allows the youth to connect to diverse cultural communities, access symbolic and
social resources, cultivate simultaneous affiliations, and reconstitute their sense of
belonging across geographical spaces. The reconstruction of social space in literacy
and learning requires further exploration, particularly as we conceptualize forms of
learning that relate to the transnational experiences and communicative repertoires of
migrant learners. In the following section we discuss some empirical and theoretical
work that move in this direction.
Work in Progress
access for knowledge and information, (3) provide social supports for learning
through social media and online affinity groups, and (4) link a broader and more
diverse range of culture, knowledge, and expertise to educational opportunity” (ibid,
p. 6). Examples of connected learning include Quest Schools, a network of public
schools that incorporate approaches from game design and game-based learning to
reimagine school curriculum, culture, and pedagogy. Other environments are teen
library spaces where youth explore their various interests and receive mentorship
from adults and peers on diverse forms of creative and multimedia production. The
aim is to harness different forms of support structures across online and offline
spaces and across institutional boundaries to promote more equitable and personal-
ized learning for young people.
The Connected Learning framework is an educational movement seeking to
reimagine social spaces for learning and to support young people’s personal interests
and passions to craft meaningful learning and career trajectories. It also has the
expressed aim to relate to a broad range of knowledge and cultural communities with
which students affiliate. However, in order to do so, we need more understanding
and incorporation of the diverse profiles of cultural affiliations and resources for
learning mobilized by young people. The different kinds of social and knowledge
networks developed and valued by youth of diverse cultural backgrounds need to be
considered to truly promote more equitable learning.
To capture variation in forms of connectivity and learning practices, de Haan et al.
(2014) offer the notion of “networked configurations for learning” to describe the
particular online and offline connections that people form as related to their social,
cultural, and geographical history of mobility. Using social network interviews, the
researchers studied the online and offline networks of 79 youth from Native Dutch,
Moroccan-Dutch, and Turkish-Dutch backgrounds in the Netherlands. They found
that the second-generation youth of Moroccan and Turkish descent show both local
and transnational online connectivity, whereas Dutch youth of European descent
have online networks that are distributed more nationally (within the Netherlands).
For native Dutch youth, the Internet allows them to pursue individual hobbies and
learning interests with close friends and in online communities. For Turkish-Dutch
youth, their online networks are spread out across family and friendship networks in
the Netherlands and Turkey, including access to media resources of Turkish origin,
which provide them with particular cultural models and values. Moroccan-Dutch
youth maintain transnational relationships with family across countries but also seek
out online networking opportunities with other second-generation youth of Moroc-
can descent around common interests and concerns (e.g., on issues of gender,
religion, and politics) as they negotiate diverse norms and values in a multiethnic
society.
This study shows that, among youth of migrant backgrounds, their online prac-
tices and learning are informed by cultural and ethnic affiliations, transnational and
diaspora social networks, and the need and process for navigating multiple cultural
values and ideologies as ethnic minorities in the society. These social and structural
relations contribute to the priorities that the youth demonstrate in their online
practices. Hence, in order not to risk normativizing particular digital practices as
112 W.S.E. Lam and N. Smirnov
We obviously can benefit from more research to help us better understand the digital
practices and culturally configured networks of immigrant youth as well as other
youth who develop transnational relationships through their online, interest-based
engagements. We also need to understand how different social and demographic
variables affect levels and types of engagement, including capturing forms of
variation within ethnic groups. More comparative studies within and across migrant
communities would allow us to consider the social and structural conditions that give
rise to particular forms of transnational literacy practices. These conditions may
include geographical distance and economic and political relations between the
countries of origin and settlement, historical patterns of migration, the structural
positioning of migrants in the country of residence, and intersections with transna-
tional youth culture and media infrastructure across the different homelands.
The particular issue we want to point out and offer some suggestions for focus on
how the different lenses for investigating literacy and identity among immigrant
youths’ digital practices can be synergized for future research and rethinking edu-
cational opportunities for young people. The studies we have discussed adopt
different lenses for understanding immigrant youths’ digital practices. These lenses
include seeing the online practices as forms of representation of identity that draw
from diverse sources of cultural and ideological materials; as particular types of
social networks that connect people and artifacts across spaces; as affiliating and
navigating through these networks in specific cultural and linguistic economies; and
as creative adaptation of technological infrastructure to promote the preceding
processes. At a broader level, these lenses point to the ways in which people
maneuver differentiated social spaces within and across countries, how people create
their own (cultural and historically informed) pathways through them, and in the
process reconstruct their understanding and relationships across these spaces. We
believe these processes of traversal and reconstruction of social spaces have impor-
tant implications for further research and educational practice that seek to enhance
people’s mobility in a global world. In the next section, we offer the concept of scale
as a perspective to bring together the different lenses on literacy and identity in
mediated contexts for future research.
Future Directions
The concept of scale allows us to examine how people’s language practices and
affiliations span different geographical distances, and how through their practices
and activities they also reconstruct relationships between these spaces. Here we
propose three interrelated dimensions of scale for future research focusing on youth
media practices, identity, and learning. Firstly, how do young people navigate
differentiated social spaces and position themselves in diverse communities and
economies across geographical distances? Secondly, how do they develop ways of
114 W.S.E. Lam and N. Smirnov
knowing and representing the relationships between these different spaces? Thirdly,
how do networking technologies or other material practices contribute to
reconstructing spaces and creating new social spaces? In asking these questions,
we are interested in how young people both relate to and reorganize their under-
standing of and participation in diverse social environments in society for their own
learning and identity development.
In regard to the first question, scale allows us to attend to the differentiated spaces
and norms and practices in these spaces that people navigate through their online
(and offline) activities. We have seen that digital media allow youth who have access
to them to construct relationships with people and communities that span various
geographical distances and engage in diverse language practices. It is important to
understand how these language practices contribute to a larger communicative and
knowledge repertoire that the youth may leverage to position themselves in our
interconnected economies and societies. To do so, it is necessary to both study the
configurations of the digital networks that young people develop as well as situate
these networks within the social and linguistic practices prevalent in a particular
geographic community and economy. This may require a combination of methods to
map out the spread of networking activities of young people (e.g., through survey,
social network analysis, or interviewing) and ethnographic and historical study of
the communities with which youth are engaging through their activities.
For example, deHann and her colleagues (2014) show through social network
interviews that Turkish Dutch youth develop a distinct pattern of ethnically based
family and friendship networks that span across the Netherlands and Turkey. Lam’s
(2009) ethnographic study of the online networks of one Chinese youth in the United
States shows that the youth was navigating quite specific local language norms in her
Chinese immigrant neighborhood in comparison to her language practices with
people in her hometown of Shanghai. Studying how youth participate in transna-
tional networks may complexify our understanding of ethnicity and the diverse
linguistic, symbolic, and ideological sources that contribute to the construction of
Turkishness or Chineseness or other forms of identity. It may also allow us to see
how these sources of identity and social practices are mobilized by the youth in their
educational, career, cultural, and personal endeavors.
As people move across different geographic communities, they also construct
ideas and ways of knowing and representing the relationships between the different
spaces (Jones 1998; Moore 2008). This representational aspect of constructing
spatial relations is seen in Domingo’s (2012, 2014) study of Filipino youth in Britain
who participate in transnational hip-hop production as the youth draw from symbols
and references of diverse cultural and geographic communities. Their rhetorical
movements across spaces are manifested, for example, in the footage of their
music videos that connects sites in Manila and London, including scenes of poverty
and people in the Philippines protesting on the streets. The visual assemblage is
coordinated with the youths’ lyrics and bodily expressions to express a uniquely
Filipino hip-hop social commentary. As Domingo (2014, p. 16) stated regarding the
youths’ literacy practice: “Their digitally enabled text making is an ongoing process
that involves continued reshaping of multimodal ensembles across spaces.” The
Identity in Mediated Contexts of Transnationalism and Mobility 115
youths’ narratives that interweave events and practices across geographic commu-
nities create knowledge of the interrelationships of cultures and societies as well as
new pathways for the youth as hip-hop artists. Such narratives for re-presenting the
relationships between diverse social spaces may be particularly promoted and
supported in collective practices that serve an artistic, educational, professional, or
political purpose. However, they may just as well be present in the everyday
narratives that young people construct as they navigate cultural norms and practices
and grapple with information and perspectives from diverse societies. Further
research can explore how youth develop ideas and narratives that variously affect
their pathways and mobility across societies and different institutional domains of
society.
Lastly, we need to understand the role of networking technologies and other
material infrastructures in contributing to creating spaces of social contact and
cultural flows across geographic locations. Countries that have widespread online
infrastructure and home-grown media companies with a Web presence can readily
reach out to its diaspora populations with their media products and platforms.
Individuals and groups may also adapt these media infrastructures for their own
localized communication or networking with conationals in other migration coun-
tries. Immigrant communities that have strong civic and community groups may
promote online platforms for young people to participate and communicate around
their common concerns and interests. These structural conditions are important to
consider in understanding the geographical scale of people’s social connections, the
types of networked and mobile media that facilitate these social connections, and
the flows of information and material products and language practices in these
networks.
While we do not want to lose sight of continuing disparity in people’s access to
technology both within and across societies, it is also important to attend to how
people actively shape technological media for social purposes both individually and
collectively. This happens for undocumented youth living in precarious financial and
political circumstances who develop their resilience and define their own identities
as transnational Latina/os (Stewart 2014) as well as for hip-hop artists who mobilize
multiple media platforms to collaborate in creative production and to reach a
transnational audience (Domingo 2014). Understanding how youth affiliate within
and across territorial boundaries can help us reimagine forms of learning and
belonging that serve to support their social, economic, and political engagements
in our contemporary world.
Cross-References
Kevin Leader and Cynthia Lewis: Literacy and Internet Technologies. In Volume:
Literacies and Language Education
Brian Street: New Literacies, New Times: Developments in Literacy Studies.
In Volume: Literacies and Language Education
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Multilingualism and Multimodality
in Language Use and Literacies in Digital
Environments
Abstract
This chapter focuses on language, discourse, and literacy practices in contempo-
rary informal digital environments. We will discuss work in sociolinguistics, new
literacies, and discourse studies that have investigated multilingual and multi-
modal aspects of digitally mediated practices. Moving from early key develop-
ments in the field via major contributions of the early 2000s to current work in
progress, we review key studies that have explored the interconnections of
multilingualism, multimodality, new literacies, and digital environments in dif-
ferent ways. Finally, we briefly discuss the implications of informal, interest-
driven digital literacy practices to focal societal issues such as learning and
challenges of compatibility and adaptability of informally acquired competences
in formal education and everyday life – as well as issues of equality and digital
divide(s).
Keywords
Multilingualism • Multimodality • Discourse studies • Digital environments •
Digital literacies
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Early Developments and Initial Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Introduction
Multilingualism is a pervasive feature of digital environments. However, what
multilingualism means can vary a great deal. For some, it can mean a repertoire
that allows them to fully participate in a range of sites and types of communication,
while for others, it can involve a more limited and context-specific set of heteroge-
neous linguistic resources. The “language” of digital media also involves multi-
modality – it is a texture of heterogeneous semiotic materials that are woven together
(Kress and van Leeuwen 2001) in ways that are socioculturally significant to the
individuals, groups, and communities of practice using it. To which degree partic-
ipants in digital activities and interactions can draw on and mobilize their semiotic
resources often depends on the normativities in play in the specific environments
with which they engage. These normativities are often polycentric, ranging from
site-specific norms to more general, institutional, cultural, and social ones. Who gets
to use what resources with whom and when is, thus, as much an issue in digital
environments as it is in physical, face-to-face communicative situations (e.g.,
Leppänen et al. 2014).
By digital environments, we refer here to digital media platforms that enable the
creation, sharing, and exchange of user-generated multimodal content and involve
social interaction between participants. In addition to digital platforms explicitly
building on the idea of mutual exchange of content (such as web forums or social
networking sites), we also discuss digital environments in which the main content
can consist of primarily single-authored or monophonic discourse but that also offer
an opportunity to authors and recipients to interact (such as discussion sections of
institutional media sites or blogs) (Androutsopoulos 2010, 2011; Leppänen et al.
2014).
In this chapter, our focus is on language, discourse, and literacy practices in
contemporary informal digital environments. We will discuss work in sociolin-
guistics, new literacies, and discourse studies that have investigated multilingual
aspects and multimodality of digitally mediated activities. Moving from early key
developments in the field via major contributions of the early 2000s to current
work in progress, we review key studies that have explored the interconnections of
multilingualism, multimodality, new literacies, and digital environments in differ-
ent ways. Finally, we briefly discuss the implications of informal, interest-driven
digital literacy practices to focal societal issues such as learning, challenges of
compatibility and adaptability of informally acquired competences in formal
education and everyday life, as well as issues of equality and digital divide
(s) (such as in the global South, from and about which significant work in these
areas is emerging).
Multilingualism and Multimodality in Language Use and Literacies in Digital. . . 121
1
Note that Danet and Herring (2007) is an edited volume, an updated and upgraded version of a
special issue in the Journal of Computer Mediated Communication published in 2003. Thus, it
represents pioneering work done in the first years of the new millennium.
122 S. Leppänen et al.
Kalantzis 2009) and Kress and van Leeuwen’s work (2001) that emphasized the
importance of looking at not only language uses but also other modalities. According
to them, literacy – including digital literacy – should no longer be seen as mono-
modal only, but plural (hence “literacies”), and that multimodality, especially
visuality, needed to be taken seriously both in research and education as a crucial
means for meaning-making and communication.
Major Contributions
social ties across and between various geographical locations, and to search for
information from multiple sources. Their study shows how proficiency in multiple
Englishes and in multiple languages, in general, is often key to participation in a global
and networked society, suggesting that these multilingual literacy practices that are
transnational in scope could help form educational practices that fully consider and
embrace such resources, experiences, and knowledge.
Recent studies on digital multilingualism have also begun to pay more attention
to multimodality as a dimension. For example, Lee (2015, 2017) has shown how
people draw upon a wide range of multilingual and multimodal resources to project
new global identities, also discussing the implications that such semiotic action has
for education.2 The work by Leppänen and her colleagues (e.g., Leppänen et al.
2014, 2017) has highlighted how communication in digital environments is
increasingly characterized by both multilingualism and multimodality and how
processes of recontextualization and resemiotization are recurrent digital activities
in which semiotic material is circulated and resignified for different purposes and
audiences.
In the field of second/foreign language teaching and learning, multimodality has
also been recognized as something that both research and educational practices need
to take seriously. For example, drawing on key works on both multimodality
research and new literacies, Malinowski and Nelson (2010) give an informative
overview of key advances in understanding multimodality as a crucial ingredient in
all human communication and illustrate the complex interplay between language and
multisemiotic composition in the context of a Japanese university student’s digital
storytelling.
In an orientation to online intercultural exchange they term “telecollaboration
2.0,” Guth and Helm (2010) bring together chapters discussing a range of contexts
and aspects of the deployment of Web 2.0 affordances and “new online literacies”
(Guth and Helm 2010, p. 21) in educational institutions. Several of the chapters
discuss telecollaboration 2.0 from the perspective of multimodality, while multilin-
gualism features in some of them. For example, Steven Thorne, one of the key actors
in this field, discusses in his chapter (2010) how social media activities can offer
opportunities and incentives for intercultural communication and language learning.
Such themes have been central in his work more generally (see also Thorne 2006),
exploring, from a sociocultural perspective, various media technologies both outside
and within formal educational settings and their affordances and challenges in
connection with first/second/foreign language learning, multilingual literacy, and
communication.
In this kind of work, what is often highlighted is students’ active engagement with
digital media that provide them with meaningful opportunities for communication,
interaction, and identity work. Studies often make an explicit connection to the
informants’ out-of-school digital activities, but the main focus of research has
primarily been on formal educational contexts, such as classrooms, schools, and
2
These themes have also been addressed in collaborative work by Carmen Lee and David Barton.
124 S. Leppänen et al.
teacher training. This is the case with Lotherington and her colleagues who have
investigated practical means for redesigning multilingual and multimodal literacy
instruction for linguistically heterogeneous urban classrooms, informing policy
makers and contributing to theory (e.g., Lotherington and Jenson 2011). A similar
interest in studying linguistically and culturally diverse students is illustrated in work
by Ntelioglou et al. (2014) that discusses teaching approaches and practices which
showcase the significance of multilingualism, multimodality, and multiliteracies in
classrooms for the construction of students’ identity positions as “experts” in their
own right. In related research, Lytra (2014) has examined multilingualism and
multimodality in relation to media engagement in classrooms, involving Turkish-
speaking communities, paying attention to how students make use of, combine, and
transform different sets of linguistic and other semiotic resources in their classroom
activities, often with the help of a mobile phone. Her study emphasizes drawing
conclusions on interactional, individual, and community levels as regards linguistic
and cultural change: the students’ heteroglossic performance highlights culture as a
lived, transnational experience. In the Nordic context, chapters in Pitkänen-Huhta
and Holm (2012) explore changing and complex literacy practices and their con-
nections, from the highly local and situated to the global and mobile practices, thus
highlighting literacy as a multiple, multilingual, multimodal phenomenon, con-
stantly under negotiation.
Many studies argue explicitly that it is necessary to integrate young people’s
out-of-school digital literacy practices with formal educational agendas and prac-
tices. For example, Fraiberg (2010), in the context of the twenty-first-century
composition, engages with multimodal–multilingual literacy practices across (un)
official spaces, emphasizing the complex blending of multimodal/multilingual
texts and literacy practices in teaching and research (see also the collection by
Guth and Helm 2010). The resources students have, their ways of engagement
with, and the availability of digital activities are not, however, always empowering
or equally distributed. Studies have shown that, rather than being universally
advantageous, digital activities can in fact be “partially complicit” in a “widening
of the gap,” whereby inequalities can be produced and processes of class repro-
duction can happen in home contexts in relation to new media resources
(Lemphane and Prinsloo 2014; see also the introduction to and studies in Prinsloo
and Stroud 2014).
Pedagogies that unproblematically assume equality of access, resources, and
ways of engagement with digital activities can thus further enforce the
disenfranchising of already disadvantaged students. In this respect, a study by
Gachago et al. (2014) is particularly interesting as it provides insights into how
pedagogies can directly tackle varied student positionalities. Their multimodal
analysis of digital storytelling and “counterstorytelling” shows that pedagogies
that build on and critically extend students’ digital literacy practices can also provide
them with means to challenge social and racial injustices. Their empirical context
was a teacher education course in South Africa, on which notions of difference,
dominance, and resistance to unequal structures were powerfully brought up via
means afforded by digital multimodality.
Multilingualism and Multimodality in Language Use and Literacies in Digital. . . 125
Work in Progress
An emergent theme in recent work is that digital discourse and literacy are not studied
in isolation, rather digital and physical environments are seen as interwoven (see, e.g.,
Peuronen’s research on Christian lifestyle sports 2013). A similar approach has also
been taken up by Stæhr and Madsen (2015) in their study of the linguistic practices of
a group of young rappers of migrant origin in both musical productions on YouTube
and in their peer interactions. Their study also highlights the educational aspects of this
cultural production as the mentors not only guide the young rappers in rap-related
skills but also as regards their official educational development. Other examples of
studies that span the on- and offline environments include the investigation of “Internet
language” in physical public spaces and texts, such as multimodal and translingual
signs (Lee 2015). The connected and networked nature of digital activities also shows
in how transnationality and translocality of digital activities are recurrent themes in
current research. Such a perspective appears, for instance, in Thorne and Ivković’s
(2015) investigation of the plurilingual commenting on the multilingual Eurovision
Song Contest in YouTube, which forms a translocal, multimodal, and virtual linguistic
landscape (see also Androutsopoulos 2010; Leppänen et al. 2014).
Creativity and playfulness also feature in ongoing work related to multilingualism
and multimodality in digital environments. These qualities are highlighted in Ana
Deumert’s (2014) recent research in which she investigates multilingual digital writing
in varied digital applications (such as SMS, e-mail, Facebook, tweeting, and
Wikipedia) as a creative semiotic practice. Remixings, resemiotizations, and
recontextualizations also illustrate current researchers’ interest in playful and parodic
activities and their social, cultural, and even political functions. For example, Koven
and Marques (2015) have investigated heteroglossic, semiotic practices in the
recontextualization of migrants’ speech online, and Leppänen and Kytölä (2017)
have looked at resemiotization as a resource for (dis)identification. Moreover, Rymes
(2012) has examined the various semiotic affordances of YouTube as influencing
young people’s communicative repertoires in ways that have implications for multi-
lingual and heterogeneous educational spaces (see also Knobel and Lankshear 2015).
A cursory (and by necessity not exhaustive) look at papers given in recent major
international sociolinguistic conferences can also give some indication of current
themes in the area of multilingualism and multimodality online. These include foci
on the semiotics of constructions of identity, alterity, ethnicity, and gender (Tetreault,
Maly and Varis, Peck), popular cultural activities in digital settings (e.g., hip hop
(Westinen)), (re)constructions of humor and parody (Spilioti, Georgakopoulou,
Leppänen), promotional digital activities (Vazou and Politis, van Nuenen and Varis),
and out-of-school literacy practices and language learning (Taylor-Leech, Chau).
126 S. Leppänen et al.
From an educational perspective, the intensive and sustained investment that many
(young) people make in communication and activities in digital social media is
something that clearly merits a reappraisal of the value and significance they can
have more generally. As argued by Knobel and Lankshear (2010), participants in
long-term committed cultural activities can develop into “professional amateurs,”
with resources that enable them as legitimate and knowledgeable actors in participatory
cultures or communities of practice. Why such resources can be particularly important
has to do with the fact that they can become a form of expertise that is far from trivial or
esoteric but that can actually constitute significant communicative resources in manag-
ing complex, late modern societies. For language and literacy education, this poses a
new challenge, and opportunity, to revise their agendas: the emphasis laid on the role of
communication in this picture suggests that networked communication is a central
means through which such transformations of expertise can take place.
The way in which formal education can contribute to the further development of
digitally literacies and multimodal practices is not, however, without its problems.
Although activities and interactions in digital environments often entail a great deal
of explicit instruction of, learning of, and socialization into particular language uses,
styles, genres, and literacy practices (e.g., Leppänen and Piirainen-Marsh 2009;
Kytölä and Westinen 2015), participants in such activities may themselves resist
any institutionalized attempts at the appropriation of what they see as their own
cultural, communicative, and literacy territory. The ways in which formal education
can usefully intervene in such a territory is a matter of negotiation – whether or not
and in what ways it can usefully build on the expertise students already have and
enhance their capacity to apply it in communication in other settings – education,
work, and citizenship, for example (for insightful suggestions, see Alverman 2015).
Another challenge, already touched on above, that further complicates the task of
educational policies and practices building on students’ existing capacities is the fact
that digital environments are not free from divides. On the one hand, there are the
haves and have-nots – those who have or do not have access to and means for digital
participation. On the other hand, there are also second-level digital divides between
the highly varied experiences and differences in participants’ resources and capac-
ities that can reinforce further divisions between learners at particular intersections of
class, gender, and ethnicity.
Future Directions
phones as a means for improving and expanding the literacy skills of women in a
township in South Africa and Juffermans’s (2015) investigation of multilingualism,
local languaging, and literacy in the semiotic landscapes of Gambia.
Due to the increased and accelerated flows of migration and mobility on a global
scale, research should pay more attention to migrants’ multilingual and multimodal
communications via mobile technologies as part of their trajectories, as well as the
demographically, socially, and sociolinguistically complex and diverse settings in
which many of them find themselves (see, e.g., Omerbašić 2015; Sabaté i Dalmau
2012). No less important topics for future research are the languages, literacies, and
discourses with which identifications and disidentifications, springing from tensions
related to migration, economic crises, violent conflicts, and various political, cul-
tural, and religious polarizations, are articulated, debated, and countered in the
discursive battlegrounds of digital environments. Such activities clearly call for
more concerted research efforts from scholars of digital language and literacies.
For the purpose of sociolinguistic understanding and explanation of everyday
language uses and literacy practices, digital media activities – in contexts where they
are easily available and accessible – should also be taken as one of the sites of
contemporary everyday life, to be investigated not in isolation as such but as
connected and enmeshed with other facets of everyday life. For this purpose,
multi-sited ethnography is needed as a perspective in order to fully understand and
describe the multilingual and multimodal practices and communication of the youth
(Peuronen 2013; Stæhr and Madsen 2015). Digital media should indeed be seen as
responsive to, contributing to, and in interplay with “the world outside the web” –
that physical and virtual settings are often intertwined and inseparable in young
people’s lives. This said, we should still welcome studies that, through close
ethnographic, sociolinguistic, and multimodal analyses, trace the ways in which
participants – in the confines of digital media sites – negotiate and craft their
messages and meanings. Such analyses can highlight characteristics, patterns, and
functions of language and other semiotic practices that are specific to particular
genres and activities, while being interconnected with and responsive to messages
and practices in other social and traditional media.
In the future, social media are likely to become an even more important venue for
nonformal and informal learning in interest-driven, participatory cultures, in more
organized communities of practice centering on joint enterprises, as well as in
grassroots political action. For instance, collaborative crafting of materials for the
purpose of informing and guiding others in their activities will provide an alternative
to mainstream education, an education that is geared toward the needs and objectives
of particular like-minded individuals and their shared, collective agendas. For
example, the participatory Web 2.0 is populated by various resources for learning,
e.g., “how-to-do-x” types of sites, Wikipedia-type entries, and instructional materials
for people to educate others and themselves. Learning very specific literacies in
different languages in the context of fan fiction or mash-ups are cases in point. The
pedagogies involved in such activities often rely on interventions and playful
modifications and, in so doing, encourage the kind of analytical and critical sensi-
tivity that are at the core of formal education, too.
128 S. Leppänen et al.
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Fandom and Online Interest Groups
Shannon Sauro
Abstract
Within the scope of technology for language education, fandom and online
interest communities encompass a range of affinity groups in which individuals
can develop skills and knowledge potentially supporting language learning or
language mastery relevant to use in online and offline contexts. Initial work on
online interest groups investigated individual and collaborative literacy prac-
tices and identity development among users of pre-Web 2.0 technologies such
as Usenet discussions and personal fan websites. More recent research on
online interest groups, language learning and use looks to the creative work
and gameplay of international and multilingual users whose communities have
flourished as a result of Web 2.0 technologies, including fanfiction archives,
gaming forums, and wikis, and more general social media platforms. Alto-
gether, studies of fandom and online interest groups within the area of lan-
guage, education, and technology have revealed ways in which language
learners and language users make use of these online communities for language
learning, identity work, and the development of other skills and knowledge and
which hold implications for the integration of technology and digital practices
in language teaching.
Keywords
Fandom • Fanfiction • Identity • Collaborative writing • Web 2.0 • Twitter •
Multiplayer gaming
S. Sauro (*)
Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Introduction
Within the scope of technology for language education, fandom and online
interest communities encompass a range of affinity groups in which individuals
can develop skills and knowledge to foster their potential language learning or
language mastery for use in online and offline contexts. Online fandom describes
affinity groups comprised of fans, people who share a deep positive emotional and
psychological connection to something or someone and who often engage in
online fannish practices such as writing stories about the object of their interest
(i.e., fanfiction), discussing their fan interests with others, or engaging in activism
inspired by or in response to the person or thing they are fannish about (Duffett
2013). Online spaces have also been welcoming to the formation of other groups
of users who may not share the same deep connection to a text or public figure that
fans do but who instead come together to engage in shared practices or offer
support around shared experiences. These online interest groups can include, for
example, a Usenet group for Chinese students, scholars, and employees working
and studying abroad in the United States (Bloch 2004), discussion forums for
players of popular video games (Chik 2014), and coffee drinkers and appreciators
who partake in larger conversations through use of the #coffeehashtag on Twitter
(Zappavigna 2014a).
Taken together, educational research on fandom and online interest groups
reveals ways in which participants make use of these online communities for
language development, identity work (i.e., increased self-efficacy, confidence, social
inclusion), and the development of other skills and knowledge, with implications for
the integration of technology and digital practices in language teaching.
Early Developments
Initial work in online interest groups is exemplified by the early studies of Lam
(2000, 2004, 2006) and Bloch (2004), who investigated individual and collabo-
rative literacy practices and identity development among users of pre-Web 2.0
technologies.
Fandom and Online Interest Groups 133
In the first of these, Lam (2000) used a case-study approach to explore the
language and literacy development and identify formation of a second language
(L2) English learner, Almon, during 1996 and 1997. Almon, a youth who had
emigrated to the United States from Hong Kong 5 years earlier, expressed fear
about being marginalized as a result of his English skills. After an introductory
course on email and Internet use, he began using these new skills to teach himself
web design to create a fan page for a Japanese pop singer and thereby establish his
presence as a member of an online fan community. Entry into this online interest
group granted Almon access to a global network of fellow fans with which he was
able to use and develop knowledge of the English of adolescent pop culture through
instant messaging and regular email correspondence. Such involvement contributed
to Almon’s language and identity development by allowing him to overcome the
exclusion and marginalization he often felt in formal classroom contexts, where his
English skills had led to a feeling of alienation relative to his English-speaking
US-born peers. In contrast, Almon’s access to an online fan network of English
language users allowed him to garner opportunities for English language use and to
subsequently negotiate a new identity as a global English speaker.
Such identity negotiation via digital technologies and fan networks was explored
further in another case study by Lam (2006) which followed the online fandom
practices of Lee, whose family had moved to the United States from Hong Kong
when he was nine. Like Almon, Lee’s entry into online fandom took the form of the
creation of a fan website, this time related to Japanese anime. While Almon’s personal
correspondence with fellow fans emphasized mutual interpersonal support, Lee’s
correspondence grew out of his sharing of links and offering of support for those
interested in collaborative projects or web development. In his online global fandom
community, Lee developed the reputation of being a helpful webmaster and fandom
expert. As in Almon’s case, Lee’s online fandom identity validated his English
language competence among a community of global English users. Additionally, his
technical expertise was acknowledged in a manner not recognized in offline spaces. In
both cases, these online fan communities provided L2 speakers of English and youth
immigrants to the US alternative spaces for both language and identity development.
Lam’s early work (Lam 2004, 2006) also explored language learning and identity
development among L2 English users in online interest groups beyond those asso-
ciated with fandom. This included virtual chatrooms frequented by L2 English
speaking youth in the United States who engaged in valuable identity negotiation
and English fluency development by interacting in hybrid or multilingual online
spaces. Lam’s focal participants, Tsu Ying and Yu Qing, were cousins who had
emigrated from Hong Kong to the United States several years prior and who
experienced social distance from their English speaking peers offline. Online, they
regularly took part in synchronous chats with other ethnic Chinese from around the
world who shared varying degrees of proficiency and comfort in communicating in
English or hybrid forms of written Cantonese and English. The linguistic hybridity
of these chatrooms served as a gateway toward greater ease and comfort in English
language use since both girls were able to more easily carry out English conversation
there without worrying about being embarrassed by their accent or accuracy. As a
134 S. Sauro
result, they found themselves gaining confidence and using more English in offline
interactions as well (Lam 2004). Much as Almon and Lee had done through their
involvement in global online fandom, Tsu Ying and Yi Qing were able to develop
their English competence and carry out identity work that resulted in greater access
to, and a growing confidence in, their use of English.
Other early work on online interest groups also includes Bloch’s (2004) investi-
gation of the collaborative writing practice and development of hybrid rhetoric
among a Usenet community for Chinese students, employees, and researchers in
the United States. Bloch’s analysis follows the mobilization of the members of this
Usenet group in 1994 in response to a news broadcast featuring a prominent Chinese
American newscaster on a major US television network regarding alleged Chinese
spying in the United States. What began as a critique of the broadcast transformed
into a collective written response as members of this community agreed that they had
the same rights as US citizens to speak out. The resulting collectively written letter,
detailing the potential harm of such stories for Chinese living in the United States,
drew upon both Chinese and US rhetorical norms and granted members of this
community the chance to write for an authentic audience.
Taken together, these early studies demonstrate the role of online interest groups
that used computer-mediated communication environments common to the late
1990s and early 2000s to carry out important identity work, language development,
and collaborative writing in a manner that enhanced or extended their competence
and social involvement as newcomers to the United States and as L2 speakers of
English offline.
Major Contributions
More recent research on online interest groups and language learning and use looks
to the creative work and gameplay of international and multilingual users whose
communities have flourished as a result of Web 2.0 technologies. As defined by
Kaplan and Haelin (2010), Web 2.0 consists of online platforms in which “content
and applications are no longer created and published by individuals, but instead are
continuously modified by all users in a participatory and collaborative fashion”
(p. 61). Web 2.0 environments encompass spaces such as fanfiction writing com-
munities, forums dedicated to multiuser gaming communities, and even corners of
social networking sites that have attracted online interest groups who often engage in
play or the use of tags or in-group language to index their affiliation. Research on
online interest groups and language learning in these areas has explored creative
production of identity development, the use of online spaces to index global citizen-
ship and multilingualism, the critique of gendered social expectations, and the
mechanisms through which participants index their affiliation in a wider interna-
tional network.
Within online fandom, the advent of Web 2.0 ushered in greater opportunities for
the publishing and sharing of creative fanworks with a broad global audience. The
most prominent of these fanworks, fanfiction, has been the subject of research on
Fandom and Online Interest Groups 135
Like fandom, online gaming represents another area around which online commu-
nities have formed using Web 2.0, which have served as a source of L2 learning and
socialization. While research exploring links between digital games and language
learning has more often focused on language learning during gameplay or aspects of
game design thought to be most beneficial for language learning, a select group of
studies has looked at L2 learning and use on game external web sites and forums
developed to support gameplay. Thorne et al. (2012) investigation of 64 Dutch and
American World of Warcraft (WoW) gamers brings together both strands of research
through its complexity analysis of language produced during gameplay as well as its
use of questionnaires and interviews to uncover sites and communities gamers regularly
visited to support their gameplay. All respondents indicated frequent use of these
external WoW-related websites to find information on strategy, lore, and weapons
before, during, and after gameplay session, leading Thorne et al. (2012) to conclude
that game external sites were crucial to the gaming experience. More importantly,
however, the three most frequently visited sites consisted of one fan generated wiki and
two sites that included extensive fan forums, highlighting the relevance of an online
community for creating, sharing, and discussing these resources as part of gaming (see
also Thorne 2012, for a discussion of WoW-related fanfiction).
Game external sites that hosted discussion forums were also integral for both
gameplay and language learning in Ryu’s (2013) investigation of nonnative English
speakers who engaged in English language learning through participation in online
game culture. In this study, Ryu relied upon the unofficial fan-based website
Civfanatics.com for the game Civilization to recruit participants. At the time of the
study, this fansite was home to over 50,000 members who could contribute to a wiki
and interact and collaborate with one another via moderated forums. Ryu’s participants
revealed a strong connection between their gameplay and language learning and the
reliance upon this online community to foster both. In particular, while gaming was
determined to be useful for the development of English words and phrases or
knowledge of history or geography, interaction with peer gamers in the community
of Civfanatics.com was valuable for the development of discourse level English skills.
The significance of these online communities for gamers who frequently gamed in
their L2 was further explored by Chik (2012, 2014), who investigated the L2 learning
practices of a focal group of online gamers from east Asian contexts (China, Malaysia,
and Hong Kong) and who regularly played games in either English or Japanese.
Gamers acknowledged relying on forums and the online community for developing
both the gaming skills and linguistic knowledge needed to play in an L2. This included,
for example, resources provided by more experienced gamers on language learning
practices, or links to related games that used simpler English for those interested in
developing their English skills. Some gamers were also active in using their language
skills to provide amateur translations of the games into their L1 before official versions
were released (Chik 2014). This practice is similar to that of fan-subbing, amateur
subtitling of television shows and movies that teams of fans produce before an official
version are made available (Pérez-González 2006, 2007). Taken together, gaming
communities and associated websites provide L2 speakers support and opportunities
for autonomous language development and target language practice.
Fandom and Online Interest Groups 137
While the affiliation of online communities around fandom and gaming often
intersect and share often very visible affiliations related to popular media, a third type
of online community includes those that emerge from the affordances of the specific
Web 2.0 applications. Here, affordances are defined as “. . .users’ interpretation of
what is made possible by the technology, based on their own technical competence
and communicative intent” (Tagg and Seargeant 2014, p. 165) and include such
things as a specific interest on Twitter (Zappavigna 2014a) and the degree of
openness and language choice in personal profiles on Facebook (Lee 2014).
Another form of affiliation through communication-like exchanges that do not
involve direct interaction between individuals but instead rely on shared and
solidarity-invoking practices is also prevalent in social-media based online interest
groups (Zappavigna 2014b). In her study of the Coffeetweets corpus, a subcorpus of
the HERMES corpus, which consists of tweets containing the string “coffee,”
Zappavigna (2014b) explored how users of Twitter formed a community around
their shared interest in coffee through the use of the #coffeehashtag. Similarly,
language choice can be another solidarity-invoking practice that has been explored,
this time among bilingual users of other types of social media. Lee’s (2014) study of
the techno-linguistic lives of bi- and multilingual undergraduates from Hong Kong
documented the online and offline interaction behind language choice among these
users on different social media platforms. For instance, the decision to use English in
Facebook comments but not in public discussion forums was tied to participants’
real-world identities or affiliations. For example, using English in the more private
and personal space of Facebook comments allowed one user to foreground his
identity as an English major among his friends and peers, but his concern over his
insufficient English knowledge led to the avoidance of English in a more public
online space where he might be judged for making a mistake. In another case, the use
of Mandarin Chinese and the avoidance of English in online forums predominantly
populated by users from mainland China was a way for one student to index his
Chineseness without revealing his Hongkongness, an affiliation that would be given
away through Chinese-English codeswitching.
These major contributions include research into online affiliations that arise from
shared interests in popular media and gaming and which result in fanworks that
transform the original source material (e.g., fanfiction) or the sharing of information
and strategy for the purpose of deeper engagement in gameplay. In addition, such
research also includes studies that examine affiliation that is indexed by the aware-
ness of the affordances (and constraints or inhibitions) of different social media
platforms and communities.
Work in Progress
Building upon the major contributions in this area are several different types of
works in progress that look more closely at language learning as a result of ambient
affiliation in social media (Solmaz under review) or which attempt to bridge the
138 S. Sauro
As with all research that explores naturally occurring data and existing communities
in online contexts, research on online interest groups poses a number of ethical
challenges and difficulties. In addition, researchers and teachers who wish to explore
Fandom and Online Interest Groups 139
online fandoms and fan communities must also be mindful of engaging with a
subculture that may feel particularly threatened by exposure to or invasion by
more dominant mainstream perspectives (Duffett 2013).
Page et al. (2014) identify several major areas of concern when conducting research
on social media. Many of these challenges stem from the difficulty of distinguishing
what is public, private, and semi-private data in these online spaces and the degree to
which online discourse is to be treated as decontextualized text or to be treated as
inextricably connected to a person and therefore subject to the same need for consent
and anonymity. The former challenge reflects not only the many various entry
conditions and affordances of social media sites (e.g., a Twitter account can be set to
public or private) but also the various perspectives among the social media users
themselves. This can be seen, for instance, in online fandom members’ responses to
actors being asked to discuss fanfiction about characters they portray in television and
print interviews (e.g., Minkel 2014, October 17). Although such fanfiction is available
on technically public archives that can be viewed by anyone, many who publish in
these archives consider them a semi-private space and therefore perceive the reading of
fanfiction out of context to be a violation of local community norms that envision a
wall between mainstream media and fandom (see, for example, the roundtable dis-
cussion in a fan podcast on fan perspectives and the fourth wall: By Fans For Fans,
2014, July 1). The latter challenge, that of distinguishing between the text and the
individual, is of particular salience in light of research that shows the extensive and
valuable identity work that youth and language learners engage in through the texts
they produce online (e.g., Black 2009; Lam 2000, 2004, 2006; Leppänen 2008).
In addition, researchers must also be aware of and contend with the restrictions
articulated in the terms of service of social media sites and which limit how and what
kind of data researchers are permitted to collect and analyze (Page et al. 2014). A
further challenge stems from the ephemeral nature of online data and what to do
when online data are deleted or made private by an individual, communities, or
through changes to the social media platform.
An additional challenge with a possible set of solutions is the degree to which
applied linguistics research into online fandom is willing to be influenced by fandom
studies and the practices and concerns fan studies researchers regularly grapple with.
Duffet’s (2013) introduction to the study of media fan culture identifies several areas
of tension that have arisen when fans and fan communities have been the subject of
research or public scrutiny. This includes, for instance, the historical tendency in the
media and sometimes in psychology to pathologize fan behavior and to exploit such
negative perceptions for the purpose of increasing readership/viewership and profit.
Such treatment can make members of online fan communities particularly hostile to
outsiders wishing to seek permission to research fans or their digital literacy prac-
tices. Duffet (2013) recognizes the positive contributions of fan scholars, those who
are both fans and researchers, who have drawn upon their own familiarity with
media fan culture to approach fandom in a manner that is respectful and fan-positive
and who therefore can serve as models for other scholars carrying out research on fan
communities.
140 S. Sauro
Future Directions
Within the domains outlined above – fandom, gaming, and online interest groups –
language learning and identity and literacy development have primarily focused on
the practices of young people, often teenagers or university-aged students. Such a
focus has shed light on practices of particular relevance for youth, for instance, how
ESL students in the USA make use of online communities to negotiate alternate
identities to that of English language learner and new and greater opportunities for
English language use than may be available to them in offline classroom contexts
(e.g., Black 2009; Lam 2004). However, autonomous online language learning and
participation in online interest groups are not merely the domain of youth. Future
research on older fans, gamers, and social media users who do so in a second
language or for the purpose of broadening their literacy skills in their first language
(e.g., middle aged fans of a television show who begin writing fanfiction as training
for writing original fiction) represents a rich area for exploring lifelong autonomous
learning and literacy development.
In addition, the formation of intentional online interest groups for those seeking
alternative spaces represents an area where innovative practices in language social-
ization and language use could expand. This can be seen, for example, in numerous
online fandom groups that provide fans with communities for exploring alternative
interpretations of popular media as a way to address social and identity issues among
marginalized groups, including those that relate to gender and sexual orientation
(Duffet 2013). Such exploration often takes place in the writing and reading of
fanfiction in which familiar characters (e.g., Sherlock Holmes) are depicted as
having a different gender, race, or sexual orientation vis-à-vis their portrayal in
the original media, thereby allowing fans to depict themes or issues that may
not be present in the source material. An additional example involves the negotiation
of fandom community norms around pronoun use. In online discussions and on
fans’ profiles on social media sites, there is a growing awareness of the responsibility
to be inclusive of the needs and experiences of those who identify as transgender
or genderqueer (Thorne et al. 2015). These online fandom practices present rich
areas for exploring the way in which language and literacy practices are used to
critique or reinforce dominant discourses around identity within a global online
interest group.
Cross-References
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Language and Identity on Facebook
Brook Bolander
Abstract
As a site catering explicitly to the maintenance and construction of personal
relationships, social networking site (SNS) Facebook provides its users with a
wide range of spaces and means through which they can construct and perform
their identity. Despite technological advancements, including a notable and
progressive shift to increased multimodality, language remains central to these
practices. It constitutes a key way through which one can “type oneself into
being” (Sundén 2003, p. 3). This chapter provides an overview of sociolinguistic
research on language and identity on Facebook. In addition to delineating the rise
of SNSs and research on identity in SNSs, it reviews major contributions to the
study of language and identity on Facebook, outlines work in progress, addresses
major research challenges and difficulties, and provides an outlook to future
research.
Keywords
Social network sites • Facebook • Identity • Online-offline relationship • Web 2.0
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
The Rise of Social Networking Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Research on Identity in SNSs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Major Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
B. Bolander (*)
The University of Hong Kong and Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies (FRIAS), Freiburg im
Breisgau, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
Early Developments
The first SNS, sixDegrees.com, was launched in 1997, yet the majority of SNSs
emerged from 2003 onwards, for example, MySpace in 2003, Flickr and Facebook
(the Harvard-only version) in 2004, YouTube and Facebook (for high school net-
works) in 2005, and Twitter and Facebook (for everyone) in 2006 (boyd and Ellison
2007). Indeed, “[b]y the end of the first decade of the 2000s, social network sites had
become an integral part of modern life the world over, and figured as paradigmatic
examples of the increased social-orientation of online activity” (Seargeant and Tagg
2014, p. 2).
Scholarship on SNSs goes back to the early and particularly mid-2000s, a timeline
which reflects the upsurge in the sites themselves, with major early research topics
being “impression management and friendship performance, networks and network
structure, online/offline connections, and privacy issues” (boyd and Ellison 2007).
An early focus on identity construction in SNSs is not surprising given that SNSs, or
“networked publics,” (boyd 2010) cater to the development and maintenance of
personal relationships. Such early research includes boyd’s (2004) article on identity
in Friendster; Donath and boyd’s (2004) research on social connections and links to
identity in Friendster, Orkut, Tribe.net, Ryze, and LinkedIn; and Donath’s (2007)
application of signaling theory and its implications for identity construction in SNSs
(cf. also the list of early research on impression management in boyd and Ellison
2007). Scholarship on identity in SNSs has continued to proliferate, as evidenced,
for example, by edited books devoted to the subject (cf. e.g., Papacharissi 2010).
Research on identity construction on Facebook emerged slightly later, since
Facebook only became publicly available in 2006. As with other SNSs, identity
and impression management were important early themes. Indeed, Facebook pro-
vides numerous options for identity construction. These include a profile page,
where Facebook users engage in labelling and description practices through which
they share information about themselves (e.g., age, sex, relationship status, school-
ing, and educational background), a profile picture (or cover photo post-2011), photo
albums, and a wall (pre-2011) or timeline (post-2011) where they write or post
photo/video status updates (prompted by a system message “What are you doing
right now” pre-2009 and “What’s on your mind” post-2009), perform other activities
(like sharing music, YouTube clips, and videos), and interact with their Facebook
“friends,” for example, by commenting on status updates. Importantly, as this list
implies, language is a key means through which an individual performs and con-
structs his/her identity, and it is through the use of language (in combination with
audio-visual practices) in these different spaces and over time that a discourse
centered on the Facebook user emerges.
Notable early publications on identity on Facebook include Walther et al.’s (2008)
paper on the collaborative nature of Facebook and ties to impression formation and
impression management; Zhao et al.’s (2008) study of implicit and explicit processes
of identity construction in the Facebook accounts of 63 university students; and
146 B. Bolander
Major Developments
In one of the first linguistic studies of language and identity on Facebook, Bolander
and Locher (2010, p. 169) maintain that the “[l]iterature on Facebook thus far has
tended to come from communication studies, sociology and network studies. Lin-
guistic interest has been relatively limited”. However, since then, there has been an
upsurge in (socio)linguistic research on language and identity on Facebook,
mirroring a general rise in research on language and identity in various other online
environments.
Major contributions to the study of language and identity on Facebook include
Bolander and Locher (2010, 2015), Lee (2011), Page (2012), Barton and Lee (2013),
West and Trester (2013), Deumert (2014), Lee (2014), Leppänen et al. (2014),
Locher and Bolander (2014, 2015), Page (2014), and Koteyko and Hunt (2016).
Common to these contributions is an approach to identity as a multifaceted and
multi-layered performance and as emergent online when individuals use language
and other modes to engage in interaction. In this vein, Lee (2014, p. 91), for example,
refers not to “identity” but to “identities” in the plural; Bolander and Locher (2015)
to identity as “acts of positioning” and Leppänen et al. (2014, p. 112, emphasis in
original) to identity as “acts and processes of identification and disidentification.”
Identity construction is conceptualized as a process, which is continuously
enacted when Facebookers go onto their Facebook accounts and, as stated under
“early developments” above, intricately linked to the individuals’ offline lives and
identities. This process begins the moment a user establishes a Facebook account, as
s/he is encouraged to complete information about him/herself, for example, his/her
date of birth, relationship status, work and education, and hobbies. The majority of
this information is provided through written language, e.g., through the act of writing
short entries about one’s political and religious views, through copy/pasting links to
groups or one’s personal homepage or choosing from a list of pre-determined
response options pertaining to one’s relationship status – “married,” “single,”
“engaged,” etc.
While the “About” section prompts individuals to complete templates containing
information about themselves, on the remainder of the wall/timeline, Facebookers
are comparatively unconstrained with respect to what they want to post and how they
want to post it. Bolander and Locher (2010, p. 178) refer to this as “[c]reative
language usage.” This creativity is underscored by Lee (2011) who adopts a virtual
ethnographic approach to study the status updates and online profiles of 20 Canton-
ese-English bilinguals in Hong Kong, notably to analyze the “primary communica-
tive functions” of the status updates and how they are “embedded meaningfully and
creatively in the everyday lives of Facebook users” (Lee 2011, p. 111). Her com-
parative analysis of the primary communicative functions of the status updates in
Language and Identity on Facebook 147
connection with the 2009 shift in status update prompt (from “What are you doing
right now” to “What’s on your mind”) shows a “relatively high percentage of
messages expressing personal opinions, judgments, or beliefs about themselves,
other people, or events” (e.g., “Ariel thinks that no news is good news”, Lee 2011,
p. 115, emphasis removed). Lee (2011, p. 115) interprets this finding as suggesting
“that the participants often ignored the mechanical constraints imposed by
Facebook.” In other words, even despite the presence of a prompt, individuals
perceive the status updates as providing a social space for the performance of
identity, as well as other types of interpersonal behavior.
As stated by Vásquez (2014, p. 67), there was a tendency in early research to
prioritize profiles, typically considered the “backbone” of SNSs (boyd and Ellison
2007), and the major site for identity work. Yet existing research on language and
identity on Facebook goes beyond an analysis of personal profile pages to examine
identity construction through status updates (e.g., Bolander and Locher 2010, 2015;
Lee 2011; Page 2012, 2014; Lee 2014; Leppänen et al. 2014; Locher and Bolander
2014, 2015); reactions to status updates (e.g., Page 2012; West and Trester 2013;
Bolander and Locher 2015), alternate actions like “friending,” “liking,” or ritual acts
like posting birthday messages (e.g., Page 2012; West and Trester 2013; Deumert
2014); and through multimodality (e.g., Deumert 2014; Leppänen et al. 2014). As
the list of examples indicates, the tendency is for researchers to explore identity
construction across different practices within the SNS Facebook. In this way,
scholars attempt to take account of and do justice to the interrelatedness and
convergence of the practices, spaces, and modes where and through which identities
are performed on Facebook.
Bolander and Locher (2010) and Locher and Bolander (2014, 2015), for example,
explore identity construction in personal profile pages, status updates, and reactions
to status updates of ten Facebookers living in Switzerland and ten Facebookers
living in the UK. Adopting a mixed qualitative and quantitative approach, they
develop and apply a data-driven coding scheme to analyze the types of identity
claims made in status updates. On the basis of the analysis of a corpus of 474 status
updates, they determine that individuals most often use status updates to make
claims about their personality, followed by their pastime endeavors, sense of
humor, work, and relationships. For example, the status updates “Peter has lived
miami to the fullest” and “Peter packs” are categorized as “pastime endeavours,”
since in both instances, Peter underscores his status as someone who travels
(Bolander and Locher 2015, p. 100). Through subsequent analysis of 228 reactions
to status updates, Bolander and Locher (2015) are able to further show the tendency
for the identity claims in the status updates to be supported in the reactions to them.
In addition to underscoring the creative use of language in various Facebook
spaces, research highlights that a range of social and medium factors influence
processes of identity construction. Writing about the emergence of sociolinguistic
research on computer-mediated contexts, Androutsopoulos (2006) underscores a
move away from first “wave” approaches which over-emphasize the medium towards
research which acknowledges the interplay between technological affordances, like
synchronicity and social properties, such as participant relationships. Sociolinguistic
148 B. Bolander
research on language and identity on Facebook similarly underscores and analyzes this
variety.
Thus, Page (2014), for example, draws attention to the role played by the medium
factor of privacy as well as the social factors of participant relationships and
audience in her study of identity and authenticity in connection with Facebook
“frape,” a practice whereby a user hijacks another person’s Facebook account to,
for example, write status updates (e.g., “I’m such a filthy girl when I’ve had a drink”,
Page 2014, p. 58) or to change profile information (e.g., the person’s relationship
status). In such instances, language is used to make identity claims about and in the
name of someone else, which can be more or less “at odds with the victim’s
‘genuine’ identity” (Page 2014, p. 58). The technological affordances of Facebook
are such that audiences who are typically separate outside of Facebook (e.g., work
colleagues and family members) become a single group in the Facebook environ-
ment (Page 2014, p. 48), a factor typically referred to under the label of “collapsed
contexts” (boyd 2008, p. 34). This effects how frapes are interpreted, with different
types of addressees typically reacting differently to instances where expectations of
authenticity are violated (Page 2014). Indeed, “[t]he audiences constructed in
Facebook [. . .] blur the distinction between online and offline contexts, where the
interactions online influence the identities and interactions that spill over into offline
contexts” (Page 2014, p. 48). Through her analysis of examples of frape coupled
with the use of interviews, and with reference to both “the technology and social
setting” (Seargeant and Tagg 2014, p. 14), Page (2014) is able to demonstrate
intricate links between authenticity and identity and to problematize these links
with respect to the complex relationship between online and offline constructions
of social reality.
Additional important themes in the literature on language and identity on
Facebook are multilingualism and multimodality. The move towards research on
these subject matters mirrors appreciation of the multilingual Internet (cf. Danet and
Herring 2007) and recognition of the tendency for individuals to perform identity
work and to engage in interpersonal behavior through various modes or channels,
not solely language (cf. Bolander and Locher 2014). Multilingualism on Facebook
has been studied in connection with code choice, code-switching, and code-mixing
(see, e.g., Lee 2011; Barton and Lee 2013; Deumert 2014; Locher and Bolander
2014). Locher and Bolander (2014), for example, explore ties between identity
construction and code-switching practices in a corpus of 474 status updates and
795 reactions to status updates produced by Facebookers in Switzerland and the
UK. Their results demonstrate these ties with respect to differences between the two
focus groups with the Swiss focus group projecting “a more multilingual group
identity” (Locher and Bolander 2014, p. 172), as well as with respect to differences
in degree and type of code-switching in the status updates compared with the
reactions to status updates. While the status updates tend to be monolingual, the
reactions are comparatively multilingual, a finding which the authors interpret as
reflecting a decrease in the breadth of addressivity. In the small conversations
between individuals which emerge as reactions to status updates, the interlocutors
draw on the varieties they also use when interacting with one another offline, namely,
Language and Identity on Facebook 149
on Standard or Swiss German. In switching to these languages, they thus also “index
closeness” and make “friendship identity claims” (Locher and Bolander 2014,
p. 181).
While language remains central to the performance and construction of identity
on Facebook, “[p]eople combine images and other visual resources with the written
word online” (Barton and Lee 2013, p. 18). Indeed “[m]aking meaning through
multimodal means is a way of positioning the self and others” (Barton and Lee 2013,
p. 19). A prominent example on Facebook is the use of images. As shown in Zhao
et al.’s (2008) study of implicit and explicit identity construction in a sample of
63 Facebookers living in the USA, individuals tend to use photos to index a group
identity, even in profile pictures (with 31.1 % choosing a profile picture in which the
user appeared with a friend/s). For the authors, “[t]he fact that the majority of the
users chose either not to show their faces at all or to show their faces along with the
faces of others in their profile cover picture is very revealing, indicating, among
other things, an effort to construct a group-oriented identity” (Zhao et al. 2008,
p. 1827).
Linguistic means for identity construction on Facebook are often also intricately
interwoven with paralinguistic means like creative orthography and the textual
performance of images. This is highlighted in Deumert’s (2014) research on the
use of Facebook (and other SNSs) for the creative performance of a ludic self and for
online play. For Deumert (2014, p. 27) such involvement entails “mobiliz[ing] [. . .] a
particular type of self, as well as a particular set of social relations: light-hearted and
creative, enjoyable and full of possibilities,” through “text, sounds, and images.”
Posting happy birthday messages by drawing on different spellings or by drawing a
birthday cake by using various symbols and letters on one’s keyboard, for example,
constitute acts through which an individual not only performs “an important social
ritual” but also a means to publicly show “one’s linguistic creativity and originality”
(Deumert 2014, p. 36). For discussions of multimodality and the use of various
linguistic, visual, and textual means to perform identity, see also Kytölä et al. (2014)
and Koteyko and Hunt (2016).
Finally, the research highlights and presents evidence for the intricate links
between offline and online, thereby challenging a clear split between the two
(cf. also Jones 2004). This has both epistemological and methodological implica-
tions. In this vein, for example, Lee (2014, p. 94) argues for the importance of a
“situated” approach. This can be interpreted with respect to the need to contextualize
and analyze identity on Facebook within the SNS itself, i.e., across different spaces
on Facebook and notably, with respect to how Facebook activities are situated in
participants’ offline lives (see e.g., Lee 2011, 2014; Page 2012, 2014; Barton and
Lee 2013; West and Trester 2013). Further, Barton and Lee (2013) and Lee (2014)
introduce “techno-biographic” interviews as a methodology for studying the
situatedness of Facebook practices. Inspired by narrative approaches to interviews,
they combine a focus on linguistic practices on Facebook with an interview designed
to delve into the participants’ “life stor[ies] in relation to technologies” (Lee 2014,
p. 94). Part of the techno-biographic interview consists of a 30-min screen recording
of the participants’ activities, which s/he subsequently views and discusses with the
150 B. Bolander
Two major challenges for research on language and identity on Facebook are
methodological and concern ethics and access to data. There has been widespread
change in ethical parameters, from a view which prioritized technical access to a site
as the key determinant for whether informed consent was needed, to one which
acknowledges that “public” and “private” can but need not overlap with “accessi-
bility” (cf. Landert and Jucker 2011; Bolander and Locher 2014). For example, there
are sites which are openly accessible online but which contain sensitive content or
are run by minors, both factors which would prompt researchers to ask for consent.
At the same time, technological parameters often provide a first starting point for
ascertaining whether permission should be sought from participants. In other words,
while numerous factors influence whether scholars seek informed consent from
participants interacting in publicly accessible sites online, there is general agreement
that when sites require registration, consent should be sought.
The comments by, and the practices adopted by, researchers studying language
and identity on Facebook suggest that consent needs to be sought to study the
Facebook accounts of individuals who are not public figures and with whom one
has to become “friends” in order to access smaller or larger portions of their profile
(in accordance with individual privacy settings). While it is relatively unproblematic
for a researcher to ask an individual for consent to download parts of his/her
Facebook account for research (cf. Bolander and Locher 2010; and West and Trester
2013 for ways in which this can be done), it is more challenging to deal with the
scores of other users whose information one ends up downloading, too (e.g., in the
comment sections) and from whom consent also needs to be sought. One possibility
is to ask all participants for consent. Page (2012), for example, obtained written
consent from each of the 100 participants whose profiles and status updates she
archived (Page 2012, Page, personal communication), and she did not use or quote
from profiles or status updates of individuals from whom she had not gained explicit
permission. Another similar way is to only quote examples produced by participants
from whom one has obtained consent and to use the other data, for example, as
background information (cf. Locher and Bolander 2014; Bolander and Locher
2015).
A second methodological challenge is access to participants. Sampling strategies
are evidently steered by research focus, as well as by feasibility. The two can also
overlap. It is probable that interest in a particular phenomenon stems from observation
Language and Identity on Facebook 151
Work in Progress
Since the early 2000s, there has been an increase in sociolinguistic research on
language and globalization. This has been accompanied by an upsurge in new
terminology, often lexicalized by the affixes “super” or “trans,” for example, “trans-
idiomatic,” “translanguaging,” and “superdiversity” and by increased interest in
“transnational spaces,” both offline and online. Underlying these terms is the idea
that “globalization forces sociolinguistics to unthink its classic distinctions and
biases and to rethink itself as a sociolinguistics of mobile resources, framed in
terms of trans-contextual networks, flows and movements” (Blommaert 2010,
p. 1). This interest is, for example, reflected in a recently published article by
Schreiber (2015) entitled “‘I am what I am’: Multilingual identity and digital
translanguaging.” The paper presents a qualitative case study of the multilingual
practices and semiotic resources employed by Aleksandar, a student of English
studying at a Serbian university. Drawing on observations and analysis of
Aleksandar’s Facebook practices, and a lengthy semi-structured interview held via
Facebook chat, Schreiber (2015, p. 70) aims to “complicate our understanding of the
relationship between first and second language identity, exposing the deep gap
between students’ lived literacy practices and the narrow conception of language
use still widely held in language classrooms.” She thereby applies Canagarajah’s
(2011, p. 401) concept of “translingualism” or “the ability of multilingual speakers to
shuttle between languages, treating the diverse languages that form their repertoires
as an integrated system.” Schreiber (2015) then uses her results to reflect upon the
152 B. Bolander
Future Directions
Much valuable research has been produced on the multifaceted nature of identity
construction through language, through different languages, and through different
semiotic resources, in various Facebook spaces, since the first upsurge of scholarship
on language and identity on Facebook roughly half a decade ago. The geographical
spread of this research has also been diverse, with scholars focusing on individuals
living in various places around the world, for example, the UK (Page 2012; Locher
and Bolander 2014, 2015; Bolander and Locher 2015), Switzerland (Bolander and
Locher 2010, 2015; Locher and Bolander 2014, 2015), Hong Kong (Lee 2011, 2014;
Barton and Lee 2013), South Africa (Deumert 2014), the USA (West and Trester
2013), and Serbia (Schreiber 2015). It is my hope that this body will continue to
grow, for example, through more research on Facebookers from backgrounds and
age groups which have, to date, received less attention, for example, adolescents and
elderly Facebook users, and Facebook users living in countries of the developing
world. That this is a pertinent direction for future research is underscored by
Dovchin, Sultana, and Pennycook’s recent (Dovchin et al. 2016) paper on “Unequal
Translingual Englishes in the Asian Peripheries,” which uses Facebook in combina-
tion with other data obtained through ethnography to address identity construction
amongst young adults in Mongolia and Bangladesh.
Future scholarship should also incorporate more diachronic and longitudinal
research on change, including the effects of increased multimodality and modifica-
tions to the Facebook interface, for example, in the spirit of Lee (2011) and Page
(2012), whose work includes analysis of the 2009 shift in status update prompt from
“What are you doing right now?” to “What’s on your mind?,” and Koteyko and Hunt
(2016), who conducted a longitudinal (4-month long) observation of 20 Facebook
profiles in their study of health identities on Facebook. The progressive rise of
Facebook via smartphone and via tablets (resulting from both the increase in
smartphone and tablet usage and the launching of apps, e.g., the Facebook for
iPhone App in 2008 and the Facebook for iPad App in 2011) warrants more research
on language and identity construction on mobile Facebook, too.
Finally, what has not yet been studied is how processes of identity construction do
not just straddle online and offline, or different spaces within Facebook, but also
different modes of computer-mediated communication. Facebookers are
constructing even wider networks across these modes, for example, through the
use of tweets as status updates and through the sharing of YouTube clips or blog
posts on Facebook. Such practices raise further questions about the boundaries and
borders between identity construction on and across different digital environments,
as well as about the social meanings and embedding of these practices in the offline
lives of the users themselves.
Language and Identity on Facebook 153
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Part III
Technology in World/Second Language
Education Contexts
Distance Education for Second and Foreign
Language Learning
Robert Blake
Abstract
Using technology to deliver second-language (L2) instruction is becoming com-
monplace, whether in support of traditional, blended, or fully online formats. This
article provides an overview of best practices with these new digitally enhanced
learning spaces that respond to greater student autonomy and the search for
increased access to the authentic cultural materials for all world languages.
Online language learning must also focus on the student’s need to find a place
in a multicultural, digitally infused world. In technological terms, the online
formats for L2 instruction will continue to evolve rapidly, making the issues of
teacher training in iterative cycles a pressing concern for any language program.
If the online language field retains an emphasis on collaborative exchanges and
co-construction of learning (i.e., the interactionist perspective), these new or yet-
to-be imagined technical advances have the potential of being smoothly absorbed
into a digital educational era that is here to stay.
Keywords
Blended learning • Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) • Computer-
mediated communication (CMC) • Online learning
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
R. Blake (*)
University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
infrequently taught on many college campuses. In the face of scarce resources for
LCTL instruction and weak material response from publishing houses (it does not
pay for them), administrators and teachers have turned to blended or fully online
formats in order to enrich their language and culture programs. Nevertheless, many
in the language profession question whether or not L2 online learning can support
the same type of linguistic interactions purportedly fostered in the classroom through
seat time, which has traditionally constituted the gold standard. Research in
computer-mediated communication (CMC; see Blake (2016b) and Sauro (2009,
2011) for a general overview of CMC research) has partially addressed some of
these fears by documenting the benefits derived from electronic exchanges among
L2 students carrying out online tasks with other students or native speakers. How-
ever, teachers still require training in best online practice in order to take advantage
of these new online affordances.
Early Developments
Major Contributions
To date, only three studies – Blake and Delforge 2006, Cahill and Catanzaro 1997,
Soo and Ngeow 1998 – have evaluated fully online language courses on the basis of
empirical data. In all cases, online learners were found to outperform students from
conventional courses on a grammar output measure.
Cahill and Catanzaro (1997) reported on an introductory online Spanish class that
relied on materials from Dos Mundos, a popular introductory Spanish text, along
with the accompanying audiocassettes and lab manual. Online activities included
synchronous chat sessions, open-ended Web assignments, practice tests, and a
substantial number of pen-pal letter writing assignments. Responses to two essay
questions were used to compare the progress of students participating in the exper-
imental group with that of students enrolled in conventional Spanish classes. Based
on ratings of global quality and percentage error scores, the writing samples of
students in the online course were judged to be significantly better than those from
the traditional classes. Although not discussed by the authors, it seems clear that
more writing was demanded of the online students, a fact that clouds to some degree
the ability to isolate the effect that the online format had by itself on performance.
Soo and Ngeow (1998) compared the performance of 77 students enrolled in
conventional English classes with 111 students who studied English exclusively
through use of a multimedia computer-assisted language-learning (CALL) program.
A comparison of pre- and post-Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)
scores revealed that the students in the online group made significantly greater gains
with respect to those who took part in conventional classes. In addition, given that
the experimental group started studying 5 weeks later than students in the control
group due to technical difficulties, it might be said that the online students not only
made more progress than learners in the control group but also that their language
skills improved more rapidly.
Blake and Delforge (2006) compared 21 continuing students enrolled in Spanish
Without Walls (SWW) through a university extension using both quantitative output
data (i.e., grammar tests and compositions) and qualitative measures (i.e., student
surveys). SWW was a totally virtual, first-year Spanish course that combined a first-
year CD-ROM packet (i.e., Tesoros, McGraw-Hill, 2001), Web readings with online
content-based activities, and bimodal CMC (i.e., sound and text) in both a synchro-
nous and asynchronous format. The data showed that students enrolled in the SWW
course fared statistically better than the undergraduates enrolled in conventional
introductory university Spanish classes in terms of grammatical accuracy. The
authors speculated that the online format with its primary focus on textual input
forced students to pay more attention to their textual output and, therefore, height-
ened their metalinguistic awareness (Schmidt 1990) of discrete grammatical con-
trasts. These results suggest that well-designed distance language instruction can
offer a viable option for learners without access to the traditional classroom setting or
for those who prefer the online learning environment to the conventional sit-down
class format. However, again, the question of whether or not the SWW students
developed the same oral proficiency as classroom students was left unanswered.
162 R. Blake
As in the case for the hybrid courses reviewed earlier, the outcome data from
these three fully online L2 studies lend support for the notion that online language
learning can be effective, at least as a means of improving writing, reading, and
listening comprehension abilities. Nevertheless, determining which aspects of the
online learning environment were responsible for these gains remains a daunting and
perhaps insurmountable endeavor. Perhaps the online students had a higher engage-
ment level with the texts themselves. More research will be needed to substantiate
these initial observations, but the individual variables put in doubt whether or not the
question could ever be resolved to the satisfaction of CALL researchers.
In recent years, the CALL field has shifted its research focus away from these
comparative assessments plagued with uncontrollable factors towards an approach
that delves more closely into how students actually use online materials and feed-
back in the course of improving their L2 competence. Heift’s (2002, 2010) research,
known in the field as ICALL or intelligence CALL, is representative of this new
perspective that seeks to chronicle the learners’ progress. In order to do this, a
database sits behind the learning system tracking student responses and reactions
to any feedback they receive. She found that 85% of her German students carried out
their assignments without peeking at the answers, while the weaker students tended
to be the most flagrant peekers. Her work also demonstrated that explicit feedback,
including metalinguistic clues, had a positive correlation with improved student
outcomes. These findings are consistent with an interactionist framework for L2
development, even when students are working individually with tutorial CALL
activities. The interactionist theories of L2 development prominently feature notions
such as the proximal zone of development, focus-on-form, negotiation of meaning,
task-based learning, and pair work – all constructs that rely on harnessing the power
of human interactions and appropriate feedback to stimulate language acquisition.
Another current line of investigation for online learning can be found at the
intersection of task complexity and L2 development. Since oral production – and
L2 proficiency, in general – is significantly affected by the complexity of any
particular task (Robinson 2011; Skehan 2003), researchers seek to discover if the
online affordances (i.e., Internet 2.0 tools) allow students more processing time in
order to process successfully and carry out their assigned tasks with long-term
memory benefits (i.e., true L2 acquisition). In a recent case study, Guillén and
Blake (2016) found that one L2 learner’s syntactic complexity and accuracy
improved significantly by being able to post online asynchronously her best-effort
videos as compared to what she was able to do when faced with the immediate
pressures of speaking during a synchronous videoconference session.
In general, present-day implementations of online courses strive to combine both
tutorial CALL programs and apps designed for individual study with synchronous
CMC communication intended for use in group practice, drawing on interactionist
theories about L2 development. The potential benefits of collaborative exchanges,
whether set in the classroom or managed online orally or in writing, depend more on
sound pedagogical design of the tasks the participants are asked to accomplish rather
than on the actual locus of the learning event (Doughty and Long 2003; Kern et al.
2004; Salaberry 2000; Van Deusen-Scholl et al. 2005). In other words, people
Distance Education for Second and Foreign Language Learning 163
Work in Progress
Interest has also increased in using CMC as a way to link native and nonnative
speakers in a growing variety of cultural exchange projects. In this context, CMC
takes on a new meaning as a medium of socialization. This line of inquiry has been
dubbed Internet-mediated intercultural communication in foreign language educa-
tion (Belz and Thorne 2005). From this perspective, researchers concentrate on the
importance of having online L2 learners develop sensitivity to one another’s cultural
identities and communicative styles. Proponents of this approach want their L2
students to reflect upon the fact that their own identity is culturally contingent on
certain patterns of interactions (Kern et al. 2004). Researchers caution the field
against viewing CMC as a simple tool-using activity in service of linguistic practice.
They argue that participating in online interactions is not a culturally neutral
endeavor but embedded in specific cultural and social norms that may or may not
be familiar to all participants, L2 and native speaker alike (Thorne 2003). Accord-
ingly, this more sociocultural approach seeks to examine the concept of digital
literacy in a way that goes beyond the ability to read and write online: How do L2
learners co-construct their own online roles and identities? The end result is that L2
students are increasingly responsible for diverse representations of knowledge and
learning (Van Deusen-Scholl et al. 2005), but, in many cases, participants will need
164 R. Blake
training in how to do this if the CMC exchanges are to be successful (Belz and
Kinginger 2002).
On a completely different front, video gaming provides another venue where new
technologies and CALL could possibly be harnessed for the benefit of L2 develop-
ment (Thorne et al. 2009; Peterson 2013). Games foster role-playing and agency by
allowing players to do something and construct meaning for themselves. Games
make the users feel that they are being competent and independent problem solvers.
Games encourage a participatory culture with different rates and learning paths in
response to the gamers’ interests and abilities. Within these designed experiences,
the participants enjoy the freedom to fail with low risks, experiment, fashion
imagined identities, exert varying degrees of effort, and interpret. However, there
have been few experimental studies to date that examine how L2 learners fare within
a virtual learning environment, which is a serious drawback to evaluating the
appropriate place for video gaming in the L2 curriculum (Peterson 2013).
Implementing and evaluating online language courses represent two separate issues,
each with their own respective challenges, as has been already mentioned above. To
implement a language course in an online format, L2 teachers cannot simply clone
existing print materials for the Web (Zhang 2014) or teach in ways familiar to past
experiences. Careful attention must be paid to making the online activities as
stimulating as possible as a function of the strengths of this particular medium.
Zhang (2014) recognizes five characteristics that are key to successful online course
design: (inter)active, constructive, intentional, authentic, and cooperative. For this
reason, the creation of an online curriculum is both expensive (i.e., the Open
University spends around 2 million dollars per course on an 8-year cycle) and time
consuming – two facts largely ignored by administrators and departments. By and
large, a content- or task-based approach (i.e., learning language through the study of
a specific subject matter or through a series of real-world tasks) renders better results
than the more traditional focus-on forms common to traditional grammatical
instruction.
Likewise, administrators tend to see the online format as a solution to over-
subscribed language classes. Large enrollments taught in the online format are just
as difficult to manage, if not more so, than in classroom formats. Teachers of online
language classes need to resist attempts by administrators to stuff their online classes
with more students than is the norm for language classroom (i.e., around
25 students).
On the practical side of delivery, extensive user support is key to maintaining
student interest and avoiding the frustrations that commonly afflict online delivery
formats (Simpson 2000). It is wise to remember that roughly half of the enrolled
online students are predicted to give up and drop the course (Carr 2000). It must be
Distance Education for Second and Foreign Language Learning 165
realized that not all students are ready to work independently and take responsibility
for the direction their own learning. No one is to be blamed when students are not
ready to work within the parameters of a given learning environment, although some
training is possible in all cases. Fortunately, LCTL students tend to already possess
solid skills for working independently in a stead fashion, a fact that would favor the
outcome of using online format for LCTL instruction.
The process of evaluating online courses encounters its own difficulties, as
discussed above, beginning with the obvious fact that the students have only a
virtual presence – they never see their instructor in person. Getting virtual L2
students to participate in pre-/posttests or evaluation instruments not related to the
computation of their grade is not as easy in an online environment, compared to the
captive audience that the presential teacher controls.
Perhaps the greatest hurdle to generalizing findings about online language
courses is a characteristic shared with the realities of doing L2 research in general:
inherently uncontrollable factors such as different instructors, different materials,
different time on task, different tasks and activities, different students all with their
own unique personality traits and cognitive endowments. With technology also
involved, individual differences, which account for a major portion of the outcome
variability, are just exacerbated since L2 learners mostly perform their assignments
from their own respective home environments, which are all radically different. At
the same time (and, unfortunately, for research purposes), allowing L2 learners to
self-direct their own learning activities constitutes one of the major attractions of this
learning environment. Similarly, longitudinal studies – which, again, are relatively
rare even in mainstream L2 studies – are almost impossible to carry out in the online
context where students are here today only virtually and gone tomorrow with the
flick of the on/off switch.
Fortunately, the CALL field has mostly moved on from asking the overly
simplistic question, “which is better, in-class or CALL L2 instruction and practice?”
This issue cannot be answered without controlling for factors that are inherently out
of the researcher’s hands.
In the best of circumstances, isolating the effects of the online format itself as
opposed to those of the learning materials or individual differences is exceedingly
hard to operationalize. Not surprisingly, the field has not made much progress on
teasing these factors apart.
Future Directions
practice itself no longer deals with digital writing as separate from reading nor
implements speaking practice in isolation from listening. Speaking tasks will now
involve listening and writing as well, as students produce and post their videos;
listening will entail reading captions, linking to glosses, and reflecting on cultural
differences; and writing will be carried out in stages that leverage collaborative
chatting, wikis, videoconferencing, and repeated negotiations of their multicultural
competence and linguistic proficiency. And, again, as the sociocultural theorists
would remind us, none of these activities should be separated from the notion of
multicultural competence and the construction of a bilingual identity – what
Kramsch (2009) has called finding the third place vis-à-vis the L1 and the L2.
CALL is now framed in a much more multimodal context where learners enjoys
greater agency and autonomy to produce language through digital forms. Today’s
student not only learns grammatical structure in a new language but also finds a place
in this multicultural and digitally infused world (Kern 2014).
Accepting that online formats have a significant contribution to make to the L2
curriculum will continue to be unpalatable for some in the language profession,
especially given the fact that many teachers have an entrenched resistance to using
technology or even fear that online instruction will eventually replace them. Higher
education is beginning to reconfigure its delivery mechanisms in the face of new
affordances, growing costs, and instructor shortages (as in the case of LCTL
offerings), and the L2 curriculum will not be exempt from these trends. The field
must experiment and plan for alternate delivery mechanisms if it is to have a
significant say in how the L2 curriculum will be organized.
Further research is needed to demonstrate how synchronous CMC can help
maintain high levels of conversational interactivity using the new generation of
online communication tools. Similarly, more data should be gathered on how best
to use new advances in videoconferencing so as to formulate guidelines of best
practices for prospective online instructors who must be trained how to participate in
these digital exchanges.
Finally, the field must provide online instructors and curriculum developers with
more insights on how the CMC medium can be used most productively to foster
intercultural contexts. Students and instructors alike should not assume that every-
one uses chat in the same way and with the same cultural understandings and
conventions (Thorne 2003, 2016). This realization opens the door to using CMC
to construct and reflect upon one’s own identity in a new L2 space, as both Kramsch
(2009) and Kern (2015) have suggested.
In technological terms, the online formats for L2 instruction will continue to
evolve rapidly, making the issues of teacher training in iterative cycles a pressing
concern for any language program. If the online language field retains an empha-
sis on collaborative exchanges and co-construction of learning (i.e., the
interactionist perspective), these new or yet-to-be imagined technical advances
have the potential of being smoothly absorbed into a digital educational era that is
here to stay.
Distance Education for Second and Foreign Language Learning 167
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Open Educational Resources (OERs)
for Language Learning
Carl S. Blyth
Abstract
The term “open educational resources” (OER) refers to materials used for teach-
ing and learning that, unlike most materials produced by commercial publishers,
carry an open copyright license. Because of its open license, OER give users’
rights traditionally reserved for authors and publishers, such as the right to adapt
the original work and the right to disseminate derivatives free of charge. A global,
grassroots phenomenon, the OER movement coalesced at the end of the twentieth
century and the beginning of the twenty-first century when educators sought to
create intellectual content that was accessible to the Internet public. Thanks to a
democratic ethos that promotes the sharing of intellectual property, the OER
movement has resulted in the collaboration between educational stakeholders,
the creation of uniquely adaptable content, and the production of much-needed
resources for less commonly taught languages that are frequently ignored by
publishers. During the first decade of the OER movement, advocates focused on
the development and dissemination of free materials to combat rising costs.
During its second decade, however, the movement has begun to focus on empir-
ical research to ascertain the impact of OER on student learning, including FL
learning. In addition, open educators are beginning to explore different strategies
for bringing OER into the educational mainstream.
Keywords
Open education • Open educational resources • Open educational practices
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Introduction
First coined in 2002 during a UNESCO meeting, the term open educational
resources (OER) refers to openly licensed educational materials that allow end
users’ rights covered by copyright law, such as the right to adapt the original work
and the right to disseminate derivatives free of charge. Plotkin (2010, p. 1) defines
OER as “teaching, learning, and research resources that reside in the public domain
or have been released under an intellectual property license that permits sharing,
accessing, repurposing – including for commercial purposes – and collaborating
with others.” In contrast to the static nature of print materials, digital OER are
increasingly produced in editable formats that make them better suited to the
dynamic and emergent nature of language learning in informal, online environments.
An extremely heterogeneous category, OER vary widely in terms of their pedagog-
ical goals and uses: annotation tools, assessment instruments, language corpora,
reference grammars, supplementary readers, textbooks, etc. (see examples at http://
nflrc.org). In addition, OER are diverse in terms of their size and sophistication
(Weller 2010). Despite these differences, however, OER are all distinguished by an
open copyright license that allows users’ rights traditionally reserved for authors and
publishers.
Early Developments
OER are the concrete products of open education (OE), a global, grassroots move-
ment that coalesced at the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the
twenty-first century. OE is a collective term that refers to the advancement of
education through “open technology, open content and open knowledge” (Iiyoshi
and Kumar 2007). Viewed in its historical context, OE is an extension of the open-
source movement whose revolutionary idea was to give software developers free and
open access to source code (Perens 1999; Raymond 2001). Concerned that the rising
costs of tuition and textbooks were shutting out potential students, educators sought
to open up access to educational content as a means of democratizing the system.
Consequently, educators began to envision pedagogical materials as learning objects
that could be designed to foster adaptation by subsequent users. Richard Baraniuk,
Open Educational Resources (OERs) for Language Learning 171
One of the precursors to the OE movement was the UK’s Open University,
established in 1969 as a distance learning institution with minimal entrance require-
ments (http://www.open.ac.uk/). Today, millions of people from all over the world
access the Open University’s online content on a daily basis. Another early example
of OE is the open courseware initiative (OCW) that started at the Massachusetts
Institute for Technology (MIT). In 2000, MIT faculty proposed that their courseware
(e.g., syllabi, exercises, lectures, etc.) be placed online and be made available to the
public. Two years later, MIT launched a website that contained open content from
50 courses. Today, according to the OCW website, the entire collection of MIT
courseware is open to the Internet public (http://ocw.mit.edu/index.htm).
As the OE movement took shape, it became apparent that the rise of informal
learning on the Internet required a new generation of flexible materials. Soon, open
educators began to think in terms of “open content” and “open design” (Conole
2013), and in 2002, the term “open educational resources” (OER) was coined during
a UNESCO meeting of the Forum on the Impact of Open Courseware for Higher
Education in Developing Countries (Johnstone 2005). Soon thereafter, the new term
was employed by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) (http://www.oecd.org/). Thus, the general concepts of open content and
open courseware gave rise to the more specific concept of OER. Today, the distinc-
tive feature of OER is the open copyright license that promotes “4R” activities
(Wiley and Green 2012, p. 81):
• Revising – adapting the OER to meet the needs of the end user
• Remixing – combining or “mashing up” the OER with another OER to produce
new materials
• Reusing – using the original or derivative versions of the OER in a wide range of
new contexts
• Redistributing – sharing the original work or derivative versions with others
Major Contributions
During the past decade, educators have taken advantage of the affordances of
OER to make major contributions to the field of FL education. In particular, OER
have played a major role in facilitating the collaboration between educational
172 C.S. Blyth
methods into their pedagogy do not always know where to find language partners. To
meet the need for a clearinghouse, The Mixxer was created as an archive of personal
profiles of “language partners.” Learners peruse the archive to locate potential
partners who match their language interests and proficiency levels.
OER are often touted as being more flexible than copyrighted, print-based
materials due to their open licenses that enable adaptation. Unfortunately, many
OER are difficult to adapt. For example, some are written in formats that are not easy
to edit such as PDFs, while others have few instructions to facilitate adaptation.
Nevertheless, newer OER are increasingly editable and accompanied by documen-
tation such as manuals or guides. A good example of this new generation of OER is
the Open University’s Languages Open Resources Online (LORO) (http://loro.open.
ac.uk/). Essentially an archive of learning objects such as lesson plans or classroom
activities, LORO contains resources that have been written in an accessible file
format such as Microsoft Word, openly licensed with a Creative Commons license
and tagged with metadata that explain the purpose and use of the object. While many
faculty members at the Open University archive their course content in LORO, any
FL teacher may upload content as long as he or she follows the required editorial
guidelines. Every LORO resource must carry a meaningful title and a brief descrip-
tion of what the learning object entails. In addition, information about attribution,
target language, and course unit must be specified. Other repositories such as
NFLRC.org and MERLOT.org have taken similar steps to assure that the content
of their OER is easy to find and adapt.
Another example of the new generation of OER designed for adaptation is the
Foreign Languages and the Literary in the Everyday project (FLLITE.org) supported
by the Center for Open Educational Resources and Language Learning (COERLL)
at the University of Texas at Austin (USA) and the Center for Educational Resources
in Culture, Language, and Literacy (CERCLL) at the University of Arizona (USA).
The FLLITE project constitutes a curated archive of literacy-based FL materials. The
project seeks to train FL instructors in the open digital practices needed for the
production and dissemination of OER: how to find open, authentic texts, how to
create an effective multiliteracy lesson based on an open text, how to choose an open
license, and how to share materials and documentation with other members of the
community. Thus, the overall goal of FLLITE is to create an educational community
of practice whose members help each other to generate crowd-sourced materials
specifically designed for adaptation.
Finally, the expansion of high-quality LCTL resources constitutes a major con-
tribution to FL education. OER are particularly relevant to the LCTL context
because they represent a promising alternative to traditional conceptualizations of
educational publishing associated with the values of more commonly taught lan-
guages (Blyth 2012b). Defined by their relatively small enrollments and faculties,
LCTLs are largely ignored by commercial textbook publishers who focus on the
more profitable major languages. Lacking pedagogical materials and institutional
clout, some LCTLs may not even have a departmental home at their institution and,
174 C.S. Blyth
Work in Progress
While surveys indicate that the use of OER is fairly widespread in North America
and in Europe, there is still a lack of empirical research about educational impact.
Thus, after more than a decade of intensive OER development, open educators are
beginning to develop a research agenda to determine the effects of OER on student
learning. The OER Hub, an initiative of the Open University, is serving as a de facto
clearinghouse for the many studies currently in progress (https://oerhub.net/). The
OER Hub seeks to create a network of OER researchers across four education sectors
(K-12, community college, university, and informal learning) who agree to share
methods and results. Findings of research studies are displayed in terms of 11 guiding
hypotheses. The first two hypotheses pertain to the nature of openness and are
relevant to all OER research studies:
The next nine hypotheses examine specific ways that OER may impact students,
teachers, and the learning environment:
While there is strong evidence for the claim that OER reduce costs for students
and institutions (Hypothesis #6), the claims that OER promote student learning
(Hypothesis #1) and improve teacher cognition (Hypothesis #5) are still in need of
further evidence. Moreover, to date, there are few published research studies that
investigate the impact of OER on FL learning. In light of this situation, COERLL
and LangOER launched a joint 4-year study in 2014 to assess the impact of FL OER
in the USA and in Europe (http://coerll.utexas.edu/coerll/projects/oer-research). In
2015, COERLL surveyed 1,100 FL educators working at all levels of the American
educational system. The survey targeted American educators from all 50 states and
from different types of institutions (private vs. public, urban vs. rural). The goal of
the survey was to determine the obstacles to OER adoption in the USA as well as to
understand the motivations of early adopters. Based on the findings of the OER
survey, the next phase will involve a needs analysis of FL educators in the USA.
Data for the needs analysis will come from interviews with targeted teacher
populations in high schools, community colleges, and 4-year colleges.
Before achieving widespread acceptance, OER must first overcome two major
obstacles: lack of awareness about open licenses and concerns about quality control.
A 2011 survey conducted by the National Institute of Technology and Liberal
Education (NITLE) found that faculties at small liberal arts colleges in the USA
had minimal knowledge of OE and were unclear about how to locate OER. Based on
the responses to the survey, the authors suggest that there is a pressing need for OER
of high quality that are also easily “discoverable,” that is, optimized for search
engine recovery (Spiro and Alexander 2012, p. 1). Two years later, a survey of FL
program directors in the USA found similar results – teachers are confused about
how to find and teach with OER (Thoms and Thoms 2014). In fact, Thoms and
Thoms (2014, p. 144) note that many FL program directors “were not familiar with
the term open educational resources per se.” In 2015, in response to such survey
results, the US Department of Education hired an open education advisor to dissem-
inate information about OER via social media (e.g., Twitter campaign #GoOpen).
According to the OER evidence report disseminated by the OER Hub, teachers
who are new to OE rarely distinguish between OER and other pedagogical materials
found online (OER Evidence Report 2014, p. 14). As noted, the distinctive feature of
OER is an open license that allows its creators to share rights with end users in a way
that is legally sound and globally applicable. Surveys cited in the OER Evidence
Report discovered that educators who do not understand open licenses tend to treat
176 C.S. Blyth
OER like any other commercial product. Once they become aware of the implica-
tions of open licenses, however, teachers begin to adapt elements of the OER. Then,
with increased OER experience, teachers start to create their own materials, some-
times remixing several OER. Finally, according to the report, the most experienced
open educators actually begin to create resources and share them with their peers
using a Creative Commons license (OER Evidence Report 2014, p. 15).
In addition to lack of awareness, OER must overcome the public’s persistent
concern about quality control. In face of these concerns, OER developers have
adopted different approaches to ensure the quality of their products. In one approach,
the academic institution where the OER is produced plays a leading role in vetting
the OER according to traditional academic practices of peer review. A more digitally
native approach to quality control is crowdsourcing, as pioneered by the open-source
software community. In this approach, the quality of the OER becomes the respon-
sibility of the crowd of users who write reviews and aggregate ratings for the public
to consult (Plotkin 2010, p. 6). More recently, OER developers have begun com-
bining elements of peer review with the newer crowdsourcing approaches. For
example, many professional societies and organizations, such as OER Commons
(www.oercommons.org), Open Content Consortium (www.ocwconsortium.org),
Community College Open Textbook Collaborative (http://collegeopentextbooks.
org), MERLOT (www.merlot.org/merlot/index.htm), and WikiEducator (http://
wikieducator.org/Free_textbooks), hire editorial teams to vet online content and to
organize it in ways that help educators find what they are seeking. OpenStax College,
an open publisher of higher education textbooks headquartered at Rice University
(Houston, Texas, USA), has adopted a quality control process that combines peer
reviews from experts and informal feedback from teachers in the field (https://
openstaxcollege.org/). To further increase the quality of their free and open text-
books, OpenStax College encourages users to report typos and errors that may be
periodically sorted and posted as errata sheets and editorial updates.
Future Directions
Educators and developers are taking different paths in their efforts to promote OER.
Headed in one direction are OER proponents such as the Hewlett Foundation who
seek to drive down the costs of education by bringing OER into the educational
mainstream. In general, these proponents seek to co-opt traditional publishing
practices in an attempt to render OER more “familiar” and therefore “adoptable.”
Headed in another direction are proponents who seek to revolutionize pedagogy by
emphasizing the unique features of OER. This group tends to focus on open
educational practices (OEP) that have the greatest potential to change the classroom
ecology (Zourou 2016a).
In a 2013 white paper entitled “Breaking the Lockbox on Education,” the Hewlett
Foundation outlined their strategy for mainstreaming OER in terms of three global
Open Educational Resources (OERs) for Language Learning 177
In the USA, state and local governments have made deep cuts in education over the past few
years as they have grappled with declining revenues that are the result of the worst recession
since the Great Depression. While the trend may be reversing as the broader economy
improves, overall school funding remains well below pre-recession levels. . .. While overall
state spending has contracted, interest in innovation and private investment in education
have nearly quadrupled in a decade, from $62 million in 2005 to an estimated $1.1billion in
2012. This education technology investment has given rise to a number of new players that,
like OER, are looking to retool classrooms.
The Hewlett white paper argues that the main problem facing OER is a critical
lack of “off-the-shelf offerings that teachers can adopt as their primary resources.”
In other words, the Hewlett white paper argues uneven and disorganized supply of
high-quality content is the biggest obstacle to mainstreaming OER. As such, the
report calls for developers to create future OER that rival commercial materials in
integration, usability, and completeness. Along these lines, the Hewlett white
paper cites Rice University’s OpenStax College as a model developer who has
embraced the goal of mainstreaming OER. Supported by several nonprofit foun-
dations, OpenStax College produces free, open textbooks for introductory college
courses with large enrollments, e.g., Psychology, Sociology, Statistics, American
History, etc. Run by professionals with years of experience in educational pub-
lishing, OpenStax College focuses on producing textbooks that meet industry
standards for scope and sequence requirements. In addition, all OpenStax College
textbooks are rigorously peer reviewed and accompanied by a suite of ancillaries
such as online exercises and teacher’s editions. By producing open textbooks that
rival commercial products in terms of their production values and standards-based
content, OpenStax College hopes to overcome concerns about quality.
In contrast, some advocates reject the strategy of producing OER that resemble
commercial products. Rather, these advocates hope to attract new adopters by
demonstrating how OER support open educational practices (OEP) (Blyth and
Dalola 2016; Kurek 2016; MacKinnon et al. 2016; Whyte 2016; Zourou 2016b).
OEP refers to teaching practices that are made possible by open licenses. These
teaching practices amount to the collaboration between content creators that invari-
ably involves the reuse of resources created by other persons (often peers). As an
example of OEP, Blyth (2012a) recounts the story of a French professor teaching in a
Nigerian university who asked her students to modify Français interactif, an OER
intended for American students learning French. To make the OER more suitable for
Africans, the professor asked her students to replace American cultural referents
found in the textbook with African equivalents. This practice not only led students to
reflect more deeply about the relationship of language and culture but also resulted in
an African version of the original. As advocates explore different ways to attract new
users, OER, despite their inherent diversity, will likely become part of the educa-
tional mainstream within the next decade.
178 C.S. Blyth
Cross-References
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1. https://alsic.revues.org/2903. Accessed 12 Jan 2017.
Data-Driven Learning and Language
Pedagogy
Alex Boulton
Abstract
Language corpora have many uses in language study, including for learners and
other users of foreign languages in an approach that has come to be known as
data-driven learning (DDL). This boils down to the learner’s ability to find
answers to their questions by using software to access large collections of
authentic texts relevant to their needs, as opposed to asking teachers or consulting
ready-made reference materials. As such, not only do corpora contain the poten-
tial to answer many language questions, the consultation itself is likely to lead to
improved language awareness and noticing. This chapter discusses the nature of
corpora and their relevance in language learning, outlining the processes involved
in DDL, and looks at the history and research development in the field from its
beginnings to the present day, taking into account its limitations and gaps in our
current knowledge with an eye to the future.
Keywords
Corpus • Data-driven learning • DDL • Corpus-based language learning
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
A. Boulton (*)
ATILF, CNRS and University of Lorraine, Nancy, France
e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
The essential condition for any language learning is exposure to the language itself.
In foreign language contexts in particular, such exposure may be inadequate: Zahar
et al. (2001: 558) estimate that an hour’s reading may lead to the incidental learning
of just two words; at that rate, it would take decades to build up a sizeable
vocabulary. Clearly exposure alone is not enough in such cases and may be
complemented by formal instruction intended to help speed up the process by
drawing learners’ attention to important points, explaining, demonstrating, provid-
ing examples, and so on. Fortunately, syntheses show that instruction does make a
difference (e.g., Norris and Ortega 2000), though that does not mean that any type of
instruction works equally well for all learners in all contexts (Hattie 2009). Formal
teaching may however oversimplify things: the contrived language that is presented,
the all-purpose definitions provided, the abstract rules given, as well as the structured
tasks to be completed. These can all have their uses, but if that is all there is then they
may lead to dependence on the teacher and an inability to work with authentic
language – i.e., to make the most of any real exposure.
This is where language corpora can be of use in what has come to be known as
data-driven learning (DDL). The basic concept is to allow massive exposure that is
still organized and focused. Using the power of computer software, learners can
query large collections of texts relevant to their needs, looking at frequencies and
distributions and multiple occurrences of target items in context. This essentially
constructivist, inductive approach means they can then reach their own conclusions
that are meaningful to them individually, and the cognitive processing should lead to
longer retention than simply “being taught.” This may be quite time consuming at
the start, but the real advantages lie not so much in the explicit knowledge gained as
in the processes involved – ability to deal with authentic texts in different genres;
awareness of frequency, chunking, and collocation; noticing forms and variation;
formulating hypotheses and inferring meanings; and so on. In other words, it should
help students become better language learners and users.
Early Developments
The word “corpus” can mean different things to different people in a variety of
disciplines. In corpus linguistics, it is a large collection of authentic texts that has
been deliberately sampled to be representative of the type of language one is
interested in; it is accessed by software often called a concordancer, though it can
usually do more than just concordancing as we shall see below. This is, however, a
prototypical definition, and corpus linguistic tools can be used with just a few
thousand words (wherever repeated searches can beneficially be conducted by
computer rather than regular reading), a single text (e.g., a novel), “non-authentic”
text (arguably simplified readers or textbooks, or learner essays), and collected
automatically (in the case of web-compiled corpora) or at least partly serendipitously
(depending on resources available). In language teaching, the overriding criteria are
Data-Driven Learning and Language Pedagogy 183
pedagogical rather than theoretical, and the ad hoc creation of a small, specialized
corpus of texts can be much more relevant to learners’ needs than some of the large,
general-purpose corpora that are publically available.
The first modern corpus is no doubt the Brown corpus, a million words carefully
sampled from 500 extracts of texts that had been published in 1961 (Kučera and
Francis 1967). This was partly motivated by dissatisfaction with the tools then
available for describing English which derived largely from intuition and fortuitous
examples. The goal here was to introduce greater scientific rigor from a more
systematic base. Later, the Bank of English at Birmingham University was designed
for linguistic purposes but also with pedagogical aims in mind (see Sinclair 1987, for
a review). This monitor corpus was designed to increase over time to account for
developments in British English, but originally just over 7 million words were used
to produce the first Cobuild dictionary. The corpus could be sorted on the computer
and then the short contexts (concordances) were printed out for every occurrence of
every item; the lexicographical work took place entirely on paper, similar to earlier
hand-compiled concordances from the Bible or Shakespeare, for example. The
100 million words of the British National Corpus (see Aston and Burnard 1998)
represented a truly monumental undertaking when it was built in the early 1990s, but
later advances made it possible for a single person to create the Corpus of Contem-
porary American English semiautomatically from the Internet, currently standing at
520 million words (see Davies 2009). Entirely automated procedures now mean that
billion-word corpora are regularly compiled (e.g., Baroni and Bernardini 2006). At
the top end of the scale, the searchable Internet has debatable status as a corpus but
can be usefully queried via regular search engines or more specialized software for
pedagogical purposes.
In the hands of experts, corpora can be useful in preparing all kinds of pedagogical
materials and resources, from general and specialized dictionaries to grammar books
and usage manuals, from syllabus design to testing, from wordlists to coursebooks.
Such uses are beyond the scope of this chapter, which is concerned with how learners
can use corpora directly.
Many of the early attempts at learner corpus consultation are based around Bir-
mingham with teachers in contact with the Cobuild project. McEnery and Wilson
(1997: 12) mention uses dating back to 1969, though the earliest publication seems to
be from San Francisco where McKay (1980) describes activities encouraging learners
to identify grammatical patterns to distinguish semantically similar verbs, based on
sentences printed out from a corpus. In Surrey, Ahmad et al. (1985) had their advanced
learners using a computer to query a corpus directly, though such early software could
be exasperatingly slow. Things really took off in the late 1980s back in Birmingham,
with Tim Johns as a leading pioneer often cited as the founding father of DDL. He
created a concordancer specifically designed with language learners in mind (Micro-
Concord, which later morphed into WordSmith Tools; see http://www.lexically.net/
wordsmith), and published a number of papers explaining many different ways in
which he used corpora for and with his students, with many widely-cited sound bites
and frequent citations, especially from the seminal collection of papers he coedited
(Johns and King 1991) and which included two papers of his own.
184 A. Boulton
Johns created or used different types of corpora – scientific texts, parallel corpora
of translations, a single novel – to be relevant to the learners’ needs. Authenticity
was important in terms not just of text but also of needs and indeed the task, since
corpus consultation involves exploring and thinking about language – crucial to any
language learning. In this way the learner was seen as a researcher with direct access
to the data, and the teacher as guide rather than dispenser of linguistic knowledge.
Proactive materials could be printed out for repeated use with lower-level students
for general purposes, while more advanced students could explore the corpus
individually or collaboratively, using the concordancer themselves for serendipitous
browsing or focused querying. Johns would leave the concordancer on in his classes
as an informant and used it in his one-to-one advising sessions to help with academic
writing. For him, DDL was not just learner centered but also provided a means to
keep language (especially lexicogrammar) firmly center stage. All of this was argued
to lead to greater autonomy; indeed, his final paper (Johns et al. 2008) provides some
evidence that the DDL participants outperformed the control group even on items
that had not been explicitly covered, suggesting that the processes may improve
language skills as a whole. The tremendous variety of uses of corpora promoted by
Johns set the agenda for years to come, though of course he was not alone, especially
in the UK and Europe. Of particular note is the biennial Teaching and Language
Corpora (TaLC) conference series inaugurated in Lancaster in 1994, each event
giving rise to a selected volume of papers; further information can be found in
Thomas and Boulton (2012: 17–34).
Major Contributions
Before going any further, it may be useful to see what DDL actually looks like.
Traditionally the user sees corpus data in the form of a concordance, typically in
KWIC (key word in context) format. Fig. 1 shows a random selection of 20 concor-
dance lines taken from a corpus of academic writing (110 papers focusing on DDL,
1. Jackson 1997); and in translation studies ( e.g. Pearson 1996; Aston 1999; Mallikamas 2001;
2. t is against the ideal of learner autonomy ( e.g., Johns, 1991a). As in real life, learners p
3. ally favourable in this and other research ( e.g. Johns 2002; Hadley 2002; Ciesielska-Ciupek
4. er-initiated and teacher-initiated queries ( e.g. Yoon 2008). As with corpus use in general,
5. oncentrating on written academic discourse ( e.g. textbooks and articles), and the other on o
6. significantly over that of a control group ( e.g. Goyette). Indeed the point of click-on reso
7. offer more readily recontextualised input ( e.g. EEL sub-parts of the EGAP and ESAP register
8. r-, or under-use of particular L2 features ( e.g., Granger, 1998; Granger, Hung, & Petch-Tyso
9. studies have examined vocabulary learning ( e.g. Kaur & Hegelheimer, 2005; O'Sullivan & Cham
10. ed according to formal linguistic criteria ( e.g., verbs, nouns, prepositions) or according t
11. lass activities into the intermediate class, e.g., letting students have hands-on practice, w
12. evens, 1991; Tribble, 1991) or translation ( e.g., Aston, Gavioli, & Zanettin, 1998; Bernardi
13. me lexical items were shared by both texts ( e.g., export/shipping products, taking action, o
14. re should be minimal formal accountability ( e.g. no required summaries or book reports). Ind
15. ies where English is not the main language ( e.g., China and India). As an illustrative examp
16. were items which were felt to be too noisy ( e.g. headlines). 5. Method The overall aim w
17. competent writers. Here corpus technology ( e.g., general corpus concordancing) is a promisi
18. of patterns, extrapolation to other cases ( e.g. Scott & Tribble, 2006: 6; Gaskell & Cobb, 2
19. 1995; Louw, 1997) and of translation (see, e.g., Bowker, 1998; Zanettin, 2001). This sectio
20. only be understood at the discourse level ( e.g. Braun 2005; Hughes and McCarthy 1998). Ther
600 k running words) for the search term, “e.g.” here centered and in bold. This very
simple formal example highlights a number of features which may be useful to
learners. On the left, it is immediately apparent that most occurrences occur within
brackets (other searches show that this is true in 85% of cases), the implication being
that it is unusual in the syntax of the main sentence and should not be overused in
this way in this type of writing. On the right, the presence or absence of a comma
owes more to individual journal style guides than any generalizable pattern. Beyond
that, it is often used to introduce references, which can lead to further searches for
citation practices and discussion of whether in other disciplines or other languages,
research cited is thus typically relegated to brackets or not. Most corpus analysis
software offers this basic concordancing function. Other features include frequency
counts of individual words or clusters, collocates, distributions, and so on, all of
which can prove useful to L2 learners.
It is in the nature of innovations in computer-assisted language learning (CALL)
that early publications tend to be descriptive of classroom practices and software
developments. The situation gradually evolves, and Boulton and Cobb (2017)
identified over 200 publications attempting some kind of evaluation of corpus use
by L2 users; some of the more widely cited are briefly outlined below.
Much of the initial interest lay in emic studies to find out what learners thought
about DDL. The data were often gathered through interviews, diaries, or especially
questionnaires; the latter are still frequently used but often now as a complement to
other aspects. Long-term ecological studies are particularly valuable here, such as
Baten et al. (1989) who received overwhelmingly positive feedback from 400 Dutch
economics students after 4 months. More recent is the frequently cited paper by
Yoon and Hirvela (2004), who introduced corpora to their ESL students in the USA
over several weeks. The questionnaires again revealed considerable enthusiasm,
especially among those with comparatively low levels of linguistic proficiency,
which opens up the question of who DDL is most appropriate for. Across all studies,
the response is overwhelmingly positive which no doubt owes something to the
novelty factor and the Hawthorne effect, given that most researchers/teachers were
themselves enthusiastic. Nonetheless, it seems that DDL can appeal to a wide variety
of learners, though Turnbull and Burston (1998) provide a detailed case study of two
students needing English for a master’s degree in Australia: one was found to be field
independent and took to corpora very quickly; the other was field dependent and
found it largely a waste of time.
Another focus has been on the uses learners make of corpora, again mostly by
asking learners about their practices; a notable exception is Pérez-Paredes et al.
(2012) in Spain who tracked their learners’ searches. They found that lack of training
led to fairly unsophisticated queries, with learners approaching corpora in much the
same way as they did Internet searches; indeed, the most successful outcomes were
found to be combinations of corpus and web searches. The types of queries formu-
lated are analyzed by Kennedy and Miceli (2010), who usefully distinguish pattern
hunting (i.e., search for inspiration) and pattern defining (i.e., checking specific
questions); success was linked to trial and error, among other things. Charles
(2014) had her graduate students compile their own discipline-specific corpora to
186 A. Boulton
help with academic writing and followed up use a year later. Eighty six percent of the
respondents continued to use corpora at least occasionally in drafting or revising
their academic writing and 38% of them regularly. The overall picture that emerges
is that most students can use concordancers directly, though it remains controversial
how much training is needed. Where time or resources are limited, or for students
with lower levels of L2 proficiency, linguistic sophistication, or motivation, work
with printed data can provide one solution (e.g., Boulton 2010).
Others have attempted to see whether DDL leads to measurable outcomes from a
more etic perspective, i.e., whether it “works” or not. These again split into two
groups, the first evaluating the use of corpora as a learning aid, focusing on learning
outcomes usually of specified target items. The results generally derive from some
kind of language test, whether pre/post or control/experimental designs. Among the
earliest and most ambitious, Cobb’s (1997) PhD thesis and papers derived from it
showed that lower-level Arabic students were able to learn large numbers of words
using DDL over a long period of time and were significantly more likely to retain
them long term than control groups with word lists and dictionaries only. Most other
studies come to similar conclusions for vocabulary and lexicogrammar in general,
which may be what DDL is most suitable for, whatever the level of the learners (Lee
and Liou 2003). Much of the work here is relatively ecological, being based on a
regular course over several weeks or a semester. Chujo and Oghigian and their
colleagues in Japan run a semester-long DDL course on a regular basis enabling
different types of data collection and analysis, especially as they tweak the course
each time. In a 2012 paper looking at noun and verb phrases over two semesters, the
experimental group made significant gains in most areas compared to the control
group; the results are found to be particularly promising when printouts and hands-
on concordancing are combined.
The other group of studies interested in outcomes looks at the impact of corpus
use not as a learning aid but as a reference resource, especially while writing
(drafting or revising texts or translations). Some of it is short-term experimental
work such as by Frankenberg-Garcia (2014), who provided her Portuguese high-
school learners of English with dictionary definitions and multiple concordance
lines. Both were found to be useful for comprehension, but as few as three
carefully-chosen corpus examples proved significantly more effective in production.
O’Sullivan and Chambers (2006) got their Irish students of French to correct their
own essays; following training, they successfully corrected many underlined errors
of grammar and lexis in particular, as well as syntax and even formal things such as
spelling where dictionaries or other resources would have been quicker and just as
effective. Geluso (2013) also had his learners produce essays especially for the study,
but then got them to use Google frequencies as a test of formulaicity for sequences in
inverted commas which the students themselves chose as dubious. Four native
English speakers rated the results as being significantly more “natural.” Search
engines were also used by Todd (2001), but here with the snippets as an equivalent
to concordance lines to help correct errors; again, the results suggest that learners can
indeed make significant use of such self-selected data.
Data-Driven Learning and Language Pedagogy 187
Work in Progress
The essential ingredients in DDL are corpora and the software to query them, and
users today have access to tremendous numbers of both. More and larger corpora can
be compiled quickly and easily and distributed free or at small charge via the Internet
for many different languages: SketchEngine alone currently lists over 50 languages,
some with many different corpora (www.sketchengine.co.uk). However, the preva-
lence of (semi)automatic compilation aids means that few corpora are as rigorously
compiled as the BNC, for example, and care inevitably needs to be taken in
interpreting the results. Some tools such as BootCaT (bootcat.sslmit.unibo.it) are
publicly available and mean that ordinary users can compile rough-and-ready
corpora in a few minutes for specific purposes: all that is needed is to input a handful
of “seed” words which are characteristic of the type of language required; the tool
does the rest. The availability of large quantities of text via the Internet also means
that teachers or learners can manually identify and download texts to build their own
corpora for local use. These are often far smaller, which can be an advantage when
the needs are highly specific. Software development has also led to increasing
numbers of query tools often freely available on the web or for download, which
again helps to make DDL much more accessible. Some of these are highly specific,
some are intended for experienced researchers; others though are extremely simple
and sufficiently general for ordinary L2 learners to be able to work with. AntConc
(www.laurenceanthony.net/software/antconc) deserves a special mention here as it
has been among the most widely used in recent DDL studies, including some of
those mentioned above.
Technological advances have made DDL faster, simpler, more intuitive, prettier,
more accessible, and so on. But in terms of methodologies, the essential aspects of
DDL remain largely unchanged, typically featuring induction from multiple occur-
rences in context, augmented with lists and charts of frequencies, collocates,
wordsketches, etc. This means that much of the research has been in piloting specific
corpora or software, or in testing the basic approach with different learners in
different contexts with different needs and questions in mind – all the while doing
quite similar things. The advantage of this is that enough evidence has accumulated
to be able to take stock. Boulton and Cobb (2017) have undertaken the first
systematic meta-analysis of DDL with 88 unique samples from 64 separate studies.
The results show large effect sizes overall, both within and between groups. Mod-
erator analyses reveal gaps in the research agenda, including for languages other than
English, spoken skills, long-term uptake and occupational uses, etc.
Three trends in recent years are of particular note. First, a number of studies apply
essentially DDL-like practices to the web as corpus. The value here is that the web
itself is large and varied enough to contain almost anything the user might want; the
challenge of course lies in finding it using regular search engines as surrogate
concordancers (cf. Boulton 2015). At the same time, users are already familiar
with the web and with search engines, which may go some way toward countering
objections of technical difficulties, and further training in their use is more likely to
188 A. Boulton
be taken up long term precisely because the tools are so general purpose. A second
way to help integrate DDL into learning is to graft them into CALL packages.
Cobb’s Compleat Lexical Tutor (www.lextutor.ca) provides a number of tools in
addition to regular concordancing, allowing learners or teachers to create gap-fills
automatically from multiple concordance lines, to visualize the frequency bands of
words in a particular text, to click on a word in their own text for a concordance to
pop up, to consult and share concordances during writing or error-correction, among
other things. This is a way of bringing DDL to the learners rather than expecting
them to come to corpus linguistics. Finally, the traditional interest in lexicogrammar
is being complemented by more work at the level of discourse, especially using
corpora as a reference resource for academic writing. This is not necessarily obvious,
since many features of interest may be difficult to search for at surface level; having
the students build their own small, specialized corpora increases ownership and
familiarity and is one way forward suggested by Charles (2014).
The advantages of DDL notwithstanding, the fact that it is not mainstream practice
suggests that there are difficulties involved. Various questionnaires have noted
problems from the learner’s perspective, but many of these have dissipated over
time, and solutions exist for others. Despite copyright issues and questions of
ownership, lack of access to appropriate data is far less a problem today with the
increasing availability of large numbers of corpora, as well as the Internet itself.
Technical problems can be eliminated if the teacher prepares printed handouts for
activities, and software and interfaces have become far more user-friendly in recent
years. The ubiquity of Internet search engines have gone a long way towards
bridging the gap between everyday practice and DDL: the concept of data searching
is familiar and the techniques are largely transferable; users are able to read concor-
dance lines nonlinearly just as they are Google snippets and are less concerned with
“drowning in data.” Some learners may find the language in corpora difficult:
smaller, more relevant corpora may make them more approachable, especially
where learners are involved in choosing familiar texts. At lower levels of proficiency,
learners may be more comfortable with parallel corpora of translations (see below) or
even with corpora of simplified texts or graded readers (available for English on
www.lextutor.ca/conc/eng).
Perhaps the biggest problem lies in simply knowing what to query in the first
place: much work with error-correction, for example, relies on teachers indicating
problem areas (e.g., O’Sullivan and Chambers 2006). One possibility is to rely on
frequency data from the web as an indication, focusing on rare items except where
they include proper names or highly technical items, as suggested by Geluso (2013).
To the extent that DDL enhances language awareness, increased practice is likely to
make this easier and more intuitive over time. There is still the problem of formu-
lating the question as a query that the software can understand, and then interpreting
the results. Training is recommended by many just to get the most out of Internet
Data-Driven Learning and Language Pedagogy 189
search engines, and more may be required for dedicated concordancers and other
corpus software. How much training is needed for hands-on concordancing is a
controversial issue, though it will ultimately depend on the learners’ own needs and
preferences, and how much they are likely to want to use corpora in the future.
This raises the further question of the types of learners that DDL is likely to suit
best, given that there is considerable variation in their appreciation of the approach
and the benefits they derive from it. By far the majority of studies to date have
focused on university students, though there is no intrinsic reason why younger
learners cannot also benefit. On the other hand, there has been considerable work
with learners at lower-intermediate level who are majoring in disciplines other than
language, suggesting that language proficiency and sophistication may not be
insurmountable barriers. It may even be that DDL is more appropriate in such
cases for learners whose previous experience with more teacher-centered, deductive
approaches has left them uninterested or struggling (cf. Yoon and Hirvela 2004). All
that can really be said at the moment is that further work is needed in a number of
areas – which leads us to the final section.
Future Directions
Empirical DDL research has largely focused on university students with intermedi-
ate to advanced levels of English as a foreign or second language. It may be that this
is where it is most useful and appropriate, though for a more comprehensive picture
we would expect more work with younger learners, in secondary or even primary
schooling, in private language schools, and outside formal education. This last point
seems particularly important: if corpus consultation is argued to be useful for real
needs, then we know to know what it can bring to professional situations. Interest in
long-term uptake of DDL is at present limited (though see Charles 2014), and
introducing it to the workplace seems to be nonexistent except for academic writing.
As far as the corpora themselves are concerned, English is likely to remain the
major preoccupation for the foreseeable future, but we would expect more work on
other languages too. More important, concordancers work only with written text
(including transcriptions); since many learners are primarily interested in spoken
language, we would expect the next few years to see development of aligned corpora
with sound and even video. It is extremely time consuming to collect spoken data,
and the few that currently exist tend to consist largely of interviews (e.g., www.uni-
tuebingen.de/elisa/html/elisa_index.html or www.um.es/sacodeyl). An obvious
bypath would be to use existing subtitled documents which are already aligned,
albeit imperfectly: Aston (2015) describes such uses of the TED talks using Word-
Smith Tools; Quaglio (2009), among others, has shown that scripted dialogues are
closer to “authentic” spontaneous conversation than might be thought, and thus also
have their place in a spoken program of DDL for general language learning
purposes.
Parallel corpora of translated texts may also be further developed: at the moment,
they are relatively rare outside specialist translation courses, despite their obvious
190 A. Boulton
uses in many areas, as well as for learners at lower levels of proficiency. There are
currently very few that are freely available and easy to use, and they often have their
limits: of note is EuroParl, the proceedings of the European Parliament in 21 lan-
guages (www.statmt.org/europarl). While the status of Linguee (www.linguee.com)
as a parallel corpus may be debatable, it can be used in ways compatible with DDL
but with more than one language. Other initiatives can be expected as it becomes
easier to align translations for analysis with free parallel concordancers (e.g., www.
laurenceanthony.net/software/antpconc).
Technological advances have helped to bring DDL closer to its potential users,
with numerous corpora and software designed with L2 learners in mind. At the
same time, as technology and the Internet in particular become second nature,
learners are already involved in everyday practices that bring them closer to DDL.
Johns was originally determined to present DDL as radically different to tradi-
tional teaching; the time may have come for it to be seen as an extension of
ordinary practice. It will be interesting to see if and to what extent web searches
and DDL merge. Finally on the technological front, smart phones and other
mobile devices may also bring about substantial changes, but interfaces will
need to adapt to allow for screen size and processing speed in particular; entirely
new practices may emerge. For the most part, the basic shape of DDL was formed
quite early on: recent studies can in many cases be considered replications of
earlier work.
DDL is in line with a number of theories of language, learning, and use, some of
which derive from insights gleaned from corpus linguistics, but this is largely a
one-way relationship. The future may usefully see more empirical studies explicitly
designed to analyze the theoretical foundations in more detail. Among other things,
we know that language consists of regular overlapping sequences in the form of
chunks that are processed, stored, and retrieved as wholes rather than being
constructed bottom-up from grammar “rules” as traditionally thought, meaning
that any individual item is typically found in a limited number of contexts (Sinclair
1991, on the idiom principle; Hoey 2005, on lexical priming; Millar 2011, on
psycholinguistic evidence for chunking). This breaks down the grammar/lexis divide
suggesting that our language knowledge is the sum of the encounters we have with it,
both receptively and productively, in line with emergentist, usage-based theories
(Tomasello 2005). Taylor (2012) talks by analogy of the “mental corpus,” highlight-
ing that many of these theories not only support corpus linguistics and DDL but owe
much of their origins to them.
Finally, new research practices are needed to test the real benefits of DDL – not
just for learning specific items but in helping users to become better language
learners, more sensitive to language as a whole. This is the central claim, but so
far the only evidence is incidental and at best suggestive (Johns et al. 2008; Allan
2006). What is needed are careful longitudinal studies that specifically focus on this.
Ideally, for any technology or approach to become really useful, it needs to be taken
up outside the context of a single course – with teachers of other and subsequent
courses, and after the end of the instruction period.
Data-Driven Learning and Language Pedagogy 191
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Technology and Task-Based Language
Teaching
Marta González-Lloret
Abstract
The inclusion of technology in language education is a standard practice today.
However, not all technologies are equal, and it is essential that, if they are to be
used for language learning, their design, implementation, and evaluation are
guided by language development research. Among the existing methodologies
for language teaching, task-based language teaching (TBLT) presents an ideal
platform for informing and fully realizing the potential of technological innova-
tions for language learning. This chapter reviews the trajectory of the merge of
technologies and tasks from 2000 to today, highlighting those contributions that
impacted the way we understand technology-mediated task-based language
teaching today. The chapter presents current research that explores the intersec-
tion between task design issues (e.g., task complexity, language production) and
innovative technologies (e.g., online multiplayer games, mobile digital aug-
mented reality games, virtual environments). The implementation of new tech-
nologies and new language learning methodologies is never an easy and smooth
process. And without a doubt, there are some difficulties and issues that still need
to be resolved about technology-mediated TBLT: a clear definition and operatio-
nalization of a task, a plethora of possible technologies to include in a curriculum,
and the fast emergence of innovations. Finally, the chapter offers possible future
directions for the field.
Keywords
Technology-mediated Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) • Task • Needs
analysis • Curriculum design • Language learning • L2 culture • Computer-
mediated communication (CMC) • Web materials • Experiential learning • Inno-
vation • Gaming • Virtual worlds • Augmented reality • iCALL
M. González-Lloret (*)
University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Introduction
The inclusion of technology in education is the norm today, and second and foreign
language courses are not an exception. However, not all technologies are equal, and
motivation and novelty are not necessarily sufficient to make them effective tools for
language learning. It is essential that their design, implementation, and evaluation be
guided by curricular principles based on education and language development
research. Among all the existing methodologies for language teaching, task-based
language teaching (TBLT) presents an ideal platform for informing and fully real-
izing the potential of technological innovations for language learning.
TBLT is based on the idea of “learning by doing” or “experiential learning”
(Dewey 1938/1997). That is, we learn a language by doing something with it rather
than knowing about it. Rather than mastering a particular linguistic piece of the
language, in TBLT, the goal is to achieve communicative competence that is
accurate, complex, and fluent through tasks which require engagement with that
target language. Although there are multiple understandings of TBLT as a method-
ology, they all agree that tasks are the building blocks of a TBLT curriculum.
Corresponding to different views of TBLT, tasks are also defined and
operationalized quite differently, from tasks as more traditional classroom activities
(Nunan 2004) to tasks as the real things we do every day in life (Long 1985). However,
a few characteristics are common and essential to all tasks. See Ellis (2003) and
Skehan (1998) for in-depth discussions of types of tasks. Tasks are meaning oriented,
are communicative in nature, and focus on the content of the message. Tasks aim to
replicate target language use as authentically as possible and should be goal oriented,
incorporating real contextualized language with application outside of the activity
itself. Therefore, the assessment of a task is not so much on the use of discreet
language items but rather on the task outcome and the achievement of the task goal.
Early Developments
Major Contributions
Work in Progress
structure of most games is based on the completion of tasks, best known as “quests,”
which are sequenced according to principles of complexity (contextual, organiza-
tional, algorithmic, etc.) and aim at actively engaging participation in “doing some-
thing.” In addition, game players shape the games by the actions they take and the
decisions they make, much like speakers shape a task once they are immersed in
it. Game players learn to play mainly by playing (as well as talking to other players,
reading about the game, etc.) which fits with TBLT’s main educational philosophy of
experiential learning.
A few authors have explored the efficiency of tasks to promote language learning
within games and other virtual environments, but this is very much a work in
progress. Among the first studies is Sykes’ (2012, 2014) research into a virtual
environment called Croquelandia. The tasks in this environment were designed to
expose students to Spanish pragmatic speech acts that were infrequent in the
classroom (refusals and apologies), by interacting with avatars that presented differ-
ent situations common in the daily life of a student. Another example of the
incorporation of tasks and task-based principles into new technologies is Holden
and Sykes’s (2012) work on a mobile-based game Mentira. The game was designed
for Spanish students to interact among themselves, with the mobile devices, and with
a physical neighborhood in Albuquerque, New Mexico, through a mystery-type
activity composed of several tasks. Similarly, Collentine (2013) has also explored a
built 3D environment in which students need to engage in two different tasks to find
clues about a crime (one missing-person case and one murder mystery) interacting
with other learners via CMC as well as avatars (non-player characters) and a variety
of objects. Collentine investigated the relationship between linguistic complexity in
the input and L2 production. This is the first study that, using regression analysis,
looks at different measures of input complexity from a 3D world in Spanish to find
out which variables were actually affecting the complexity of learners’ output.
Collentine found that more information in the input resulted in more information
production and more linguistic complexity in the learners’ output. The learner’s
output contained more lexical variety when the input was dense (included nouns,
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) but lacked lexical variety, and their output was more
dense when the input lacked lexical variety and was not syntactically complex.
Finally, the learners’ output was syntactically more complex when the input was
semantically but not syntactically complex. Collentine’s research demonstrates the
importance of designing tasks that include certain linguistic features in the input
(input rich in information rather than complex) for learners to generate complex
language.
In a similar line of investigation, Adams and colleagues (e.g., Adams and Nik
2014) are looking at several dimensions of task complexity (following Robinson’s
cognition hypothesis) to be able to predict student output. In their research, they have
found that in CMC tasks, when learners perform tasks more complex by a lack of
prior knowledge, they produce more lexical complexity and less negotiation. How-
ever if they perform tasks for which they have prior knowledge, their quantity of
language increases, but not their lexical complexity or their accuracy. This research
also consistently points out the limitations and challenges of employing theoretical
Technology and Task-Based Language Teaching 199
Given the rapid changes in technology and innovation, predicting what tools stu-
dents will need in the future to be able to accomplish a task in the L2 is pure
speculation. We can certainly find out what technologies students need to use
currently, but predicting those that they will need after graduating in 4, 5, or
10 years is almost impossible. For this reason, it is essential to focus research on
the affordances of a tool, environment, or activity which promote language learning,
200 M. González-Lloret
so that, when technology changes, we can revisit whether these essential compo-
nents are still intact.
This rapid change of technology affects one of the central tenets to TBLT: the idea
that there should be a close connection between the tasks performed in class and in
the real world, that the tasks should be as authentic and real-world as possible (Van
den Branden 2006). This notion gets even more complicated when we try to define
what is “authentic” in relation to technology. In most language classes, we will have
students who only use technology for academic purposes (word processor, search
engines, email. . .), others who may use technology to engage in social networking
with speakers of the target language, and there will probably be a couple of gamers
who would want to have access to a game in the target language. All of these
constitute real authentic uses for these learners and may pose difficulty when
developing a task-based curriculum. Deciding what technologies to include in a
classroom curriculum should not be different from the multiple needs and desires
that students may have regarding topics and activities in the classroom. A well-
developed needs analysis, with a balance of sources and methods, should help decide
which tasks, what language, and which technologies to include in the curriculum.
Another important challenge to technology-mediated TBLT (and to TBLT in gen-
eral) is the lack of a clear definition of task. As innovation brings more variety in what
we can do with technology, the definition of a task within technology may get stretched
and diluted. In order to maintain a recognizable methodology, we need to keep the core
characteristics and principles of a task intact while adapting it to new media.
Even with a clear definition of task, some of the issues that face-to-face research
on task faces do transfer to technology-mediated tasks, for example, the idea that a
task gets transformed by the students when they engage in it in ways that cannot be
predicted by the task designer. As Seedhouse (2005) argues, differences between
“task-as-workplan” (the expectations for how the task is implemented and executed)
and “task-in-process” (what actually happens when the learners engage with the
task) exist. These differences may actually be amplified by the inclusion of technol-
ogy, since it adds one more layer to the task design and therefore additional
opportunities for the task design to be changed. It is important, then, that
technology-mediated TBLT research pays attention to both “task-as-workplan” and
“task-in-process.” This necessitates the collection and analysis of data about the
actual carrying out of the task, rather than just making claims about the task before it
is executed and evaluated. It also necessitates inclusion in the analysis of possible
interactions that occur “around” the task that may be relevant for the completion of
the task as well as for language learning.
Finally, for the field of technology in TBLT, and CALL in general, it is essential to
understand technology as integral to the education system but without “technolog-
ical determinism” (Warschauer 2004). We need to develop a critical capacity for the
“analysis of the affordances of technology, needs of language learners, and oppor-
tunities missed when technology is selected” (Chapelle 2014, p. 329). Therefore, the
inclusion of technology (and what technologies exactly to include) should be driven
by the analysis of learners’ needs and conditions for task completion, and it should
be as carefully planned as any other aspect of the task design.
Technology and Task-Based Language Teaching 201
Future Directions
The directions for future research into technology-mediated TBLT will be heavily
influenced by the changes and new affordances of innovations in technology, which,
as stated above, are almost impossible to predict. However, future research will also
have a lot to do with the direction that CALL research and SLA in general are
exhibiting now.
Parallel to the evolution of CALL and SLA toward epistemological diversity and
inclusion of new theories (e.g., emergentism, dynamic systems, complexity theories
under the usage-based philosophy), technology-mediated TBLT will incorporate
new research agendas not yet addressed. In particular, it will include research topics
incorporating social dimensions of second language learning such as issues of
identity construction through tasks; the role that the technology has in mediating
knowledge; how we conceptualize privacy and social spaces; how knowledge is
distributed, co-constructed, and shared through different media in time and space;
what role pragmatics of a language play in the design of tasks; etc (González-Lloret
and Ortega in press).
In addition, as technologies reach populations that have not traditionally been part
of SLA studies, there will be more variety in studies. Technology use is now
pervasive among very young children, and we will need studies into pre-school
and school-age children learning language mediated through innovation in and out
of institutional settings. See Butler (2015) for an excellent example of research with
Japanese children on understanding gaming for language learning from the chil-
dren’s perspective. In addition, as people’s capacities to engage in technology
evolve, we will need studies of people learning languages with high and low
computer literacies, as well as multilinguals engaging with different technologies
within a TBLT framework.
Although Chapelle (2001) has already mentioned the need for more multilevel
analysis of technology-based tasks (analysis of the software, analysis of the task,
task success, and empirical evaluation of the learner’s performance), this is an area
that is still neglected in the field. Most studies are still constrained to the study of just
one of the aspects above. This may be a consequence of the difficulties of large time
and resources consuming research, as well as the still existing limitations of space for
publication in main journals in the field. A few examples of how multilevel analysis
can be conducted with tasks and technology are starting to emerge (e.g., Sykes
2014), but, without a doubt, more is needed.
With more research in all areas of technology-mediated TBLT, and a more
programmatic view of TBLT that will incorporate a range of aspects from needs
analysis to student assessment and evaluation, we will most likely see more research
on curriculum implementation and formal evaluation. Nielson (2014) is one of the
few studies today that has evaluated a technology-mediated full curriculum (for a
Chinese language course).
As language education becomes more specialized, the design and research of
technology-mediated language tasks for specific purposes will advance. Although we
only have a few examples for journalism (Appel and Gilabert 2002; Reeder 2010)
202 M. González-Lloret
and vocational technical professions (Schrooten 2006), the idea of incorporating tasks
designed specifically for a group of learners with common needs and goals fits perfectly
within the TBLT framework. As more technical training in second/foreign languages is
tailored to be delivered virtually through the Internet, we will need more research on its
development and implementation, as well as its efficacy and generalizability to other
similar contexts.
One last field of CALL that has just started to intersect with task-based
language teaching is iCALL (intelligent CALL) which employs AI (artificial
intelligence) practices. Up to now, most of the existing research has focused on
written interaction between the learner and the computer system. The first exam-
ples of iCALL for language learning in the mid-1990s could be considered the
first gaming and simulation environments for second and foreign language learn-
ing, designed to present the learners with interactive input, allowing them to set
the action of the activity, as well as providing them with corrective feedback. For
examples and discussion, see Schulze (2010). Although most research up to date
focuses on L2 reading and writing skills, as voice recognition software improves,
we will probably see more iCALL research focused on all four skills (reading,
writing, speaking, and listening). We could say that CALL research on gaming
(see above) is in some way iCALL research, but focusing on the user side of the
application rather than on the system that facilitates the human-computer
interaction.
Finally, of great importance for the successful implementation of technology-
mediated TBLT is teacher education. Without proper methodological education,
teachers revert back to the techniques and classroom resources that are familiar to
them. Not to mention how intimidating technology can be for teachers without
proper training. For an example of teacher education in the creation and implemen-
tation of technology-mediated tasks, the reader can see Winke’s presentation in the
colloquium “Technology-mediated TBLT” at the 2013 TBLT Conference at http://
technology-mediatedtblt.blogspot.com/2013/10/tblt-2013-colloquium-technology.
html. With a few examples of investigation in this area as a starting base (e.g., Raith
and Hegelheimer 2010), this important research will certainly increase in the near
future.
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Online Intercultural Exchange and
Language Education
Robert O’Dowd
Abstract
Online intercultural exchange (OIE), also referred to as telecollaboration or
virtual exchange, refers to the engagement of groups of students in online
intercultural interaction and collaboration with partners from other cultural con-
texts or geographical locations under the guidance of educators and/or expert
facilitators. This chapter begins by examining the origins of this activity and
outlines the main types of OIE that are currently being employed in foreign
language learning contexts. It then moves on to discuss new models of online
interaction and exchange and reviews some of the problems that educators have
encountered in its application in the classroom.
Keywords
Online intercultural exchange (OIE) • Telecollaboration • Language learning •
Intercultural communication • Intercultural communicative competence • Tandem
learning
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
R. O’Dowd (*)
Universidad de León, León, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
Early Developments
The origins of OIE in FL education has been traced to the learning networks
pioneered by Célestin Freinet in 1920s France and later by Mario Lodi in 1960s
Italy, decades before the internet was to become a tool for classroom learning
Online Intercultural Exchange and Language Education 209
(Cummins and Sayers 1995, pp. 119–136). Freinet made use of the technologies and
modes of communication available to him at the time to enable his classes in the
north of France to make class newspapers with a printing press and to exchange these
newspapers along with “cultural packages” of flowers, fossils, and photos of their
local area with schools in other parts of France. Similarly, Lodi motivated his
learners and helped to develop their critical literacy by encouraging them to create
student newspapers in collaboration with distant partner classes. The link between
the principles and activities of these educators and the online work being carried out
today is discussed in detail by Cummins and Sayers (1995) and by Müller-
Hartmann (2007).
Despite the emergence of the internet and local area networks (LANs) in the early
and mid-1990s, initially there was relatively little telecollaborative interaction
between classrooms in different geographical locations as educators did not yet
have wide access to partner classes in other locations, and students found it difficult
to access the internet outside of the classroom. In this context, online interaction was
limited to learners in one class using synchronous text-based communication, such
as chats, MOOs, and LANs, to interact together in the target language. The text-
based nature of the communication was seen at the time as being a manner of
allowing FL learners to reflect on and plan their utterances in the FL before
committing them to the online interaction with their classmates.
Nevertheless, some isolated examples of online intercultural exchange in the
early 1990s can indeed be found in the literature. Early reports include the work of
the Orillas Network (Cummins and Sayers 1995), the AT&T Learning Circles (Riel
1997), as well as more in-depth research studies into tandem exchanges (Brammerts
1996; Eck et al. 1995). Warschauer’s publication, Virtual Connections: Online
Activities for Networking Language Learners (1995), included a collection of
“cross-cultural communication” projects that reported on students creating personal
profiles, carrying out surveys, and examining cultural stereotypes with distant
partners. At this stage a number of websites, including Intercultural E-mail Class-
room Connections (IECC) and E-Tandem, also became available online in order to
link up classrooms across the globe and to provide practitioners with activities and
guidelines for their projects, while practitioners such as Ruth Vilmi in Finland and
Reinhard Donath in Germany helped to make the activity better known by publish-
ing practical reports of their students’ work online (Donath and Volkmer 1997).
Vilmi’s work focused on online collaboration between technical students at univer-
sities across Europe, while Donath provided German secondary school teachers with
a wide range of resources and information about how projects could be integrated
into the curriculum.
The IECC website also contained a very active discussion forum between 1994
and 1995 where practitioners were often asked by the moderator and IECC
co-founder Bruce Roberts to react to questions related to how online intercultural
exchanges could be integrated into the classroom and what type of tasks were
successful in online exchanges. The responses to these questions reveal not only
many of the challenges which pioneering telecollaborators were facing during the
210 R. O’Dowd
infancy of the internet; they also demonstrate that many of the key pedagogical
principles of the time are still highly relevant for twenty-first-century teachers using
OIE. Practitioners wrote about the need for adequate time for students to reflect on
their email interactions as well as for adequate access to resources to ensure fluid
communication between classes. They also mention the importance of pedagogical
leadership on behalf of the teachers in organizing and exploiting the exchange.
Roberts summed up what he considered to be the key to success in email classroom
connections as being the pedagogical integration of the activity into the class and the
learning process: “when the email classroom connection processes are truly inte-
grated into the ongoing structure of homework and student classroom interaction,
then the results can be educationally transforming” (1994, n.p.).
Major Contributions
In the past decade, OIE has become one of the main pillars of network-based
language teaching (NBLT), and the contribution of online contact and exchange to
the development of intercultural awareness and intercultural communicative com-
petence (ICC) has been one of the main areas of research in this area (Müller-
Hartmann 2000; O’Dowd 2003; Ware 2005). Initially, however, the intercultural
learning outcomes of such contact tended to be at times exaggerated or over-
simplified. For example, it was common to read that intercultural learning could
be “easily achieved through [email] tandem learning” (Brammerts 1996, p. 122).
Soon, however, a more critical and in-depth body of research was producing
findings which demonstrated the difference between intercultural contact and
intercultural learning. Kern suggested that in the context of online learning, “expo-
sure and awareness of difference seem to reinforce, rather than bridge, feelings of
difference” (Kern 2000, p. 256). Similarly, Meagher and Castaños (1996) found in
their exchange between classes in the USA and Mexico that bringing the students to
compare their different attitudes and values leads to a form of culture shock and a
more negative attitude toward the target culture. Furthermore, Fischer (1998), in his
work on German-American electronic exchanges, warned that very often students,
instead of reflecting and learning from the messages of their distant partners, simply
reject the foreign way of thinking, dismissing it as strange or “typical” of that
particular culture.
Over the past two decades, the main models of OIE that have been used in foreign
language education have been e-tandem and blended intercultural models. Each of
these will now be looked at briefly.
The first of these, e-tandem (O’Rourke 2007), emerged from the tradition of
tandem language learning that has been widely practiced in many European univer-
sities. Tandem learning is essentially a language learning activity which involves
language exchange and collaboration between two partners who are native speakers
of their partners’ target language. Its online equivalent, e-tandem, thus involves two
native speakers of different languages communicating together and providing feed-
back to each other through online communication tools with the aim of learning the
Online Intercultural Exchange and Language Education 211
other’s language. E-tandem exchanges are based on the principles of autonomy and
reciprocity, and the responsibility for a successful exchange generally rests with the
learners, who are expected to provide feedback on their partners’ messages and on
their FL performance. In this sense, tandem partners take on the role of peer-tutors
who correct their partners’ errors and propose alternative formulations in the target
language. In the e-tandem model, the teacher assumes a facilitating role, and learners
are encouraged to take responsibility for finding their own themes for discussion,
correcting their partners’ errors, and keeping a learner diary or portfolio to reflect on
their own learning progress. E-tandem began to gain popularity throughout
European universities in the early 1990s, and a centralized internet site with
resources, bibliography, and guidelines was financed by European project funding
during this time.
In contrast to e-tandem models, the blended intercultural approach to OIE placed
a greater emphasis on intercultural aspects of language learning and required stu-
dents to work together with their international partners to make comparisons of their
cultures. Belz (2002), for example, reports on a USA-German exchange which
involved developing a website which contained bilingual essays and a bilingual
discussion of a cultural theme such as racism or family. Another popular intercultural
task for classroom-integrated exchanges has been the analysis of parallel texts. Belz
defines parallel texts as ‘linguistically different renditions of a particular story or
topic in which culturally-conditioned varying representations of that story or topic
are presented’ (2005, n.p.). Popular examples of parallel texts which have been used
in telecollaborative exchanges include the American film Three Men and a Baby and
the French original Trois hommes et un couffin. In German, telecollaborative projects
have engaged learners in the comparison of the German fairy tale Aschenputtel by
the Brothers Grimm and the animated Disney movie Cinderella.
A further task which reflected this approach was the application of ethnographic
interviewing in synchronous online sessions. O’Dowd (2005) trained a group of
German EFL students in the basic techniques of ethnographic interviewing, and the
students then carried out interviews with American informants in the USA using
group-to-group videoconferencing sessions and one-to-one email exchanges before
writing up reflective essays on their findings. The combination of synchronous and
asynchronous tools allowed the students to develop different aspects of their
intercultural competence. Videoconferencing was seen to develop students’ ability
to interact with members of the target culture under the constraints of real-time
communication and also to elicit, through a face-to-face dialogue, the concepts and
values which underlie their partners’ behavior and their opinions. However, email
was employed to both send and receive much more detailed information on the two
cultures’ products and practices as seen from the partners’ perspectives. In other
words, email was suited to foster cultural knowledge, while videoconferencing
supported the development of students’ intercultural negotiating skills.
Another OIE activity which has become very popular in recent years is the
Cultura exchange (Furstenberg et al. 2001; O’Dowd 2005). This intercultural
exchange uses the possibility of juxtaposing materials from the two different cultures
together on web pages in order to offer a comparative approach to investigating
212 R. O’Dowd
cultural difference. When using Cultura, language learners from two cultures (e.g.,
Spanish learners of English and American learners of Spanish) complete online
questionnaires related to their cultural values and associations. These questionnaires
can be based on word associations (e.g., What three words do you associate with the
word Spain?), sentence completions (e.g., A good citizen is someone who. . .), or
reactions to situations (e.g., Your friend is 22 and is still living with his parents. What
do you say to him/her?). Each group fills out the questionnaire in their native
language. Following this, the results from both sets of students are then compiled
and presented online. Under the guidance of their teachers in contact classes,
students then analyze the juxtaposed lists in order to find differences and similarities
between the two groups’ responses. Following this analysis, students from both
countries meet in online message boards to discuss their findings and to explore the
cultural values and beliefs which may lie behind the differences in the lists. In
addition to the questionnaires, learners are also supplied with online resources
such as opinion polls and press articles from the two cultures that can support
them in their investigation and understanding of their partner class’ responses. The
developers of Cultura (Furstenberg et al. 2001) report that this contrastive approach
helped learners to become more aware of the complex relationship between culture
and language and also enabled them to develop a method for understanding a foreign
culture. It is also important to point out that in this model, while the data for cultural
analysis and learning are produced online, the role of face-to-face teaching is
considered vital in helping the learners to identify cultural similarities and differ-
ences and also in bringing about reflection on the outcomes of students’ investiga-
tions on the Cultura platform.
Work in Progress
In recent years, alternative models and applications of OIE have begun to appear.
These involve forms of online intercultural interaction which are completely free of
institutionalized learning setups and others which are led, not by teachers, but
outsourced to educational organizations specialized in setting up and facilitating
online interaction initiatives. Each of these trends will now be briefly described.
The first of these “new-style” telecollaborative exchanges function completely
outside the “traditional” class-to-class arrangement and engage learners in specialized
online interest communities or environments that focus on specific hobbies or inter-
ests. Thorne et al. (2009), for example, describe the potential for intercultural contact
and learning in online fan communities, where learners can establish relationships with
like-minded fans of music groups or authors and can use Web 2.0 technologies
to remix and create new artistic creations based on existing books, films, and music
(see also Thorne et al. 2015). Learners also have increasing opportunities to use their
FL skills and hone their intercultural communicative competence through participating
in online multicultural communities such as multiplayer online games and public
discussion forums (Hanna and de Nooy 2009). Researchers working in this area are
Online Intercultural Exchange and Language Education 213
In order to prepare educators for the challenges that await them in their tele-
collaborative exchanges, O’Dowd and Ritter (2006) provided a structured inventory
of possible reasons for the breakdown of telecollaborative exchanges. The inventory
organized the reasons for failed communication into four different levels: socio-
institutional, classroom, individual, and interaction levels. The individual level refers
to the learners’ psychobiographical and educational background, the classroom level
refers to how the exchange was organized and carried out in both classes, the socio-
institutional level deals with the different levels of access to technology and institu-
tional attitudes to online learning, while the interaction level looks at the actual
quality and nature of the communication which takes places between the partner
classes.
The question remains as to whether the repeated cases of communication break-
down and intercultural misunderstanding should be seen as a negative aspect of
telecollaborative exchange or rather as a potential “jump-off” point for exploring
why members of different cultures interpret behavior differently and how different
cultural perspectives can be reconciled. Intercultural communication in face-to-face
contexts and out of the classroom is also often characterized by misunderstandings
and the need to deal with different behaviors and beliefs. It is therefore fair to argue
that these cases of “failed communication” should be exploited as “rich points” for
learning in the classroom. Belz goes so far as to argue that “the clash of cultural
faultlines in telecollaborative learning communities . . .should not be smoothed over
or avoided based on the sometimes negative results of a study such as this one;
indeed, they should be encouraged” (2002, p. 76).
Future Directions
The chapter sets out to review how OIE has been employed to develop learners’
foreign language skills and intercultural awareness. After two decades of intense
practice and research, the following conclusions can be drawn about this activity:
First, OIE has at this stage demonstrated its educational potential and can make an
important contribution to language learning and intercultural competence and clearly
has the potential to form an important part of the foreign language curriculum.
Second, it is an extremely complex activity that is both time-consuming and
challenging for teachers and for students to engage in successfully. Third, in order
for it to be sustainable, OIE needs to go beyond being an isolated activity practiced
by practitioner-researchers in the area of computer-assisted language learning and
should instead form part of the common battery of educational tools (e.g., MOOCs,
the flipped classroom) used by educators across academic disciplines. Fourth, the
long-term success of OIE also depends on support by school/university management
and policy makers in the form of training for staff, academic recognition of students’
work, and acknowledgment of its value and importance in educational policy
documentation. Finally, in order to achieve the wider mainstreaming of the activity,
216 R. O’Dowd
practitioners and researchers also have a role to play by providing further transparent
research into the educational value of telecollaboration and by developing models of
telecollaborative exchange which are adaptable to other university disciplines and
which explicitly attend to the transversal competences that educators are required to
develop in their teaching.
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218 R. O’Dowd
Francesca Helm
Abstract
This chapter explores critical approaches to online intercultural language education,
also referred to as telecollaboration or online intercultural exchange. The origins of
online intercultural language education lie in a critical view of the traditional
language classroom. As the practice has evolved, several researchers have adopted
a critical approach, questioning the many assumptions that have become ingrained
in foreign and online intercultural language education. Major contributors have
challenged notions such as intercultural learning being a natural outcome of online
contact or the concept of a static, monolithic, national standard language as the
target of language learners, whose ideal interlocutors are “native” speakers of this
language and experts of its equally static culture. They have also unpacked
conceptualizations of sociocultural competence and communicative language
teaching as well as the notion that technology is merely a tool through which
learners communicate. Recent work has looked, for example, at lingua franca
exchanges, which challenge the power dynamics of traditional exchanges and
offer a wider range of identities than the nonstandard, deficient communicator
that the native speaker target implies. The ecologies of online intercultural language
education and the mediating and shaping role of technology and its relations with
society have also garnered interest recently. Problems and difficulties in the adop-
tion of critical approaches include the reluctance of teachers to take a political
stance and the need to constantly question one’s practice. The chapter concludes
with reflections on preferred futures for online intercultural language education.
Keywords
Online intercultural exchange • Telecollaboration • Intercultural communication •
Critical pedagogy • Intercultural negotiation
F. Helm (*)
University of Padova, Padova, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Questioning the Theoretical Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
A Political Slant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Assumption 1: Intercultural Contact Leads to Understanding and Fosters Equality . . . . . . . 222
Assumption 2: The Native Speaker Is the Ideal Interlocutor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Assumption 3: We Should Aim to Foster Communicative and Sociocultural
Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Assumption 4: Technology Is a Neutral Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Challenging the Native Speaker Paradigm Through “Lingua Franca” Exchanges . . . . . . . . 226
Ecologies of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Preferred Futures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Introduction
In the 2010 edition of Issues in Language Program Direction, entitled Critical and
Intercultural Theory and Language Pedagogy, the editors of the volume present
critical theory as “a means for language program directors, teachers, and students to
unpack, examine, and transform assumptions that have become so ingrained in
curricular, language-program-direction and teaching practices that they are consid-
ered second nature” (Phipps and Levine 2010, p. 6). This is a good starting point for
this chapter since like other areas of applied linguistics, online intercultural language
education, also known as telecollaboration, is imbued with assumptions about
languages and society, culture and identity, and of course technology. These “com-
mon sense” beliefs and ideologies contribute to the maintenance of inequalities and
power differentials and prevent us from challenging the dominant narratives in our
societies that are reflected in and often supported by our practice.
The chapter will start by exploring work that has questioned the assumptions
behind the theoretical underpinnings and the early practices of telecollaboration and
go on to explore the major contributions offering a critical perspective. The term
critical is also used to refer to practices in online intercultural language education
which draw on critical pedagogy and enshrine a belief in the transformative potential
of learning and teaching (Norton and Toohey 2004) and/or address issues of social,
cultural, and political relevance to learners. Adopting a critical approach is certainly
no easy task as the section on problems and difficulties highlights, for it entails
“self-reflexivity” (Pennycook 2001) and the constant questioning and also critiquing
of our own practices. The chapter closes with a vision of “preferred futures” for
critical approaches to the practice and research of online intercultural language
education.
Critical Approaches to Online Intercultural Language Education 221
Early Developments
A Political Slant
Major Contributions
In this section of the chapter, the main contributions to critical approaches to online
intercultural language education will be outlined around the major assumptions they
have challenged.
The assumption that intercultural learning would automatically result from the
contact and interaction with distant “others” has been challenged from the outset
Critical Approaches to Online Intercultural Language Education 223
One of the major tenets of online intercultural language education has been that the
ideal interlocutor is the “native speaker” of the “target language,” which is concep-
tualized as a “national standard language.” While these notions have been chal-
lenged in various fields of applied linguistics (Davies 2003; Rampton 1990), the
monolingual mind-set, “native speaker” ideologies, and “standards” of national
languages are still dominant in the discourses of foreign language teaching (FLT)
and, indeed, online intercultural language education.
Train (2006) argues that the ideology of national standard language (NSL) and the
related native speaker (NS) ideology have marginalized and devalued the identity
224 F. Helm
Schneider and von der Emde (2006) who highlight the “conceptual blind spots”
within the communicative language teaching (CLT) paradigm and their implications
for intercultural interactions. Some of the sociocultural strategies embodied in this
model, particularly those for avoiding conflict, and the notion of effective or
successful communication are seen as representing a form of cultural imperialism.
Schneider and von der Emde take issue in particular with Savignon and Sysoyev’s
“sociocultural strategy for maintaining a dialogue of cultures” (2002), which is based
on the assumption that “mutual understanding” will take place in a “spirit of peace”
if one of the interlocutors suppresses their points of view. This “strategy,” they point
out, implicitly requires learners to “adopt questionable NS standards and forego their
privileges as NNSs” (Schneider and von der Emde 2006, p. 181). The findings of
other researchers support this stance. Ware (2005) for example found that in order to
avert miscommunication, that is, misunderstandings or tensions in communication
with their peers, students used avoidance strategies which could lead to “missed”
communication, that is, missed opportunities for meaningful intercultural learning
(Ware 2005, p. 66).
Drawing on the work of Bakhtin on dialogue and the conceptualization of
language as a site of struggle, Schneider and von der Emde (2006) argue that it is
more important to help students feel comfortable with conflict than to encourage
them to deny their own cultural approaches to disagreement or rush to find common
ground, for almost inevitably it is the dominant culture which establishes what
ground is common. They propose a dialogic approach as this type of approach posits
conflict not only as an inherent feature of intercultural exchange but also as a value.
Dialogue allows for the existence of differences without trying to overcome or
“tame” them. After pointing out some of the conceptual differences between dialogic
and communicative approaches to online interactions, they propose a course and
curriculum based on “teaching the conflicts,” citing their example of an exchange
between students in the United States and in Germany in which the topic chosen was
a controversial and sensitive one for both partners, namely, high school shootings.
They report how insistence in the face of silence or lack of suitable responses rather
than polite withdrawal (which sociocultural competence would have demanded) led
to a gain in knowledge and an improved understanding of their peers.
Schneider and von der Emde’s (2006) conceptualization of online intercultural
education as a “site for struggle” has much in common with Ortega and Zyzik’s
(2008) emphasis on the need to conceptualize computer-mediated interactions as “com-
plex and contested sites for intercultural negotiation and reconstruction” rather than as
“inherently productive moments for bringing about intercultural understanding” (p. 338).
The limited attention paid in much of the literature to the design and ideologies
behind the Internet communication technologies used in online intercultural lan-
guage education suggests that there is an assumption that the media used to bring
students together are considered neutral. Taking for granted the existence of “the
226 F. Helm
Work in Progress
with “native” speakers. Lingua franca exchanges offer alternative identities for the
students who are no longer “deficient communicators” of the target language but
become, like their interactants, users of the language who are seeking to create
shared meanings.
From a critical perspective, while lingua franca exchanges challenge the native
speaker paradigm, and can contribute to the redressing of power inequities in
interaction, there is a risk that ELF telecollaboration projects come to be a
hegemonizing force (Train 2006), in much the same way as English as a medium
of instruction has done in higher education (Phillipson 2015). This would be
detrimental to the promotion of plurilingualism and foreign language study across
the globe. There is hence a need for these practices to be accompanied by critical
research which takes into consideration the implications of lingua franca exchanges
on the broader social, political, and linguistic context.
Ecologies of Learning
The mediating role of technology in online intercultural exchange has returned to the
attention of researchers, particularly as telecollaboration sites become more complex
and involve multiple modes of communication. Kern, for example, reminds us of the
strong interrelations between the technological and the social and calls for a “rela-
tional pedagogy” that looks at the many kinds of relationships that the design of
meaning entails and aims “to foster a reflective consciousness of how acts of reading,
writing, and storytelling mediate and transform meanings, not merely transfer them
from one individual or group to another” (2015, p. 234). Malinowski and Kramsch
(2014, p. 160) point to the “disjunctures in the flow of space and time” which
“profoundly affect the possibilities for heteroglossic language learning” in synchro-
nous, multimodal intercultural exchanges. Messina Dahlberg and Bagga-Gupta
consider the virtual learning site as a sociocultural cognitive system where partici-
pants, “in concert with the tools they have at hand” (2015, p. 262), perform specific
actions. They suggest that exploring how digital technologies frame participants’
interaction will provide clues on the ways in which students and teachers negotiate
their positions at the boundaries of the physical and virtual communities. Thorne
et al. (2015) explore the many different identity positions that digital contexts – both
within telecollaboration projects and in preexisting digital environments – offer.
They highlight the need for students to become “semiotically agile” to be able to
perform identities and share and co-construct meanings with others.
Although 20 years have passed since Cummins and Sayers’ optimistic prediction
that networked learning would be a part of all schools’ activities, online intercultural
exchange is still a practice which is very much on the periphery of FL pedagogy, the
domain of dedicated practitioners rather than a recognized and valued educational
228 F. Helm
Preferred Futures
Pennycook (2001) uses the term “preferred futures” as a restrained and plural view
of where we might want to head because he finds that emphasizing the “transfor-
mative” mission of critical work’s potential for change through awareness and
Critical Approaches to Online Intercultural Language Education 229
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Sociocultural Approaches to Technology
Use in Language Education
Abstract
This chapter examines the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC)
technologies in second and foreign language education from the perspective of
sociocultural theory. Drawing on the concept of mediation pervasive in
Vygotskian psychology, research that has examined the way that CMC affords
and constrains communicative activity and learning opportunities is presented.
While early developments in the 1990s focused on some basic questions regarding
new technologies’ potential benefits for language learning, the major contribution
of research conducted since the end of the twentieth century has been a focus on
how CMC connects people across time and space. Current research, it is argued,
reflects the normalization of CMC, which has become ubiquitous in most domains
of everyday life. Thus, we no longer ask whether or not CMC should be used in
language education but rather how and when it is the best tool for the job. This
brings about a variety of challenges, but also important possibilities, regarding
curricular goals and decisions about when and how to use different CMC tech-
nologies in order to meet learning objectives. Future directions for research that
center on the nature and complexity of mediation in CMC and the relationship
between CMC-mediated and non-CMC-mediated learning opportunities are
discussed.
Keywords
Computer-mediated communication • Desktop videoconferencing • English
language education • French • German • Google Chat • Kern’s analysis • Multi-
modal discourse analysis • Relational pedagogy • Sociocultural theory • Synchro-
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Introduction
1
Vygotskian sociocultural psychology (e.g., Vygotsky 1978, 1986), is often—if not normally—
called “sociocultural theory” in applied linguistics (see Lantolf and Thorne 2006), but I will avoid
the singular “theory” in preference for “psychology” in order to avoid ambiguity, as well as to better
reflect the nature of the theory.
Sociocultural Approaches to Technology Use in Language Education 235
Early Developments
higher quality discourse than is typically found in classroom interaction (e.g., Chun
1994).
Some forms of CMC afford interactions that are time and place independent,
including long distance communication. Warschauer (1997) argued that time and
place independence benefits collaborative learning in two ways: “it allows more
in-depth analysis and critical reflection” of interlocutors’ messages (e.g., email), and
“it allows students to initiate communication with each other or with the teacher
outside the classroom” (p. 474). Several studies carried out in the early 1990s showed
that homework assignments could be collaborative rather than independent and that
this improved the quality of students’ work as well as subsequent in-class discussions
(e.g., Crotty and Brisbois 1995; Lloret 1995; Kroonenberg 1994; Janda 1995).
Similarly, long-distance communication, or what we would now call tele-
collaboration, can help learners improve their L2 abilities because they are able to
interact with more capable speakers of the language (e.g., native speakers) who offer
assistance in various ways (e.g., Kern 1996; St. John and Cash 1995).
A final feature of CMC discussed by Warschauer (1997) is the option of embed-
ding hyperlinks in one’s communication. As he pointed out, links to one’s own work
(e.g., web portfolios) can be sent to communicative partners for collaborative work
(e.g., Barson and Debski 1996), but it is also possible to link authentic information
from across the World Wide Web and share it with one’s interlocutors. Of course,
sharing linked material with others is commonplace today (it is hard to image not
sharing on Facebook or giving URLs in emails), but in mid-1990s, this was a
somewhat revolutionary feature of communication.
Major Contributions
Early work on the use of CMC in language education from the sociocultural
perspective pointed to the potential for communication technologies to foster collab-
orative learning in a variety of ways (Warshauer 1997). Subsequent work took up
these ideas in a number of interesting directions. A particularly fruitful area of focus
was on connecting L2 learners to native-speaker peers. The studies summarized
below represent major contributions to the theoretical as well as the empirical
underpinnings of the sociocultural perspective. Interestingly, the major contributions
have all focused thematically on telecollaboration, which draws on CMC’s potential
to encourage time-and-place-independent communication, especially in long-
distance partnerships.
Kinginger (1998) reported on a teleconferencing exchange between US learners
of French and French students in Brittany. Although not technically CMC,
Kinginger’s study represents an important bridge between the early work outlined
by Warschauer (1997) and subsequent work that incorporated Vygotskian psychol-
ogy in an explicit way (and, as we will see later, teleconferencing has essentially
been replaced by CMC technologies such as Skype and FaceTime). The study
focused on the benefits and potential challenges of using teleconferencing in order
to give learners access to authentic language. This is an important aspect of
Sociocultural Approaches to Technology Use in Language Education 237
learners’ attention to this and sometimes strongly requested that the more appropriate
du/tu forms be used. For example, the exchange between Gabi (German) and
Joe (American), excerpted below, included an inappropriate Sie form, iher ‘your’
(line 2), resulting in an explicit, and emphatic, request from Gabi to use the du of
solidarity.
1. Gabi: Did you get my e-mail that I’ve sent you in our partner folders?
2. Joe: Iher Idee ueber ‘First Love and how it affect prejudice.’. . .
‘Your [Sie form] idea about . . .’.
3. Gabi: Joe BITTE nenne mich DU ‘Joe PLEASE call me DU.’
(Belz and Kinginger 2002, p. 205)
Joe subsequently apologized for using Sie, excusing the infelicity as a “mental
lapse.” He then wrote “DEINE Idee ueber ‘First Love and how it affects prejudice. . .’
hat mir gefallen.” (‘I liked YOUR [T] idea about. . .’) (p. 205) in a subsequent turn,
which included the expected du form deine ‘your’. Belz and Kinginger argued that
“Joe experiences first-hand the social consequences of inappropriate [Sie] use in a
way that is highly meaningful to him. . .. and may come to realize that inappropriate
[Sie] use can present a threat to his positive face” (pp. 205–206). This observation
constitutes an important dimension of the sociocultural perspective that Warschauer
(1997) highlighted: CMC has the potential not just to provide a space for practicing or
reinforcing L2 forms (e.g., grammar) and discourse functions, but to connect people
in personally meaningful social relationships that are shaped by, and shape, how
language is used.
Thorne (2003) built on the sociocultural perspective by adding an important
theoretical specification regarding the status of CMC technologies as cultural arti-
facts that mediate human behavior. Drawing on a larger telecollaboration study,
Thorne examined how Internet communication technologies – namely, email, Instant
Messenger, and synchronous chat – are not neutral artifacts but instead derive their
significance from the activities that they mediate (i.e., communicative practices) in
the everyday lives of social members, or what Thorne refers to as cultures-of-use. Put
another way, CMC technologies are associated with particular practices and goals in
the everyday world that may not always aligns with how teachers and researchers
want to use them in educational contexts. In addition, different cultures-of-use can
develop in different parts of the world, such that participants in intercultural com-
municative contexts (e.g., telecollaboration) may end up having divergent expecta-
tions for the use and purpose of CMC tools. Thorne presented three case studies of
Americans using CMC technologies with partners in France. In the interest of space, I
will describe only the first since it effectively illustrates the concept of cultures-of-
use.
Thorne (2003) documented how American and French students oriented to email
exchanges in dramatically different ways. Whereas the Americans appeared to expect
the email exchanges to focus on social relationships and building mutual understand-
ing of, and interest in, the lives of Americans and French people, the French students
“used factual, impersonal, dispassionate genres of writing, including the use of
examples (e.g., data) and argument building logical connectors (“for example,”
Sociocultural Approaches to Technology Use in Language Education 239
“however,” “moreover”)” (p. 45). Thorne argued that the difference was related to
diverging cultures-of-use: the Americans reported using Internet communication
technologies outside of class for three or more hours every day, while the French
students had little access to the Internet outside of an academic setting. Thus, while
the American students saw the exchange as an opportunity to move beyond tradi-
tional classroom-style or academic discourse because of their histories as CMC users
in the everyday world, the French students maintained an academic stance since this
was the principal – if not only – context in which they had experience using CMC
technologies. The take-away point, and it is an important one, is that the same CMC
tool mediates activity in different ways depending on people’s unique histories as
CMC users. Prior history, or cultures-of-use, define expectations for tool use, and
when these expectations are misaligned, miscommunication can result.
Belz and Vyatkina (2008) expanded the sociocultural perspective in a unique and
fruitful way by integrating in-class teacher-led analysis of a learner corpus of
American-German chat discourse as a pedagogical intervention, with focus on
modal particles. As we saw earlier in Kinginger’s (1998) study, learners may not
be able to benefit from such communicative arrangement without teacher interven-
tion. In the Belz and Vyatkina study, American learners of German chatted several
times with German learners of English. In between chat meetings, the teacher led the
learners in lessons on the use of modal particles in German and helped the students to
examine the discourse that they and their German partners had produced in previous
conversations. This sets the study apart from other telecollaboration research (e.g.,
Belz and Kinginger 2002), which typically leaves learners to their own devices for
figuring out pragmatics.
The analysis presented by Belz and Vyatkina (2008) showed that the American
learners rarely used modal particles in a preintervention stage of the study. After the
interventions began, the learners made progress in understanding modal particles, but
they did not immediately incorporate them into their discourse. In fact, it was not until
the final stage of the study that a sharp increase in the frequency of modal particles
was observed in the students’ discourse: they in fact surpassed their native-speaker
partners’ use of modal particles. The Belz and Vyatkina study is important for the
SCT perspective because it ties language learning outcomes not only to technology as
a context for development but to a larger pedagogical program that integrating
intercultural communication via CMC with in-class, teacher-led instruction. Thus,
while the technology mediated the intercultural exchanges, other aspects of the
learners’ development (e.g., awareness of modal particle use) were mediated by
related instructional activities. In this sense, while CMC created opportunities for
development, instructional intervention on the part of the teacher was necessary to
make the CMC-generated discourse accessible to, and beneficial for, language
learners (i.e., to work within their ZPDs, cf. Kinginger 1998).
Kern (2014) offered an important update on the relationship between additional
language learning, culture, and technologies that mediate intercultural communica-
tion, with specific focus on desktop videoconferencing. As Kinginger (1998) showed
a decade and a half before, videoconferencing technologies mediate communication
in particular ways that do not always align with our offline expectations. Kern’s
240 R.A. van Compernolle
analysis showed how such seemingly insignificant aspects of technologies afford and
constrain communicative behaviors while also adding some ambiguity to
intercultural exchanges. For example, the fixed camera on an iMac cannot be
repositioned, and so there is a relatively limited space that one must remain in in
order to be seen by one’s interlocutor. In addition, as Kern pointed out, body
movement and gestures are exaggerated by webcams and mutual eye gaze is impos-
sible to achieve since the camera and screen are in different locations. Kern also noted
that because these technologies are familiar and every day to students (which was not
the case a decade or more ago, cf., Thorne 2003), “foreignness” and “otherness” are
somewhat limited. This is both good and bad: good, because students are familiar
with how to use the technologies but it presents challenges for foreign culture
learning because the communicative space may artificially reduce cultural differ-
ences that could lead to interesting and fruitful intercultural learning. Consequently,
Kern called for a “relational pedagogy” (p. 352) in which communication mediums –
whether technology-mediated or not – mediate interaction. The approach focuses on
raising students’ awareness of the ways in which mediums “contribute to the design
of communication and embody values and fundamental ideas about what communi-
cation is” (p. 353). Kern concluded by writing:
By making it possible to textualize and recontextualize language use, technology holds the
potential to defamiliarize the familiar, to itself induce a certain foreignness that can cause
language learners to de-automatize their perceptions, leading them to new insights and
understandings. (p. 354)
The idea here is the CMC-mediated learning opportunities can facilitate awareness-
raising and thoughtful reflection not only in terms of metalinguistic knowledge but of
discursive, interactional, and cultural dimensions of communication.
Work in Progress
CMC offers many benefits in second language education. However, the use of such
technologies comes with numerous challenges as well. Of course, we should be
reminded that any tool – whether we consider it “hi-tech” or not – simultaneously
affords and constrains our behavior (van Lier 2004). For instance, a fork affords a
particularly efficient set of behaviors for delivering food to our mouths without
getting our hands dirty or sticky at the dinner table, but its design also constrains
our behavior: in order to use a fork appropriately, we have to shape our hand and
fingers in particular ways and not others (cf. the kinds of operations needed to use
chopsticks, a tool that accomplishes the same goal). So it is with CMC.
A particular challenge for the sociocultural perspective is understanding the ways
in which different CMC technologies afford and constrain behaviors (i.e., mediate,
cf. Kern 2014), and at the same time how different cultures-of-use (Thorne 2003)
have developed around particular technologies. The challenge here is keeping up
with technological advances – including the development of new web-based and
app-based technologies as well as upgrades of existing technologies (e.g., Skype’s
floating window, discussed by Kern 2014, which helped with maintaining visual
communication cues) – and how people use them. In other words, it is not enough to
understand the technology in isolation; instead, ethnographic, as well as interventive
action (Canale in preparation), work is likely required. It should also be noted that
cultures-of-use evolve over time, as Thorne (2003) pointed out, so they must be
thought of as dynamic processes rather than static products. Therefore, as much as we
need to understand ever-evolving tools, so too do we need to understand how tools
mediate human behavior and how different communities develop practices around
such tools.
Another challenge for the sociocultural perspective is the relationship between
CMC and different domains and contexts of L2 development. As Kern (2014)
reminds us, CMC has become commonplace in many domains of daily life; conse-
quently, in language education, the question is not “whether to use technology or not”
(p. 352) but instead when, and for what purposes, different technologies – both old
and new – can and should be used (see van Compernolle and Williams 2009). One
thread of such research has focused on developing learners’ digital literacies in order
to enhance their access to, and participation in, authentic online communities (see,
e.g., Abraham and Williams 2009 for a representative collection of papers). The
focus here is on developing CMC-specific L2 competencies – for instance, under-
standing the discursive, pragmatic, sociolinguistic, and interactional practices that are
expected in particular CMC environments. Another thread common in the sociocul-
tural perspective sees CMC as a more general tool for developing L2 competencies
that are not necessarily domain specific. For example, Belz and Vyatkina (2008) and
Canale (in preparation) focus on L2 development in a more general sense (i.e., not
CMC specific), and CMC just happens to be the relevant tool for mediating learning
activity. Both goals are obviously worthy of attention. We certainly should want our
students to become competent participants in authentic CMC environments since so
much of daily life takes place through Internet-mediated communication, and we
Sociocultural Approaches to Technology Use in Language Education 243
certainly should also want our students to development more general L2 capabilities
that are relevant to CMC and non-CMC environments. The challenge for the
sociocultural perspective lies in making educational and curricular decisions about
the extent to which instructional resources and time can be devoted to each of these
goals since teachers, coordinators, and other administrators all face logistical, cur-
ricular, and time constraints.
A final challenge for the sociocultural perspective regarding curricular decisions
centers on the distinction between incidental and intentional learning in CMC.
Incidental learning refers to learning that occurs without any particular instructional
focus. For example in Belz and Kinginger’s (2002) work on pragmatic development
in telecollaboration, tu/vous and du/Sie development emerged as the focus because it
happened to be a feature that the American learners’ native-speaker interlocutors
oriented to as important, thereby creating learning opportunities in the absence of an a
priori curricular goal. By contrast, in Belz and Vyatkina (2008), German modal
particles were intentionally selected as a pedagogical focus, and offline learning
tasks were created in order to make German native speakers’ patterns of use visible to
the learners. The challenge is in making decisions about what to focus on intention-
ally and what can be left to learners to uncover on their own. In part, decisions need to
be driven by the goals of CMC use – developing CMC-specific competencies or more
general L2 abilities, as discussed above – as well as larger curricular objectives (e.g.,
grammatical, pragmatic, and cultural foci). Kern’s (2014) proposal of a relational
pedagogy, which aims to bring learners’ conscious attention and reflection to both
familiar and unfamiliar features of CMC discourse and interaction, appears to be one
helpful way of guiding such decisions.
Future Directions
Future directions for the sociocultural perspective are numerous, but they center
mainly around two issues: 1) qualities of tool mediation; and 2) transfer and tran-
scendence of CMC-mediated development.
The first line of research has already been brought up earlier. Understanding the
qualities of tool mediation – in this case, how difference CMC technologies mediate
communication in general and how they might mediate particular developmental
processes in particular – is a research thread that is continuously in need of explora-
tion. Technologies change constantly as do the cultures-of-use (Thorne 2003) that
develop around them. Consequently, there is the constant need to understand how
communication technologies mediate communication. In addition, future research
should also explore how different technologies that can be used for similar curricular
goals differentially mediate communication and development. For example, text-
based chat and desktop videoconferencing (e.g., Skype) can both be used for
telecollaboration, but given that they mediate communication in different ways, we
should expect any educational outcomes to be different as well. It would also be
worthwhile to explore how CMC and non-CMC environments mediate development
in different ways. As noted above, the work of van Compernolle and Henery
244 R.A. van Compernolle
1) What communication technologies are currently in use, and how do people use
them in educational and noneducational environments?
2) When existing communication technologies are used for educational purposes,
how, if at all, do learning objectives align with the cultures-of-use that participants
have developed around such technologies in noneducational environments?
3) How do different technologies mediate communicative behaviors, including
linguistic, interactional, and nonverbal features, and how does this afford and
constrain different kinds of learning opportunities?
4) To what extent, if at all, do learners transfer CMC-mediated development into
other domains of (non-CMC) communicative activity, and how, if at all, do these
abilities differ in CMC and non-CMC environments?
Sociocultural Approaches to Technology Use in Language Education 245
These basic research questions can provide a guide to pushing our basic under-
standings of CMC use in language education from the sociocultural perspective,
especially if the concept of mediation is given central importance (Kern 2014).
Cross-References
Richard Kern, Paige Ware, and Mark Warschauer: Network-based Language Teaching.
In Volume: Second and Foreign Language Education
Amy Ohta: Sociocultural Theory and Second/Foreign Language Education.
In Volume: Second and Foreign Language Education
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Belz, J., & Kinginger, C. (2002). The cross-linguistic development of address form use in tele-
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Belz, J. A., & Vyatkina, N. (2008). The pedagogical mediation of a developmental learner corpus for
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246 R.A. van Compernolle
Greg Kessler
Abstract
Collaborative practices have become very common in second language learn-
ing contexts. In particular, collaborative writing has received a significant
amount of attention in recent years. This is largely due to the technological
innovations that offer teachers and learners a wide variety of potential oppor-
tunities to experiment with collaborative practices. As these tools have
evolved, approaches to collaborative pedagogy and practices have evolved
alongside them. Thus, collaborative writing is in a constant state of change.
This entry will provide an overview of the initial and major contributions that
have established collaborative writing practices. These contributions include
collaborative practices that have been documented in research studies as well
as more pedagogically inclined writings. Following these initial contributions,
readers will find an overview of the works in progress. These works include
examples from across a variety of language learning contexts, including formal
and informal settings. Many of the considerations evident in these current
practices are a reflection of the problems and difficulties associated with
collaborative writing practices. These challenges will be discussed. Future
directions, which are largely informed by these challenges as well as future
technological innovations and associated social practices, will be discussed as
the conclusion to this entry.
Keywords
Co-construction • Collaboration • Constructionism • Constructivism • New
Media • Second language writing
G. Kessler (*)
Linguistics, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Early Developments and Initial Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Introduction
Collaborative writing is a fairly new practice in language instruction. Writing has not
only been considered an individual and often isolating activity, but this perspective
has also become entrenched in academic practices. With the introduction of com-
municative language learning approaches, many researchers and instructors began to
recognize the value of creating a variety of social activities for language learning.
Early collaborative writing studies were largely influenced by the theories of con-
structivism, particularly the work of Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner (1978) who argued
Second Language Writing, New Media, and Co-Construction Pedagogies 249
diversify. However, we can observe through studies that offer no preparation the
importance of some form of collaborative writing instructor and learner preparation
(Storch 2013).
There are a number of characteristics surrounding the collaborative writing
process that have changed since the earliest interventions. These are generally the
result of the dramatic influence that computers have had upon the production of text.
We have benefitted from the increased functionality of word processing on com-
puters in many ways, including the ability to save, copy, paste, and distribute text
easily. With the introduction of networks and the Internet specifically, we are able to
share texts easily and widely. In contrast, early collaborative writing projects were
paper based, focused upon academic tasks, and generally limited to pair work, while
the emerging trend is moving toward the use of Internet-based contexts that allow
multiple users to simultaneously contribute to a single text or even to a single
sentence within a text (Kessler et al. 2012). More recent studies have begun to
address more global processes involved throughout the text production process as
well as collaborative group behavior.
Major Contributions
With the growth of interest in collaborative writing in recent years, researchers have
identified a variety of collaborative writing behaviors. Many of these have relied
upon the work of Parks, et al. (2003, p. 40) who categorized collaborative writing
behaviors according to four types:
1. Joint collaboration is “two or more writers working on the same text who assume
equal responsibility for its production. . .although individual contributions to the
finished product may vary.”
2. Parallel collaboration is “two or more writers who, although working on the same
text, do not assume equal responsibility for its production. . .although again,
individual contributions to the final product varied.”
3. Incidental collaboration is “generally brief, spur-of-the moment requests for help
directly related to the writing task at hand.”
4. Covert collaboration is “getting information from documents or other linguistic or
nonlinguistic sources during the process of producing a text.” These types of
collaboration may not be apparent in all collaborative writing contexts.
This study, along with much of the early and ongoing collaborative writing
research, has focused on language-related episodes (LREs) as the unit of measure.
LREs, as defined by Swain and Lapkin (1995), include the language used by
students to deliberate about their linguistic production as they attend to a task.
LREs can take on many forms and are, therefore, difficult to operationalize. They
can be a single turn or a lengthy interaction between one or more learners. They can
be difficult to identify and isolate as well. Further, there is some disagreement about
what to include as an LRE. While Swain and Lapkin’s description of LREs includes
Second Language Writing, New Media, and Co-Construction Pedagogies 251
self-repair, Fortune (2005) does not include such episodes since he argues they are
not reflective of the collaborative process. However, recent research into the influ-
ence of collaborative writing upon individual writing may challenge this omission.
While LREs have been defined by different researchers in different ways making
direct comparisons between contexts and studies difficult, there are some general
observations that we can claim. The opportunity to write collaboratively provides
students with opportunities to communicate in meaningful ways that reflect a wide
range of functions that are unlikely to be present in conventional writing classrooms
where the teacher is the center of attention (Storch 2013). While students are not
likely to attend to all LREs in a given text production circumstance, research
indicates that they are likely to successfully correct most LREs when engaged in
collaborative writing activity (Storch and Aldosari 2013). Some have observed that
the success of attending to LREs may be influenced by any number of circum-
stances, including task type (Lee 2008), writing context (Kessler et al. 2012), and
group composition (Kessler and Bikowski 2010). Further, students are not likely to
attend to all LREs even when they are aware of their presence depending on their
individual or partner’s language levels (Storch 2005) or prioritization of errors
(Kessler 2009). Many of these observations were conducted through collaborative
dialogue, in which students engage in meta-discussion about their writing process
(Swain 2000).
Storch (2013) has observed that collaborative dialogue during the collaborative
writing process allows students to present initial ideas, suggest alternate ideas, and
express concerns. Vocalizing these thoughts propels the collaborative writing pro-
cess and elicits feedback from both peers and instructors. Studies that have focused
upon learner talk while engaged in collaborative writing practice have observed that
learners are likely to demonstrate increased attention to various aspects of writing,
including idea generation, organization, coherence, cohesion, and accuracy. Observ-
ing student behavior while they are involved in these aspects of the process writing
approach can be very informative.
A number of studies have focused more upon the nature of student behavior in
collaborative writing contexts. Recently, the majority of these have taken place in
wikis or tools that function much like wikis, including web-based word processing
tools such as Google Docs. These studies have focused upon various aspects of
student behavior, including their interaction with one another as well as their use of
the tool or writing environment in question. These exist across a spectrum of
learner language levels, learning contexts, academic tasks, and teacher involve-
ment. For example, Kessler (2009) observed students’ attention to form in the
co-construction of a wiki defining the term “culture” completely autonomously as a
single group of 40 students over a period of 15 weeks (with no teacher interven-
tion), while Elola and Oskoz (2010) observed eight students working in pairs over
the course of 15 days doing specific tasks that required intensive teacher interven-
tion. Thus, it is difficult to generalize universal conclusions from the existing body
of studies. But each study illustrates how collaborative writing can be employed in
particular contexts while identifying potential future implementations. Increasingly,
these studies are adopting a more ecological perspective and observing various
252 G. Kessler
behaviors of students rather than solely focusing upon specific linguistic elements
such as LREs.
These situated case studies have attempted to identify trends in collaborative
writing practices that may inform practice in other contexts. For example, Kessler
and Bikowski (2010) observed students as they developed their autonomous abilities
while co-constructing a wiki over a 15-week period. They observed behavioral
patterns across the entire group of 40 students and noticed that students collaborated
extensively as they built the wiki entry only to reach a point where a handful of
students began to dismantle significant portions. Then another small group
reconstructed the entry in a manner that was much more thorough and thoughtful
than the original. This observation of group behavior has been adopted by others in
recent years as well. Many of these studies have found that students use tools in ways
that demonstrate a variety of strategies (Kost 2011), to accomplish different goals
(Kessler and Bikowski 2010), and in ways that are often unanticipated by instructors
or researchers (Kessler 2009). Consequently, it is important to design instruction in a
manner that allows for flexibility and emergence of new tools and practices. One
consideration when selecting or designing a collaborative writing tool or context is
the potential for it to foster a sense of community. Collaborative writing can provide
students with a community within which they can feel compelled to write. When
such a community is successful, students rely on one another for guidance and
support.
Many have suggested that the immediacy of feedback in collaborative writing
practices allows students to reflect upon and revise their texts in ways that would not
be possible in individual, isolated writing (Storch 2005; Kessler 2009). While it is
obvious that learners benefit from immediate feedback since it is likely salient and
actionable, the extent of benefits resulting from this immediacy has yet to be fully
explored. Future studies will likely be conducted to develop a better sense of this
contribution. Others have observed that students are likely to contribute in ways that
are not proportionately equal (Kessler and Bikowski 2010). However, different
students are likely to attend to different aspects of a text and take responsibility for
different stages of the writing process (Kessler et al. 2012). Consequently, it is
important to create collaborative writing practices that allow students to contribute
across a range of roles and responsibilities, allowing them to experiment with
familiar and emerging language abilities. By allowing more flexibility and diversity
in these practices, we can develop a better understanding of how these adjustments
influence the collaborative writing process.
There have been a number of investigations comparing collaborative writing
practices to individual writing. These studies have observed a number of advantages
that collaborative writing offers over individual writing, including the opportunity to
take on unique roles such as tutor, critical reader, and sounding board (Weissberg
2006). As a result, collaborative writing practices allow students to engage in a
two-way interaction with feedback: giving and receiving. Further, the availability of
feedback throughout the entirety of the writing process is very different from
individual writing practices where feedback is likely to be provided only after the
text creation is finished and turned in. Storch (2005) has observed that students
Second Language Writing, New Media, and Co-Construction Pedagogies 253
writing collaboratively produce more accurate texts than when they write individu-
ally. She attributes this to the fact that they can discuss, negotiate, and rely on
partners as a sounding board when necessary. Elola and Oskoz (2010) observed that
learners who engaged in collaborative writing demonstrated improvements in their
subsequent individual writing and that they were more aware of structural concerns.
Collaborative writing in groups, larger than pairs, has received little attention.
However, the few studies that have focused on this kind of practice have revealed a
variety of opportunities and great potential. Kessler and Bikowski (2010) observed
that group writing projects can promote learner autonomy and that the fluidity of
collaborative text creation allows students to participate to the extent that they find
meaningful. They also observed that students focused upon meaning often at the
expense of accuracy. Kessler et al. (2012) observed that different small groups
behaved in very different ways and that these behaviors influenced the writing
process of the group. Groups that shared more responsibility for entire texts produce
higher quality work and had a higher level of satisfaction with the overall experi-
ence. Groups that divided the writing task into sections and worked individually
produced disjointed texts. In another study looking at group work, Dabao (2012)
compared the quality of texts written individually to those written collaboratively in
pairs and groups. She observed that students who wrote collaboratively focused
more of their attention to language-related episodes (LREs) than those who wrote
individually. Further, groups produced and resolved more LREs than pairs and,
consequently, achieved greater accuracy in their final written product.
These observations of the potential for group collaborative writing suggest that
we would benefit from more experimentation with a variety of group designs. There
is also some evidence that groups (pairs, at least) that include members of varying L2
proficiency will likely result in predictable dominant/passive roles. Storch and
Aldosari (2013), for example, observed that such relationships can be detrimental
to the collaborative writing process and that students in such situations are likely to
prefer writing individually. Group dynamics can be very complicated and difficult to
fully understand, but the observant writing instructor can certainly develop a better
sense of how these dynamics manifest in the classroom. Thus, it is important to be
conscious of how we as instructors present and model collaborative writing activities
and how we establish expectations for students. We can begin by attempting to create
collaborative writing groups in a thoughtful and deliberate manner. Perhaps more
extensive learner preparation regarding the expectations, practices, and benefits of
the collaborative activity would help to alleviate some of these misgivings. Perhaps
it would be beneficial to experiment with a variety of approaches to creating groups
in order to identify successful group design. Perhaps assigning roles to students that
are counter to their personalities would allow them to gain perspective on the
usefulness of the task.
Learners may need to gain more experience with collaborative practices in order
to truly value them and perform to the best of their ability within these new
paradigms. This is true for instructors as well since these practices can be very
different from traditional individual writing, particularly if an instructor is not
already practicing the process approach. Further, since these practices are not likely
254 G. Kessler
Work in Progress
(p. 169). This statement reflects a recognition of the dramatic differences collabora-
tive writing practices present compared to the long-established and institutionally
entrenched assumptions we associate with individualized writing. In particular, there
are a number of problems and difficulties when introducing such radically different
instructional practices.
Future Directions
likely already producing texts using similar methods. In order to engage them in the
writing process in a way that is meaningful and authentic, we should embrace new
approaches to teaching writing.
We are likely to see collaborative writing that occurs within groups of various
online communities. One example is the community that contributes to Wikipedia.
Not only do contributors add, edit, and revise the text within each Wikipedia entry,
they also engage in a rich, complex, and detailed meta-discussion around each topic.
In many cases, these negotiations have continued for years with numerous engaged
participants sharing their thoughts about various nuances. It is a fascinating perspec-
tive, and taking a look may provide some readers with a view into what they can
expect from collaborative dialogue. Another example is the world of collaborative
online gaming. Gamers who share a quest or goal and work together to accomplish
tasks along the way are often writing in a very fast paced and determined manner.
Thorne (2012) has observed that this collaborative game play results in writing that
is extensive and complex, especially when we include player-produced game-exter-
nal websites that focus on strategy, lore and backstory, and analyses of items and
resources used in games. He also notes that players incorporate a variety of discourse
genres that involve extending the writing experience beyond the game in the form of
fan fiction and a variety of other cultural mashups. We can certainly anticipate seeing
these practices integrated into more formal instruction.
We are also likely to see more investigation into the alignment of tasks and tools.
As we have witnessed such dramatic and varied potential for collaborative tasks
across tools and contexts, we need to develop a better understanding on the rela-
tionship between task and tool. With the limited research that has been conducted
this far, it is impossible to predict how a new tool will best be implemented most
effectively for a particular task and a particular group of learners. Lund and
Rassmussen (2008) reflect upon the “complex relations that exist between agents,
tasks, and tools” and offer suggestions for conducting research into the alignment of
these variables modeled after the Vygotskian “double stimulation method” (p. 410).
This method also presents another way to observe the relationship between group
behavior and outcomes. It is also likely to guide many future instructors and
researchers toward better task/tool alignment. Considering the wealth of tools
released today and the hyper-collaborative participatory environment we are
witnessing today, this is likely to be an increasingly valuable resource.
As has been previously noted, digital contexts have dramatically increased the
number of genres and registers of written language, the possible processes and
pedagogies for learning to write, and more generally, digital environments increas-
ingly illustrate that texts are often co-constructed by multiple authors. Technological
innovation has contributed so much to the changing nature of collaborative practices,
and it is clear that technology and forms of written collaboration will continue to
coevolve. We can anticipate that we will see many future innovations that continue
to expand collaborative writing practices, both inside and outside of formal educa-
tional settings. We need to be responsive to these changes in order to keep instruc-
tional writing practice relevant.
258 G. Kessler
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Technology and Second Language Teacher
Professional Development
Nike Arnold
Abstract
This chapter describes the research on technology integration in second language
teacher education (SLTE). Using technology with pre- and in-service teachers has
often been motivated by a desire to create a space where they can interact and
ultimately learn with and from classmates, peers, language learners, and experts
in the field. These interactions have been analyzed both from a cognitive and
social perspective, for example, with a focus on critical thinking, collaboration,
reflection, sense of community, and social-emotional support. In addition, the
effectiveness of technology integration in SLTE has also been evaluated with
regard to experiential learning to determine how the experience of using technol-
ogy as learners affects pre- and in-service teachers’ willingness and ability to use
it in their own teaching. In addition to a review of this research (including primary
research frameworks and methods), this chapter describes some of the difficulties
in implementing and researching technology integration in SLTE. It concludes
with some concrete suggestions for future research based on gaps in the existing
literature and trends in teacher education research.
Keywords
Computer mediated communication • Second language teacher education • Com-
munity of inquiry • Preservice teachers • Identity • Collaboration • Experiential
learning • Cognitive presence • Social presence
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
N. Arnold (*)
Portland State University, OR, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
With technology becoming more accessible and more widely used in a variety of
educational contexts and subject areas, it has also significantly shaped teacher
education, including second language teacher education (SLTE). This trend has
been supported by increasing demands for online and hybrid courses and calls for
systematic teacher preparation in the area of technology integration. Additionally,
technology in SLTE has to be seen in light of developments in technology applica-
tions for second/foreign language learning, an area for which the general label
computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is often used. SLTE has been trying
to catch up with CALL while also seeking to both respond to and inform policy
developments.
First and foremost, technology integration in SLTE has been motivated by a
desire to harness its pedagogical potential. But it can also provide pre- and in-service
teachers with opportunities to experience technology-enhanced learning as learners
in order to eventually use it in their own language classrooms. There are multiple
ways to organize the research in the area of technology in SLTE, such as by tool
(e.g., blog, chat), participants (in-service vs. preservice teachers), task, research
focus, or methodology. The overview below distinguishes three popular approaches
to technology integration: intra-class, interclass, and collaborative projects with
other stakeholder groups. This organization was chosen because these setups are
inherently different from each other with regard to the quality of interactions and
their intended learning outcomes.
Early Developments
Major Contributions
Since the early 2000s, research on technology in SLTE has built on earlier, often
more anecdotal work by systematically investigating how pre- and in-service
teachers interact online and how this affects their professional development. As a
place-independent mode of communication, CMC can increase class contact time or
connect people that might otherwise not be able to meet. This feature provides
unique opportunities to address some of the constraints of teacher education, espe-
cially by bringing together people from different stakeholder groups, with different
backgrounds and in different contexts. To achieve this, teacher educators have
worked with both synchronous CMC (SCMC; e.g., chat, virtual worlds, voice/
video teleconferencing) and asynchronous tools (ACMC; e.g., discussion boards,
blogs). Despite the fact that in many contexts bandwidth no longer imposes the same
limitations, ACMC remains very popular in SLTE. This is in part because, without
the need to coordinate participant’ schedules (sometimes across time zones), ACMC
is easier to implement. But its popularity is by no means a mere function of logistics
– instead, ACMC offers powerful affective and cognitive benefits. In particular, the
lag time that ACMC provides allows participants more time to process messages and
compose their own. As a result, they are able to reflect, revise, and consult resources,
often feeling less anxious or hesitant to participate (e.g., Belcher 1999; Arnold and
Paulus 2010). Without visual cues, some also find it easier to critically engage with
their peers’ ideas (Yang 2009).
Research Frameworks
his associates as well as other researchers have posited that technology can support
an established Community of Practice but might not work for a virtual group that
relies mostly or even exclusively on online communication. As will be discussed
further below, this issues has been a major focus in SLTE research.
Other community-related research has been based on the framework of commu-
nity of inquiry (Garrison et al. 2001), which was specifically developed for text-
based online learning contexts and defines three broad dimensions, teaching pres-
ence, social presence, and cognitive presence. Teaching and social presence, which
include specific indicators such as self-disclosure, information exchange, and recip-
rocal exchanges, have been a valuable tool for deductive transcript analysis that can
facilitate cross-study comparisons. In some cases, studies have only coded one type
of presence to narrowly focus on cognitive or social behaviors. There is significant
overlap between the theories of community of practice and community of inquiry. In
fact, the latter has been used to analyze a virtual group as a community of practice
(Arnold et al. 2007). Both theories reflect cognitive and social concepts on which
SLTE has placed significant value, such as collaboration, group cohesion, critical
analysis, social knowledge construction, and social-emotional support. As such, they
can help capture the developmental trajectories of pre- and in-service teachers.
(Arnold and Ducate 2006; Lord and Lomicka 2014). In terms of cognitive activity,
participants frequently engage in higher-order thinking skills such as reflection and
critical thinking. However, several studies have found only limited evidence of
advanced cognitive processes or cognitive collaboration beyond information shar-
ing. If participants do assess a solution or experience, it is often on their own. In other
words, online communication can help pre- and in-service teachers construct deeper
understandings, but this might not always be a result of direct collaboration
(e.g., Arnold and Ducate 2006; Mangenot and Nissen 2006).
The third pedagogical format connects pre- or in-service teachers with other
groups of stakeholders. One example is to utilize CMC’s ability to bridge distance
and time to provide virtual spaces for (future) teachers to engage with experts in the
field. Such virtual guest visits have been examined using the socially oriented
theories of learning discussed above (e.g., communities of practice), and similar
results were found, such as participants displaying significant social presence and
attempting to connect with and support one another. In terms of cognitive presence,
the interactions were marked by exploration with significantly less integration and
very few resolutions. Often based on telecollaboration (e.g., Belz and Müller-
Hartmann 2003), a second and contrasting approach involves placing student-
teachers in direct collaboration with language learners. This presents a fundamen-
tally different context since student teachers need to step into the role of the teacher.
Such experiences can form the basis for valuable reflection and ultimately trigger
professional growth, both in terms of pedagogical competence and teacher identity
(Doering and Beach 2002). Nevertheless, they are also often marked by tensions, as
student teachers have to navigate discourse types, cultures, institutional cultures,
rules, and expectations (Kitade 2014; Schocker-von Ditfurth and Legutke 2002).
As the above discussion has shown, CMC in SLTE can create a space for
community building and social learning, particularly sharing, comparing, and
exploring. Furthermore, studies indicate that CMC can help (future) language
teachers align with the community of professional language educators as well as
support their identity formation (Dooly and Sadler 2013; Farr and Riordan 2015;
Riordan and Murray 2012). However, it is difficult to confidently identify gener-
alizable trends. Theoretically, the use of similar analysis tools would allow for
cross-study comparisons. In reality, however, this has been hampered by differ-
ences in the implementation of CMC. Multiple studies indicate that the quality of
pre- and in-service teachers’ online contributions is profoundly shaped by task
design and instructor involvement (e.g., Arnold and Ducate 2006; McLoughlin
and Mynard 2009; Pawan et al. 2002; Yang 2009). Moreover, the tool itself also
plays a pivotal role by shaping user behavior directly or indirectly. Participants’
attitudes have the potential to affect their engagement, and they seem to prefer
synchronous modes (with the exception of virtual worlds like Second Life, whose
implementation has been challenging). A more direct influence is exerted by
specific tool characteristics, which seem to make blogs a good platform for
reflection and narration, chat (and face-to-face) for community building, and
forums for discussion. Dooly (2011) even argued that the mode of communica-
tions has a bigger impact than group composition.
Technology and Second Language Teacher Professional Development 267
Another CMC configuration, but one that has received very little attention so far,
involves (future) teachers connecting with peers, mentors, and the larger profes-
sional community outside of formal training events or courses. Personal learning
networks have been shown to play a very important role in helping teachers think
about if, when, and how to use CALL (Kessler 2006; O’Dowd 2015). The same
might be true for massively open online courses (MOOCs), which share some
characteristics with formal coursework but still warrant investigation into how
they support learning processes as well as outcomes.
In addition to the quality of online interactions, another way to assess the effective-
ness of technology in SLTE is related to experiential learning methodology. There
are indications that learning through experience can help (future) language teachers
identify the possibilities and limitations of educational technology, get ideas for
specific tasks, and gain confidence in their ability to use it in their own teaching. In
each of the CMC configurations discussed above, the main purpose was to build
participants’ pedagogical knowledge, sometimes in combination with technological
skills (e.g., through experiential learning). So far, few studies have addressed the
issue of how CMC can promote development in the area of content knowledge, such
as target language proficiency. The studies that have been carried out in this area
indicate that CMC can provide valuable language practice and therefore help
improve non-native speaking teachers’ proficiency and lower their language anxiety
(e.g., Lima 2015; Yang 2009). At the same time, the process of engaging in
professional dialogue in a second language adds pressure and is time-consuming,
making it more difficult for some student-teachers to fully participate. Therefore, it is
important to carefully assess the linguistic, cognitive, and affective demands of
a task.
With regard to the practice of technology in SLTE, there are several significant
implementation challenges. Uneven participation levels among participants, percep-
tions of forced or unnatural participation, and the time-consuming nature of engaged
participation have all been documented in the literature. However, independently
addressing one of these issues through task design might come at the expense of
another. For example, one common strategy to balance participation levels has been
explicit task requirements such as expecting a minimum number of posts from each
participant. But this can in turn make the conversation feel forced, thereby affecting
motivation and perhaps learning outcomes. Another challenge to SLTE involves the
possible discrepancy between how the instructor envisioned the use of technology
268 N. Arnold
and how participants actually end up using it. Learners appropriate technologies in
sometimes unexpected and unintended ways, which can pose problems if it leads to a
resistance to engage or when such appropriations limit the intended learning out-
comes. Antoniadou (2011), for example, reported that some preservice teachers
resisted using Second Life and resorted to other communication platforms. This
can be particularly problematic for experiential learning tasks, where learners’
experiences with technology-enhanced learning are supposed to help them develop
the skills to use it later on as teachers. Inevitably, using a tool differently or not at all
limits pre- and in-service teachers’ in developing a conceptual understanding of its
pedagogical value.
Cross-institutional/international projects or exchanges with other stakeholder
groups are associated with a unique set of opportunities and challenges. They are
logistically notoriously difficult and often involve the coordination of different
academic calendars, academic cultures, expectations and norms for specific com-
munication tools, etc. Just like in CALL contexts, there is the possibility of what
O’Dowd and Ritter (2006) have called “failed communication,” including tension
between participants, indifference or negative attitudes toward the partner group, and
even their broader national culture. Unfortunately, these and other potential difficul-
ties can prevent the potentially powerful intercultural online exchange format from
being implemented in the first place (O’Dowd 2011).
It is difficult to get a sense of how many SLTE programs include technology-
mediated projects, but there seems to be considerable room for growth. Integration
can be difficult due to a variety of constraints, but it also places considerable
demands on second language teacher educators. It requires expertise in CALL and
educational technology in general, in addition to the broad pedagogical knowledge
necessary to teach methods courses.
in CMC but also capture its hidden aspects. Simply reading the contributions of
others, for example, can provide models for task completion and support community
building. Thus, this invisible side of CMC constitutes a form of pedagogical lurking.
Another limitation of transcript data is that it only captures the finalized product
that a participant has chosen to post. Smith (2008) has shown for second/foreign
language CMC that this data collection method misses important behaviors like
self-repair that occur before a message is sent. Similarly, we might gain new
understandings of CMC in SLTE by incorporating process-oriented data using
screen-capturing, think-alouds, and/or observation.
The research on technology in SLTE has been characterized by another limited
perspective as well. In the case of hybrid or face-to-face courses, it has usually
focused only on the technology-mediated component of the course. We are therefore
left with an incomplete picture that fails to account for how all the components of the
course come together to form a learning experience with certain learning outcomes.
Another fundamental problem in researching technology in SLTE has been one of
generality. It is widely accepted that teaching second/foreign languages is unique
from other subject areas. Consequently, SLTE is unique too, a perspective that is,
however, not reflected in the questions most of the research has tried to answer.
Future studies could, for example, connect the use of technology in SLTE to specific
CALL-related teacher competencies, focus on culture learning, or investigate non-
native-speaking teachers.
Future Direction
Given that technology in SLTE is a rather young field, many important questions
deserve further attention. One such future direction for research relates to the setting
in which CMC is implemented. To date, we do not understand yet how the process
and outcomes of CMC are shaped by the type of course or program. Questions like
the following will be central to determine how teacher educators can use technology
appropriately and effectively: What does (future) second language teachers’ online
engagement look like in an online course and to what extent is that a function of the
delivery method? (How) does it matter if it is part of a fully online program? How
might participants’ engagement be different in a hybrid or technology-enhanced
course? This will also help us think about the potential of online SLTE programs, a
crucial issue for our profession that deserves more attention and debate.
One way to investigate these questions is by focusing on the online-offline
connection, specifically how the two communication modes work together or against
each other with regard to social activity, knowledge construction, and professional
development. There are, for example, indications that in technology-enhanced
courses, preservice teachers sometimes remain focused on the face-to-face modality
as the main context for learning, support, and bonding (e.g., McLoughlin and
Mynard 2009). Similarly, further research is needed that analyzes how pre- and
in-service teachers engage across different online modalities and how these all come
together or build on each other to shape the learning experience. An example of such
270 N. Arnold
a study is Lord and Lomicka (2008), which investigated a blended class for pre-
service teachers by comparing the sense of community in its ACMC, SCMC, and
face-to-face components.
Two additional areas in which further research will move the field forward relate
to the rationales for technology use in SLTE. Cross-institutional and international
collaboration projects are often used to expose (future) teachers to different perspec-
tives outside their own experience. Research has shown that online exchanges
include many instances of information and idea sharing. What remains unclear is
if this sharing actually contributes new perspectives that go beyond what participants
already knew. And more importantly: How do participants incorporate this informa-
tion into their personal belief and knowledge systems and ultimately their teaching
practices? Along the same lines, more systematic evaluations of the effectiveness of
using technology in SLTE for experiential learning are needed. Interviews and
surveys have shown that from the perspective of the participants, this approach
can be effective. An important question, however, is if and how this manifests itself
in actual teaching practice.
When it comes to the online exchanges themselves, little attention has been paid
to the role of the instructor. This is particularly surprising since his/her role is
explicitly recognized in the teaching presence category of the community of inquiry
model for online interactions, which has been widely used. Techniques like model-
ing and scaffolding should be particularly valuable, especially since research has
shown that pre- and in-service teachers often do not reach advanced levels of
cognitive activity in CMC or engage in evaluation and other forms of knowledge
transformation in a rather solitary manner. A study by Yang (2009), for example,
showed that instructors can help preservice teachers reflect critically. Instructor
modeling and questioning pushed the future teachers to reflect more deeply and
more critically, which subsequently they were able to do more often and more
independently over time. The open question is if instructors can facilitate and
teach other forms of higher-order thinking (e.g., evaluating, connecting ideas,
proposing solutions) in a similar way. In general, any research that tracks develop-
ment over time, of which there is rather little to date, will provide valuable insights
for curriculum design.
A recent trend in teacher education research has been a focus on identity
development. It recognizes that a large part of learning to become a teacher is
developing a professional identity and thus reflects a holistic perspective of teacher
education. It seems that CMC would be an ideal space not only to observe but also to
support the professional identity development of novice teachers. After all, identi-
ties are enacted and negotiated through discursive practices. So far, identity has not
received much attention with regard to technology in SLTE. A notable exception is
Kitade’s study (2014), in which preservice teachers engaged with language learners
via CMC as part of a teaching practicum. It documented how the online interactions
forced the practicum teachers to confront some contradictions that are inherent in the
complex role of a language teacher. In fact, integrating CMC as part of a teaching
practicum is a way to capitalize on some of the powerful benefits documented in
research. Reflection, sense of community, risk-taking, and emotional support can all
Technology and Second Language Teacher Professional Development 271
help preservice teachers make the most of this often challenging experience. To date,
only few studies exist that investigate CMC in a practicum setting.
As the above review has illustrated, research on the use of technology in SLTE
has concentrated almost exclusively on CMC. But other technologies such as
simulations and games also hold promise for preservice teachers who need to gain
an understanding of the complex system of language classrooms. Furthermore, these
newer technology environments might create a safe space where they can step into
the teacher role and experiment with techniques and tasks.
In light of the current, often top-down push for online and hybrid courses in
higher education, it is vital for language educators to understand how technology can
support preservice teachers and what role factors like medium, task, and context
play. More research is needed to achieve that. Additionally, the field should also
respond to recent policy changes in teacher education by evaluating experiential
learning in light of specific teacher standards such as the TESOL Technology
Standards for Teachers (Healey et al. 2011).
As outlined in this review, in its short history, the SLTE field has established a
solid research base particularly with regard to the quality of interactions (future)
language teachers have via CMC in various pedagogical configurations. It seems that
the field is ready to address questions that are more difficult to research but which
will ultimately provide a holistic and in-depth understanding of the potential of
technology in SLTE.
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Digital Literacies in Teacher Preparation
Abstract
Being literate today means being able to navigate between a multiplicity of
voices, perspectives, cultures, and textualities in mostly technology-mediated
contexts. Since learners’ digital literacy skills do not necessarily align with
academic literacy required in formal contexts, teachers and educators need to
become key players in shaping their students’ attitudes and practices through
purposeful selection and use of technology-based tools, tasks, and environments.
Therefore, it is paramount for teachers to, first, be digitally literate themselves
and, second, be professionally prepared to assist learners in developing the
multiple literacies needed to engage with others online in an informed and
meaningful way. Considering the rapid pace of technological change, both
endeavors involve a lifelong learning process. In this chapter, we describe the
challenges for teacher training and professional development programs and
propose tested methods for moving forward.
Keywords
Teacher education • Digital literacies • Online intercultural exchanges •
Telecollaboration
M. Hauck (*)
The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Kurek
Jan Dlugosz University, Czestochowa, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Early Developments: Digital Literacy and Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
The Teaching of Digital Literacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Training (Language) Teachers for Technology Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Telecollaborative Teacher Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Problems and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Introduction
This chapter argues that digital literacy skills development should be an integral part
of pre- and in-service training programs for language teachers and that online
intercultural exchange (OIE), also known as telecollaboration, provides the ideal
setting for running such training.
The global shift from print to screen has had wide repercussions on how we
communicate, create social bonds, and – unsurprisingly – also how we learn. In the
wake of these changes, several technology-centered literacy models have emerged to
address the increasingly diverse ways in which people use mediating technologies to
make meaning and communicate (e.g., New London Group 1996; Cope and
Kalantzis 2000; Pegrum 2009a). The current conceptualization of digital literacy
covers a range of literacies emerging between technology and its users. It has been
defined very broadly as “capabilities which fit an individual for living, learning and
working in a digital society” (Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) 2014).
Being technologically competent in this sense has been accepted as a transversal
skill which enables learners to acquire other key competences such as languages,
economics, or learning to learn and ensures their active participation in society (e.g.,
European Commission: http://is.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pages/EAP/DIGCOMP.html).
While acknowledgement of the need for digital literacy training is clear, the answer
to the question of how teachers in general and language teachers in particular can
best be supported in facilitating the learning of digital literacy remains a desidera-
tum. Technology-enhanced second language (L2) learning and teaching, which is by
default mediated twice – by the technology used and by the L2 – seems to be in a
prime position to raise awareness for the mediating effect of technologies and thus
for digital literacy skills development.
The broader the concept of (digital) literacy or literacies, the more elusive and
difficult it becomes to grasp and teach though (Thorne and Reinhardt 2008). Unlike
conventional teaching resources, contemporary textualities (Pegrum 2009b) repre-
sent a dynamic body of raw semiotic materials that, if it is to be educationally
explored, needs to be first identified and subsequently pedagogically addressed. To
Digital Literacies in Teacher Preparation 277
The massive scale of the changes in the teaching and learning of languages and
cultures caused by technology has shifted the focus onto mediational channels and
has highlighted technologies’ transformative role in relation to meaning making and
expression. As Kern (2014) reminds us, literacies are multiple not only in relation to
their cultural, historical, and linguistic dimensions but also in relation to the demands
made by various media and multimodal communication practices. Since texts,
understood here in the wider sense of any artifact produced with the help of
representational resources, are increasingly multimodal, users need to be able to
draw from various semiotic systems to interpret and generate meaning. For instance,
multimodal online and mobile applications bring together a variety of modes
including spoken and written language as well as visual resources such as images
and icons and/or gestures in an “orchestration of meaning” (Kress and van Leeuwen
2001, p. 25). Multimodal competence then, which is “the ability to express ideas
across a wide range of representational systems or modes” (Kress 2003, p. 21),
becomes a central component of digital literacy. As Bezemer and Kress (2016)
explain, the “sign-makers,” or users, select from the available modes, with each
mode offering specific affordances, i.e., distinct and different potentials for making
meaning. Modes, in turn, have been defined as “semiotic resources which allow the
simultaneous realisation of discourses and types of (inter)action” (Kress and van
Leeuwen 2001, p. 22). In line with this, Kern (2014) draws attention to the “subtle
mediational effects” of networking technologies directing our attention from the
creative aspects of media and modes to the interpretative dimension of meaning
making, communication, and (language) learning. However, the prominence of
multimodality does not diminish the role of reading and writing in a traditional
sense, which remain core competencies enabling access and contribution to today’s
participatory online cultures (Jenkins et al. 2006; Pegrum 2009a). Yet, acknowledg-
ing the relevance of modes broadens the set of semiotic resources that digitally
literate users and also language learners in online or hybrid settings are expected to
master.
Such a wider concept of digital literacies justifies a closer examination of its
components and associated competencies. Pegrum (2009a) lists eight major liter-
acies for successful functioning in an increasingly digital society with print, search/
information, participatory, remix, and intercultural being the most prominent ones
278 M. Hauck and M. Kurek
Major Contributions
The content and outcome of any digital literacy training should therefore be tightly
linked to socially and (inter)culturally authentic contexts in which the learners,
teacher trainees being no exception, will be able to question and explore their beliefs
about technology mediation, communication, and the content under study and
reconsider them in the light of others’ contribution.
An ongoing challenge is how teacher training programs can better prepare prospec-
tive teachers to assist learners in their encounters with the rapidly changing and
“infinite variability of different forms of meaning making in relation to the cultures,
the subcultures, or the layers of an individual’s identity that these forms serve” (New
London Group 1996, p. 88). As Hampel and Hauck (2006) have pointed out, to make
meaning using a variety of modes should be a learning objective in its own right,
which requires teachers to be trained in the design of activities that make efficient use
of multiple modalities.
Today, there is consensus among language educators that only the full integration
of multimodal technology and pedagogy through entire teacher preparation pro-
grams can bring lasting changes (Desjardins and Peters 2007; Hubbard 2008). To
that effect, teacher trainees need to have hands-on experience with the media and,
above all, be personally engaged in virtual communities of practice. As Guikema and
Menke (2014) put it: “Teachers who have experienced collaborative digital commu-
nities are less likely to use technology as an instructional tool and instead view it as
an object of instruction” (p. 267). The authors also point to the need of shaping
trainees’ beliefs and values and, through reflective practice, assisting them in
developing their teaching identities. The latter, as they explain, are best developed
when teacher students can combine their dual experiences as technology users and
instructors. Kurek and Turula (2014), in their study of digitally autonomous teacher
practices, observe that only the multiliterate teacher can recognize the affordances of
tools and applications and can consciously navigate between the pedagogical options
at hand. Lack of adequate preparation leads to pedagogically uninformed technology
use which, in turn, can fossilize teacher centeredness and transmission models of
pedagogy.
From our literature review, we understand efficient teacher training programs
informed by digital literacies to be:
• Infused throughout the entire teaching program rather than serving as a one-off
course
• Integrating technology and pedagogy rather than teaching particular tools
• Using the available technologies as a means to an end
• Based on modelling and experiential learning rather than on instructive teaching
• Immersing participants in a community of practice
• Based on team teaching and collaborative instruction
• Fostering the questioning of attitudes and beliefs through reflective practice.
Digital Literacies in Teacher Preparation 281
Work in Progress
allowing teacher trainees to experience digital literacy as situated practice, OIEs can
assist teacher students in the appropriation and repurposing of technologies to match
educational objectives (for an overview of pedagogical benefits of OIEs, see
O’Dowd 2007; Guth and Helm 2010).
An example of a successful integration of digital literacy and teacher training is a
three-way telecollaborative exchange in which Hauck (2010a) and Fuchs et al.
(2012) pioneered tasks designed to raise the participants’ awareness of modes and
meaning making online. They took the interrelationship between multimodal com-
municative competence, digital literacy, and autonomy as their starting point and set
out to explore the competencies that (future) language teachers require to develop
first their own and then their learners’ autonomy in online and blended settings.
Their data suggest that OIEs can support language teachers – both in the role of
learners and instructors – in finding out about modes, meaning making, and online
communication and to become familiar with the mediating role of Web 2.0 tools and
environments. This approach, they explain, can also contribute to autonomy as
defined by Palfreyman: the informed use of a range of interacting resources in
context (2006). Their results show that task design for this context should follow a
certain sequence: First, tasks should focus on gaining an understanding of the digital
literacy skills required when working with tools such as forums, wikis, and social
bookmarking sites for language learning and teaching purposes. Ideally, this under-
standing should enable teachers to provide a rationale for using bespoke tools. Next,
tasks should raise their awareness of a tool’s specific affordances, i.e., the constraints
and possibilities of the modes available for meaning making and communication
(Hampel and Hauck 2006). This will allow the teachers to move to the next level of
Hampel and Stickler’s (2005) skills pyramid by fostering their multimodal commu-
nicative competence and thus their professional literacy. These steps are a precon-
dition for the subsequent phase in which teachers themselves design tasks with the
goal of fostering, in turn, their learners’ multimodal competence and autonomy.
Finally, they propose that this approach should become a learning goal itself both in
pre- and in-service teacher training and formal language instruction. Then, while
becoming gradually more versed in multimodality and digital literacy, teachers as
learners can take more control over and self-direct their learning in online environ-
ments, thus becoming more autonomous and gradually gaining the competence to
design tasks that also enhance their learners’ autonomy.
As we have seen, the breadth and scope of digital literacy present challenges to
educators. Despite attempts at the pedagogical implementation of digital literacy
skills development, students’ vernacular practices are distributed across hetero-
geneous sectors of the Internet and, as such, can be odds with the predominantly
Digital Literacies in Teacher Preparation 283
print-based practices valued in traditional education. Thus, the gap between the
two continues to widen: on one hand learners see little correspondence between
formal education and their daily digital literacy practices and on the other hand
any digital skills they acquire informally “within a dynamic interplay of personal
and social collective experiences” (Thorne 2013, p. 194) remain educationally
unrecognized and unlikely to transfer to more formal educational contexts (Hub-
bard 2004; Littlejohn et al. 2013). Moreover, student teachers’ personal beliefs
about the educational uses of technology tend to be uninformed and thus inade-
quate, even if they perceive themselves as digitally savvy (Kurek and Turula
2014).
Kern (2014) reminds us that one of the major challenges arising from the rapid
technological and literacy changes is the unpredictability of the literacy requirements
of today’s school children at the time of their university graduation. Hence, it is
almost impossible to know how best to prepare them for tomorrow’s world. While
we would like to believe with Pegrum (2009a) in the great opportunities for youth
and the potential for a “semiotic democracy” where everybody can contribute to the
stories of our own times, we are also acutely aware that young learners’ digital
proficiency tends to remain superficial and does not readily transfer across domains
(Hubbard 2004; Littlejohn et al. 2013). Since students’ digital practices are by and
large characterized by textual variety and fragmentation across semiotic genres,
modes, and cultural contexts, (McKenna and Hughes 2013; Thorne 2013), training
teachers in today’s’ literacies means preparing them for how to handle diversity,
unpredictability, and change and, importantly, how to recognize pedagogical
affordances amidst a growing array of digital spaces and practices “A central
challenge at the moment,” Bezemer and Kress (2016) conclude, “is to understand
both the affordances, the facilities, and the constraints of contemporary media, in all
aspects of social action; and the affordances of the modes which appear there”
(p. 12).
The institutional approach to the teaching of digital literacy also needs to be
addressed. Paradoxically, one of the main issues is the ongoing normalization and
institutionalization of technology-oriented curricula. They tend to be informed by
fixed and regularized “competency frameworks” which provide instructors with
more or less explicit checklists of technical skills to teach and assess (Littlejohn
et al. 2013). Such institutional standards fail to accommodate the highly individual-
ized and often idiosyncratic nature of students’ digital practices. Moreover, since
they are used for assessment, they are mostly disliked by the students. A real
challenge is therefore for universities and teacher training programs to reconsider
the requirements underpinning their curricula so that they can embrace evolving
literacy standards. Neglecting to do so may further broaden the gap between
informal and educationally accepted digital discourses.
Yet another challenge is the need to address the divide between technocratic
and digitally autonomous uses of technologies in educational contexts. When it
comes to the former, they seem to be rooted in a misconception of technology as
284 M. Hauck and M. Kurek
Future Directions
The argument proposed in this chapter is that the developing dimensions of digital
literacy require a fundamental reconsideration of teacher preparation with much
greater focus on digital literacy as a contextualized social practice than on technical
mastery per se. Additionally, it is important for teacher training curricula to come up
with mechanisms that recognize and attribute formal academic value to informal,
interpersonal, multimodal, and multiauthored digital contributions. Questions that
need to be addressed in this context include the issue of assessment: How can or
should learners’ fragmented contributions produced within diverse communities of
practice be assessed? Should they be given the same weight as what continues to be
perceived as “proper” academic discourse? How can we prepare teachers for dealing
with assessment challenges in the context of practices with which they themselves
still need to experiment and which are in a constant state of flux? And, finally, how
can we instill in teachers the readiness to reformulate their teaching identities to
adapt to learners’ needs and to evolve over time in relationship with ever changing
uses of and genres of technologies?
The systematic integration of digital literacy into the daily practices of discipline-
specific academic instruction will be a crucial step in the right direction. Although
many academics do use technology as a research tool, few are familiar with creating
technology-rich and pedagogically sound learning environments (McKenna and
Hughes 2013). Therefore, student teachers have limited opportunity to develop
digital literacy as situated knowledge practice modelled by their instructors.
OIEs, which align well with the principles of efficient teacher training, provide a
learning context with a potential to soften the barriers between the actual uses of
technology and technology approached as content matter. With the theoretical and
practical ground for IOEs already well developed (e.g., O’Dowd 2007; Guth and
Helm 2010), the real challenge rests in making this teaching method universally
available across higher education institutions. As Helm (2014) specifies, lack of
institutional recognition may lead to reluctance on the part of the participating
students, even if they are awarded academic credit. Making OIE projects with
teacher trainees from culturally diverse educational backgrounds, a compulsory
component of teacher education would therefore be an important move toward
what the New London Group described as “reclaiming the public space of school
citizenship for diverse communities and discourses” (1996, p. 19).
Digital Literacies in Teacher Preparation 285
Cross-References
References
Arnold, N., & Ducate, L. (2006). Future foreign language teachers’ social and cognitive collabo-
ration in an online environment. Language, Learning and Technology, 10(1), 42–66.
Arnold, N., Ducate, L., & Lomicka, L. (2007). Virtual communities of practice in teacher education.
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History and Key Developments
in Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language
Learning (ICALL)
Trude Heift
Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language
Learning (ICALL) technologies for written learner language: spell checkers,
grammar checkers including systems for automatic writing evaluation, and
Intelligent Language Tutoring Systems (ILTSs). After discussing the goals
and challenges of processing written learner language more generally, the
chapter provides an overview of the developments of these distinct technolo-
gies by focusing on applications that specifically address the difficulties of
evaluating learner language. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion that
situates these distinct ICALL technologies within Second Language Acquisi-
tion theory.
Keywords
Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learning (ICALL) • Intelligent Lan-
guage Tutoring Systems (ILTSs) • Spell checkers • Grammar checkers • Parsers •
Automated essay evaluation (AWE) • Natural language processing (NLP)
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Evaluating Written Learner Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Spell Checkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Grammar Checkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Automatic Writing Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Intelligent Language Tutoring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Learner Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Individualized Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
T. Heift (*)
Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
information about the learner and/or the task thereby resulting in a unique set of
system responses and interactions.
Spell Checkers
The use of word processors is an integral part of the language learning classroom
and spell checkers, in particular, are a highly desirable tool for both native and
nonnative writers (see Rimrott and Heift 2005). With little controversy, spell
checkers are praised for their effectiveness in treating spelling mistakes. However,
generic spell checkers are based on the assumption that their users are competent
speakers of the language who primarily make accidental typographical mistakes
(e.g., as in the misspelling *langauge for language). For this reason, they are best
at correcting single typographical errors of letter addition, omission, substitution,
and transposition. A number of studies (e.g., Burston 1998), however, have
indicated that spell checkers are less successful in dealing with errors made by
writers with spelling deficits or nonnative speakers. Nonnative writers, for exam-
ple, are just as likely to make accidental typographical mistakes as native writers
are, but they also make errors that are due to their insufficient command of the
foreign language. These errors tend to deviate from the correct spellings in more
substantial but also somewhat predictable ways. Allerton et al. (2005:36), for
example, state that “[a]s learners’ errors often do not correspond to typical typing
mistakes, the algorithms used by spell che[ck]ers are of relatively little help in this
situation. What is needed to detect this type of variation and generate appropriate
feedback is an algorithm (coupled with a database) designed to deal specifically
with learner language.”
In an attempt to address the shortcomings of generic spell checkers in the language
learning context, a few researchers have designed programs that assist nonnative
writers with their spelling problems. Fallman (2002), for example, presents a descrip-
tive spell checker that uses the Internet as a database to retrieve the number of hits of a
given string. The number of hits for different possible spellings of a word can be
compared to determine the correct spelling (i.e., the alternative with the most hits is
most likely the correct spelling). Ndiaye and Vandeventer (2003) have developed a
spell checker for learners of French that is geared toward the correction of both
typographical and phonologically motivated spelling errors. It also includes an ad
hoc method for treating a specific type of morphological spelling error (the incorrect
plural formation of words ending in –al and –ail).
While these programs are all geared toward nonnative misspellings, they are
generally not based on an extensive empirical analysis of L2 spelling errors. This
said, many researchers (see, e.g., Cowan et al. 2003; Ndiaye and Vandeventer 2003;
Allerton et al. 2005) recognize the need to consider authentic learner errors in the
design of useful language learning programs. For example, Cowan et al. (2003,
p. 455) state that “[b]asing the selection of errors to be targeted for correction research
on empirical data [. . .] provides us with many examples of error types that can be
built into the CALL program.”
History and Key Developments in Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language. . . 293
Rimrott and Heift (2005) conducted a study on nonnative German spelling errors
and evaluated the performance of the generic spell checker part of MS Word that is
not specifically designed for second language learners. One of the study goals was to
determine the frequencies and kinds of errors it can successfully correct. In classify-
ing the spelling errors, they made a primary distinction between competence and
performance errors. Within the category of competence errors, they further distin-
guished errors according to language influence (interlingual vs. intralingual) and
linguistic subsystem (lexical, morphological, phonological, and orthographic). Per-
formance errors were subdivided into single letter violations (additions, omissions,
substitutions, and transpositions), multiple letter violations, and word boundary
violations. Frequency counts indicated that 80% of the errors were competence-
based, while 20% were random accidental typographical mistakes. In the competence
category, intralingual errors were much more frequent than interlingual misspellings.
In addition, phonological and lexical errors were more prevalent than morphological
or orthographic errors. Performance errors were largely comprised of single letter
violations. Multiple letter violations and word boundary errors constituted the
minority.
In assessing to what extent the MS Word 2003 spell checker can successfully
correct their misspellings, Rimrott and Heift (2005) found that, contrary to claims
with respect to L1 misspellings, only 52% of their nonnative misspellings were
corrected. However, the spell checker was much more successful in treating perfor-
mance errors than competence-based misspellings. Competence errors tend to devi-
ate more substantially from the target words than performance errors. This difference
in degree of deviation makes it harder for a spell checker to suggest the target words.
Furthermore, within the competence category, lexical misspellings were most fre-
quently not corrected, followed by morphological, and finally phonological mis-
spellings. Again, greater target deviation is the principal explanation: on average,
lexical misspellings evidence greater target deviation than morphological misspell-
ings which in turn deviate more from the target words than phonological misspell-
ings. Their results confirm that the spell checker is effectively serving its primary
purpose: correcting performance-based single letter violations. However, their error
data also demonstrate quite clearly that the spell checker’s task is different in foreign
language writing where most misspellings are competence-based and thus, most
commonly, involve greater target deviations. Along the lines of Tschichold’s
(1999) strategies for improving foreign language grammar checking, they propose
two main strategies to overcome the shortcomings of generic spell checkers in the
CALL classroom by increasing the spell checker’s effectiveness in treating nonnative
misspellings, and/or decreasing the language learners’ dependence on the spell
checker.
Grammar Checkers
There is a genuine need for evaluating grammar errors in written learner language.
Learners certainly perceive the correctness of second language utterances to be
294 T. Heift
important in written and oral communication. Language learning often has phases of
form-focused activities (Long 1991) in which students shift away from the negotia-
tion of meaning in a communicative setting to concentrate on the surface form of their
utterances. The thorough proofreading for errors of a text is such an activity. For these
form-focused activities, grammar checkers can be very useful tools, if they function
adequately. However, the shortcomings of commercially available grammar checkers
used by language learners have been discussed widely (Granger and Meunier 1994;
Wei and Davies 1997; Tschichold 1999). Evaluations of these grammar checkers
usually indicate that, for grammar checkers to be useful, they need to be adapted to
use by language learners. More linguistic rules are also needed to avoid simplistic
pattern and keyword matching.
In an attempt to address learner language more effectively, Knutsson et al. (2003),
for instance, adapted and tested Granska, a grammar checker for learners of Swedish
as a foreign language, which originally had been developed for Swedish native
speakers. They reported that Granska “detected about 35% of all errors” (n.p.).
Students noted that they had difficulties using the program because of a lack of
advanced computer training and due to the high number of false alarms the program
generated. Later Granska became the main language technology component of Grim
(Karlström et al. 2007), a tool for learners of Swedish. Grim combines the grammar
checker Granska with a surface syntactic parser, a concordance interface to the
Swedish version part of the Parole corpus, a dictionary, and an interface to a tool
for automatic word inflection (Knutsson et al. 2007).
Some commercially available grammar checkers are specifically designed for
nonnative writers. For French, for example, there are programs such as Antidote
and Le Correcteur. “Antidote Prisme” is a suite of software reference tools for
writing French. It has an advanced grammar checker which now corrects the
whole text at once instead of one sentence at a time. It has five great tools that
integrate directly and seamlessly into most major word processors and email
programs. It was designed as a tool for native French speakers and the grammar
checker now has a setting for nonnative French speakers.” (Taken from The World
of Reading, http://www.wor.com/shopping/products.asp?id=179, accessed June
1, 2015.)
Another area in ICALL that deals with written learner language and one that has
received increased interest more recently is that of automated essay scoring or writing
evaluation (AWE) (Hegelheimer et al. 2016; Coniam 2009; Cotos 2011; Ware and
Warschauer 2006; Warschauer and Grimes 2008; Warschauer and Ware 2006).
Lonsdale and Strong-Krause (2003), for instance, present a parser-based essay rater
for beginning learners of English as a foreign or second language, which achieved an
inter-annotator agreement with human raters of 62.1–69.5%. The authors conclude
that a “purely syntactic parse does not always assure appropriate ratings” (ibid.).
They identified possible improvements to the linguistic processing and argued that
History and Key Developments in Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language. . . 295
“the output from a non-traditional syntactic parser can be used to grade ESL essays.
With a robust enough parser, reasonable results can be achieved, even for highly
ungrammatical text” (ibid.).
Coniam (2009) evaluates the Bayesian Essay Test Scoring System (BETSY) with
ESL examination essays from Hong Kong students. BETSY’s scores correlated
highly with those given by human raters and thus Coniam concludes that essay
scoring software is an efficient tool for the evaluation of word-processed essays. His
focus on automated essay scoring for assessment purposes is complemented by
studies by Warschauer and colleagues (Warschauer and Grimes 2008; Warschauer
and Ware 2006) who focus on the feedback capabilities of such systems and their use
in the language classroom. Warschauer and Grimes (2008) investigated the in-class
use of two systems, Criterion and My Access, in secondary schools. In their study, the
teachers’ highly positive perception of the benefits of AES in the classroom was
contradicted by their limited and infrequent use of the systems in class. Although
students clearly benefitted in a number of ways from their work with the two systems,
“almost all of the revisions that students made were narrow in scope” (p. 29).
Warschauer and Ware (2006) summarize their findings as follows:
Similarly, Li et al. (2014) conducted a study on the usefulness of holistic scores for
classroom purposes using Criterion. The authors investigated the correlation
between Criterion’s holistic scores and instructors’ numeric grades and analytic
ratings on two course assignments in three ESL writing courses. Their findings
indicate a low-to-moderate positive correlation whereby students also made efforts
to revise their work in order to obtain a higher score. The authors highlight the
usefulness of Automated Writing Evaluation (AWE) programs and provide justifica-
tion for AWE’s classroom-based formative assessment.
As for evaluating AWE programs with regard to SLA theories, Cotos (2011)
situates her study of IADE, a system that provides feedback on discourse moves in
academic texts (Pendar and Cotos 2008), within the interactional framework of SLA.
She states that IADE has “the potential to trigger noticing and focus on discourse
form [and will thus] enhance learning” (p. 444). Like IADE, TechWriter (Napolitano
and Stent 2009) provides assistance for specialized text genres, in this case, technical
writing. It relies on the public part of the American National Corpus and is tagged for
parts of speech. Learner texts are then checked against n-gram sequences of stemmed
words and part-of-speech tags. Their relative and absolute frequencies in the corpus
are then compared to the respective frequencies in the student text. Differences signal
the probable occurrence of an error. Feedback is provided through offering alterna-
tive n-gram sequences from the corpus data. Although the system has not yet been
evaluated formally, it is used by students at Stony Brook University.
296 T. Heift
In contrast to grammar checkers that target written learner language in texts of any
length, ILTSs are primarily designed to support form-focused instruction by identi-
fying ill-formed grammatical construction in learner output (see e.g., Schulze 2008)
commonly limited to the sentence level. However, after 30 years of development and
research of ILTSs (for a chronology of ICALL systems, see Heift and Schulze 2007),
these systems nowadays are rarely limited to form-focused instruction but, instead
and due to their sophisticated underlying technologies, allow for more diverse
learning environments. For instance, Dickinson et al. (2008) designed an ILTS that
is embedded in a synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) environ-
ment. The system provides feedback on particle usage for first-year L2 Korean
learners while they chat in CMC. Moreover, Harbusch et al. (2008) designed
a virtual writing environment for German for elementary-school children, The
Sentence Fairy, which deploys natural language generation technology to evaluate
and improve the grammatical quality of student output. Most other ICALL systems
provide a combination of form-focused and meaning-focused instruction. For
instance, the activity types in E-Tutor (Heift 2010a) allow for grammar practice as
well as reading comprehension and/or cultural knowledge. In addition, E-Tutor also
supports discovery learning in the form of exploration of learner language. For this,
user submissions over five years were compiled and from those a common learner
corpus was constructed that allows students to explore learner language according to
various parameters. Accordingly, learners can examine interlanguage or task-specific
phenomena by, at the same time, allowing language instructors and/or researchers to
examine the design of language learning material in addition to a wide range of
additional research topics (e.g., use of help options, interlanguage studies).
Learner Feedback
The main advantage of ILTSs over more traditional CALL environments lies in the
error-specific feedback that an ILTS can provide in response to learner output.
Traditional CALL programs are generally based on string matching algorithms,
that is, the student response is compared letter for letter against an answer key.
In contrast, and due to sophisticated NLP technologies, an ILTS identifies and
interprets errors as well as correct constructions in learner input and generates
appropriate, informative learner feedback accordingly.
Over the past decades, research has sought evidence that feedback in CALL
makes a difference in language development, and more specifically, what kinds of
feedback make what sorts of differences to the developmental processes of learners.
One of the early studies investigating different feedback types for Japanese grammar
instruction found that “intelligent” feedback (with a metalinguistic explanation) was
more effective than binary knowledge-of-result feedback (e.g., wrong, try again!)
(Nagata 1996). A number of studies followed (see e.g., Bowles 2005; Heift 2004;
Heift and Rimrott 2008; Pujolà 2001; Rosa and Leow 2004) and the results generally
History and Key Developments in Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language. . . 297
support the claim that students benefit from the more explicit feedback because they
subsequently perform better on particular target language structures and/or because
students’ grammatical awareness is subsequently raised.
A few studies have also considered learner strategies with respect to corrective
feedback in CALL rather than focusing on learning outcomes solely. For instance,
Brandl (1995), studying L2 learners of German, found that the learners’ language skills
influence their preference for a particular feedback type in CALL programs. More
specifically, results indicate that lower-performance learners have a more limited set of
strategies for processing feedback than learners of higher proficiency levels.
Evidence for effects of computer-generated feedback has also been sought in
studies examining learner error correction behavior, referred to as learner uptake, in
response to distinct feedback types. This body of research (see e.g., Lyster 2007)
proposes that successful uptake is the biggest predictor of learning, and even in
instances where no learning takes place at a particular moment, it suggests that
learners notice the feedback and thus process it. As a result, researchers tend to
view learner uptake as facilitative of L2 acquisition. Findings from studies with
ILTSs report significantly more learner uptake for the feedback type that provides
detailed corrections (see e.g., Heift 2010b).
Individualized Instruction
The ICALL applications to evaluate written learner language discussed above are
excellent examples of theory-based ICALL. Their functionalities, in particular those
of ILTSs, are grounded in relevant SLA theories. The researchers/developers are
cognizant of the importance of focus on form (Long 1991), interaction (Gass 1997;
Long 1996) and the noticing of linguistic features (Schmidt 1990). They conceptu-
alize the mediating role of technology by relying on an understanding of Activity
Theory (Lantolf and Thorne 2006) that can depict both language learning processes
as well as human computer interaction. Moreover, in interpreting “interaction” not
only in the context of SLA but also in terms of human computer interaction, it
becomes apparent that ICALL systems provide many different types and levels of
feedback, spanning from sentential input to the handling of large texts. Thus ICALL
systems have engaged or at least have the potential to engage language learners in a
wide variety of interactions. For a number of ICALL systems, such interactions
happen in the well-defined context of a communicative, language-learning task that
can also be supported by an increasing focus on individualized instruction.
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Complexity Approaches to Computer-
Assisted Language Learning
Mathias Schulze
Abstract
Complexity-theoretical approaches in Applied Linguistics are relatively new, but
they hold great promise as an integrative (meta-)theory, provide new ways of
hypothesizing about and conceptualizing the complex phenomena of language
use and (second) language development, and also require different data gathering
and analytical methods. This chapter sketches first the main tenets of a theory of
complex adaptive systems (CAS) as it applies to technology-mediated language
learning. The investigation of complex adaptive systems in computer-assisted
language learning (CALL) is in its infancy; a selection of representative CAS
studies in CALL will be discussed. As will become apparent, the main challenge
for future research in this area is the design and application of robust commen-
surate research methods. General facets of a CAS methodology in CALL will be
outlined and a general direction for future investigation will be given.
Keywords
Complex adaptive systems • Dynamic systems theory • Computer-assisted lan-
guage learning (CALL) • Nonlinearity
Contents
Introduction: A Complexity-Theoretical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Language Use and Development, Mediation, and Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Major Contributions: CAS Studies in Call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Challenges and Future Directions: Establishing Methods in CAS Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
M. Schulze (*)
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
e-mail: [email protected]
For research on CAS in CALL, we assume that (1) language is emergent (Langacker
2008) and consists of linguistic constructions (Tomasello 2003) and (2) second-
language use and development are in a dialectical relationship. On the one hand, an
individual’s SLD is a complex process which is embedded in and influenced by
sociohistorical and cultural processes, and on the other, each individual participates
in the coconstruction of social, historical, and cultural processes through his or her
Complexity Approaches to Computer-Assisted Language Learning 303
second-language use (Lantolf and Thorne 2006; Swain et al. 2011). Therefore,
usage-based grammar is “epiphenomenal, a by-product of a communication process.
It is not a collection of rules and target forms to be acquired by language learners”
(Larsen-Freeman 2002, p. 42). When it comes to understanding SLD, we can say
that, although nonlinear subprocesses, such as developmental spurts, backsliding,
and fossilization, have been the research focus of second-language acquisition
research, they have often been treated as an anomaly and exception to the (linear)
rule. However, such processes are evidence that an L2 is being acquired at varying
speeds, which, of course, results in nonlinear developmental trajectories of individ-
uals. Due to individual language-learner differences, this diachronic variation is
compounded by the synchronic variability within groups of language learners.
Language development and use in CALL is mediated by computational technolo-
gies. In computer-mediated communication (Kelsey and St. Amant 2008), learners
interact with other learners, instructors, and L1 speakers via digital artifacts; in tutorial
CALL (Heift and Schulze 2015), learners interact directly with socially, culturally, and
cognitively imbued digital artifacts, which are central components of the CAS. In
CALL, digital components are “added” to the complexity of language use and SLD.
This results in increased levels of complexity, but also facilitates the unobtrusive
recording of structured process data through tracking learner behavior in online
environments and documenting learning outcomes over time, both of which offer
windows onto the complex processes of technology-mediated language learning.
From that perspective, it is surprising that thus far we have not seen more uptake
of complexity-theoretical approaches in CALL. Already since the late 1980s, we
have witnessed a proliferation of research approaches, concepts, and metaphors of
complexity that extend well beyond mathematics and the natural sciences, from
where they originated. Books like Gleick’s (1987) Chaos: Making a New Science
popularized research on complex and (ostensibly) chaotic systems and made it
accessible also for scholars in the social sciences and humanities. A decade later,
Larsen-Freeman (1997) introduced CAS to researchers in Applied Linguistics.
CAS have the following main characteristics (de Bot and Larsen-Freeman 2011,
p. 9):
In CALL, CAS goes through many small process iterations, such as pressing a
particular button, making a lexical choice or a grammatical well-formedness deci-
sion, and requesting learning help by clicking a hyperlink. A thought experiment
based on Lorenz (1963, 1993) illustrates the power of iterations best: We build two
sequences of numbers, where the current number is always the square of its
predecessor. For the first sequence, we set the first number (our initial condition)
as 1.1; and use 1.1001 as a slightly different start for the second sequence. Compar-
ing the numbers in the two sequences after each iteration, we see that differences
remain miniscule after the first few iterations. Yet, after eight iterations, it is 2326 and
continues to grow exponentially thereafter. Taking the example of language practice
(de Keyser 2007) in tutorial CALL, each of the small iterative steps taken by the
learner – conjugate a verb, insert a preposition, manipulate a sentence – only
introduces a small change, yet the result is significant change in the CAS after
many iterations.
During the iterative, nonlinear development of a CAS and through the intercon-
nection of its actors, components, and variables, the system will reorganize inter-
nally and interact with its environment. Context becomes “the landscape over which
the system moves, and the movement of the system transforms the context” (Larsen-
Freeman and Cameron 2008a, p. 68). Here, coadaptation is fundamental. In the
context of digital gaming in education, Gee (2006) argues that the “proactive
production by players of story elements, a visual-motoric-auditory-decision-making
symphony, and a unique real-virtual story produces a new form of performance art
coproduced by players and game designers” (p. 61).
It is the internal and external resources of a CAS that construct and maintain the
system. Internal resources are within the language learner (de Bot and Larsen-
Freeman 2011), For example, motivation, time to learn, and the ability to solve
problems effectively or to use a computer. External resources can include the spatial
environment being explored or the material and digital artifacts with which the
learner interacts (ibid.). For example, in online games, interaction between non-
playing characters and other live players are examples of external resources that the
learner can utilize when playing the game in the foreign language. Thus, CAS are
open systems in that they do not come to a rest at an equilibrium as long as external
“energy” continually enters. For example, instructional sequences in online learning
environments affect change in the CAS, as long as the learner does not preclude them
from “entering” the learning process.
With external and internal resources impacting the iterative, nonlinear develop-
mental trajectories, the ostensibly chaotic nature of a CAS can make it difficult for
the researcher to understand the system. Here, attractor states, which are “land-
scapes, states, or particular modes of behaviors, that the system ‘prefers’” (Larsen-
Freeman and Cameron 2008a, p. 49), can provide useful confines within which a
system can be analyzed, as well as allowing a brief respite in order to determine at
least one result of the system, thereby providing some transparency to the otherwise
profound complexity. This “preference” of the CAS could be due to any number of
reasons, such as the state being relatively easy to reach or the subsequent state being
challenging to develop. A CAS in an attractor state continues to change; only the
306 M. Schulze
degree to which the system is changing is not (yet) sufficient to transition the system
out off the attractor state. For example, in working with computers in language
learning, the reliance on glosses, subtitles, or other L1 cues can act as an attractor,
being both useful currently and (potentially) hindering the learner’s progression at a
later state (see Sockett 2013).
At the opposite end of the continuum, there are CAS states which appear to be
possible, but they have never been observed. These state spaces are often labeled
repellors. In designing and analyzing learner-computer interactions, repellors are
important, in that they enable both the designer and the researcher to significantly
limit the search space for design solutions (e.g., help options such as glosses, which
were never requested, might not have to be implemented) or analytical algorithms
(compare the immense search spaces in computationally parsing learner texts in
ICALL; see Heift and Schulze 2007).
Through the iterations, interconnectedness, and self-organization of the CAS, its
properties emerge. Emergence refers to processes in which larger patterns and
regularities arise from the interaction of smaller and simpler entities. “[L]anguage
and culture are emergent phenomena of an increasingly complex social existence”
(Beckner et al. 2009, p. 3). Consequently, SLD captures the intertwined complex
processes of the emergence of a second language both at the individual plane and in
groups. We argue here that CALL research needs to aim to investigate the role of
technologies in SLD and can contribute to a deeper understanding of CAS in
Applied Linguistics as a whole.
A number of CALL scholars have argued that CAS approaches are appropriate and
important in CALL research, but there is a scarcity of such studies in CALL, even
when conceived broadly. Chapelle (2009), discussing the relationship between
second language acquisition theories and CALL in the three decades prior, makes
a short reference to CAS research: “Whereas the ideas behind complex systems
theory are relatively new and not fully developed, its promise for [second language
acquisition] theory within the larger systems of learning make it worthy of attention”
(p. 748). Similarly, Colpaert (2013) argues for an ecological paradigm shift in CALL
(which is similar to a shift towards CAS), emphasizing that any single technology
alone cannot be responsible for language learning, but rather, SLD emerges from the
various actors, components, and factors that interact with one another. Marek and
Wu (2014) also position their research within CALL instructional design, declaring
that a CAS theoretical approach should be used. Taking into account as many factors
as possible, which could influence teaching and learning English as a foreign
language, they conceptualize a CALL ecology model and conclude that “technology
used for CALL is not an end in itself, but a means to an end that is based on fully
understanding the educational ecology” (p. 571). Since their conceptual article is
mainly based on a literature review and a thought experiment in broad strokes, their
conclusion remains rather vague. Similarly, disappointing (and not always fully
supported) conclusions appear in a few of the early CAS studies in CALL. In a
Complexity Approaches to Computer-Assisted Language Learning 307
study of the two groups using the different learning platforms Moodle and TelEduc,
Souza (2013) describes the quality of the texts in these virtual learning environ-
ments, after the course had been completed. The coarse-grained analysis leads the
author to conclude that students can achieve similar outcomes in both platforms.
Braga (2013) invokes the concept of fractality, interprets it very loosely, and applies
it to a description of online group work.
Liou (2012) conceptualizes the interactions in the virtual world Second Life as a
CAS to understand how learners interact with the environment and its many tools.
Twenty five EFL students were instructed to perform specific tasks within Second
Life, such as orienting themselves to the environment and doing peer review. The
author claims that, although the game environment was identical for each student,
the external resources of the system impacted the developmental potential of certain
students, leading to communication breakdowns and the inability to complete tasks.
It is disappointing, however, that when investigating the language-learning
affordances of Second Life, Liou mainly focuses on student perception data rather
than presenting an analysis of the students’ behavior in the virtual environment.
Relying on a systematic and comprehensive corpus analysis, Thorne et al. (2012)
investigate the role that texts in online multiplayer games have in forming, what they
refer to as, complex semiotic ecologies. The authors analyzed the linguistic com-
plexity of texts in World of Warcraft (WoW) and in relevant external resources, such
as discussion boards and wikis about the game. Thorne et al. conclude that “external
websites function as keystone species within WoW’s broader semiotic ecology”
(p. 296). They note the validity of analyzing such online gaming as CAS stating
that “the reading of texts and the associated action sequences of players form
complex and adaptive systems that reorganize themselves based on the contingen-
cies of the immediate goal-directed activity at hand” (p. 298).
In an ongoing study also on WoW, Scholz (2017), Scholz and Schulze (2017), and
Schulze and Scholz (2016) investigate learners’ SLD trajectories when gaming. A
heterogeneous group of 14 Canadian students volunteered to play WoW in German
on their own time over four months. Their data set consists of comprehensive game
logs, an entrance questionnaire, an exit interview, and transcripts of three monthly
face-to-face group conversations. The questionnaire elicited information about four
initial conditions: gaming experience, computer literacy, language-learning experi-
ence, and rationale for learning German. These four collective variables were
operationalized and the answer values were recorded as binary numbers. This
enabled them to correlate and cluster the individual students’ profiles of initial
conditions as well as the collective variables of their gaming and linguistic behavior.
This clustering was the basis for an iterative pairwise comparison of participants.
The participants in pairs – each with a high correlation of initial condition values,
behavioral traits in game, or both – are compared paying equal attention to com-
monalities and differences, then different pairs are compared with one another. In
this mixed-method analysis, they are able to trace different developmental trajecto-
ries from their outcomes back to the (initial) factors that induced this change. SLD is
operationalized as the students’ ability to transfer linguistic constructions encoun-
tered in game to the face-to-face conversations about the game. Their study provides
insight into the complex role of online gaming in the foreign language on an
308 M. Schulze
individual’s SLD by conceptualizing both digital gaming and SLD as CAS and by
paying particular attention to the interaction of the two systems.
Bertin and Narcy-Combes (2012), investigating the role of online tutoring in
distance education, reconceptualize their earlier understanding of online tutoring in
the light of emergentism. To begin their explanation of the complex processes in an
online learning environment, they state that, in order to explain complex phenomena,
“three basic approaches have been adopted: to reduce them to the sum of their
components, to study them as a global whole and to study them as complex systems”
(p. 112). Upon reflection, they reject reductionist and holistic approaches (see also
Larsen-Freeman 1997; Larsen-Freeman and Cameron 2008a, b). To develop a CAS
conceptualization, they deconstruct their own Didactic Ergonomics Model
(pp. 118–120) by taking into consideration its evolution in language learning
processes. They note that in their model, both the teacher-centered and learner-
centered subsystems undergo constant and often independent and unpredictable
change. This distance between the subsystems “reveals the discontinuity between
the teaching and learning actions and consequently generates a greater need for
monitoring to regulate both the tasks and the environment” (p. 125). Through
continuous monitoring and subsequently regulating components of the system by
the designers of the online course, they aim to adapt the complex technological
artifact “to the demands of the context(s)” (ibid.). Bertin and Narcy-Combes con-
vincingly show that a CAS analysis – mainly as a thought experiment based on a
wealth of theoretical, empirical, and practical insight carried out over an extended
period of time – provides a solid basis for modeling complex educational processes
and can inform instructional design decisions in online language learning and
beyond.
In one of the most comprehensive analyses of a CAS, Sockett (2013) observed a
group of nine students learning English online informally over the course of three
months. Analyzing a 35,000-word corpus, which was derived from their introspec-
tive writing, he purports that the English-language learners’ strategies – learning
strategies are at the center of his investigation – can be connected to the character-
istics of a CAS (de Bot and Larsen-Freeman 2011, p. 9). Sockett and Toffoli (2012)
highlighted four of these eight CAS characteristics, which are particularly relevant to
extramural online language learning: sensitive dependence on initial conditions,
attractor states, coadaptation as a result of the internal reorganization of the system,
and nonlinear development. In this study, they situate language learning with social
technologies as a CAS, moving away from a model of technocratic learner autonomy
to one that considers the social roles other members of the online communities play.
The informal learning that occurs while university students browsed the internet in
their spare time is understood to be emergent in nature. Listening, reading, written
interaction, and vocabulary building were all in focus as elements of SLD and they
were enhanced by participating in informal online environments, but the develop-
ment gains of each participant varied immensely due to the frequency and types of
interaction that emerged within the various online environments.
As is evident from the review of the still rare CAS studies in CALL, we need to
identify and consider appropriate methods in CAS research. The main goal of CAS
Complexity Approaches to Computer-Assisted Language Learning 309
Two guiding principles are particularly important to the selection and application of
appropriate methods: (1) longitudinal, multivariate analyses of language learning
processes in CALL are necessary; neither reductionist snap shots in cross-sectional
quantitative studies nor isolated qualitative case studies are sufficient to investigate
developmental change; (2) the complexity of CAS and, consequently, the difficulty
with and the low likelihood of predicting their future states accurately means that we
need to identify (qualitative) retrodictive methods of analysis (Dörnyei 2014).
Retrodictive methods – an adjective neologism that denotes the opposite perspective
of “predictive” – reverse the process of analysis such that the outcomes of the CAS
are considered first, and then their development is traced back to determine which
components and variables induced or caused change. Essentially, all analysis of CAS
is an analysis of their change over time. This means that a research design of
experimental and control group is seldom necessary. Instead, the different states of
an individual process are compared iteratively. Commonalities and differences
matter in that both provide clues about from where and how the change originated
and was influenced.
In each investigation, we first and foremost identify the instantiations of the eight
CAS characteristics (de Bot and Larsen-Freeman 2011, p. 9) for the system:
(a) What are the initial conditions for this CALL activity? What aspects of change in
the activity showed sensitivity to or depended on these conditions?
(b) What collective variables, actors, artefacts, and other components induced,
influenced, and sustained change and development of which aspects of the
CALL activity? In which way are the variables, actors, artefacts, and compo-
nents connected with each other?
(c) What are the process trajectories of the CALL activity as a whole and of
(research-relevant) variables specifically? Which (fractal) patterns of change
can be identified in the trajectory of an individual and across individuals?
(d) What change occurred during the CALL activity? What were the processes and
outcomes of the corresponding self-organization of the CAS and of its interac-
tion with the environment?
(e) Which internal and external resources led to this change and how?
(f) What is the general nature of the change in the CAS? Which attractor and
repellor states can be identified? What can these phase spaces tell us about the
nature of the CAS?
310 M. Schulze
(g) What are important iterative subprocesses in the CALL activity? How does a
particular set of iterations introduce change into system?
(h) What properties of the CAS emerge in its evolution and how do they change?
As CAS are interconnected with their contexts, pondering these eight question
complexes requires the definition, description, and systematic analysis of the actors,
components, and properties of the system and its environment. For want of a better
word, we call the facets of these properties variables (but also see the argument about
the death of the variable in complexity-theoretical research in Applied Linguistics in
Larsen-Freeman and Cameron 2008b). CAS-essential and research-relevant vari-
ables have to be defined and operationalized, if their change is to be observed and
measured over time. Of course, a large number of variables make their continuous
observation as well as their analysis very challenging. To reduce the high number of
degrees of freedom of a CAS (see e.g., Larsen-Freeman and Cameron 2008a), we
adopt a technique from molecular dynamics: collective variables. “It is frequently
the case that the progress of some . . . process can be followed by following the
evolution of a small subset of generalized coordinates in a system. When generalized
coordinates are used in this manner, they are typically referred to as reaction
coordinates, collective variables, or order parameters, often depending on the con-
text and type of system” (Tuckerman 2008, my emphasis). Collective variables, such
as proficiency and motivation, are thus dynamic configurations of smaller variables
and are essential to describing the developmental change in a CAS. Yet, only three
CAS studies in CALL rely on an investigation of a well-defined collective variable in
context: Sockett (2013) on language learning strategies, Thorne et al. (2012) on
textual complexity, and Bertin and Narcy-Combes (2012) on online tutoring.
In response to the aforementioned research problems and challenges, Larsen-
Freeman and Cameron (2008b) suggest incorporating modified or adapted forms of
the following methodological approaches for use in CAS research:
• Ethnography
• Formative and design experiments, including action research
• Longitudinal, case study, time series approaches
• Microdevelopment
• Computer modeling
• Brain imaging
• Combinations of discourse analysis and corpus linguistics, second language
acquisition and corpus linguistics, second language acquisition and corpus
linguistics.
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Computer-Assisted Language Assessment
Abstract
Computer-assisted language assessment (CALA) employs the use of technology
to facilitate, contextualize, and enhance the assessment of linguistic abilities.
CALA is becoming normalized, concomitant with advances in technology and
its propagation in language learning contexts. Within CALA, though, most
attention has been devoted to technology in language tests (computer-assisted
language testing or CALT). Early CALT developments reviewed include initial
forays into performance tests, comparisons between paper-and-pencil tests and
CALT, and explorations into computer-adaptive tests (CATs). Major contribu-
tions to CALA have included foundational book-length treatments of CALT,
published in the 1990s and 2000s, as well as more recent review articles. Work
describing washback in CALA from the same period has provided lasting guid-
ance for researchers and practitioners. Large CALA projects are currently under-
way in a number of universities and governmental organizations, including efforts
to develop computer-delivered tests for a wide variety of languages, create
holistic e-portfolios, employ computers in placement and achievement testing
in K-16 contexts, expand computer-mediated performance testing, and provide
rater training. CALA, as a young and dynamic field, grapples with how techno-
logical advances and adoption filter into language learning and assessment,
challenging conceptualizations of CALA itself as well as language ability con-
structs. Exemplifying the latter, two contended language constructs are
highlighted: listening (with or without visual context) and computerized writing
assessment. In the future, research related to computerized writing assessment
(and scoring), CALA feasibility and fairness for underserved populations, and
Keywords
Computer-assisted language testing • Assessment • Testing • Computer-assisted
language learning • Computer-adaptive testing • Language testing
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Early and Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Performance-Based CALT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Comparison Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Computer Adaptive Tests (CATs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Introduction
Blackboard, Moodle, and Desire2Learn. With such tools, teachers can make short
e-quizzes for students to take at home before they come into the classroom so that
teachers know what to focus on most in their teaching (as in flipped classrooms;
see Spino and Trego 2015). Third, the generation of language learners typically
found in the classroom has grown up with computers, tablets, and smart phones.
Earlier impediments that centered on computer access and familiarity are less
concerning for mainstream test takers (older adolescent and adult learners), and
major testing operations have shifted almost exclusively to computer delivery.
Thus, the field of computer-assisted language testing (CALT) has not just
expanded, it has moved heavily toward normalization.
Early on, computer-based tests of foreign language learning involved item types that
were easily scored by a computer. Item types included multiple choice, multiple
select, drag and drop, and short-answer response and were presented linearly as they
were on their paper-and-pencil counterparts. This led to many comparison studies
between computerized and paper-and-pencil versions of the same test. Eventually,
computer-assisted testing changed. Instead of relying solely on discrete item types,
test takers were asked to respond to tasks that were more like real-world tasks. In
addition, they were asked to produce open-ended responses. The challenge has been
in scoring such items, both in terms of developing the criteria for scoring and in
developing programs to help with scoring, and research along this line continues to
flourish, especially in the area of computerized tests of writing ability (Dikli and
Bleyle 2014; Link et al. 2014; Ware 2011; Weigle, 2013), as discussed next.
Performance-Based CALT
and call into question the appropriateness of using them alone in scoring assess-
ments for high-stakes decisions” (2010, p. 297–298).
As a field, language testing is further ahead in the automatic scoring of writing
than in speaking. The technology for scoring writing is rather advanced and robust
(see Ware 2011; Weigle 2013) and is used in many large-scale testing programs. One
automated essay scoring (AES) system is e-Rater, produced by Educational Testing
Service (ETS, www.ets.org/erater/about), which is based on natural language pro-
cessing (NLP). It is used alongside human ratings to judge the quality of TOEFL
test-takers’ writings. The e-Rater system is also used to evaluate essays submitted to
Criterion (www.ets.org/criterion), a commercially-available, web-based essay-
scoring system to which teachers or institutions can subscribe (and which has been
evaluated as effective for providing certain types of feedback, see Lim and Kahng
2012). Other programs include Intelligent Essay Assessor (IEA, part of the suite of
automated scoring systems at Pearson Assessment, see www.pearsonassessments.
com/) and RANGE (downloadable from www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/staff/paul-
nation), a program that assesses lexical frequency that was developed by Paul
Nation.
AESs have not been without criticism. Deane (2013) noted a high agreement
between AES systems and expert human raters, which explains the proliferation of
AES in language tests spanning a number of L2s. But he cautioned that AES may
lead to different test-taking behaviors and writing processes. He noted that auto-
mated scoring may ignore the aspects of essay production that are important for
crafting a good written argument. Additionally, there has been much backlash in the
popular media over automated scoring. One question is, can AES systems be
gamed? Perelman has suggested that they can be (see Winerip 2012). In a 2014
commentary in Assessing Writing, Perelman wrote that AES systems overly rely on
essay length and may “encourage teachers to emphasize bloated and vapid prose”
(110). Researchers such as McNamara et al. (2015) recognized these limitations and
suggested that AES systems can and should be considered as a useful “intelligent
tutor” (54). McNamara et al. suggested that researchers should investigate how AES
algorithms might align with individual differences. They suggested this because
current algorithms do not take into account the social nature of writing nor have they
been studied in relation to writers’ backgrounds.
There has been much work on the computerized scoring of speaking ability as
well, and tools for automated speech scoring are on the market. For example, Versant
English (http://www.versanttest.com/) provides automatic scoring of L2 speech
tasks that require short responses to questions and brief story retellings, with high
reported reliabilities; however, it does not automatically score open-ended tasks
(Jamieson et al. 2013). Efforts to apply automated speech scoring to longer, open-
ended responses are beginning to show some promise, with much research stemming
from Educational Testing Service, which is working toward a system for automatically
scoring spontaneous, non-native English speech (e.g., Zechner et al. 2009) and
Pearson Knowledge Technologies, which is doing the same (see Bernstein et al.
2010). But such systems have not yet become operational in high-stakes contexts.
On a smaller scale, computer-delivered and automatically scored elicited imitation
Computer-Assisted Language Assessment 317
tasks are being researched to see if they are psycholinguistically valid estimates of
pronunciation or grammatical knowledge (see Cox and Davies 2012; Sarandi 2015).
The language testing field will benefit from more research along these lines. But most
certainly, criticisms of automated speech scoring will surface, as they have in relation
to AES. Researchers will need to justify the uses of scores from automated scoring
systems. Arguments for automated scoring that are based on convenience and cost-
savings may not withstand public scrutiny when the stakes are extremely high.
Comparison Studies
tests, large databanks of items are needed, and items within those databanks need to
be revisited and refreshed on a regular basis. Fulcher (2005), while pointing out that
the 2005 version of the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL, see www.
ets.org) is no longer adaptive, but rather has returned to a linear format, declared that
“the era of adaptivity in mass international language testing is dead,” mainly because
in such contexts, item pools cannot be large enough to thwart test-security breaches
(a point also argued by Ockey 2009). But the concept of test adaptivity is alive and
well. Mislevy et al. (2008) offered an expanded framework of adaptivity, including
adaptivity of test claims (construct and interpretations) and control locus (i.e., who
controls adaptations of the test form). CATs and semi-adaptive tests are still often
used (and appropriately so) in institutional language-placement-test contexts. And to
that end, commercially available test software, such as QuestionMark, Perception for
Web, OWL, and Qualtrics, which can be integrated into LMSs, offer adaptive
functions and templates that are easy to use and do not require sophisticated
computer-programming knowledge. Such programs are helping smaller institutions
and language programs afford the development of CATs for smaller test-taker
populations.
Major Contributions
Several books have been published on the specific issues in computerized L2 testing
(Dunkel 1990; Chalhoub-Deville 1999; Chapelle 2001; Chapelle and Douglas
2006); other books have contributed to the development of computerized L2 testing
by reporting on education and educational measurement issues that concern online
testing and CATs (Wainer 2000; Howell and Hricko 2006). Several books and papers
on task-based learning and assessment have described how technology can be
implemented during task work and within the procedures for measuring the out-
comes of tasks (Long 2015; Thomas and Reinders 2010). In addition, major CALT
contributors have recently produced excellent overview articles on CALT in general,
such as Ockey (2009) and Chapelle (2010).
Taylor (2004, p. 143) wrote that both washback (the effect the test has on
classroom curriculum) and impact (the consequences the test may have on test
takers, test score recipients, and society) from high-stakes tests must be measured
and monitored and stated that “interests in this area is likely to grow as the range and
use of high-stakes tests increase worldwide and the consequences of test use,
especially the valid and ethical use of test scores, come under greater scrutiny in
the public domain.” Taylor’s cautions related to test security proved oracular, as
there has been a series of cheating scandals in relation to high-stakes, computer-
based tests, and there has been a global boom in test-prep centers. In response to
cheating, technology-enhanced security measures have been introduced by CALT
providers such as ETS (photographic and video records), Pearson (biometrics) and
Duolingo (video records). Such security measures are likely to become more
widespread.
Computer-Assisted Language Assessment 319
Work in Progress
Several CALA projects currently underway demonstrate the field’s direction and
depth and show how CALA is changing the way in which we test foreign and second
languages. For example, the Assessment and Evaluation Language Research Center
(AELRC) at Georgetown University and the Center for Applied Linguistics in
Washington DC is developing short, online assessments (C-tests) to measure foreign
language proficiency for research purposes. The language C-tests under develop-
ment are in Arabic, Japanese, Russian, Portuguese, and Turkish, with plans for more
C-test language tests in the works. The Center for Applied Second Language Studies
(CASLS) at the University of Oregon partners with institutions to create e-portfolio
systems based on LinguaFolio Online (https://linguafolio.uoregon.edu/). The Center
for Language Education and Research (CLEAR) at Michigan State University
continues to develop and host Rich Internet Applications (RIAs) for language
teachers. The RIAs are online tools (such as the oral recording apps Conversations
and Video Dropbox) that teachers can use for online formative and summative
evaluation of students’ language learning progress.
Lancaster University is now hosting the extremely successful and often studied
DIALANG tests (tests in 14 European languages; see www.lancaster.ac.uk/
researchenterprise/dialang/about for more information). These online tests are
intended to provide feedback to learners and to give them suggestions for strategy
use and/or ways in which to improve their L2 ability, but researchers use them too to
estimate their participants’ proficiency levels.
The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL,
www.actfl.org) is currently expanding its suite of foreign language tests (for place-
ment testing, proficiency testing, and/or for selection purposes) at the novice through
superior level. Recently developed are reading and listening tests of Arabic, Man-
darin Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. The semi-adaptive functions of the tests allow
for a single user to take the test more than once throughout his or her foreign
language learning process; the items the Novice-level test taker is presented with
are different from those at the intermediate or advanced level. The same is true of
ACTFL’s online Oral Proficiency Interview by Computer (OPIc), although for the
OPIc, currently test takers must self-select the level of test that they will take, which
can be problematic if test takers have a poor idea of their proficiency.
Similarly, a computer-assisted screening tool (CAST), whose framework is the
result of a five-institution collaboration (ACTFL, Brigham Young University, CAL,
the Defense Language Institute, and San Diego State University), is currently
available for assessing speaking proficiency in nine languages, including Spanish,
French, Chinese, Japanese, Filipino (Tagalog), Arabic (Modern Standard), Iraqi
Dialect, Persian (Farsi), and English as a second language. All CASTs are stored
on the Language Acquisition Resource Center (LARC) server at San Diego State
University (https://larc.sdsu.edu/). Like the ACTFL tests, the CASTs can be regis-
tered for and completed online.
CAL offers a computer-based speaking and listening test for adult English-language
learners, the Basic English Skills Test Plus (BEST Plus; www.cal.org/bestplus).
320 P.M. Winke and D.R. Isbell
A paper-based BEST Literacy test assesses reading and writing skills. The BEST Plus is
unique in that the test administrator uses a laptop to show prompts to the test taker, then
swivels the laptop around to enter scores. In this way, the test is computer-based in every
way, yet the test taker needs no computer skills. CAL has developed BEST Plus
administration training materials and is working on a newer version of the test, the
BEST Plus 2.0.
The Center for Applied Second Language Studies (CASLS, www.casls.uoregon.
edu) at the University of Oregon developed a CAT called the Standards-based
Measurement of Proficiency (STAMP), currently managed by Avant Assessments
(www.avantassessment.com/stamp4s.html). The test assesses the reading, writing,
and speaking of novice-low to intermediate-mid learners (based on the ACTFL
scale). STAMP tests are available for assessing Arabic, Chinese (Mandarin and
Cantonese), English, French, Hebrew, Japanese, Spanish, German, and Italian.
STAMP is used by institutions for program evaluation and placement, as well as
for general proficiency testing. Hindi, Italian, Swahili, and Yoruba versions are
currently being developed and will add significantly to the small cadre of
criterion-referenced LCTL tests for grades 7 through 12 and at postsecondary levels.
As evidenced by CALA works-in-progress, CALA does not only encompass the
direct testing of learners. The field of CALA extends to other areas of the assessment
realm, such as rater training. At the University of Auckland, an online training
program for essay raters was created as part of the Diagnostic English Language
Needs Assessment (DELNA) project (see www.delna.auckland.ac.nz/en.html), a test
battery with listening, reading, and academic writing skills assessment. Other com-
puterized rater training programs currently in existence include CAL’s Multimedia
Rater Training Programs (MRTP, www.cal.org/mrtp/index.html), which are CD-
ROM-based rater training programs that train raters how to score the CAL Simulated
or Computerized Oral Proficiency Instruments.
find the bathroom in a large building) if the ability to follow directions is the task to
be assessed. Nor should students be asked if a set of given directions is right or
wrong. Rather, the test taker may be given a digital recording (on an iPad or smart
phone) of real directions. The student might be instructed to start at a certain point
and then follow the directions. The student’s performance will be evaluated on
whether he or she followed the directions correctly and if he or she ended up at
the right destination. Long went on to describe that if logistics mandate it, the
assessment could be moved to a computer-game format. The gist is that tests and
testing systems are no longer just computer-assisted. Rather, they are technology-
infused. And assessment is not always a single event but rather it may be a string of
related events serving multiple purposes.
A debate in the field is the impact of video-based listening tests and how the
construct of listening can or should be defined in light of the added (visual) stimuli.
Wagner’s (2008, 2010) research has been influential and groundbreaking in fueling
this ongoing debate. The larger issue may be a divide between theorists who see
language as involving four, separate skills (reading, listening, writing, and speaking)
that can and should be tested separately, and theorists who view language as an
integration of multiple, intertwined modalities, including the interpretation of the
social context, which involves reading visuals such as gestures, facial expressions,
laughter, and body language.
Another major concern is the construct validity underlying computerized writing
tests. First, Gruba (2014) warned that new media (such as wikis, vodcasts, and blogs)
are widely used by language teachers in the development of students’ writing skills
(and cultural and content knowledge), but that language assessments using the same
new media lag far behind. His concerns are real, as reviews of recent CALL
applications (see Garrett 2009) including collaborative, academic web-based writing
projects (Kessler et al. 2012), wikis (Rott and Weber 2013) and blogs (Arslan and
Sahin-Kizil 2010), showed that CALL researchers tend to not mention how such
teaching tools and collaborative writing projects contribute to the language pro-
gram’s overall assessment plan. Second, writing on the computer is a cognitive
process that differs greatly from the cognitive process of writing on paper, and this
distinction has been a major concern among CALT researchers for some time. This
problem is more pronounced when the language being learned has a writing system
that is very different from the students’ native-language writing system. For exam-
ple, Chinese character writing (by hand) is a process that is as much of a memorized
motor skill as it is a complex cognitive skill. On the other hand, the process of typing
Chinese on a computer involves a step that uses the Romanized alphabet system to
locate and select the appropriate characters. Understanding how the cognitive
construct of writing is changed when the mode of test administration is changed is
an important endeavor. It is also important to ensure that the way writing is tested
matches the way writing is instructed in the language classroom. Testing companies
currently wrestle with how to put foreign language tests of writing online if potential
test takers may not have yet learned how to write in the language digitally.
As tests for foreign languages are moved online, applied linguists will need
investigate whether the testing mode interacts with any individual differences and
322 P.M. Winke and D.R. Isbell
whether that interaction contributes to construct-validity issues (see Chen et al. 2011,
who found computer-based writing tests disadvantaged certain subgroups, such as
the economically disadvantaged). Recently, research on CALT validity has been
conducted on different populations of language-test-takers, such as young children.
For example, Ballard and Lee found that online oral tests for children ages 7–10 that
had countdown timers on screen were exorbitantly stressful for some of the children.
The unfamiliarity of the computer-based exam format also contributed to construct
validity issues. Porter (2015), writing for the Wall Street Journal, commented on the
negative washback effects of computer-based testing in the elementary grades of
schools. She noted that low socioeconomic status and low computer familiarity
impede the accurate online assessment of young learners. More CALT validation
studies are needed on child and adult populations with learning disabilities (see
Huang et al. 2011), physical disabilities (e.g., visual and auditory impairments; see
Hansen et al. 2005), low computer literacy (see Kpolovie et al. 2014), and socio-
economic disadvantages (see Hubbard 2013). These populations need to be studied
because as CALT becomes normalized, subgroups that before did not take CALTs
are now being mandated to do. The field needs research to assure that CALT is valid
for such subgroups.
Future Directions
The world of CALT will continue to develop, and this is seen “as a natural evolution
in assessment practice” (Dunkel 1999, p. 77). Tech-infused assessment planning is a
logical step. But a system of checks and balances is needed to assure that comput-
erized tests are increasing our ability to efficiently make valid inferences about
language learners’ abilities and weaknesses. We must ensure computerized tests
contribute overall to L2 programs and L2 learning. Computerized tests should not
just increase the efficiency of test administration and scoring but should also
accurately reflect the ways in which L2s are learned and should appropriately take
advantage of advances in technology to make for better testing conditions not just
different ones (Chapelle and Douglas 2006). A promising, though relatively young,
form of CALT that explicitly promotes L2 learning is computerized dynamic
assessment (C-DA). C-DA measures ability, like traditional tests, but adds mediation
and a focus on how learners respond to it (Poehner and Lantolf 2013). For example,
Teo (2012) used the Viewlet Quiz 3 platform in a classroom setting to provide
students with C-DA supporting inferential reading skills, leading to skill growth and
metacognitive strategy development. Continued efforts in C-DA should yield lan-
guage learning insights and inform classroom practices.
The scoring of essays (and soon, extended speech) will continue to be an issue in
the CALT environment for some time. However, as mentioned above, research has
shown promise in the use of computers for rating essays, especially when the
computer-generated scores are used as part of tutoring or in conjunction with
human-produced scores. The next steps in CALT will involve making computer-
infused tests more feasible and valid for all populations, including learners of
Computer-Assisted Language Assessment 323
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Part IV
Gaming, Virtual Worlds, and Social Network
Sites for Language Learning
Digital Games and Second Language
Learning
Hayo Reinders
Abstract
As interactive, multimodal, immersive, and extremely popular environments,
digital games have received increasing interest from educators in recent years
for their potential to enhance the language learning experience, both inside and
outside the classroom. Review studies from general education have confirmed
that “playing computer games is linked to a range of perceptual, cognitive,
behavioral, affective and motivational impacts and outcomes” (Connolly et al.
Computers & Education 59(2):661–686, 2012) although this depends on the
subject matter (Young et al. Review of Educational Research 82(1):61–89,
2012). Early studies in the area of language acquisition have demonstrated
positive effects of game play on motivation, willingness to communicate, lan-
guage socialization, and a range of other factors involved in the language learning
process. As a relatively new field, however, there are significant gaps in the
available literature, and many worthwhile areas remain yet to be explored. In
this article, I will describe how research into digital games relates to earlier
research on game-based learning, primarily with younger learners, before
discussing the key areas in which studies have been carried out and their most
important findings. The following sections discuss some of the challenges faced
by the field and suggest future directions for research and development in this
field.
H. Reinders (*)
Unitec Institute of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
KMUTT, Bangkok, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]
Keywords
Digital gaming • Game-based language learning
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Game-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Major Contributions and Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
The Affordances of Digital Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Research on the Effects of DGBLLT: Language Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Research on the Effects of DGBLLT: Affective Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Critical Appraisal and Future Directions for Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Introduction
Early Developments
Game-Based Learning
1. Rules
2. Goals and objectives
3. Outcome and feedback
4. Conflict, competition, challenge, and opposition
5. Interaction
6. The representation of a story.
(Van Lier 2004) that digital games offer. In Gee’s view, digital games are “problem
solving spaces that use continual learning and provide pathways to mastery through
entertainment and pleasure” (Gee 2009, p. 65). Gee (2003) argues that good digital
games incorporate learning principles and have a variety of design features that “are
particularly relevant to language learning” (Gee 2012, p. xiii). In his 2003 book, the
list of 36 of these principles, including, to name a few, “the active, critical learning
principle,” which argues that all aspects of the learning environment are set up to
encourage active and critical, not passive, learning, and the “psychosocial morato-
rium,” which describes an environment in which learners can take risk and where
real-world consequences are lowered. The “practice principle” holds that learners get
a great deal of practice in a context where that practice is not boring. Gee found these
and other principles to be common in most of the digital games he looked at, and
they provide a helpful lens to investigate the potential benefits of games.
Reinhardt and Sykes (Reinhardt and Sykes 2012; Sykes and Reinhardt 2012)
propose a framework for understanding the different roles that games can play in
language research and practice, as game-enhanced, game-based, or game-informed,
where the former uses games designed for entertainment purposes, game-based
involves the use of educational games, and game-informed uses game play princi-
ples only. Each of these may raise different learning and teaching questions, such as
how game-enhanced learning happens in informal language learning or how certain
game designs afford particular learning behaviors (see also Reinhardt and Thorne
2016).
Whitton distinguishes between eight roles for games, i.e., learning with enter-
tainment games, learning with educational games, learning inspired by games,
learning within games, learning about games, learning from games, learning through
game creation, and learning within game communities (2014, p.4–5). Another
distinction can be made between studies that investigate primarily the effects of
game (-enhanced, -based, -informed) learning on either L2 acquisition or on affec-
tive factors involved in L2 learning. We use this broad distinction below to report on
some of the key studies in the field.
Studies on the effects of game play on language acquisition are somewhat limited.
One of the reasons is that the use of digital games is usually a complement to existing
courses, and as such, it is difficult to control for all the variables that can have an
effect on learning outcomes. Most studies attempting to investigate acquisition have
instead (at least in part) focused on opportunities that games afford for exposure to
and interaction in the target language, on the assumption that these underlie language
acquisition. For example, a pilot study by Rankin et al. (2006) investigated interac-
tion between four ESL students in the MMORPG “EverQuest II” in an attempt to
determine if participation in the game could foster students’ English language
proficiency and knowledge of new vocabulary. In this study, students participated
in eight gaming sessions held over a period of 4 weeks. The findings demonstrated
334 H. Reinders
and that in particular, more “active” types of activities such as use of the internet and
playing video games were more strongly correlated than more passive activities such
as watching TVor listening to music. Boys were found to engage more in the former,
girls more in the latter. A jointly authored third study focusing on 12-year-olds
(Sylvén and Sundqvist 2012) confirmed these findings, and a fourth study with
10-year-olds showed broadly similar findings (Sundqvist and Sylvén 2014).
One way of enhancing participation is to involve the learners in the design of
game-based activities. In this vein, Butler (2015) reports on a study that investigated
the use of games with young learners. In her study, 82 learners of 11–12 years of age
were asked first to identify vocabulary-learning elements in existing instructional
games they found attractive and to then design story boards for computer games that
could be used to teach vocabulary to their younger peers. Although this study did not
investigate language acquisition per se, it does give insight into the process by which
(young) learners identify useful features of games and the way they can incorporate
them into building their own learning environments.
In the second category fall pedagogical challenges. In most of the studies reported
above, the researchers were also the teachers delivering the game-based instruction.
For most teachers, who may not be as interested in DGBLLT, the use of games would
be a significant learning experience and the integration of games into an existing
curriculum a considerable challenge. Advocates of “gamification,” or the use of
gaming principles in education, argue that many examples of the use of games are
merely add-ons to existing classes that do not challenge current practice. The impact
of these issues on the effects of DGBLLT has not yet been carefully documented.
Methodological challenges include ways in which researchers can control for the
novelty factor of introducing games in the classroom. Although it could be argued
that for most learners, games are not new, their use in an educational setting often is,
and this in itself may give rise to a (temporary) excitement, which may translate in
higher motivation and even greater learning outcomes.
Partly because of the operational and pedagogical issues described above, most
studies on game play are relatively short. Although this is an argument that could be
made against most of the research in language learning and teaching, in DGBLLT
research, it is all the more important to conduct longitudinal studies that can minimize
the novelty effect. In studies that look at game play in out-of-class settings, it is
important to monitor the amount of time learners interact in the target language, as
otherwise any benefits could be attributed simply to greater time-on-task rather than
game play itself (although it could be argued that if game play causes learners to spend
more time interacting in the target language, for example, because they enjoy such
language use more than other forms, then this is a worthwhile benefit in and of itself).
A challenge with much research on DGBLLT is that it takes place (either entirely,
or in part) outside of formal settings. This can make data collection difficult (both for
practical as well as privacy reasons). At the same time, this challenge is one that
needs to be taken up if language researchers are to get a full understanding of the
entirety of the language learning process.
Finally, relatively little research has been carried out on the effects of DGBLLT on
language acquisition. Most studies look at affective factors, such as motivation,
engagement, and willingness to communicate. Although these are fruitful and
important areas of inquiry, it is important ultimately to link these to better learning
outcomes. Many studies are able to make tentative predictions at best. For example,
Reinders and Wattana (2015) make the reasonable assumption, based on existing
literature, that an increase in WTC will be beneficial to language acquisition and that
because they were able to establish an impact of game play on an increase in
participants WTC, games are likely to have a positive role in language acquisition;
however, they did not prove this link. Similarly Turgut and İrgin (2009) showed
increased strategy use from game play, and again, although there may well be a
positive link between strategy use and language acquisition, this is not certain, and
no direct benefit to learning could thus be established. A final example is offered by
Lee and Gerber (2013), who conducted a digital ethnographic study in which
interactions between one of the researchers and a Korean ESL learner on a study
abroad program in the United States in the online role-playing game World of
Warcraft were recorded over a period of 1 year, using transcripts of in-game chat
Digital Games and Second Language Learning 339
and screencast software. The researchers documented changes in the learners’ use of
language over this period. It was evident from the transcripts that many of the
in-game situations prompted interest in and a need for developing certain types of
language in order to successfully compete in the game. In this sense, the game
provided an environment for genuine communication, and this motivated the learner
to develop his language. However, it is difficult to attribute such changes to game
play per se, in particular in a second language situation. Clearly, significant chal-
lenges lie ahead for the field.
The current state of the field allows us to draw some early, tentative conclusions
about the possible role of DGBLLT in language education and – to a lesser extent –
its impact on language acquisition. It is clear from the above selection of studies that
games play a role in affective aspects of language learning that have, in turn, been
shown to be related to language acquisition. Games have been demonstrated to
increase motivation, lower anxiety, and to increase engagement and willingness to
communicate.
However, the learning experience through digital games is not yet fully under-
stood. A key challenge for future studies is to make strong links with what we
already know about (language) learning and teaching and the (potential) role of
digital games in this. Reichle (2012), for example, advocates building on studies of
memory processes, Jackson et al. (2012) on research into strategy instruction, and
Reinders and Wattana (2012) on studies of interaction and willingness to communi-
cate. Other potentially fruitful areas include the role of teacher and peer feedback, the
occurrence of focus on form in informal settings, and the quality and quantity of
input and opportunities for extended output in game settings. As Scholz (2016,
p. 268) argues, research that goes beyond learners’ reflections and that instead looks
directly at learners’ experiences (including their linguistics experiences) is vital for a
better understanding of the relationship between DGBLLT and acquisition.
Another challenge for the field is to better identify those aspects of games that
influence the language learning process. As Garris et al. (2002) summarize: “there is
little consensus on game features that support learning, the process by which games
engage learners or the types of learning outcomes that can be achieved through game
play” (p. 442). Wilson et al. (2009) argue:
Yet it is still under debate as to which particular aspects of a game lead to learning of any
kind. Do the motivating aspects lead to active participation or does the active participation
increase motivation? And what specific learning outcomes can be achieved? Without
evaluation of the impact of games on specific learning outcomes, games will continue to
be categorized largely as motivating and fun, but instructionally useless (p. 221).
Their call for a better understanding of the relationship between game attributes
and learning outcomes has not yet been comprehensively taken up, at least not in the
340 H. Reinders
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Dialogicality, Ecology, and Learning
in Online Game Worlds
Abstract
This chapter presents an action-oriented understanding of second language
(L2) learning, occurring in play associated with massively multiplayer online
games (MMOG), such as World of Warcraft (WoW) or EverQuest, and multiuser
virtual environments, such as Second Life or Active World. In particular, we
focus on research that represents what we term an ecological, dialogical, and
distributed (EDD) perspective on language learning. The chapter emphasizes
research that views language learning as embodied, situated, dynamic, and
values-realizing, and is organized around the following questions: (1) how do
studies of L2 learning with games and virtual environments treat context?, i.e., as
input versus as sites with affordances for a range of action potentials; (2) what is
the unit of analysis?, i.e., individual perception versus perception and action
cycles or turn-by-turn utterances versus coacted communicative projects;
(3) how is language theorized?, i.e., language seen as a code versus differentiation
between real-time languaging (accounting for both language and actions) and
prescriptive lexicogrammars and discourse-semantic regularities; (4) how is
interactivity analyzed?, i.e., using transcription of utterances or text chat versus
using transcriptions of language and actions from dynamic multimodal texts. We
conclude with a discussion of future directions in EDD research.
Keywords
Ecological • Dialogical • Distributed perspective • Multiplayer online games •
Multiuser virtual environments • Second language learning
D. Zheng (*)
University of Hawaii, Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
K. Newgarden
Charter Oak State College, New Britain, CT, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Early Developments: Emergence of the Ecological View in Call Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Theoretical Advancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Methodological Advancement and Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Full-Blown Ecological-Dialogical-Distributed Game Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Recent Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Introduction
learning has been generated by critiques of schools (e.g., Gee 2003, 2013; Prensky
2001, 2006; Brown and Adler 2008), work on new literacies (e.g., Gee 2003; Shetzer
and Warschauer 2000), and studies of player participation in online game and
fan-fiction communities (e.g., Steinkuehler and Duncan 2009; Thorne et al. 2009).
Findings have pointed to high levels of player engagement, affordances for social
coordination and interaction, the formation of communities of knowledge-producers
(Squire 2012), and player-driven trajectories of learning that can influence and
improve upon school learning.
Between 2006 and 2009, a number of CALL researchers examining virtual
environments attributed L2 learning outcomes to social interaction, contextual,
participatory, and experiential functions. Experimental and quasi-experimental stud-
ies measured learners’ linguistic output, such as vocabulary gains and improvement
of affective factors. Due to their limited relevance to the EDD perspective taken in
this chapter, we will provide only a cursory review here (though see chapter
“▶ Virtual Worlds and Language Education,” by Sadler, this volume). Several
influential studies, such as Rankin et al. (2008), Rankin et al. (2009), and Zheng
et al. (2009), pointed to the value of social interactions between native speakers
(NS) and nonnative speakers (NNS) in gameplay in contributing to measurable
changes in L2 learners’ skills and affect. However, these researchers did not explore
the situated dynamics of learners’ actions and language.
A theoretical shift toward ecological and dynamic views can be traced to the
2009 special issue on CALL in the Modern Language Journal. Introducing the
issue, Lafford drew on the work of Lam and Kramsch (2003), Leather and Van
Dam (2003), and van Lier (2004) to frame her review of CALL trends from an
ecological perspective. While few studies had taken an ecological approach,
Lafford mentioned van Lier (2003), who investigated the contextual factors that
affect the efficacy of technology in project-based learning, Shin (2006), who
examined how context is configured in students’ language learning practices
through computer-mediated communication (CMC), and Zheng et al. (2009),
cited in the last section.
Leo van Lier deserves special mention for fully elaborating the ecological view of
L2 learning for the field of second language teaching and learning (L2TL) in his
2004 book, The Ecology and Semiotics of Language Learning. He conceptualized
L2 learning as a way of “relating more effectively to people and the world,” adding a
view of semiotics in which meaning-making is a dialogical process and the patterns
of language are shaped by history and culture rather than governed by a fixed system
of symbols and rules. In the ecological view van Lier (2004) delineated, contexts are
defining, the quality of learning experiences matter, diversity and variability are
acknowledged, and learning is activity in which movements, processes, and actions
are key. Processes, activity, discourse, and linguistic actions came into focus in the
following studies.
Reporting on a case study of WoW play by an American and a Ukrainian, Thorne
(2008) described WoW as a site for engaging meaningful communicative activities
and reported on players’ plurilingual conversations, collaboratively assembled repair
sequences, and distributed (alternating) opportunities for the performance of expert
348 D. Zheng and K. Newgarden
roles. In their 2009 study, Piirainen-Marsh and Tainio used conversation analysis to
illustrate how two teenaged L2 learners of English appropriated game resources such
as being able to playfully repeat nonplaying character voices and dialogue during
nonplaying segments of the online game Final Fantasy. The learners thereby
attended to prosody, constructions, and vocabulary while experimenting with
English-speaker identities. The authors looked at how learners used other-repetition
as a resource to attend to the game and to display their linguistic and interactional
competence.
Zheng et al. (2009), in a study of Quest Atlantis (QA) with Chinese middle school
students, reported on interaction data using sociocultural and ecological perspectives
and the perception and action cycle as the unit of analysis, concluding by identifying
a new construct, negotiation for action (NfA). By diverging from a commonly used
unit of analysis, i.e., sequential turns as in conversation analysis, Zheng et al. were
able to look at the dynamic alternating patterns between novice and expert roles.
With some similarity to Thorne’s (2008) findings, participants negotiated content
and identity in order to coordinate future movements. NfA is revolutionary when
compared with “negotiation for meaning,” which depends on the information trans-
fer model in which meaning is carried by words and their forms and not necessarily
by the content of game texts or activities, learners’ sociocultural histories or their
projected future actions.
The abovementioned studies explored L2 learners’ dynamic interactions, but the
analytical techniques adopted were limited by methodological constraints. The
authors made sense of NS and NNS interaction data; however, their analysis was
not yet fully ecological in accounting for action and context as part of meaning-
making. Actions such as jumping with joy alongside others in your gameplay party,
becoming invisible at a convenient moment, moving as a group through dangerous
castles, caves, or dungeons, and keeping other allied players healthy and alive are
emotional and make languaging in gameplay memorable and meaningful. This said,
almost all of the studies reviewed above looked for evidence of language learning
mainly by examining players’ text chat. Both Thorne (2008) and Zheng et al. (2009)
suggested the need for more “ecologically relevant participation frameworks”
(Thorne 2008, p. 28), including consideration of avatar-embodied actions and
temporal and spatial factors in future analyses.
Although van Lier’s seminal book appeared in 2004, few CALL studies took up
the ecological perspective as concepts such as “contexts are defining” were perhaps
too forward thinking. Instead, in many studies contexts were often treated as
containers, with environments as mere input, which limited what could be under-
stood about the complex structure of a 3D space inhabited and co-constituted by
those playing in it. But how can “contexts are defining” be applied in design of
research and materials, including activities designed within 3D spaces? What kinds
of data can capture the quality of learning experiences, learner variability, and
diverse learning trajectories? What analytical techniques can help us unfold the
learning process? These questions are in part answered in the contributions reviewed
next.
Dialogicality, Ecology, and Learning in Online Game Worlds 349
Major Contributions
A new wave of research appeared around 2012, including a special issue on Digital
Games for Language Learning in ReCALL (Cornillie et al. 2012). The studies aimed
beyond the “proof” aspect of research to challenge both CALL and second language
acquisition (SLA) through theoretical extension and methodological infusion of
dialogical and distributed perspectives.
Theoretical Advancement
Linell’s (2009) comprehensive work, Rethinking Language, Mind and World Dia-
logically, provided a new dynamic analytical framework for understanding commu-
nicative activities, namely Communicative Project Theory and Communicative
Activity Type (CAT) Analysis. CAT recognizes the situative and socio-institutional
boundaries of communication. As game rules of basketball differ from those of table
tennis, the communicative norms of a courthouse differ from those of an emergency
room. Thus communication is highly bound with socio-institutional norms, routines,
and roles. Sociocultural resources bridge the gap between situations and traditions
350 D. Zheng and K. Newgarden
(Linell 2009). Making uses of resources within and across CATs involves orienting
to situation transcending practices (Linell 2009, p. 49). In CAT, the unit of analysis is
the communicative project (CP). A CP is defined as a situated interaction that
“involves an implicit or overt co-action between two or more parties” (p. 193, Linell
2009), established by a minimum of three interacts in the pattern ABA, where the
initiator represents A and the responder(s) represents B.
The data-driven studies described next either took a descriptive approach or
stemmed from hypothesis testing, but the common methodology was multimodal
analysis using a transcription technique from Baldry and Thibault (2006). Game
player verbalizations, avatar actions and movements, and material artifacts in the
virtual environment are all transcribed as part of players’ meaning-making and
values realizing. By situating analysis of play activities within CAT, which assumed
certain game-specific grammars, and applying CP theory, the studies below were
able to answer research questions that the early studies could not.
perspective that considered the holistic union of avatar action, verbal action,
material artifacts, and sociocultural norms.
In related research, Zheng et al. (2012) used a recorded WoW gameplay episode
from a semester-long course as data for a multimodal analysis of players’ coordinated
language and avatar actions. The authors utilized Transana (Woods and Fassnacht
2012) transcription and analysis software to generate visualizations of communica-
tive activities using CP as the unit of analysis. Key actions captured by audio and
video recordings were transcribed and coded with an abductive technique. Abductive
coding follows the reasoning of abduction (Peirce 1982; Magnani 2004, 2006) such
that coding begins with the visible results of the actions that are captured in
transcription of both verbal utterances and avatar actions and movements. The
transcript was parsed into CPs, which were each keyword coded. Keywords were
not predefined but emerged from following the theoretical framework and observable
communicative activities. Several ecological concepts, e.g., values realizing,
languaging, and skilled linguistic action were introduced and applied in an effort to
uncover WoW’s affordances for situated, embodied, distributed L2 learning. Voice-
enabled group play of WoW was found to provide a patterned periodicity of a range
of communicative activities (e.g., coordinating, negotiating meaning, seeking help,
expressing need, locating, apologizing) that developed as players coordinated proto-
typical WoW activities such as questing, traveling, and doing business in a city.
Zheng et al. (2012) also found that players realized multiple values through joint
communicative projects that were oriented to game culture, game goals and rules.
The studies described above (Zheng and Newgarden 2012; Zheng 2012; Zheng
et al. 2012) helped to shape a trans-disciplinary, theoretically holistic, and ecolog-
ically valid research agenda. This research facilitated efforts to design 3D gamelike
352 D. Zheng and K. Newgarden
spaces that support languaging and challenge educational models that were based on
“learning about” to cater instead to learners’ problem-solving potential and agency.
In van Lier’s terms, Zheng and her colleagues employed prolepsis in recognizing
that learners’ prior L1 language and cultural background are critical and founda-
tional resources for their future actions. This research also contributed to qualita-
tively understanding how L2 learners as players take advantages of what is offered in
virtual spaces.
Building on the studies reviewed above, the next research project was the first
attempt to test the eco-dialogical model using quantitative measures (Newgarden
et al. 2015). The purpose was to look at the relationships between the eco-dialogical
and distributed concepts of values realizing, languaging modality (verbalizing and/or
acting via an avatar), and skilled linguistic action. Zheng and Newgarden, sometimes
with colleagues and guidance from DL theorists, have collaboratively been devel-
oping an EDD view of L2 learning with a main goal of supporting L2 learners’
engagement in skilled linguistic action, which involves learners and practitioners
“managing activity under material and cultural constraints. As they [L2 learners] do
so, they link linguistic patterns (including ones shown in grammars and dictionaries)
with affect, artifacts and social skills” (Cowley 2012, p. 13).
To illustrate the relationship between skilled linguistic action and values realizing
manifested in a WoW gameplay episode, Newgarden et al. (2015) presented a
quantitative study of three adult English L2 learners and their ESL teacher.
Employing quantified categorical data from multimodal text transcription of voice
and video recordings and multinomial logistic regression, the authors developed a
statistical model for predicting the probability that players’ joint communicative
projects, which they enacted as they coordinated in virtual world activities, would
reflect wayfinding (getting information that helped them move forward in a positive
direction), orienting to we (attuning to a shared socioculture such as WoW or the L2),
or both of these values-realizing activities. The units of analysis were communica-
tive projects (CPs) (N = 133 from a 47 min gameplay episode) which, as discussed
above, are defined as a situated interaction involving implicit or overt coaction
between two or more parties (Linell 2009). The use of CPs was important because
each is a dialogically and ecologically accomplished project by at least two players,
so the raw data was not individually based utterances or turns of talk, but
co-established CPs. This treatment represents a move away from an individual-
based unit of cognition to dialogically based co-established projects. In addition,
by quantifying multimodal text data, the authors were able to test an updated theory
of values-realizing based on Hodges’ ecological account and Linell’s (2009) dialog-
ical orientation. The authors reported a reciprocal development between skilled
linguistic action, multimodal languaging (when verbalizing and avatar actions
were aligned), and values realizing. This development was attributed to agency
that was distributed in the open-ended game environment by players’ common
ground alignment (deploying language to orient jointly to objects or linguistic
features in the game) and prospective coordination (inviting others to move forward
together with a task). Multimodal languaging was found to predict communicative
projects that realized both wayfinding and orienting to a common socioculture. The
Dialogicality, Ecology, and Learning in Online Game Worlds 353
authors suggested this was evidence that multimodal languaging enriched the expe-
rience of conversing for these L2 learners (Newgarden et al. 2015).
Drawing on ecological and dialogical perspectives on language and cognition,
Zheng et al. (2015) showed how vocabulary learning took place in three distinct
situated co-questing examples. Using Zheng’s (2012) eco-dialogical model, they
illustrated language learning as appropriation of resources and as the result of
eco-dialogical embodiment. Through iterative multimodal analysis, vocabulary
learning became salient in both chat and avatar action data. To respond to a special
issue theme of “Embodied Cognition and Language Learning in Virtual Environ-
ments,” the authors treated embodiment as coaction between player–avatar and
player–player relations (Zheng and Newgarden 2012), as situative embodiment in
a perceptually and narratively rich context (Barab and Herring, 2007), and as a
dialogical achievement (Zheng 2012; Zheng et al. 2012).
Reflecting upon the findings of research undertaken over the past decade, we now
know more about L2 learners’ actions and interactivity in online games (and their
gamelike play in virtual environments) and the ways in which learning and knowing
are shaped. L2 learners are equipped with opportunities for a broad range of
communicative activities and agentive use of second-order language in problem
solving and coordination of gameplay. These empirical studies demonstrate the
power and potential of online gaming environments, particularly World of Warcraft
and similar multiplayer games, to augment, support, and in some cases, substitute for
L2 learning in other “real world” contexts.
Recent Work
Recent work in progress in the EDD framework has expanded in the breadth and
depth of investigations underway. In a study that was part of Newgarden’s multiple
manuscript dissertation completed in 2015, Newgarden and Zheng (2016) compared
three WoW gameplay episodes spanning a semester-long college course. By coor-
dinating recurrent prototypical WoW gameplay activities (questing, planning next
moves, traveling, learning a skill, etc.), which afforded multiple iterations of prag-
matic communicative activities, players learned to take more sophisticated skilled
linguistic action, requiring higher-level cognitive and linguistic skills. For example,
a recurrent languaging activity that became more salient was planning next moves,
which required knowledge of the WoW environment, knowledge of one’s skills and
importantly, predicational language. In addition, frequent activities were mapped to
Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) speaking proficiency descrip-
tors. Since CEFR descriptors often serve as the basis of L2 curricula, there was
evidence that informal gameplay engages players in the varieties of communicative
interactions that formal instruction seeks to facilitate.
In a second portion of her dissertation study that used the same WoW gameplay
episodes of a single group of players, Newgarden (2015) adopted Steffensen’s (2012)
dialogical system framework, finding that the group’s gameplay became more
coordinated over the timeframe of a 15-week game-centered course as players
354 D. Zheng and K. Newgarden
became more efficient at planning moves and completing more challenging quests.
As they probed the affordances of dialogical arrays (Hodges 2009), players’
co-agency and coactions meshed as a distributed cognitive system which balanced
the values of facilitating gameplay, making meaning, taking care of others and
having fun. Newgarden applied the linguistic style match metric (Gonzales et al.
2010) to test whether players’ spoken language within and across gameplay episodes
became more aligned as they coordinated gameplay activities. Linguistic alignment
was found to be higher in episodes of play in which interactions were more smoothly
coordinated. This finding lends support to Fusaroli and Tylen’s (2012) argument that
a dynamical framework can be applied in understanding how in situations of social
coordination, global linguistic patterns emerge and stabilize through a process of
local reciprocal linguistic alignment. This study also describes how designed features
of a game-centered course, including guided discussion and comparative reflection
on WoW culture and social values, opened affordances for conversational ease,
development of a class community, sociocultural and intercultural attunement, and
for L2 learners in particular, participation in multiple L2 communities of practice.
The following two studies stemmed from multimodal data of English learners
from China and US learners of Chinese in co-building activities in the open-ended
China World within the Atlantis Remixed (ARX) multiuser virtual environment.
Zheng et al. (2017) addressed the confluence of design in relation to space-time,
sociocultural places, activity, and virtual artifacts in a multiuser 3D virtual learning
environment (3D VLE). The authors designed open-ended problem-solving spaces
that encouraged meaning-making in situ, manipulation of virtual objects, and coor-
dination among players. By using a design-based research method, the authors
investigated how learners of Chinese and English coordinated on a project in
which they collaboratively decorated a virtual living room. The findings suggest
that socioculturally bounded places afford unique learning opportunities. Firstly,
learning occurred through referencing, which is the mutual clarification of a virtual
object’s meaning, position, and function, in relatively stabilized places, such as a
museum, and secondly, learning occurred through coordination between verbal
instruction and object manipulation in more adaptive places, which the authors
call eco-dialogical learning. The authors also found a strong relationship between
translanguaging and object manipulation. The authors conclude the paper from the
perspective of how the eco-dialogical model resulted in designs that promoted
cognition and interactivity.
In other recent research, Zheng and Cowley (in preparation) used cognitive event
analysis (Steffensen 2012) to trace pivotal moments and actions within a broader
context and flow of activity in a single episode of a co-building session in Atlantis
Remixed, analyzing the rise and use of opportunities for learning, as players
coordinated to construe situations, identify problems, and probe for solutions. The
study’s new contribution to the EDD perspective was the concept of manipulative
abduction. Similar to the aforementioned abductive technique for data coding,
manipulative abduction gives rise to the manipulation of objects, in that tinkering,
such as moving objects and avatar, or changing between first person and third person
perspectives, can provide insightful thinking for problems that are not solvable
Dialogicality, Ecology, and Learning in Online Game Worlds 355
There are multiple obstacles preventing wider adoption of EDD research methods in
exploring L2TL with online games and virtual environments. The utmost challenge
is that many CALL studies follow classical SLA approaches, which are dominated
by individual-centered views of cognition. CALL game studies have made progress
in expanding the theoretical scope to consider social factors. However, many of these
studies follow a deductive approach to inquiry in which finding a result is the end
goal, or an inductive approach in which finding a pattern satisfies the curiosity
prompted by the initial research question. For example, in information-processing
approaches, participation in certain games and virtual environments led to gains in
the size of a learners’ vocabulary (Rankin et al. 2008).
The dominant methods of deduction and induction divide the field of second
language studies into those who discuss SLA and those who discuss second lan-
guage use using either psycholinguistic or sociolinguistic explanations that locate
language either in the brain or in a social domain. However, both approaches fall
short of providing a means to reach a full understanding of an L2 learner’s partic-
ipation in a social environment. The divisions in SLA between cognitive and social
approaches, which itself is an arguably problematic distinction, forms an arena that
may benefit from EDD methods and theoretical frames.
A second major obstacle for EDD research is the phenomenon that Linell (2005)
called “written language bias” and Harris (1981) called the “language myth,” both of
which continue to inform much L2LT research. The EDD view is that language is not
a code, but a human coordination system allowing language to flow and function
between people. A third obstacle is a lack of methodological advancement and
diversity. The new affordance layouts of 3D virtual spaces are quite different from
text-based or face-to-face interaction. 3D virtual spaces allow for person-to-person
interactions with and within a multimodal text (Baldry and Thibault 2006). The
complexity of virtual world technologies brings forth the need for new constructs
and research questions, which call for new methods of investigations.
A fourth major obstacle lies in “technology.” The fact that CALL follows
mainstream research is a rather controversial issue. Technology, in and of itself,
356 D. Zheng and K. Newgarden
has historically been a leading force in changing human communication and inter-
action behaviors, and hence, following the point above, new or adaptive investiga-
tive methods are needed. A final obstacle to the adoption of online games and virtual
worlds as language learning environments is an ethical one. Language learners have
a variety of linguistic and cultural resources at their disposal, some of which emerge
from engagement in online environments that have yet to be widely accepted as
appropriate or valuable in instructed language learning settings.
Future Directions
In the era of prevalent technology and multilingual diversity, the field of language
studies should respect L2 learners as whole beings with unique autobiographies,
cultural identities, and cognitive idiosyncrasies. Western science, dominated by the
Cartesian tradition of deductive reasoning, has been brought to task by those who
were unsatisfied with the linearity and nonapplicable results of controlled research.
From an EDD perspective, cognition depends on sense-saturated interactions
(Steffensen 2012) inclusive of brain and body and distribution between bodies,
challenging the mainstream view that takes the brain as the only organ of the
mind. However, brain-based theories fail to explain the full educational benefits of
gameplay and related (metagame) activities in game communities.
Theoretical advancement should be part of the CALL research agenda. There is a
shared sentiment among leaders in CALL (Lafford 2009; Garrett 2009; Bax 2003;
Thorne 2016; Thorne and Payne 2005; Zheng and Newgarden 2012) that an
indicator of progress for the field will be when CALL is no longer considered a
separate subfield, and instead, the suggestion is that technologies become a normal-
ized part of the everyday practices of L2TL. Future research with the intention of
advancing theory may focus on place-based learning, where learners can deploy both
virtual and real-world resources, and researchers are currently exploring how cog-
nition and communication are arrayed in these hybrid environments.
In a review article, Cowley and Zheng (2011) made a contribution to Linell’s
(2009) theory of dialogism by superimposing the philosophy of Daoism on the
dynamic nature of language on the one hand and code-like representations of
language on the other hand. The authors had no interest in taking sides or debating
the value of competing theories of language as cognitive or social, but, rather,
viewed the world as constantly unfolding from yin to yang and enfolding yang to
yin, constituting the opposite characteristics of duality, e.g., cold–hot,
water–mountain, moon–sun. Each characteristic gives rise to the other and both
interact to achieve the greater whole of Dao. We foresee that future work will include
more diverse perspectives in CALL game studies, especially those from
non-Western perspectives.
The EDD analytical frameworks reviewed here seek to build on techniques such
as multimodal text analysis (Baldry and Thibault 2006), use of a dialogical unit of
analysis such as communicative projects (Linell 2009), and application of the logic
of abductive reasoning (Magnani 2004, 2006). We raised new research questions
Dialogicality, Ecology, and Learning in Online Game Worlds 357
that challenge existing research models. This eclectic methodology can be applied to
new research agendas, e.g., (1) to investigate the affordances of technologies that
support embodiment in new ways, i.e., emerging virtual reality technologies and
integration of touchable, moveable, and even olfactory features in games; (2) to look
at processes of linguistic entrainment, coordination, and resonance (Hutchins 2000)
in investigating L2 learning as a distributed process; and (3) to explore how L2
learners contribute to functional, successful dialogical systems in the play of games
and virtual environments. Finally, EDD presents an ethical call to researchers and
educators to reconsider their subjects, participants, or students as human beings
living in socio-technologically entrenched worlds.
Acknowledgments We are very thankful for Steve Thorne’s thoughtful comments and feedback
which brought clarity and depth to the final version of the manuscript.
Cross-References
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Dialogicality, Ecology, and Learning in Online Game Worlds 359
Frederik Cornillie
Abstract
This chapter addresses the potential of educationally designed game environ-
ments and in particular that of game-generated feedback for encouraging, through
purposeful instructional design, learners’ engagement in the process of develop-
ing skills in a second or foreign language (L2). By reviewing the existing research
literature, it fleshes out the idea that gameful feedback may be a powerful design
element for engendering participant engagement in instructed L2 learning. We
define “engagement in game-based CALL” as learner behavior that is typified by
the following characteristics: (1) it is driven by intrinsic motivation; (2) it is
focused primarily on language meaning and communicative use; and (3) it
involves attention to linguistic form. The chapter reviews pioneer studies on
gameful engagement in CALL, describes recent research that addresses the role
of feedback in relation to designed engagement in CALL, and examines trends in
work in progress such as gamification, as well as problems in current research. We
conclude with challenges and directions for future research.
Keywords
Feedback • Online games • Mini-games • Engagement • Motivation • Computer-
assisted language learning (CALL)
F. Cornillie (*)
KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Kortrijk, Belgium
IMEC, Leuven, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Design Considerations and Descriptive Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Experimental Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Introduction
Today, digital games keep a significant and increasingly diverse audience playfully
engaged in activities that often involve interaction with and through language (e.g.,
Sykes et al. 2008). In recent years, applied linguists have documented language-
mediated play in online, off-the-shelf games (i.e., games not designed for educational
purposes) such as massively multiplayer online roleplaying games (MMORPGs) and
other popular genres. Descriptive, predominantly qualitative studies have shown
how such play induces language users and learners to meaningfully attend to and
appropriate complex game texts in written interaction (e.g., Thorne et al. 2012) as
well as in spoken interaction (e.g., Piirainen-Marsh and Tainio 2009), how play
incentivizes the construction of scientific discourse (Steinkuehler and Duncan 2008),
and how it engages second language (L2) learners in high-stakes communicative
activity with other players, often in plurilingual settings (e.g., Thorne 2008; Zheng
et al. 2012). Next to these descriptive studies, correlational empirical research shows
that frequent gaming in an L2 is associated with (though not a proven catalyst for) L2
proficiency (Kuppens 2010; Sylvén and Sundqvist 2012). Thus, evidence is accu-
mulating which suggests that engagement in an L2 in entertainment-focused,
uninstructed digital game environments is a useful and potentially quite powerful
avenue for naturalistic L2 development.
For language educators, a critical question is how the mechanics of digital games
can be harnessed for inciting learner engagement in instructed L2 learning environ-
ments, particularly in institutionalized settings such as L2 classrooms, with a view to
increasing the effectiveness of games for L2 learning. This question is in line with a rich
tradition of research on instructional design in the field of Computer-Assisted Language
Learning (CALL), which concentrates on “constructing environments purposefully
such that learning does not occur by accident, but through an understanding of the
key factors or variables that impact upon it” (Levy et al. 2015, pp. 3–4). Similarly,
design-oriented studies on game-based L2 learning (Holden and Sykes 2011) focus on
the purposeful and meticulous engineering and evaluation of playful spaces and
conditions that are conducive to effective and efficient L2 learning. Inextricably
bound to the effectiveness of game-based L2 environments is the question of how
engagement can be heightened and/or sustained by careful instructional design.
Educationally Designed Game Environments and Feedback 363
Early Developments
Over the past decade – especially due to the emergence of massively multiplayer
online games – digital game-based language learning has received increasing interest
in the CALL literature (e.g., Cornillie et al. 2012b; Peterson 2010; Reinhardt and
Sykes 2014). In fact, the design of games for instructed language learning goes back
to the early history of CALL. In 1987, for example, Phillips noted that the great
majority of CALL programs developed at that time were designed according to a
paradigm which he termed “the games model” (1987, pp. 276–280). According to
Phillips, such CALL programs distinguish themselves from other language learning
activities in that they are:
1. Intrinsically motivating or self-justifying (i.e., worth playing for their own sake,
rather than for some external reason)
2. Involve some aspect of competition (leading to win or failure states)
3. Driven by a system of rules that constitutes the activity as a particular type of
game and that regulates (i.e., reinforces and penalizes) the possible interactions
Major Contributions
This section provides the rationale for focusing on feedback in the design of
instructed game-based L2 environments with a view to supporting learners’ engage-
ment in the learning process, defined as intrinsically motivated behavior in an L2 that
primarily involves meaningful and communicative L2 use but also attention to
linguistic form. We first formulate design considerations and then review descriptive
research contributions to game-based CALL.
366 F. Cornillie
In their influential paper on the design of digital games for L2 learning and teaching,
Purushotma et al. (2009) argue that feedback should be a primary locus of attention.
They start from the observation that in well-designed off-the-shelf games, players are
typically stimulated to fail rather than to find “correct answers.” They further claim
that spending thought on the design of such failure states in educational L2 games
creates opportunities for providing developmentally useful as well as playful feed-
back that can support both learning and enjoyment.
In line with this paper, we argue that, as a design mechanic, feedback merits
special attention for three reasons. First, it is an indispensable feature of game design
that is hypothesized to support both players’ cognitive development and their
motivation or engagement (Becker 2007). Secondly, numerous studies have shown
that feedback can be developmentally useful, both in educational research (Hattie
and Timperley 2007) and in a wide range of research on L2 learning that focuses
specifically on corrective feedback (for reviews, see Li 2010; Lyster and Saito 2010;
Mackey and Goo 2007). Thirdly, in educational games for L2 learning – as in other
designed L2 learning environments that involve human-computer interaction and are
known as tutorial CALL (e.g., Heift and Schulze 2015) – feedback can be provided
much more systematically than is possible in classroom environments. This is
promising for its effectiveness, as meta-analyses on L2 acquisition research have
revealed significantly larger effect sizes for corrective feedback in more controlled
environments (Li 2010; Mackey and Goo 2007), of which human-computer inter-
action is an exemplary case.
In L2 pedagogy, we often enter into lively debates on how corrective feedback
should be given to learners, particularly because teachers have a plethora of feedback
options available. One popular technique is known as recasting and involves the
(relatively implicit) reformulation of a learner’s sentence that is ungrammatical or
otherwise deviant from the conventions of a target language. Recasting is frequent in
naturalistic (largely implicit) language learning, for instance, when parents correct
children’s speech as well as in communicative interaction in the L2 classroom. In
these situations, language teachers often prefer recasts to more explicit feedback
interventions, as they disrupt the communicative flow to a minimal extent and
potentially correlate with less frustration on the part of learners.
As a result of the predominance of recasting in communicative language learning
situations, designers of instructed gameful L2 environments that aim to primarily
engage learners in meaningful or communicative L2 use may be inclined to imple-
ment implicit corrective feedback strategies such as recasts, mimicking how feed-
back is typically given in naturalistic language learning environments. However, this
tendency resembles what Larsen-Freeman has called the reflex fallacy, i.e., “the
assumption that it is our job to re-create in our classrooms the natural conditions of
acquisition present in the external environment” (2003, p. 20). While this design
approach may protect gameful flow, the resulting problem is that the feedback may
pass unnoticed and that the opportunity to recruit language awareness in an other-
wise meaning-focused context is lost.
Educationally Designed Game Environments and Feedback 367
Experimental Research
transfer knowledge gained during practice to both immediate follow-up tests and
tests completed 1 month after practice. The effects were stronger for learners who
had received metalinguistic explanation as well as on tasks in which learners could
rely on explicit L2 knowledge. Additionally, the effects were more durable for
grammatical constructions that learners engaged with in more meaningful ways
during practice and reading. This study suggests that form focus (through feedback)
can accelerate implicit L2 learning when it is cleverly integrated with meaning focus
in the design of game-based L2 practice tasks.
Work in Progress
decades ago (for discussion, see Cornillie et al. 2012b), but the massive diversifica-
tion of gaming genres, technologies, and player audiences in recent years has only
made this challenge more complex.
On a more detailed level, the concept of game-based feedback also requires more
thorough definition. Just as SLA researchers have managed to disentangle the
different constituents of corrective feedback, thereby uncovering the oversimplifi-
cation in the distinction between “implicit” and “explicit” feedback which was rather
unproductive for the advancement of knowledge (Lyster and Saito 2010),
researchers working on game-based CALL will need to “recognize that feedback
in CALL games is a multidimensional construct, which needs to be taken apart in
order to experimentally examine the effects of its constituents on learners’ percep-
tions, motivation and learning outcomes” (Cornillie et al. 2012a, p. 274).
Considering the lack of conceptual clarity of terms such as “feedback” or
“engagement,” it is critical that researchers look at such complex and often elusive
issues from the perspective of established theories, both in SLA and in related fields,
while remaining sensitive to the specificities of gaming environments. In the field of
SLA, candidate theories for investigating “engagement” include involvement load
theory (Laufer and Hulstijn 2001) and the willingness to communicate model (e.g.,
Reinders and Wattana 2014). Outside of SLA, an intriguing model of game engage-
ment is the needs satisfaction model (Ryan et al. 2006), based on the widely known
motivation model of self-determination theory.
A methodological problem inherent in the research on design elements in game-
based CALL concerns the generalizability of experimental research. Hitherto, exper-
imental studies have often involved prototypes of games rather than games that have
proven their merit in ecologically valid settings. To the benefit of the ecological
validity of research on design elements in game-based L2 learning, one approach is
to use games that are based on theory, pedagogy, and thorough empirical research
and which have proven themselves by being adopted by target audiences and having
passed the test of successful marketability. This would provide the best guarantees
for the generalizability of research findings on game-based L2 learning.
A second methodological problem is that current studies have relied on self-
report data such as interviews or questionnaires in order to examine engagement,
which may be prone to memory bias or may simply be inaccurate – students, for
instance, may respond overly positively to please the researcher. In contrast, behav-
ioral data may yield a more accurate or even different picture of how design elements
impact upon learner engagement. Behavioral data sources include the measurement
of frequency of play over longer periods of time and in relatively uncontrolled
settings or perhaps psychophysiological indices of engagement such as blood
pressure, perspiration, and heart rate (e.g., Ravaja et al. 2006).
Future Directions
We expect that despite currently being hyped in the media, games are here to stay in
the field of language teaching and learning and that language educators and inno-
vators will continue to develop an ever diversifying range of gaming environments
372 F. Cornillie
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374 F. Cornillie
Randall Sadler
Abstract
This chapter examines the state and upcoming developments of virtual worlds
(VWs) in the field of language education. Beginning with an overview of their
historical development, the chapter will continue with a discussion of how VWs
evolved from purely text-based environments to two-dimensional spaces, ending
with the 3D interactive worlds that exist today. A selection of VWs will be
examined for the applicability to language teaching and independent language
learning, followed by a discussion of current challenges and difficulties in using
VWs for these purposes. The chapter concludes with upcoming developments
that will bring these environments into the realm of true virtual reality.
Keywords
Virtual worlds (VWs) • Language learning • Pedagogy • Virtual reality (VR) •
MUD • MOO
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Major Contributions and Works in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Modern Virtual Worlds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Theoretical Justification for VWs in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Virtual Worlds Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
R. Sadler (*)
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
This chapter examines the state and upcoming developments of virtual worlds
(VWs) in the field of language education. Beginning with an overview of their
historical development, the chapter will continue with a discussion of how VWs
evolved from purely text-based environments to two-dimensional spaces, ending
with the 3D interactive worlds that exist today. A selection of VWs will be examined
for the applicability to language teaching and independent language learning,
followed by a discussion of current challenges and difficulties in using VWs for
these purposes. The chapter concludes with upcoming developments that will bring
these environments into the realm of true virtual reality (VR).
Virtual worlds (VWs) are a type of online environment that have a number of
applications for language teachers and learners. The idea of a virtual environment
(VE) is not new. Indeed, online VEs have existed since the very early days of online
networks in the form of online message boards and multiplayer online text-based
games (see below). VWs, as described by Sadler (2012), share the following
characteristics and may be understood as an evolution of these earlier varieties:
• Online 3D environment. This may simulate the real world or exist solely as a
unique online space.
• Avatars. These are the in-world characters representing their players.
• Real-time interactivity. Users interact with other individuals, via their avatars, in
real time in the VW and with objects in that environment.
• 24-h accessibility. When a user leaves a VW space, it continues to exist rather
than turning off.
• Persistence. When a user logs out of a VW, their avatar, and the actions taken by
that avatar, are not deleted.
• Social space. VWs vary greatly in terms of themes and appearance, but they all
exist primarily for social interaction. This is a key difference between VWs and
massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs).
• Numbers. Many VWs have thousands, and sometimes hundreds of thousands, of
users online at the same time.
• Customizable appearance. Most VWs allow users to customize their avatars.
In the following sections, this chapter will examine the early stages and current
major developments in the field, followed by both challenges and future directions in
the use of VWs for language education.
Early Developments
Computer-based VEs as we know them today began in the 1970s with the develop-
ment of text-based games such as Will Crowther’s Colossal Cave Adventure (CCA)
in 1975 and Zork (created by Tim Anderson, Marc Blank, Bruce Daniels, and Dave
Lebling) in 1977. Will Crowther was both an experienced caver in real life and also a
Virtual Worlds and Language Education 377
a program he called MUD or multi-user dungeon. Two years later, Essex University
connected to the ARPANET, and MUD became the first multiplayer “online” role-
play game (Mulligan and Patrovsky 2003), and this game may still be played today
on the British-Legends website (http://www.british-legends.com/CMS/). While the
interface for the game appears quite similar to that of CCA, MUD added a critical
element in the evolution of VWs: other players inhabiting the same game space. This
meant that users were able to communicate, interact, and of course battle and defeat
other players in the game.
A next critical step in the evolution of virtual spaces was the development of
MOOs (MUDs, Object-Oriented) by Stephen White in 1990. While MOOs are still
text-based environments, they added the ability to include object-oriented program-
ming. This meant that the owner/administrator of the MOO, referred to as the Wizard,
could more easily make changes in the environment, including adding new rooms and
objects and could also assign a “builder” role to any player desired. In the 1990s and
through the first decade of next century, MOOs were very popular for educators, and a
number schools and universities joined existing MOOs or created their own. While a
Ph.D. student at the University of Arizona, the author of this chapter joined the Old
Pueblo MOO. This gave me my own room in the MOO (later a suite of rooms) and
the ability for me to add objects into that room. I used the space on the MOO to have
online office hours with my students, with the room acting as a chat room, and also
used my expanded suite to have students engage in MOO-based peer review sessions.
Sadly, very few MOOs still remain, but one exception that may still be found online is
SchMOOze University (http://schmooze.hunter.cuny.edu/).
As the Internet continued to develop in the 1980s, though still largely unknown
by most of the world, online VW as we know them today began to emerge with the
creation of Habitat, produced by Lucasfilm (of Star Wars fame) in 1986 (See Fig. 2).
This VE still used text-based communication but for the first time it also included
a graphical interface that – although primitive by today’s standard – is familiar to
anyone who uses a modern VW or MMORPG. Habitat players took on the form of
avatars in the world and could interact with other individuals and avatars and could
explore 20,000 different regions (Fig. 2 shows one region). The creators of Habitat,
Chip Morningstar and F. Randall Farmer, found that the ability for users to interact
was essential:
At the core of our vision is the idea that cyberspace is necessarily a multiple-participant
environment. It seems to us that the things that are important to the inhabitants of such an
environment are the capabilities available to them, the characteristics of the other people they
encounter there, and the ways these various participants can affect each other (Morningstar
and Farmer 2001, pp. 173–174)
While games had existed for some time prior to 1986 with users controlling
characters in the game, Habitat was the first massively multiplayer online 3D
virtual environment allowing player-to-player interaction via a modern graphical
interface.
Virtual Worlds and Language Education 379
Utherverse 22
Age 20+
Second Life 41
IMVU 120
Weeworld 55
Age 10-13 Ages 13-15 Age 15-20
Doofus 70
Maplestory 140
Minecraft 110
Habbo 295
Stardoll 310
Moshi Monsters 90
Moviestar Planet 182
Poptropica 313
Panfu 29
Age 8-10
Neopets 75
Club Penguin 225
Math Blaster 7
Age 5-8
Boombang 12
Jumpstart 22
While a full examination of theoretical justification for the use of VWs in language
teaching is beyond the purview of this entry, the work of three scholars – two of
whom died long before the advent of VWs – may serve as an overview. John Dewey
found fault with “. . .the ordinary schoolroom, its time-schedules, schemes of clas-
sification, of examination and promotion, and rules of order. . . (Dewey 1939, p. 2).
He described traditional classrooms in much the same way that researchers still see
them today, with the teacher being at the center and students gaining their knowledge
largely from the teacher and textbooks. Dewey saw students in traditional class-
rooms as being largely passive, with knowledge trickling down from the teachers.
He argued instead for a progressive school in which students learn by doing with the
teacher’s role changing from “the position of external boss or dictator” to “that of
leader of group activities” (p. 66). Dewey’s ideal was to get students out of the
traditional classroom and into an environment that could instead provide them with
expanded opportunities for interaction.
The work of Lev Vygotsky, and in particular Mind in Society: The Development of
Higher Mental Processes (Vygotsky 1978), is very often cited in VW research.
382 R. Sadler
Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) is “the distance between the actual
developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of
potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance
or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky 1978, p. 86). Because
Vygotsky argued that human learning was always social in nature, he maintained
that there can be no significant learning without interaction. For both Dewey and
Vygotsky, the role of play is also important. When children engage in play, this
“teaches the child to guide her behavior not only by immediate perception of objects
or by the situation immediately affecting her but also by the meaning of the
situation” (p. 97). For learning language, play allows children to practice speech
without specifically focusing on accuracy and historically established norms of
usage.
David Kolb’s Experiential Learning theory was influenced by both Dewey’s
earlier work and also by Jean Piaget’s work on child development. Experiential
learning, as proposed by Kolb (1984), is based on six key ideas:
For Kolb, an integral part of the learning process is the importance of concrete
experience because only by doing something can a learner then have the opportunity
to reflect on those experiences. Learners must be active participants in the learning
process rather than passive students sitting in a classroom. Following reflection on
their experiences, a learner may begin to form generalizations, and then test those
generalizations in new situations via new concrete experiences.
VWs can aid in both the development of Dewey’s progressive school, Vygotsky’s
ZPD, and Kolb’s experiential learning in several important ways. First, because they
are primarily social in nature, student interactions in VWs are usually active and the
role of the teacher as the “boss” is diminished. One of the most challenging aspects
of the ZPD for language teachers is to find “more capable peers” with whom their
students can practice language. VWs provide instant access to many millions of
users around the world, including native speakers of almost any language that might
be studied in schools. As discussed below, many individuals are already making use
of VWs precisely to find more capable peers with whom to practice language.
Although research into VW in their present 3D form is relatively new, with most of
the published studies dating from 2000 to the present, it is also an area of very active
Virtual Worlds and Language Education 383
examination (see Sadler (2012) for a more thorough overview). The studies men-
tioned below illustrate three key findings that are consistent across VW research:
lessening of anxiety, increases in collaboration, and a merging of reality and the
virtual. Perhaps because the use of an avatar provides a user with something that
functions like a mask in a masquerade party, researchers like Love et al. (2009) have
found that learners may have reduced anxiety in a VW when learning a language
because the use of an avatar helps them to “loosen. . .up a bit. . .” (p. 68). Wehner had
similar results in her case study, finding that her two participants “felt more com-
fortable and confident using Spanish in Second Life when compared with other
situations (e.g., classroom, travel, Facebook, or Skype)” (Wehner 2014, p. 146). An
added explanation for this lowered anxiety may lie in the nature of VW communi-
cation. Since many VWs allow for both text and oral chat, some studies have found
that students appreciate VWs because they may take time to formulate their ideas
before communicating them in text chat (Childress and Braswell 2006).
Other researchers, such as Grant et al. (2013), have examined whether the
technical challenges of a VW might actually result in higher anxiety. They examined
students taking Introductory Chinese at an Australian University who engaged in
lessons in a simulation of a Chinese town created for the study in SL. They found
that not only did those students have a significantly lower level of foreign language
anxiety compared to students studying in a real life classroom, but also “. . .that there
was not a significant inherent level of technical related anxiety, nor did the technical
aspects of interacting in the virtual environment present significant additional levels
of technical anxiety” (p. 7). This finding was echoed by Mroz (2015) in her
examination of students studying French in SL. Her participants found that “the
quality and density of their social interactions had been enhanced by the decreased
anxiety and self-awareness that the anonymity of their avatar afforded them”
(p. 546).
The nature of social interactions in VWs requires some element of cooperation
and collaboration amongst participants whether avatars are building something
together, exploring a simulation (or “sim”) in a group, or engaging in role-play.
Brown and Bell (2004) examined the VW There for a nine-month period and
identified a number of features that were consistent in the environment. In addition
to finding that chat was an integral part of the avatar experience, they also found that
collaboration (and coordination) between avatars was a critical element and that
There “supports a sense of activities being carried out together with others” (p. 357).
This notion is echoed by Price and Rogers (2004), who found that these types of
environments “can support more diverse forms of collaboration, between children
and others” (p. 149). However, it is also important to note that the interaction as part
of the language learning process in a VW may not only be advantageous, but also
problematic. In their research, providing a direct comparison of the perceived
effectiveness of face-to-face and VW instruction, Chen, Siau, and Nah’s students
identified direct instruction (lecture) as less effective in VWs, but the identified
interactive activities and instruction in VWs as being equally effective to similar
activities in a traditional classroom (Chen et al. 2012). It is likely that the very nature
of VWs encourages collaboration because this is one of the primary ways that new
384 R. Sadler
users learn about the environment, how to do things there, and how to act. In keeping
with Vygotsky’s ZPD, this collaborative dynamic allows less experienced users to
accomplish more than they would be able to do so alone. This idea was confirmed by
Bystrom and Barfield (1999), who found that the participants in their VW educa-
tional research were able to complete tasks significantly better when working with a
partner in comparison to working alone.
Another active research area is the merging of the VW with real life. As discussed
above, a VW can lower the anxiety level of learners due to the ability of an avatar to
provide a mask for the learner, but others have discussed the vital connection
between the avatar and user and maintain that “the embodied ‘self’ via avatar is
not the separation of real-world ‘self’; instead, it is the link between the real ‘self’
mind/cognition and the virtual ‘body’ enabling immersion and learning” (Passfield-
Neofitou et al. 2015, p. 723). In essence, the argument is that for the language
learning process, the mind and the avatar become one. Grant et al. (2014) found that
students studying Chinese in a VW setting appreciated the VW interactions in
Chinese as they felt that they would more easily apply that language to real-life
situations in the future. VWs may also be used to provide practice and/or experiences
for students that might not otherwise be available. Roussou (2004) used a VW to
expose participants to settings that simply no longer exist, such as the workshop of
the Ancient Greek sculptor Phedias. Gu et al. (2009) took this focus on architecture
one step further by creating an architectural studio in SL where students designed
and built their own structures that were then judged.
One important question is whether individuals are actually making use of VWs to
learn languages outside of research studies. Sadler (2012) surveyed 237 SL users and
found that 78% of avatars surveyed used another language than their L1 when
communicating in SL at least part of the time. Forty-eight percent of the participants
maintained that using SL had “at least some positive effect” on their proficiency in a
second languages, with approximately 27% responding that SL had helped to
develop another language either “very much” or “some” (p. 94). The survey also
found (see Fig. 5) that, amongst the 202 SL users who were using SL to improve
their language skills, a wide variety of strategies were being utilized (see Fig. 5,
below).
While Sadler’s study examined strategies that individuals used to enhance their
language learning, other research has shown that students engaged in VWs also
engage in “incidental learning” even if they were not asked “to learn or remember
anything” during their time in VW activities (Thomas 2013, p. 112).
As with any area of teaching practice, there are challenges related to teaching and
learning in VW, particularly in the areas of technology and pedagogical practice.
Two of the problems sometimes associated with the use of VWs relate to hardware
issues and insufficient Internet bandwidth. Some VW programs such as SL have
minimum recommendations for processors, RAM, and graphics cards. However,
Virtual Worlds and Language Education 385
Attended a
Read text Joined school in SL,
chat, 71% groups that 8.40%
used the
language , Worked with
73% a tutor, 6.40%
Write text
chat, 50% Listen to
other things,
47%
Read other
things, 55% Speak in
audio chat,
Listen to 47%
audio chat,
83%
these recommendations have actually decreased in scope over the last several years,
with SL now recommending a minimum of 1GB of RAM – substantially less than
the recommendations for Microsoft operating systems. The challenge of adequate
Internet speeds can be a larger challenge depending on the choice of VW. Some VWs
are graphically intensive and require a much larger rate of download and upload than
others. For users with access to more advanced hardware and sufficient Internet
speeds, VWs like SL or – when it is released – Project Sansar can offer a rich
educational experience, including almost limitless customizability of the environ-
ment. However, for users with less advanced technology, there are other VWs,
particularly those that are browser-based (e.g., Club Penguin, Habbo, etc.), that
can still offer opportunities for language practice.
Another concern for teachers making use of VWs is the perception that there is a
high learning curve in order to make best use of virtual settings. For example, users
must practice how to move, go to new areas in a VW, use text or audio chat, share
items, build things (in VWs that allow this), etc. However, even in advanced and
highly customizable VWs, language practice activities may be designed that are
integrated into this learning process so that groups of students form a learning
community as they build their skills (language and VW-related) together. In addition,
just as some VWs have lower technical requirements than others, the learning curve
to enter and “live” in these worlds varies greatly in terms of complexity. Educators
considering the use of a VW should explore a number of them to determine which
one is the best fit for their educational purpose and audience.
A further concern with the use of VWs is the potential exposure of unwanted
behavior to students in those environments. The threat of cyber predators and the
possibility of exposing young users to bullying, inappropriate materials, or other
unwanted behavior are certainly important. However, while these are all quite valid
386 R. Sadler
issues, it is best to think of using a VW as taking a field trip to any one of the great
cities in the world. Anyone who has been to New York, for example, can tell you
that it can be a magnificent city for students and learning with great museums,
theaters, restaurants, and sightseeing. However, there are also many areas in such
a city where it would be very irresponsible to bring students. Once again, any
educator seeking a VW to use with his students should do research on the
environment ahead of time. In the case of young learners, restricted settings on
a privately owned sim in a VW such as OpenSim can provide a very safe and
secure environment, but that safety may come at the cost of creativity or access to
a wider variety of resources.
Future Directions
Virtual worlds have now entered a stage where a shift is occurring towards virtual
reality with the integration of VR headsets into a number of MMORPGs and
VWs such as SL. The inclusion of these headsets is meant to shift the user
perspective from looking at the screen to feeling that they are part of that
scene. Wearing such a headset while interacting in SL (which now includes
support for the Oculus Rift headset) would mean that a user would see anything
their head is oriented to in that VW. Therefore, if a user turns her head and looks
behind her in real life, her avatar will also turn her head in the virtual environ-
ment and see what is behind her in the VW. This type of technology provides a
more fully immersive experience to learners, potentially allowing a language
student to experience being in cities like Paris or Tokyo in a way that has never
before been possible without actually being there.
Other VR headsets like the HTC Vive seek to take this experience even further by
integrating a number of additional features, as seen in Fig. 6.
This VR package includes the traditional headset (center) but also four addi-
tional items: two handheld controllers (bottom) and two base station motion
trackers. This combination of features is designed to allow VEs to track what a
user is doing in real life and translate it to an avatar. In other words, if a user
points at a screen, the motion trackers will detect this motion and transfer that
movement to the avatar in-world. At the time of this publication, no VWs were
supporting Vive, but given that a rapidly increasing number of games are doing
so, it is likely that this will happen in VWs as well. Project Sansar, a new VW
environment currently being developed by Linden Labs, the creators of SL, has
indicated that it will support Oculus Rift, HTC Vive, and potentially other VR
headsets. While the depth of detail picked up by the HTC Vive is not yet clear,
other systems such as the Depthsense cameras by SoftKinetic are designed to
detect and track body movement as well as hand and even finger position and
movement. As these systems become integrated into VW settings, this will allow
learners to become fully integrated into the VR as they manipulate objects
in-world via their real-life motions.
Cross-References
References
Brown, B. & Bell, M. (2004). CSCW at play: ‘There’ as a collaborative virtual environment. Paper
presented at the 2004 ACM conference on computer supported cooperative work, Chicago,
Illinois.
Bystrom, K. E., & Barfield, W. (1999). Collaborative task performance for learning using a virtual
world. Presence, 8(4), 435–448.
Chen, X., Siau, K., & Nah, F. F.-H. (2012). Empirical comparison of 3-D virtual world and face-to-
face classroom for higher education. Journal of Database Management, 23(3), 30–49.
Childress, M., & Braswell, R. (2006). Using massively multiplayer online role-playing games for
online learning. Distance Education, 27(2), 187–196.
Dewey, J. (1939). Experience and education. New York: The Macmillan Company.
Grant, S. J., Huang, H., & Pasfield-Neofitou, S. (2013). Language learning in virtual worlds: The
role of foreign language and technical anxiety. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 6, 1–9.
Grant, S. J., Huang, H., & Pasfield-Neofitou, S. (2014). The authenticity-anxiety paradox: The quest
for authentic second language communication and reduced foreign language anxiety in virtual
environments. Procedia Technology, 13, 23–32.
Gu, N., Gul, L. F., Williams, A., & Nakapan, W. (2009). Second Life—A context for design
learning. In C. Wankel & J. Kingsley (Eds.), Higher education in virtual worlds: Teaching and
learning in Second Life (pp. 159–180). Bingley: Emerald.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
KZero. (2015). KZERO Worldwide. Retrieved March 15, 2015, from http://www.kzero.co.uk/blog/
category/universe-graph/.
Love, E., Ross, S. C., & Wilhelm, W. (2009). Opportunities and challenges for business education
in Second Life. In C. Wankel & J. Kingsley (Eds.), Higher education in virtual worlds: Teaching
and learning in Second Life (pp. 65–82). Bingley: Emerald.
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Morningstar, C., & Farmer, F. R. (2001). Habitat: Reports from an online community. In J. Frenkel
(Ed.), True names and the opening of the cyberspace frontier (pp. 239–330). New York: TOE.
Mroz, A. (2015). The development of second language critical thinking in a virtual language
learning environment: A process-oriented mixed-method study. CALICO Journal, 32(3),
528–553.
Mulligan, J., & Patrovsky, B. (2003). Developing online games: An insider’s guide. Indianapolis:
New Riders.
Passfield-Neofitou, S., Huang, H., & Grant, S. (2015). Lost in Second Life: Virtual embodiment and
language learning via multimodal communication. Educational Technology Research and
Development, 63, 709–726.
Price, S., & Rogers, Y. (2004). Let’s get physical: The learning benefits of interacting in digitally
augmented physical spaces. Computers in Education, 43, 137–151.
Roussou, M. (2004). Learning by doing and learning through play: An exploration of interactivity
in virtual environments for children. AMC Computers in Entertainment, 2(1), 1–23.
Sadler, R. (2012). Virtual Worlds, telecollaboration, and language learning: From theory to
practice. Bern: Peter Lang.
Thomas, W. W. (2013). Incidental learning and virtual worlds. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
University of Alberta, Alberta.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press.
Wehner, A. K. (2014). Exploring the relationship of motivation, anxiety, and virtual worlds in the
experiences of two Spanish language learners: A case study (Unpublished doctoral disserta-
tion). University of South Florida, FL.
In addition to the references cited in the chapter, there are several foundational editing volumes
related to VWs that are either currently published or forthcoming. For those interested in more
research on this topic, the following are highly recommended:
Wankel, C., & Kingsley, J. (Eds.). (2009). Higher education in virtual worlds: Teaching and
learning in Second Life. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
In addition to these book, ReCALL, the Journal of the European Association for Computer Assisted
Language Learning will have a special issue in 2018 on Interactions for language learning in
and around virtual worlds.
Social Networking Sites and Language
Education
Jonathon Reinhardt
Abstract
The use of social networking sites for second and foreign (L2) language learning
and teaching has recently gained attention by practitioners and researchers of
applied linguistics and L2 education. Informed by socially oriented theories of
language learning and computer-assisted language learning (CALL) studies,
researchers have examined L2 learning and its use in non-educational or vernac-
ular sites like Facebook, L2 pedagogy using vernacular sites, and the use of
commercial social networks designed specifically for language learning, like
livemocha. Findings implicate the role of self-organized, autonomous learning
processes, the development of socio-collaborative learning communities, and the
challenges of balancing the learning benefits emergent from the user-driven
agency of everyday use with the demands to meet formal curriculum-driven
objectives. After a brief discussion of influences and definitions, this chapter
examines, analyzes, and synthesizes selected research that illustrates these find-
ings, concluding with problems and future directions.
Keywords
Computer-assisted language learning • Facebook • Social networking sites •
Second language learning • Web 2.0
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Early Developments, Influences, and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
L2 Learning and Use in Vernacular SNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
SNS-Mediated L2 Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
SNSs Designed for Language Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
J. Reinhardt (*)
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
Since its inception, the Internet has facilitated the human behavior of social net-
working – engagement in social activity within a network defined by dyadic and
group relationships. The activity we understand today as online social networking,
typified by use of social networking sites and services (SNSs), like Facebook and
Twitter, has diverse origins in proto-Internet technologies like Usenet and bulletin
board systems, which supported asynchronous discussion and resource sharing, and
graphical webpage software and hosts, which afforded the creation and hyperlinking
of personal homepages. Early services like America On Line and Compuserve
offered users a single interface for accessing newsgroups, sharing information,
and interacting socially with other network users. Starting in the early 2000s,
Friendster, MySpace, LinkedIn, and Facebook launched SNSs that allowed individ-
uals to create profiles, to connect to profiles of other users they knew or wanted to
know in real life, and to share content with them. Unlike that of previous technol-
ogies, the architecture of SNSs utilized Web 2.0 innovations like extensible markup
language (XML) to facilitate user-driven production, evaluation, and resource shar-
ing, stimulating new types of communicative, economic and learning activity. Over
the last decade, with increasing accessibility to broadband and the rise of mobile
technology, SNS use has become everyday linguistic and symbolic practice for
billions around the world in scores of languages (Facebook supports over 70). The
phenomenon has garnered increasing attention among applied linguists and second
and foreign language (L2) learners and educators, who have sought to understand
how this everyday activity might be leveraged for L2 teaching and learning (L2TL)
purposes.
media content, for instance, through blogging (e.g., Tumblr or Wordpress), micro-
blogging (Twitter), social gaming (Farmville or Clash of Clans), photo sharing
(Instagram), reviewing (Yelp or TripAdvisor), or a host of other activities (see
Solis 2015). Confusion arises because social media applications are increasingly
integrated into SNS interfaces or enhanced with SNS features, and different SNSs
emphasize certain features and configurations leading to different styles and
cultures-of-use (Thorne 2003). Different SNSs are popular in different countries –
for example, Mixi in Japan, vKontakte in Russia, and RenRen in China. In addition,
there are a host of commercial SNSs designed specifically for language learning
(SNSsLL), like LiveMocha, Busuu, or Babbel, each with its own design.
As SNS use has become global and mainstream, academia has taken interest. In a
review of over 400 studies on Facebook, Wilson et al. (2012) identified five major areas
of research focus: descriptive analysis of users, motivations for using Facebook, identity
presentation, the role of Facebook in social interactions, and privacy and information
disclosure. Education scholars (e.g., Selwyn 2008) have argued that SNSs can facilitate
the development of collaborative and participatory learning communities, as well as
opportunities for informal and unstructured learning. In line with social science and
general education, L2TL researchers and practitioners have also explored SNS use in L2
education – both vernacular SNSs like Facebook and Twitter and SNSsLL like
Livemocha. There has been a notable increase in publications and presentations on the
topic, in both technology-oriented and more general language education and applied
linguistics journals, as well as in special journal issues (e.g., Demaizière and Zourou
2012) and edited volumes (e.g., Lamy and Zourou 2013; Lomicka and Lord 2009). The
research has diverse origins in, and influences from, CALL scholarship focused on the
social and cultural qualities of formal and naturalistic online language use and interaction,
especially computer-mediated collaborative learning (e.g., Warschauer and Kern 2000),
intercultural communication, sociopragmatics, situated learning, and identity develop-
ment and self-presentation (e.g., Lam 2000). Perhaps because of the obvious connection,
the “social turn” in SLA has had considerable influence on SNS research, and theoretical
approaches used in current L2TL research often originate in socially informed frame-
works (e.g., Atkinson 2011). Commensurate with these frameworks, techniques and
methods have ranged from attitudinal surveys and frequency analysis to CMC discourse
analysis and ethnographic case studies. As has become the norm in CALL research on
new technologies, initial work has tended to be theoretically agnostic, descriptive, and
focused on potentials. However, as SNS technology has matured and become main-
stream, researchers have begun to analyze its use and pedagogical application empiri-
cally, with more rigorous theoretical and methodological frameworks, often adapted from
fields outside of traditional L2TL and applied linguistics.
Major Contributions
Research to date has had three general foci with complementary goals: L2 learning
and use in vernacular SNS, SNS-mediated L2 pedagogy, and the use of commercial
SNSsLL. The purpose of the first is not only to inform both SNS pedagogy and
392 J. Reinhardt
SNSLL design but also to inform the study of autonomous and naturalistic L2 use
and learning more broadly. The goal of research with the second focus is to leverage
the motivational and situated nature of everyday SNS use for L2 learning purposes
and to integrate SNSs into formalized pedagogical structures more effectively, as
well as to inform the study of CALL pedagogy more broadly. Finally, research on
SNSsLL seeks to understand how SNSsLL design integrates social network mechan-
ics with pedagogical structures and how designs impact learner-user experiences.
One common focus in the study of L2 learning and use in vernacular SNSs like
Facebook is on the role of user agency and the diversity of user practices under what
might seem to be common conditions, giving heed to Thorne’s (2003) sociocultural
notion of cultures-of-use or “the historically sedimented characteristics that accrue to
a CMC tool from its everyday use” (p. 40). For example, Mitchell (2012) profiled the
experiences of nine adult ESL learners who used Facebook over 4 weeks. Coming
from a variety of L1s, proficiency levels, and education levels, her participants
exhibited notable variety in how they used the SNS to meet diverse individual
goals, which included establishing new and maintaining home relationships, gaining
exposure to English, and learning about US culture. While some goals, like meeting
new friends, proved difficult, the participants met others by utilizing site affordances,
such as maintaining privacy and managing audiences through customized settings or
compensating for linguistic proficiency by extensive use of visual media.
Related to agency, another emerging theme is recognition of SNSs as arenas for
self-presentation and identity negotiation and the unique transcultural and hybrid
qualities of these processes among L2 learners and multilingual users. Research with
this theme often hearkens to Lam’s work (e.g., 2000) on the online identity devel-
opment of L1 Chinese immigrant teenagers. For example, Pasfield-Neofitou (2011),
using a social realism lens that views “social action as shaped by an interplay of
social and systemic phenomena” (p. 95), examined the long-term use of a variety of
SNS tools by learners of Japanese and their individual networks. She found that
language choice in different SNS contexts varied according to user perception of
audience and cultural practice; for example, English was preferred in Facebook,
while Japanese was preferred in Mixi. In a finding that supports transcultural,
dynamic views of identity, participants were found to use their Japanese learner
and English speaker identities as strategic affordances for learning and interaction
(see also Klimanova and Dembovskaya 2013, below). Speaking to agency, the
researcher also found that learners recognized the general benefits of virtual immer-
sion and the affordances of different SNS and online tools for learning particular
linguistic domains.
Another related theme is the capacity of SNSs as user-driven environments for
socialization. To illustrate, Chen (2013) examined how two L1 Chinese students
studying in the USA projected their identities in Facebook over 2 years through
“deliberate choices and appropriations of language, discourse, social role, and
Social Networking Sites and Language Education 393
projection of cultural values and beliefs” (p. 145). Chen showed how one student’s
increase in English language information sharing over time demonstrated a growing
awareness of her audience and development of an expanded multilingual identity,
while the other student’s increase in status updates in Chinese demonstrated her
growing reliance on home relationships for social interaction.
While not focused on L2 education, Androutsopoulos’ (2014) sociolinguistics
work offers insight into the linguistic and interactional processes involved in SNS
use. Using concepts from superdiversity and audience design theories, he shows that
the multiple audiences facing an SNS user afford “context collapse,” resulting in
multilingual and multimodal language style strategies that localize, maximize, and
partition audiences. Implications are that online conversation norms vary consider-
ably from offline norms and that language style and choice in SNS contexts may be
shaped by the tension between needs for both intimacy and publicness in online
interaction. Androutsopoulos’s study represents the sort of work to which
researchers and practitioners of L2TL in SNS might turn for interdisciplinary
cross-pollination, for example, as a framework for analysis of SNS-mediated L2
learner interaction.
SNS-Mediated L2 Pedagogy
While many people are learning languages informally and perhaps formally with
vernacular SNSs, many are also using SNSsLL – SNSs designed specifically for
language learning purposes. Definitional issues again come to the fore with SNSsLL,
396 J. Reinhardt
since most are combinations of self-study tutorials enhanced with social network
features, and as commercial products, they evolve, impacting user-learner experi-
ences. As of this writing, older SNSsLL like Livemocha and Palabea have gone
defunct, but Speaky has just started. Regarding more established SNSsLL, Lang-
8 claims 750,000 members, Babbel claims 20 million, and Busuu claims 50 million.
Most of these sites have yet to be examined objectively and empirically by L2LT
researchers; the fact that Livemocha was the most researched but is now defunct
illustrates why researchers may not want to commit resources to their analyses.
Findings from SNSsLL research mostly critique site design through usability
testing and show that most users are often well aware of poor design and when social
networking features do not afford L2 learning. For example, poor profile design may
lead to the inability for other users to know whether a fellow user is truly qualified as
an expert or if he is just looking for a good time (Stevenson and Liu 2010). Findings
echo those of research on vernacular SNS-mediated L2 use, learning, and pedagogy
– that SNSs may afford the practice of identity and agency and the development of
socio-collaborative learning through the processes of socialization but with the
added point that site design should actively support these activities as they relate
to language learning. Implications speak to whether and to what degree independent,
autonomous L2 learning within these sites can leverage the ecological affordances of
informal vernacular SNS-mediated learning, while seamlessly incorporating more
formal and potentially effective, instructional practices.
In a relatively early descriptive piece, Harrison and Thomas (2009) traced the
experiences of six L2 learners who used Livemocha. Utilizing Boyd and Ellison’s
(2007) conceptualization of SNS identity, the researchers found that the site design
supported self-presentation, network management, community participation, and
ultimately L2 learning in ways that appealed to some but not all participants. The
authors imply that socio-collaborative L2 learning can only emerge in SNSsLL if
sites afford learners individualized means to cultivate, manage, and develop identi-
ties and networks over periods longer than a semester. Similarly, Clark and Gruba
(2010) also evaluate Livemocha features but do so by describing their own experi-
ences using the site to learn L2 Korean and Japanese. While some features led to
motivation, like making friends or successful task completion, others led to frustra-
tion and demotivation, like boring and repetitive grammar-translation drills, usability
issues, and a sense of doing busy work.
Another research strand has examined how resourceful learners may use SNSsLL
successfully, perhaps in spite of site design. For example, framing development of
sociopragmatic competence as a matter of language socialization, Gonzales (2013)
uses conversation analysis to examine how an L2 Spanish learner manages rapport in
Livemocha. While the site’s chat tool includes supportive resources like a translator,
a keyboard with non-English characters and emoticons, and a list of suggested
topics, the learner did not use these and instead successfully established rapport
with his interlocutor through humor, small talk, textualized paralanguage, and shared
cultural reference.
Research on specific elements of SNSsLL design holds the most promise for truly
informing improved iterations, especially when it correlates those elements directly
Social Networking Sites and Language Education 397
Future Directions
One direction forward is to focus on where SNSs differ from previous Internet
technologies and concomitant social paradigm shifts. Drawing from O’Reilly’s
conceptualization of Web 2.0 as both technological and ideological (Musser et al.
2007; in Zourou 2012), Zourou maintains that the ethos emerging from new
SNS-mediated socio-communicative interactions, social configurations, and socio-
literacies deserve closer attention – an ethos of user participation focused on sharing
and reuse, the open source ethos afforded by Web 2.0 architecture, and a new ethos
of social value and capital emerging from network effects like virality and social
network “echo chamber” effects. New social media-enhanced expressions of soci-
ality, literacy, culture, ownership, authenticity, production, consumption, democracy,
and civic participation require new understandings of language use as subject to
mediatization (Lundby 2009). They, in turn, compel the need for evolving critical
approaches to language education that recognize and forefront this ubiquitous and
everyday way of interacting and making meaning as central to language use and
learning.
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Twitter and Micro-Blogging and Language
Education
Lara Lomicka
Abstract
Over the past decade, Twitter has grown significantly in its popularity and has also
migrated into educational contexts. Although the use of Twitter and micro-
blogging has risen steadily, research exploring its potential in L2 learning has
been relatively limited. This chapter provides an overview of microblogging in L2
contexts, which began in 2009 (for a critical analysis of work done on Twitter from
2009 to 2016, please see Hattem and Lomicka, E-Learning and Digital Media
(Sage Publications), 1–19, 2016). It also provides insight into the development of
Twitter as well as the major contributions that Twitter has made to L2 contexts. L2
acquisition research has been varied in approach, task, and with different levels of
learners, but to date, it has been largely inconclusive. Early studies primarily
examined tweets at the surface level, including frequency and type. Subsequent
studies have shown that Twitter enhanced student engagement and improved
communication between teachers and students. More recently, research using
Twitter in L2 contexts has tended to focus on the areas of student production of
tweets and student analysis of tweets. While the production of tweets can increase
students’ L2 output, the analysis of tweets exposes students to L2 input. Research
has also looked at the use of Twitter to facilitate community within the language
classroom. As microblogging continues to emerge in education and is becoming
more prevalent in language learning contexts, future work could focus on the use
of hashtags, microfiction, and corpora use in Twitter. As the field is emerging, the
focus should remain on how learning occurs in microblogging-enhanced environ-
ments, what specific factors affect the learning processes, and how to support
effective learning in such environments.
L. Lomicka (*)
The University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Keywords
Twitter • Microblogging • Language learning • Social media • Education • Tweets
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Introduction
Over the past decade, Twitter has grown significantly in its popularity and now ranks
close to Facebook in terms of social media use. Smith (2015) estimates that 302 mil-
lion active monthly users are on Twitter, which includes 100 million daily users. With
the exponential growth of microblogging, it has also migrated into educational
contexts. In fact, Shweiki media (2014) reports that 80% of college students use
Twitter, which comes in just behind Facebook (95%). The use of Twitter is on the rise
in academia, including among university professors, who, according to Rogers
(2013), are increasingly using twitter in education as it contributes to a more
engaging learning environment. Symmons (2013), for example, in a study conducted
on how professors use Twitter, found that as a teaching tool, Twitter was not as
popular as other social media tools in the classroom. She indicates that professors use
Twitter more as a source for gaining knowledge, external information, and to stay up
to date in their fields of study and expertise. However, Symmons also suggests that
Twitter use in the classroom is steadily on the rise. The role of Twitter as a learning
tool has shown potential in myriad ways over the last few years. For example, various
studies have suggested that microblogging can provide ways for learning to take
place out of the classroom, to serve as a tool for collaborating with experts (Lord and
Lomicka 2014; Wesely 2013), for enabling access and mobility (Antenos-Conforti
2009), to support authenticity in learning (Lomicka and Lord 2012), for fostering
student engagement and involvement (Raguseo 2010), to serve as a knowledge
sharing tool (Dennen and Jiang 2012), and that Twitter is participatory, authentic,
and immediate (Antenos-Conforti 2009).
Studies that have documented the role of Twitter in language learning have
focused primarily on language production (Antenos-Conforti 2009; Castrillo de
Larreta-Azelain 2013; Hattem 2014; Lomicka and Lord 2012), student perceptions
of Twitter (Antenos-Conforti 2009; Lomicka and Lord 2012; Perifanou 2009), target
language practice (Lomicka and Lord 2012; Fewell 2014), building second language
(L2) vocabulary (Fornara 2015; Montero-Fleta et al. 2015), teacher education and
Twitter and Micro-Blogging and Language Education 403
Early Developments
Although the use of Twitter and microblogging has risen steadily over the last few years,
research exploring its potential in L2 learning has been limited. Early developments in
microblogging in L2 settings date to 2009 (see also Hattem and Lomicka 2016) and
have primarily examined tweets at the surface level, whether through frequency counts
as a way to develop competence or through community building. The next section
outlines some of the early contributions of Twitter to language learning.
In Twitter’s early stages of development, the first contribution to microblogging in
the L2 setting was a study conducted by Antenos-Conforti (2009), who looked at
microblogging practices in an intermediate Italian classroom. In her innovative study,
22 students enrolled in university-level Intermediate Italian tweeted during one
semester. Data were collected included tweets (documenting frequency and distribu-
tion), a Likert questionnaire, and a follow-up free-response questionnaire. Based on
her results, Antenos-Conforti suggested that the incorporation of Twitter can extend
the physical classroom as it provides a space encouraging participation and fostering
a sense of community. In another early study, Perifanou (2009) conducted research
using Edmodo (as a microblogging tool) in an Italian language class with 10 second
year students. Tweets were analyzed for frequency counts and from a sociocultural
perspective. Details of the coding and analysis were not provided. Results (primarily
from the questionnaires) indicate that that student response was extremely positive
and that microblogging increased collaboration, motivation, and participation and
had a positive effect on learning outcomes. In a larger study, Borau et al. (2009)
examined tweets from 90 ESL students enrolled in an online college course for a
period of 7 weeks. In all, students produced 5580 tweets, which were analyzed for
communicative and cultural competence by way of a questionnaire and content
analysis. Details of the coding framework and analysis were not provided. Borau,
Ullrich, Feng, and Shen claimed that students responded positively to Twitter,
establishing its status as a suitable tool for developing communicative and cultural
competence anytime, anywhere, without the need for face-to-face interaction.
In addition to serving as a tool to foster student language production, micro-
blogging also has the potential to foster a sense of community within and beyond the
walls of the classroom – to learn, share, reflect, and communicate. Kolowich (2011)
cites the work of a professor who used Twitter to encourage students to talk with a
class at a different institution: “students to talk about what’s going on in their lives in
the moment, and share that with the other class” (para. 5). While the language
professor specifically comments that Twitter does not replace traditional language
404 L. Lomicka
instruction in the classroom, she adds that it does help to build community and to
extend learning outside of the classroom as it encourages students to use the target
language more often. Finally, Dervin (2009) suggests the Twitter has the potential to
aid in the development of reading, writing, listening, and speaking as well as to boost
task-based learning, and promote intra- and intercultural discussion among students.
While there was clearly an interest in using and conducting research with Twitter in
the L2 setting in early work, this research shows minimal use of theoretical frame-
works and methods regarding how to analyze Tweets and how to clearly and
consistently report the data.
Major Contributions
Recent research using Twitter in L2 contexts has generally focused on the areas of
student production of tweets and student analysis of tweets. While the production of
tweets increases students’ L2 output, the analysis of tweets exposes students to L2
input. Another area of research includes how Twitter can be used to facilitate
community within the language classroom.
We will first look at the studies that focus on the production of tweets by L2
learners. As mentioned earlier, Antenos-Conforti (2009) was the first to conduct a
study on the use of Twitter in the L2 setting. Her work set the path for future research
as an example of how students could potentially facilitate acquisition by providing
both input and output with an online audience. She notes that such exchange allows
for opportunities for negotiation of meaning as well as “good interaction” (Chapelle
1998, p. 24) in that communication goes beyond simply that which is unidirectional
(ibid, p. 24). While Antenos-Conforti’s study primarily reports on student responses
to the questionnaires, her work also provides basic data on both the frequency and
distribution of tweets, which were either reply tweets or status updates. Although
Antenos-Conforti did discuss some of the content in the tweets, a formal content
analysis was not performed. Hattem (2012) also looks at input, output, and interac-
tion through structured grammatical tasks to encourage noticing using the Twitter.
Forty-nine students participated in the 7-week study. Over 3500 tweets were col-
lected and analyzed with Corpus of Tweets. Additionally, questionnaires were
administered on input, output, and interaction and on automaticity. Findings suggest
that the use of Twitter helped to increase noticeability in input, output, and interac-
tion; Hattem further reports that microblogging represented an appropriate forum for
practice and memorization.
Another major contribution to microblogging research was a project conducted by
Lomicka and Lord (2012); they explored the use of Twitter among intermediate level
French learners, who used the tool to communicate with each other and with native
speakers of French. In this study, students both produced tweets and read tweets
produced by native speakers. Data were collected by way of surveys and tweets.
While survey data elicited some noteworthy attitudinal trends, content analysis
provided more compelling data (following Rourke et al. 2001). A framework used
to code tweets for social presence (1004 indicators, such as humor, emotion,
Twitter and Micro-Blogging and Language Education 405
agreement, and inclusive pronouns), which allowed the researchers to see whether
Twitter might be an appropriate tool for building community in the L2 classroom.
Researchers observed evidence of both cultural and linguistic gains and received
positive feedback from students with regard to their reactions to the project. Results
suggest that Twitter is capable of both building community and establishing social
presence, which was demonstrated largely through affective and interactive
indicators.
In a study by Castrillo de Larreta-Azelain (2013), who investigated learner
attitudes toward using Twitter in collaborative writing in German classes, students
produced tweets for writing practice. Using a mixed-methods study, Castrillo de
Larreta-Azelain used various sources of data, including a pre- and postquestionnaire
and tweets. Findings suggest that students were able to create a new learning
community and the Twitter task allowed students to develop writing competence.
While the researcher did perform a content analysis, coding procedures and frame-
works were not mentioned explicitly in the study. Castrillo de Larreta-Azelain’s work
does affirm, however, that learners, who self-reported on their participation in the
task, improved their German writing skills.
More recently, Fornara (2015) examined whether an instructor who models L2
usage might affect students’ use of L2 on Twitter. Ninety-three students taking Italian
2 were included in control and experimental groups and tweeted during an academic
semester. Tweets were tallied and analyzed via tweetdownload.net and pre- and
postsurveys were administered. Results presented both the number of new vocabu-
lary items and grammar structures used in tweets and results were not significant;
however, students indicated that Twitter was a useful tool and that it provided them
with additional opportunities to practice vocabulary and grammar. Results also found
that the presence of a co-tweeting instructor did not significantly influence linguistic
features used by students.
While prior contributions (Antenos-Conforti 2009; Lomicka and Lord 2012;
Hattem 2014; Fornara 2015) have looked at the tweets written and produced by
students, more recent work has looked at how students analyze tweets. For example,
two studies by Blattner et al. (2015a, b) provide an analysis of how learners identify
various lexical items such as abbreviations and of how English words are used
differently in various tweets from different native speaker tweeters. This contribution
also investigates students’ use of Twitter at the beginning levels of language learning,
unlike many previous studies where the focus was on the intermediate and advanced
level. In the study by Blattner et al. (2015a), participants were asked to analyze
authentic French tweets produced by well-known native speakers (NS). The analysis
focused on two features of cross-cultural pragmatics: (a) the use of abbreviations and
(b) nonce and established borrowings from English. Data were analyzed by the
regular distribution of a questionnaire which targeted various pragmatic variables
through a series of guided questions. Participants took screenshots of NS tweets and
then analyzed the tweets. Results indicated that a number of breakdowns occurred in
situations where students were able to identify but not contextually decipher high-
frequency abbreviations and novel English borrowings. In addition to serving as a
production-based tool, this study is significant in that it demonstrates that Twitter can
406 L. Lomicka
also be used as an effective and “appropriate venue to assist students in the compre-
hension of cross-cultural pragmatics and the development of digital literacy skills”
(Blattner et al. 2015a, p. 227).
Blattner et al. (2015b) analyzed students’ understanding of 380 French tweets via
a linguistic analysis; data were also collected by means of a pre and post survey.
Students were enrolled in first and second semester university level French. As part of
the linguistic analysis, students were asked to identify English borrowings in each
tweet they analyzed. The task of identifying English in tweets caused students to
realize how prevalent English is in social media and especially in French-speaking
countries. Next, there were 19 unidentified English words among first-semester
participants versus 30 among second-semester participants, revealing a higher ten-
dency among more experienced French learners to interpret words presented in a
French context as established French lexical items, rather than scanning each item for
a counterpart in their native English. Finally, participants identified English words
and expressions at similar rates, but in the case of false cognates, second-semester
participants showed a greater tendency toward recognizing their language-specific
values.
Aside from investigating input, output, and meaningful interaction, Hattem’s
(2014) qualitative study is of particular importance as it looks at language play
using Twitter in the L2 setting and uses a case study design. Hattem followed three
participants who used Twitter as part of an intensive, ESL high advanced grammar
course. Looking for examples of ludic language play in tweets, Hattem analyzed and
coded tweets for characteristics of CMC coherence. He found that during the 7-week
session, students did use language play (repetition, joking, insulting, improvisational
word games, foreign words and references, imaginary worlds, and carnival language)
and they created their own learning contexts. Hattem argues that the three participants
did not just perform that task designed for them but rather co-constructed their own
activities and as a result directed their educational and social goals, which he
characterizes as “expansive learning” (p. 167).
The aforementioned contributions to research on Twitter in L2 contexts ranged
from using tweets to facilitate input and output, build community, and assess student
attitudes to student analysis of native speaker tweets and language play. These studies
provide a solid foundation from which to design and carry out future work. While a
variety of methodologies and interpretive frameworks were used, future research
would benefit from stronger methodologies, including more examples of productive
analytic approaches and coding procedures.
Work in Progress
Although research using Twitter is only in its beginning stages, Twitter has been used
in a variety of innovative ways for students to produce language and thus facilitate
participation, target language practice outside of the classroom, to build community,
and to target specific grammar, vocabulary and/or pronunciation learning. Current
Twitter and Micro-Blogging and Language Education 407
research has also used Twitter as a means for students to gain exposure to NS input
and to analyze sociopragmatic elements of the target language.
There are a number of emerging projects that show potential for future micro-
blogging research and that provide divergent avenues for creative activity in micro-
blogging. First, similar to work done by Fornara (2015), in that the instructor
distributes content related tweets, Mompean and Fouz-González (2016) examine
the role of Twitter on students’ participation and pronunciation. Sixteen EFL students
from a language school in Spain participated in this project, which involved several
steps: a pretest oral task with targeted stimuli and questionnaire, a battery of tweets
(distributed by the instructor to the students during 27 days and targeting pronunci-
ation), and a posttest interview and final questionnaire. Participants were also asked
to confirm reading tweets by posting a short response. Specifically, the researchers
attempted to facilitate active participation and to use Twitter to serve as a pronunci-
ation tool for ELS lexical items that are commonly mispronounced. Empirical results
(counts, content analysis) suggest that the use of Twitter did encourage participation
(reading comment rate of 82.4%) and that there was a beneficial effect on students’
pronunciation of the targeted lexical items (gain rate of 75.2%).
In addition to using Twitter as a tool to facilitate pronunciation, recent work
explores ways of using microfiction with microblogging. While not unique to
language learning, Twitter is being used as a platform for creating student-generated
microfiction literacy projects where students publish 140 word (or less) literary
narratives while engaging in real-time storytelling. As Ragueso clarifies, Twitter
fiction comprises an “original, self-contained work of fiction in each tweet published
by a Twitter user” (2010, n.p.). Fitzgerald (2013), in discussing Twitter fiction in a
TedTalk, reminds the audience of the emergence of the first episodes on radio and
then discusses how we can embrace new formats as we tell stories to today’s
audiences. In thinking about language specific contexts, students can create virtual
spaces in language class for stories where feedback is immediate, and students can be
pulled into stories, roles, and identities, leading to creative experimentation with new
formats for storytelling. In addition to Twitter fiction, other literary projects such as
Complete da Tweet (https://twitter.com/CompleteDaTweet) could be adapted to
language specific tasks for students at varying levels of language learning. Short
stories that were written with Twitter in mind, such as “Blackbox,” provide examples
of how Twitter can be successful with the distribution of serialized tweets. While to
date there is a paucity of research that documents this trend in the language class-
room, it does hold the potential for future pedagogical innovation and L2 research.
Finally, work on hashtags (#) is also in beginning to surface in the field. For
example, Solmaz (in press) uses an ecological framework to explore the potential of
hashtags, where hashtags are convention markers for annotating the content of
tweets. Using an autoethnographic approach, he analyzes his own Twitter experi-
ences in his target language during a 6-month period. He examines hashtags both
qualitatively and quantitatively and suggests that they can create affiliation with
target language speakers, allow students to better reach out to native speakers in
their communities, and join in on authentic conversations. Blattner et al. (2016)
investigate how French language learners in three different second and third year
408 L. Lomicka
French courses (intermediate and advanced levels) understand and interpret hashtags
using Twitter. Their study sheds light on how microblogging may provide an
authentic yet dynamic context that enhances the language learning experience
while developing students’ multiliteracy skills in a L2. Data from 18 students were
examined, including 579 analyzed tweets, 171 of which contained hashtags. Results
suggest that language learners tend to glance over the hashtags and make guesses
based on the information contained in them. Emerging research on microblogging
and pronunciation, twitter fiction, and hashtags hold the potential for interesting and
creative work in future language research.
For most students today, the use of Twitter is ubiquitous; it is also on the radar of most
educators. However, Twitter has not been without its share of challenges in the
educational setting. While some criticize Twitter for being a distraction in education,
the challenge is to ascertain whether Twitter can be used in meaningful ways in the
classroom and if it can facilitate language learning and communication in the L2
context. Ideas for use of Twitter in language contexts continue to emerge and evolve.
One challenge to the effective use of Twitter in the language classroom is finding
tasks that are solid and pedagogically innovative for both smaller and larger class-
room settings. For example, Professor of French Carolyn Shread integrates Twitter
feeds into Moodle with students in advanced elementary and intermediate level
French classes. To engage students in their viewing of 52 textbook videos, students
are each given characters from the video series. Students then posted about their
character’s private thoughts, lives, and activities throughout the semester, which
added a “playful and creative element to their learning” (Shread, 2015,
[email protected], personal e-mail communication). According to Shread,
students find the task engaging and challenging. Marshall (2015), who teaches
large lecture classes, finds ways to incorporate Twitter by using it as a way to facilitate
starter questions at the beginning of class. This use of microblogging engages
students to communicate both with the instructor and with each other during
in-class face-to-face sessions. Both examples show ways that Twitter can be used
effectively for teaching different types of classes and for diverse tasks. Another
challenge for those using Twitter is finding an effective yet creative use of hashtags
for both microblogging tasks and for research. Hashtags can be used in myriad ways,
such as to help connect learners, to examine engagement rates of tweets, to model
authenticity, and to promote communication. Tasks could ask students to follow and
analyze how hashtags are being used by native speakers and delve into socio-
pragmatic understanding of meaning in the tags. Little research in language learning
(see Solmaz in press; Blattner et al. 2016) has been conducted with hashtags on
Twitter, and it would be interesting to see the number and types of hashtags that
Twitter and Micro-Blogging and Language Education 409
Future Directions
With the breadth of research on Twitter that has been conducted in the last decade, the
focus for the future should turn to depth and to further exploring the development
potential of Twitter use in L2 contexts (see also Hattem and Lomicka 2016). Studies
exploiting media coupled with tweets are just beginning to emerge (see Mompean
and Fouz-González 2016). Mompean and Fouz-González call for more research
addressing the types and content of tweets in order to exploit differences between
tweets that include both text and audio or video/images. Following the research
conducted by Mompean and Fouz-González (2016) and that of Fornara (2015), there
is also a need for more investigation of microblogging that is both instructor-led with
student responses where Twitter is used either to ask questions and/or provide
information to students. Differences in acquisition rate of items that are sent in a
single tweet and items that are sent in several tweets could also be examined as part of
this work.
410 L. Lomicka
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Part V
Methods and Methodologies in Technology
and Language Education
Computer-Mediated Communication
and Conversation Analysis
Abstract
An increasing number of researchers use conversation analysis (CA) methodol-
ogy to investigate interactional dimensions of computer-mediated communica-
tion (CMC) and their impact on language and learning. While there is a
significant body of CA research focusing on naturally occurring telephone and
face-to-face conversation, researchers’ attention since the late 1990s has shifted to
new contexts where communication between human beings is mediated by
computers. This chapter is focused on CA research in the educational sphere,
where participants are using an additional or a foreign language. CA research on
human interaction developed robust analytical tools to identify and understand
the unique interactional resources which are available to users in technologically
mediated contexts. In particular, researchers are able to draw on previous CA
research on face-to-face and telephone interaction to explore affordances and
constraints of new technologies for learning, and how users use language to adapt
to new and evolving interactional contexts. This chapter will therefore provide a
brief overview of early CMC and CA research on technologically mediated
interaction. Following this overview, major contributions where CA is systemat-
ically applied to computer-mediated talk will be presented, focusing specifically
on findings related to language and interaction in L2 educational settings.
Keywords
Conversation analysis • computer-mediated communication • second language
learning • conversational repair • intercultural talk
V. Tudini (*)
Research Centre for Languages and Cultures, School of Communication, International Studies and
Languages, Adelaide, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
A.J. Liddicoat
Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Related Articles in the Encyclopedia of Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Introduction
Early Developments
Major Contributions
Given the central objective of developing speaking skills and intercultural commu-
nicative competence in languages programs, it is unsurprising that teachers and
researchers of second language acquisition began experimenting with possibilities
for interaction and learning offered by CMC. Connectivity of language learners with
expert speakers of the target language was an especially promising feature of CMC
in countries that are geographically distant from the target language and culture.
However, most CMC research to date has focused on what affordances are provided
by CMC for language acquisition, and there is currently little work which examines
the interactional features of online conversations, whether text, voice, or video,
between L1 and L2 speakers. Kern and Liddicoat (2008) point out that language
learners need opportunities to engage in interaction if they are to become participants
in communities of use and develop their capacity to communicate in and through the
target language. Technologically mediated interactions are clearly an opportunity for
language use and participation in communities of use; however, they require further
microanalytic investigation based on previous CA work on face-to-face interaction
between L1 and L2 speakers (e.g,. Kasper 2004; Markee 2000).
Over the last 15 years, CA has been applied to L2 contexts to “understand and
explicate how language is used as it is being acquired through interaction” (Firth
and Wagner 1997, p. 768). In addition to providing new insights on SLA processes
in face-to-face contexts, Firth and Wagner’s (1997) critique provided a major
impetus for the application of CA to a range of online L2 interaction contexts,
including spoken, written, synchronous, or asynchronous modes. Unlike previous
studies of online L2 learning, CA investigations adopt an emic or participant-
relevant perspective (see Firth and Wagner 1997, for a detailed discussion) to
understand how specific technological contexts shape interaction and language
learning, as invoked by users during interaction.
420 V. Tudini and A.J. Liddicoat
Work in Progress
2015 (Statista 2015). This platform offers users multiple interactional choices from a
temporal perspective, with asynchronous interaction as the dominant mode for one
to many multiparty communication, and quasi-synchronous for private one-to-one or
small group chat. However, in these environments users no longer rely solely on text
and emoticons to interact, as occurred in early forms of text chat described above.
With the advent of Web 2.0, written interaction has become multimodal with a
variety of embedded semiotic devices, including photos and YouTube videos, which
have specific interactional functions according to recent CA research on Facebook in
Italian (Farina in press). For example, in his study of sequential organization of
Facebook wall threads, Farina (in press) found that first posts were designed by users
to project multiple responses, including “likes” from “friends,” and that these posts
may be composed with text, video, and photos, on their own or in combination.
Friends in fact oriented to the first post in a thread as the first pair part of an
adjacency pair, by responding with relevant second pair parts, and often ignored
posts of other users in the thread. While this study does not specifically deal with
affordances of multimodal interaction for learning, it has learning implications,
especially for language programs, as it suggests that interactional features of
Facebook are fundamentally different from face-to-face, and need to be integrated
by teachers as a specific type of written interaction task, rather than a spoken
conversational task. CA research on multimodal multilingual written interaction,
where users are using an additional or foreign language, has barely started and is
likely to have implications for learning.
The analysis of CMC using CA, in education or other settings, raises some key
difficulties at both a conceptual and analytic level that need to inform thinking about
the ways interaction is understood and analyzed.
A first key problem confronting the application of CA to CMC lies in the potential
mismatch between the modalities of talk for which CA was developed and those on
which it is applied. As CA is an analytic approach designed for the study of spoken
interaction, the use of written and multimodal forms of language in online environ-
ments poses some problems for the direct application of CA concepts and methods.
One key problem for using CA to understand interaction in written interactions is the
idea of turn construction. In conventional CA understandings, turn construction and
turn-taking are based on projections of possible completion, but in written environ-
ments, this is not such a useful way of thinking as turns are completed when posted
(and so are actually rather than possibly complete). At the same time, an orientation
to short posts as the norm in synchronous or quasi-synchronous online environments
makes holding the floor for longer posts interactionally problematic as there is a need
to avoid long gaps between contributions, suggesting that the interactional accom-
plishment of “incompleteness” may be a more significant interactional issue than
that of completeness (see also Tudini 2014).
Computer-Mediated Communication and Conversation Analysis 423
A second key issue for CA analyses of CMC is the role of the technology itself as
a frame for the interaction and its effect on how interaction is conducted and
understood. The computer brings distal participants into quasi-co-presence, espe-
cially when the technology uses a visual channel (e.g., Skype or videoconferencing).
This creates a sense in which participants share a context, although the reality is that
participants share only a part of their own contexts with each other – that mediated
through the technology. This does not mean, however, that only that part of the
context which is mediated is pertinent to understanding the interaction. Malinowski
and Kramsch (2014) for example have argued that the computer screen “fixes the
user in disembodied, spectatorial relation to a removed ‘scene’ on the other side”
(p. 159). The question is whether a focus on this removed scene is the legitimate
focus of analysis or whether it constrains analytic possibilities.
CA has usually focused on the interaction as it unfolds for the participants and has
tended to consider features of interaction that are not available to all participants
through talk as less relevant for understanding the nature of talk in interaction. In
mediated contexts, and especially in contexts where education is a central concern,
this would appear to be a problematic analytic starting point. In mediated interaction,
there are observable elements of the interaction that are available only to one
participant, such as the composition process and off-screen behaviors, which can
be interactionally or acquisitionally salient (Suzuki 2013). Software is currently
available that can record aspects of the interaction such as tracking key strokes,
timing of contributions or capturing on-screen activity, and video recording of
participants during interaction, which can provide further data. Some of this infor-
mation is at least partially available to recipients with software showing that one’s
interlocutor is currently composing a message. Understanding the composition
process may provide significant information about how interaction is constructed,
including how adjacency structures responses, even where adjacency itself may be
split in the online representations of the talk, how self-repair processes work, and
how participants bring external resources to bear on their language production that
may be especially significant in understanding language acquisition and use. This is
not simply a case of collecting information about interaction as developing an
understanding of what information is salient for understanding interaction that
problematizes the accepted CA dichotomy between participants’ and analysts’
categories.
The technology as frame for the interaction also has effects on the representation
of the interaction that is mediated between participants. That is, the interaction on
screen is not simply perceived by participants but is constructed for them in ways
that may alter what is perceived. For example, in visually mediated interactions, eye
gaze is potentially available as part of the representation, but the way that eye gaze is
mediated is not actually a “true” representation. As the camera capturing the
speakers’ image is not positioned at the focal point of gaze, the participants’ gaze
is misrepresented. This means that eye gaze information is not available for partic-
ipants in the same way that would be the case for co-present interlocutors. Goodwin
(1980) has shown that eye gaze plays an important role for coordinating speakership
and that participants deploy repair practices to secure appropriately gazing
424 V. Tudini and A.J. Liddicoat
Future Directions
The use of CA to study CMC is a relatively new area of scholarly activity and there
remains much to be done.
One key area for future work will be to develop an understanding of the
affordances and constraints created by the technological mediation of talk. These
constraints and affordances exist at the interactional level and, in educational
contexts, at the level of learning and there are complex interactions between each
of the levels that as yet have been little researched. Moreover, there is a need to
understand how CMC as language learning provides or limits interactional possibil-
ities, which in turn influence learning experiences. For example, Balaman (2015) has
used CA to show how the design of online tasks constructs interactional possibilities
that create affordances for learning.
There is also a need to understand more about the interactional (re)construction of
talk through CMC. In particular, there is a need for research on how users of written
CMC construct sequentiality when sequentiality is not directly inferable from the
ordering of contributions. In reconstructing sequences of interaction, users must
orient to adjacency pairs to understand the interaction as a coherent activity, but we
know little about how they draw on sequence organization as a resource for
reconstructing coherence or the consequences the need to restore sequentiality has
for language learners as users of CMCs.
A third area of future research would appear to relate to the complex interactions
of on-screen and off-screen activities in the interactional processes involved in
CMC. This would require a more critical engagement with the idea of CMC talk
as interaction and a reconsideration of the saliency of “external” activities to talk.
This involves more than simply studying off-screen activities, such as the composi-
tion process, to consider how such processes are implicated in and constituent of the
interaction. This research is also relevant to understanding the interactional com-
plexities and concurrent interplay of on-screen, off-screen, voice and text conversa-
tions with in-game actions of multilingual gamers, to understand affordances for
language learning within ludic environments. The impact of mobility on talk-in-
interaction, including embodied deixis during mobile augmented reality game play
(Thorne et al. 2015), adds a further dimension which is ripe for microanalytical
investigation.
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Learner Corpora in Foreign Language
Education
Sylviane Granger
Abstract
Analyzing learner language is a key component of second and foreign language
education research and serves two main purposes: it helps researchers gain a
better understanding of the mechanisms of second language acquisition (SLA)
and it is a useful source of data for practitioners who are keen to design teaching
and learning tools that target learners’ attested difficulties. The learner corpus
(LC) is a new resource that is currently bringing learner language back into focus
and is enjoying growing interest from the language education community at large.
It first emerged as a branch of corpus linguistics in the late 1980s but is only now
beginning to attract significant attention from L2 theoreticians and practitioners.
This chapter aims to highlight the relevance of learner corpora to the field of
language education. The next section gives an overview of the main defining
features of this new resource and some of the dimensions along which they can be
classified. The section “Work in Progress” is devoted to methods of analysis:
contrastive interlanguage analysis and automated analysis. “Problems and Diffi-
culties: Pedagogical Applications” presents some of the main pedagogical appli-
cations of learner corpus research, and the final section suggests some possible
avenues for future research.
Keywords
Corpus linguistics • Learner corpus • Learner corpora • Second language acqui-
sition • Contrastive interlanguage analysis • Automated analysis
This chapter is an updated version of that included in the 2008 edition of the encyclopedia.
S. Granger (*)
Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Automated Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Patterns of Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Annotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Problems and Difficulties: Pedagogical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Introduction
Major Contributions
is directly proportional to the care that has been taken in designing it, and
compromising the design stage inevitably leads to less solid results. If the variables
are recorded and stored in a database, they can be used to compile homogeneous
subcorpora. The interface of the ICLE makes it possible, for instance, to study
gender differences, topic effects, the influence of timing, even to compare FL
learners who have never spent any time in an English-speaking country with those
who have done so for extended periods of time.
Learner corpora can be classified on the basis of the following features:
– Target languages: while English still has the lion’s share, learner corpus collec-
tion is now active in a wide range of languages (Dutch, French, German, Italian,
Norwegian, Spanish, and Swedish, inter alia) (for a survey, see the “Learner
corpora around the world” webpage on the Louvain website: http://www.
uclouvain.be/en-cecl-lcworld.html). Most learner corpora cover only one target
language, the MERLIN corpus (Abel et al. 2013) being a notable exception in this
respect. Bilingual learner corpora like the German-English Telekorp corpus (Belz
and Vyatkina 2005) are a promising development resulting from the growing use
of telecollaborative communication in language education.
– Mother tongue backgrounds: learner corpora can contain data from learners of
one and the same mother tongue background or from several mother tongue
backgrounds. The latter are necessary if the purpose of the data collection is to
produce generic pedagogical tools such as monolingual learners’ dictionaries (see
Section “Problems and Difficulties: Pedagogical Applications”). Most academic
learner corpora contain data from only one language background, for example,
Japanese learners of English in the case of the NICT JLE Corpus (Izumi et al.
2004), Chinese learners of English for the Chinese Learner English Corpus (Gui
and Yang 2002), or Swedish learners of French for the Interfra Corpus (Bartning
and Schlyter 2004). The International Corpus of Learner English, which covers
16 different mother tongue backgrounds, is a notable exception in this regard.
– Medium: corpora of learner writing were the first to be collected and are still the
dominant type today. The supremacy of written corpora is primarily due to the
difficulty of collecting and transcribing learner oral data. In spite of this difficulty,
some oral learner corpora have been compiled. These include the College English
Learners’ Spoken English Corpus, which contains data from Chinese learners of
English (Yang and Wei 2005), and the Louvain International Database of Spoken
English Interlanguage, which contains data from learners with 11 different
mother tongue backgrounds (cf. Gilquin et al. 2010). A new type, the multimodal
(or multimedia) learner corpus, which contains learners’ texts linked to audio-
video recordings, is a recent and welcome addition that enables analysts to
investigate nonverbal as well as verbal aspects of communication (Reder et al.
2003; Hashimoto and Takeuchi 2012).
– Genre: while some genres are well represented in current learner corpora, partic-
ularly essay writing and informal interviews, many are hardly covered at all,
which makes it difficult to assess the influence of task on learner production. The
NICT JLE Corpus (Izumi et al. 2004), which comprises three types of tasks –
Learner Corpora in Foreign Language Education 431
Learner corpora differ in their degree of accessibility. Many are unfortunately not
available outside the arena where they have been collected. However, a growing
number are available for scientific research and/or can be consulted online.
Work in Progress
A learner corpus is a solid empirical base from which to uncover the linguistic
features that characterize the interlanguage of foreign and second language learners
at different stages of proficiency and/or in a range of language situations. The
method that has mainly been used for that purpose is contrastive interlanguage
analysis (CIA) (Granger 1996, 2015a). Unlike classic contrastive analysis, which
compares different languages, CIA compares varieties of one and the same language
and involves the following two types of comparison:
speaker norm and thus failing to analyze interlanguage in its own right. Although it
is important to stress the need to view interlanguage on its own terms, there are
several arguments that can be invoked in defense of native/learner comparisons.
First, the native speaker norm that is used in learner corpus studies is explicit and
corpus-based (Mukherjee 2005) rather than implicit and intuition-based, as has
usually been the case in SLA studies. Second, there is not just one reference corpus
but several to choose from. In the case of English, for instance, analysts can choose
between the many geographical varieties of English covered in the International
Corpus of English (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/english-usage/projects/ice.htm), several of
which are available in electronic format, or may opt for a corpus of expert L2 user
data instead (Seidlhofer 2004). From a pedagogical point of view, comparisons of
learner data to a native or expert reference corpus is even more obvious, as they help
teachers identify the lexical, grammatical, and discourse features that differentiate
learners’ production from the targeted norm and may therefore be usefully integrated
into the teaching program.
Automated Analysis
One important feature that distinguishes learner corpus data from traditional learner
data is the fact that the texts are stored in electronic format. Once computerized,
learner data can be examined with a variety of software tools that can radically
change the way foreign/second language researchers set about analyzing learner
language. Some degree of automation is arguably essential, as several learner
corpora contain millions rather than hundreds or thousands of words. Automation
contributes to a better analysis of learner language in three main ways: (1) it makes it
possible to quantify learner language; (2) it helps discover interlanguage patterns of
use; and (3) it makes it possible to enrich learner data with a wide range of linguistic
annotations.
Frequency
Patterns of Use
The quantitative benefits of computerized learner data should not obscure the equally
impressive qualitative insights afforded by computer-aided methods. Corpus
methods are very powerful heuristic devices for uncovering words’ preferred lexical
and grammatical company. The concordancing function in text retrieval software
tools enables researchers to extract all occurrences of a given lexical item (single
word or phrase) in a corpus and sort them in a variety of ways, thereby allowing
typical patterns to emerge. Table 3 highlights some of the striking differences that
emerge from the concordance of the word as in a corpus of essays written by native
American-English students (LOCNESS) and EFL learners with Spanish, French, and
German mother tongue backgrounds (ICLE).
While the figures reveal some degree of commonality between the three learner
groups, such as the tendency to overuse as far as and underuse as well as and as
434 S. Granger
Table 3 Patterning of the word as in native and learner corpora (relative frequency per 200,000
words)
Patterning of as LOCNESS ICLE-SP ICLE-FR ICLE-GE
as a conclusion 0 16.3 34.5 0
as far as 6.7 14.2 95.2 34.4
as far as X is concerned 1.3 11.2 87.9 15
as well as 108.2 34.6 46 61.9
as long as 57.4 2 16.7 23.8
As far as Billy Pilgrim is concerned, he is neither totally wrong nor totally right.
As far as the langage is concerned, both novelists make use of an easy style.
As far as de-dramatization is concerned, one main theme of the novel is war and death it involved.
People who really need T.V. cannot react against it anymore. This is, as far as I am concerned, the saddest
and the most dangerous thing for these persons.
These two soldiers stand for the whole U.S. army as far as their age is concerned.
As far as the American soldiers are concerned, they are merely disappointing samples of the American
Society.
As far as the future of the EC is concerned, nobody knows what it will be made of.
this first solution is likely to happen but is a negative solution as far as cultures and customs are concerned.
Europe 1992 will certainly be a nation as far as the economy is concerned
As far as the culture is concerned there are no fundamental changes between the north and the south.
As far as Mr Gould is concerned, he is an idealist.
As far as her relationship with the guests is concerned, she tries to achieve harmony
As far as the garden is concerned, it is divided into two parts
long as, they also highlight varying patterns of use, such as overuse of as a
conclusion by Spanish- and French-speaking but not German-speaking learners.
As evidenced by several recent studies (e.g., Paquot 2013), this variability is often
the result of transfer from the learners’ mother tongue. For example, the striking
predilection of French-speaking learners for the phrase as far as x is concerned,
which emerges clearly from the concordance excerpt in Fig. 1, is modeled on the
French phrase en ce qui concerne. Most of the examples show students’ difficulty in
introducing topics and could serve as useful prompts for rewriting exercises.
Typical collocations, i.e., pairs of words that have a strong tendency to co-occur
within a few words of each other, can be extracted fully automatically using
statistical association measures. Durrant and Schmitt (2009) employ this method to
highlight differences in the patterning of adjective/noun + noun combinations in
learner and native writing. Clusters, i.e., recurrent contiguous sequences of two or
more words, can also easily be extracted from learner corpora. Applying this method
to a corpus of EFL speech and a comparable native speaker corpus, De Cock (2004)
shows that EFL learners significantly underuse discourse markers like you know or I
mean and vagueness markers like sort of or and things and therefore prove to be
lacking in routinized ways of interacting and building rapport with their interlocutors
and weaving into their speech the right amount of imprecision and vagueness, both
typical features of informal interactions.
Learner Corpora in Foreign Language Education 435
Annotation
error type (number, gender, tense, etc.), word category (noun, verb, etc.), and in
some cases, error domain (spelling, grammar, lexis, etc.). When applied to a learner
corpus that has been carefully compiled on the basis of strict design criteria (mother
tongue background, level of proficiency, etc.), error annotation is a valuable resource
that makes it possible to tailor pedagogical materials to the needs of a given learner
population (cf. Granger 2003). However, error annotation will always contain an
element of subjectivity, as the very notion of error is far from clear-cut. As rightly
pointed out by Milton and Chowdhury (1994, p. 129), “Tagging a learner corpus
allows us, at least and at most, to systematize our intuitions.” To cater for errors that
can have more than one interpretation, some systems allow for the inclusion of
several target hypotheses (Lüdeling and Hirschmann 2015). Whatever the system
used, it is essential that annotators be provided with a comprehensive error-tagging
manual and undergo rigorous training. It is also important to bear in mind that error
annotation is a very time-consuming, hence costly, process. Limitations in man-
power and/or budget may lead researchers to tag only part of their corpus or to limit
the tagging to some specific error categories (morphological errors, preposition
errors, article errors, etc.).
Among the many pedagogical applications that could potentially benefit from
learner-corpus-informed insights, only a few can boast a number of concrete
achievements: pedagogical lexicography, courseware, and language assessment.
The field in which advances have been quickest is pedagogical lexicography.
Monolingual learners’ dictionaries like the Macmillan English Dictionary for
Advanced Learners (2007), the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
(2014), and the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2013) contain error
notes based on learner corpora, which are intended to help learners avoid common
mistakes. These notes offer clear added value for dictionary users, as they draw their
attention to very frequent errors, which in the case of advanced learners have often
become fossilized (accept + infinitive, persons instead of people, news + plural,
etc.). Although the selection of the errors is not always optimal (cf. De Cock and
Granger 2005), this is a major first step that will undoubtedly be followed by others.
While learner corpus data has begun to have a marked impact on EFL dictionaries, it
has yet to find its way into EFL grammars. This is less surprising in light of the fact
that even native corpus data was only integrated into grammars as recently as 1999,
with the publication of the very first corpus-based grammar of English, the Longman
Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber et al. 1999). However, it seems both
inevitable and highly desirable that learner corpus data will become an essential
component of grammar design in years to come. Pedagogical grammars would
clearly benefit from corpus-attested information on the difficulty of grammatical
categories and structures for learners in general or some L1-specific learner popula-
tion. Recent initiatives such as the English Grammar Profile project (Harrison 2015)
hold great promise in this regard.
Learner Corpora in Foreign Language Education 437
While there may still be relatively little LC-informed courseware on the market,
a fair number of teachers have used learner corpora to develop their own in-house
teaching materials, which share a number of characteristics: (1) they tend to be based
on learner corpora for immediate pedagogical use; (2) they are often L1-specific
rather than generic; (3) they are designed with a clear teaching objective in a well-
defined teaching context; and (4) they tend to be electronic rather than paper tools.
This latter characteristic results from the fact that new technologies – web-based
platforms, CALL authoring tools, e-mail – have brought the design of electronic
pedagogical material within the reach of any computer-literate teacher/researcher
and provide an ideal platform for the production and use of learner corpus data. The
web-based writing environment of Wible et al. (2001) is the perfect example of a tool
that facilitates the generation, annotation, and pedagogical exploitation of learner
corpora. The environment contains a learner interface, where learners write their
essays, send them to their teacher over the Internet, and revise them when they have
been corrected by the teacher, as well as a teacher interface, where teachers correct
the essays using their favorite comments (comma splice, article use, etc.) stored in a
personal comment bank. This environment is extremely attractive both for learners,
who get immediate feedback on their writing and have access to lists of errors they
are prone to produce, and for teachers, who gradually and effortlessly build a large
database of learner data from which they can draw to develop targeted exercises.
Other researchers are using data resulting from computer-mediated written commu-
nication (Kung 2004; Belz and Vyatkina 2005) or oral tasks (Kindt and Wright
2001). Some pedagogical tools target LC-attested errors typical of a particular
learner population. Chuang and Nesi (2007), for example, have developed
GrammarTalk, an electronic resource focused on two of the most error-prone areas
for Chinese learners, viz. articles and prepositions.
A third field in which “research from learner corpora has much to offer” (Purpura
2004, p. 272) is language assessment. When carefully analyzed, learner corpora can
help practitioners select and rank testing material at a particular proficiency level
(Barker et al. 2015). Combined with natural language processing techniques, they
can also be used to draw up automatic profiles of learner proficiency. The Direkt
Profil analyzer, for example, provides a grammatical profile for L2 French and can
be used to assess learners’ grammatical level (Granfeldt et al. 2005). Learner corpora
are also increasingly being used to develop and fine-tune automated scoring
systems (Higgins et al. 2015).
All these applications show the tremendous potential of learner corpus data to
inform pedagogical tools and methods. At this stage, however, LC-informed mate-
rials are still the exception rather than the rule, and there is scope for the development
of a much wider range of applications in future.
Future Directions
Although learner corpora have not yet achieved a major breakthrough in the educa-
tional sector (Granger 2015b), the buzzing activity in the field and the number of
learner-corpus-informed reference and teaching tools that have already been
438 S. Granger
produced or are currently being designed are a clear indication that they are here to
stay. Efforts in the future should be directed towards collecting data representing a
wider range of target languages and sampling more diversified learner populations in
a wider range of language situations and tasks. Over and above data collection, the
focus should be on interpreting the data in the light of SLA theory and incorporating
the results into innovative pedagogical applications. Prime among these are elec-
tronic applications and, in particular, web-based environments that allow researchers
to collect and exploit learner data within the same environment and customize
instructional content to meet the needs of differentiated learner populations.
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440 S. Granger
Abstract
Language awareness is an internal phenomenon that can be externally affected by
consciousness-raising or attention-focusing techniques. The implementation of tech-
nology in the study of second language (L2) awareness is a recent development: The
field caught full speed in the mid-1990s, becoming one of the most innovative areas
in SLA research. Technology is used to address questions about external conditions
leading to awareness, levels of awareness attained during input processing, the
association between awareness and language development, and individual variables
(such as cognitive capacity) that are posited to explain the differential effects that the
same conditions have on the development of awareness. The range of technology
used in this subfield of SLA research – which began with audio and video recordings
and old-fashioned overhead transparencies – today includes computers that deliver
multimedia treatments and tests, as well as recording performance (both accuracy and
reaction time), and that are fast replacing paper-and-pencil materials. Computers are
also used as tools to record verbal (think-aloud) protocols and to track performance
(e.g., click behavior). Furthermore, more complex devices are now being adapted
from cognitive psychology and neurolinguistics for use in research on second
language awareness; the number of publications that rely on eye-tracking and
neuroimaging techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and
event-related potential (ERP) data is growing exponentially.
C. Sanz (*)
Department of Spanish and Portuguese, Georgetown University, Bunn Intercultural Center,
Washington, DC, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
B. Lado
Department of Languages and Literatures (Lehman College) and Program in Hispanic and Luso-
Brazilian Literatures and Languages (The Graduate Center), The City University of New York
(CUNY), New York, NY, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Keywords
Language awareness • Second language acquisition • Feedback • Computer-
assisted language learning (CALL) • Input • Explicit learning • Implicit learning
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Introduction
Early Developments
Early studies involving technology and awareness are summarized in Levy (1997)
and Chapelle (2001). Levy’s volume is one of the first books devoted entirely to the
field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL). It describes projects from the
1960s and 1970s (PLATO, TICCIT), as well as advances in the 1980s (Hypercard,
The Athena Language Learning Project) and 1990s (The International Email Tandem
Network, CAMILLE). The author discusses implications of the role of computers –
either as a tool, as in CMC (computer-mediated communication), or as a tutor, as in
CALL – in terms of learning environment, methodology, the role of teacher and
learner, implementation in the curriculum, and evaluation. Chapelle (2001) goes back
to the 1950s in evaluating different computer applications to the study of SLA,
including research, language learning, and language testing. Her volume draws on
different disciplines, such as Educational Technology and Computational Linguis-
tics, and applies primary concerns in those fields to CALL in order to better address
the question of how computers can improve language learning. A brief overview of
the role of technology in L2 learning is provided by Blake (1998), who explains the
changes the field had undergone during the previous 30 years with regard to the
hardware base, the role of the learner, and presentation format.
Focusing on the use of computers for research, Hulstjin (1997) reviews
20 published studies that have used computers for input presentation, learning
instructions, feedback, and the elicitation and registration of responses, with or
without latency (reaction times). Hulstjin (2000) describes the various ways in
which computers have been used to elicit L2 data, including grammaticality judg-
ment tasks, the preferred technique for measuring metalinguistic awareness, and
others, such as sentence matching tasks and word recognition. Research conducted
by Hulstjin himself during the 1990s included computer-aided designs that investi-
gated the use of electronic dictionaries and measured reaction times in word and
sentence recognition to better understand incidental vocabulary learning.
Major Contributions
Major contributions to the field have appeared both in language acquisition journals
(Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Modern Language Journal, Language
Learning, Applied Psycholinguistics), usually focusing on awareness and its
operationalization and measurement, as well as in technology journals (CALICO,
Language Learning & Technology), usually focusing more on technological details.
As opposed to a more descriptive approach in the earliest reviews, the field has
444 C. Sanz and B. Lado
recently taken a more analytical point of view. Warschauer (2004) argues that the
discipline started with a structuralist standpoint during the 1970s, then moved on to a
more communicative position during the 1980s, and this eventually led to the present
integrative content-based approach. However, Bax (2003) claims that Warschauer’s
classification is ambiguous and does not account for aspects such as the evolution of
the software or the type of activities implemented in CALL. As a consequence, Bax
proposes an alternative analysis in which he includes three approaches (restricted,
open, and integrated) that incorporate, among other elements, the following: the type
of task, the teacher’s role, and the feedback offered to the student. Zhao’s meta-
analysis (2003) concludes that technology-based language instruction can be as
effective as teacher-delivered instruction; curriculum and content development
need to be addressed and empirical evaluations conducted.
Studies implementing computerized treatments in their designs have addressed a
current concern in SLA, namely, whether language development is possible without
attention or awareness during input processing (Schmidt 2001). Attention and
awareness in relation to language development have been measured either online,
with think-aloud protocols (Leow and Bowles 2005), or offline, with debriefing
questionnaires (Robinson 1997b). Robinson (1997b) investigated whether different
computerized treatments (i.e., implicit, incidental, and rule search) on simple and
complex grammatical rules in English could lead to different levels of awareness (i.e.,
noticing, looking for rules, ability to verbalize rules). The results revealed that
participants in the rule-search and instructed conditions looked for rules more than
those in the implicit condition. Moreover, it was found that only awareness at the
level of looking for rules and ability to verbalize the rules positively affected learners’
accuracy. Rosa and Leow (2004) further investigated the role of awareness in L2
development by implementing verbal protocols. Participants were exposed to (+/
explicit) computerized treatments (LIBRA cards) to teach Spanish contrary-to-fact
past conditional sentences. The study concluded that greater explicitness in learning
conditions led to a higher level of reported awareness, and that higher levels of
awareness were related to greater L2 development.
Technology has also been implemented in studies that attempt to investigate the
roles of type of practice, feedback, and grammar instruction in L2 development under
an attentional framework. Computer-assisted research has compared input-based and
output-based practice (Morgan-Short and Bowden 2006; Nagata 1998).
Implementing Authorware 5, Morgan-Short and Bowden (2006) observed that
although there was no difference between groups on interpretation measures, the
output-based group outperformed the input-based group on the production of
Spanish pre-verbal direct-object pronouns. This difference, however, was short-
lived.
Research on feedback includes various consciousness-raising or Focus on Form
conditions (Nagata and Swisher 1995; Lado et al. 2014). Nagata and Swisher isolated
the effects of more (with metalinguistic information) and less (without metalinguistic
information) explicit written feedback. After four computer sessions of practice with
a translation task, type of feedback had not affected production of verbal predicates,
but metalinguistic information was beneficial for the production of particles.
Technology and the Study of Awareness 445
Although the results in Nagata and Swisher seem to converge with the literature on
the positive effects of explicit feedback on language development, studies such as
Lado et al. (2014) showed that the advantage observed for the metalinguistic condi-
tion disappears in the long term, and that in fact the more implicit condition leads to
faster processing and greater long-term accuracy gains.
Other studies have investigated a combination of feedback and grammar instruc-
tion (DeGraaff 1997; Sanz and Morgan-Short 2004). DeGraaff (1997) assessed the
effects of explicit rule presentation when participants practiced target forms in
eXperanto through interaction with a computer lesson developed using TAIGA
(1987). Although the results revealed that explicit rule presentation was beneficial,
the study is limited due to the nature of the practice and the lack of control over the
amount of feedback. To avoid these problems, Sanz and Morgan-Short (2004)
isolated the effects of explanation and feedback in their investigation of the acquisi-
tion of Spanish word order by comparing four groups combining (+/ explanation)
and (+/ explicit feedback). All groups were exposed to meaningful structured input
through practice tasks. The implementation of LIBRA allowed for provision of
feedback that was immediate, individualized, and focused on the target form. Con-
trary to previous studies, results from Sanz and Morgan-Short showed no differences.
The authors concluded that exposing L2 learners to structured input through task-
essential practice was sufficient to promote acquisition, and that in such a context,
providing rule explanation, feedback, or both, does not significantly add to the
knowledge gained through practice.
The effects of rule presentation have also been studied without feedback
(DeKeyser 1995; Ellis 1993; Morgan-Short et al. 2010). Ellis (1993) examined rule
presentation of a grammar structure (Welsh soft mutations) with or without examples
and concluded that provision of computerized explicit grammar with instances of the
target form allowed for generalization at both explicit and implicit levels, thus
facilitating language development. Likewise, DeKeyser (1995) showed that explicit
rule presentation, as opposed to more implicit conditions, had beneficial effects for
the acquisition of categorical rules, and that rules, in fact, were not acquired by the
implicit group. In this study, computers were used to expose participants to combi-
nations of written sentences in an artificial language and their corresponding pictures.
Morgan-Short et al. (2010) used an artificial language paradigm to investigate the role
of explicit and implicit instruction on neural and behavioral measures. Whereas the
explicit condition included computer-delivered pre-practice grammar explanation,
the implicit learning condition contained only practice. Behaviorally, the results
revealed an advantage in performance for the explicit group only at low proficiency,
which disappeared at high proficiency. Interestingly, ERP measures revealed that
only implicit training led to a fully native-like brain activation pattern.
The role of feedback on L2 development is also being investigated extensively in
CMC research, an area that has grown significantly in the last decade. Many of these
studies are conducted under an interactionist perspective involving synchronous chat
and asynchronous email and address issues such as the role of explicit and implicit
feedback in fostering conscious processing and promoting L2 development during
interaction (Sagarra and Abbuhl 2013; Sauro 2009). For example, Sauro (2009)
446 C. Sanz and B. Lado
sequences, although this awareness did not transfer to more production of these
phrases in their own writing.
Work in Progress
information that reflects the neural processing of an event. fMRI measures the brain’s
hemodynamic response to an event and provides information about what part of the
brain is activated in response to an event. Eye-tracking data studies attention during
online processing recording and calculating gaze direction and duration. Less expen-
sive and more popular is Praat (Boersma and Weenink 2015), a software application
for the analysis of speech in phonetics, and software like e-Prime that allows tracking
reaction time (i.e., RT or Latency). RT refers to the amount of time (in milliseconds)
between the presentation of a stimulus and the behavioral response of interest (i.e.,
making a decision and pressing a key). Generally, faster RTs are considered to reflect
efficient, fast execution of the mental procedures involved, though there is still debate
among some SLA researchers as to whether “faster” is also “more automatic” or is
instead related to speeded-up control (explicit) procedures. Work in progress relies on
ERPs (Faretta-Sttutenberg’s dissertation out of Morgan-Short’s lab), eye-tracking
(Sagarra and Sanz), self-paced reading (Marijuan), Praat-processed data (Nagle et al.
2016), and latency (Grey et al. 2015) to understand the interplay between cognitive
abilities and context of learning and to test new, frequency-based approaches to
language development. Taken together, these studies are characterized by a multi-
dimensional approach that assesses changes in linguistic abilities (overall profi-
ciency, grammaticality judgments, accuracy in sentence processing, lexical access,
pronunciation) and online processing (ERPs, latency, gaze) among intermediate and
advanced learners of Spanish as a second language. Directly related to this entry,
these studies are looking at the role of awareness in language development in the
absence of explicit instruction, i.e., as a result of intensive exposure to the L2 input
during study abroad, in the absence of classroom instruction focused on language,
and therefore in the most implicit learning context possible.
The abovementioned research by Morgan-Short, Sanz, Marijuan and colleagues
was presented in the year 2015 at the American Association for Applied Linguistics
(AAAL), the Second Language Research Forum (SLRF), Eurosla, and the 10th
International Symposium on Bilingualism (ISB), where most empirical studies on
awareness in multilinguals are made public.
We began this article with the theoretical statement that there is not one definition of
language awareness but many, and that, for the purposes of the article, we accepted
the broadest definition possible to incorporate all knowledge of and about language.
A narrower definition would include only conscious knowledge of the language, that
is, knowledge of which the learner is aware. An even narrower use of awareness,
linked to Schmidt’s noticing hypotheses, distinguishes between language informa-
tion that has been processed in working memory under attention, a required condition
for input to become intake ready to feed the acquisition process, and that which has
not. Confusion over terminology is a serious problem: awareness, consciousness, and
explicitness are often used as synonyms. Sometimes they are applied to input
Technology and the Study of Awareness 449
Future Directions
In cognitive psychology, laboratory studies that utilize technology for data collection
are the norm, as technology allows for tighter control of individual and environmen-
tal variables as well as finer measures of the effects of treatments. For example,
response time, gaze (direction), time spent on particular portions of written input
(eye-tracking), response tracking (mouse-tracking, clickers) for the analysis of speed
(latency), frequency, and type of errors during treatment, in addition to classic
accuracy scores, are all measurable thanks to the use of technology. Acquisitionists
450 C. Sanz and B. Lado
nowadays are striving to adapt to the study of SLA techniques that are common in
cognitive psychology, including new measurements of awareness.
Technology is rapidly replacing paper-and-pencil delivery, allowing for individual
exposure to the treatment, facilitating randomization of participants, and control of
key variables in the treatment, such as the amount and type of feedback or input
frequency to which each participant is exposed, even to individually adapt treatments
based on performance. Computers also make research more convenient: Instead of
simultaneous use of an overhead projector, a VCR, TV sets, and multiple copies of
the testing and treatment materials, all that is needed is a computer. If the application
is web-based, as in The Latin Project, both data gathering and access to the database
are possible in multiple sites around the clock. Other advantages are also important:
Multimedia capabilities make the lesson far more attractive to the user and allow for
provision of video and audio input simultaneously, thus accommodating different
learning types and expectations among young learners.
To conclude, laboratory research on language awareness will continue to increase
the implementation of technology in the design as more and larger laboratories
become available, research institutions hire technicians, and software becomes
more adaptive and affordable. Additionally, the field is rapidly moving beyond
computers to make use of specialized devices such as eye-trackers, EEGs, and
MRI units.
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Abstract
Though eye-tracking technology has been used in reading research for over
100 years, researchers have only recently begun to use it in studies of
computer-assisted language learning (CALL). This chapter provides an overview
of eye-tracking research to date, which is relevant to computer-mediated language
learning contexts. We first examine some of the foundational work, basic assump-
tions and key constructs in eye-tracking research and then explore uses of
eye-tracking in second language (L2) educational contexts. We then examine
the modest but growing amount of research in CALL settings and illustrate the
technique’s facility for contributing to SLA-relevant CALL research. We touch
on some of the known CALL-relevant eye-tracking research in progress and also
discuss some of the challenges researchers are likely to encounter when
employing eye-tracking techniques. We end with a discussion of possible future
directions and developments for eye-tracking in CALL settings.
Keywords
Eye-tracking • Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) • Second language
acquisition • Human-computer interaction (HCI) • Noticing • Awareness • Sac-
cades • Task complexity
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Early Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Major Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Problems and Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Introduction
Research into eye movement behavior – commonly known as “eye-tracking” – is a
fairly new methodology in second language acquisition (SLA) research (Winke et al.
2013) and educational literature (Lai et al. 2013; van Gog and Scheiter 2010). The
technique, however, has been used for many decades in psycholinguistic studies
looking at first language (L1) processing, research into Human-Computer-Interac-
tion (HCI) and visual scene perception (Poole and Ball 2006; Rayner 2009). The
basic assumption of eye-tracking is the existence of the “eye mind link” (Just and
Carpenter 1980), that is, information that is in the focus of visual attention is also the
focus of current cognitive processing. The most widely used measures of eye
movement behavior are (a) fixations (a relatively stable eye movement focusing at
a specific point, for example, a word on a screen) and (b) saccades (consecutive
movements between fixations). A third measure (c) regressions (movements in the
counter direction of reading) is commonly used in reading research as it indicates
readers’ reinspection of earlier text. During fixations, people can extract information
from the foveal area (central 2 ) of their visual field. In contrast, during saccades and
regressions, information encoding is thought to be impossible (Roberts and
Siyanova-Chanturia 2013). Typically, proficient first language (L1) readers of
English exhibit fixations of about 200–250 ms milliseconds while saccades comprise
7 to 9 letters (Rayner 2009). However, there is substantial variability both within and
between readers, for example, some fixations may only last 100 ms, whereas others
may be more than 500 ms. Longer fixations, more regressions, and shorter saccades
can be seen as indicators of greater processing complexity and difficulty (Poole and
Ball 2006; Rayner 2009; van Gog and Scheiter 2010).
Using eye-tracking methods is particularly useful in second language acquisition
(L2) research because they allow for the study of moment-by-moment processing
decisions during natural, uninterrupted comprehension without the need to rely on
participants’ strategic or metalinguistic responses (Roberts and Siyanova-Chanturia
2013). It is therefore surprising that to date so little CALL research has made use of
eye-tracking given that both CALL and eye-tracking research typically requires
participants to work on a computer or other digital device which, in the modern
era, constitute naturalistic settings with a high degree of ecological validity
(O’Rourke 2008). Because scholarship using eye-tracking in CALL environments
Eye-Tracking Research in Computer-Mediated Language Learning 455
is just emerging, we will first report on major findings from relevant L2 eye-tracking
research in general. Eye-tracking research in computer-mediated communication
(CMC) environments will be discussed under major contributions below.
Early Developments
Eye gaze studies in L2 research have received growing attention over the past two
decades. The majority of earlier work focused on spoken word recognition by
bilinguals in both their languages and differences between syntactic processes of
L1 versus L2 speakers (Dussias 2010; Roberts and Siyanova-Chanturia 2013).
However, eye-tracking techniques have recently been employed to examine specific
constructs in SLA theory. For example, Sagarra and Ellis (2013) used eye-tracking to
explore aspects of the associative learning theory, Godfroid and Uggen (2013) used
eye-tracking in examining L2 learners’ attention to verb morphology, and Winke
(2013) used this technique to test the claim that input enhancement (Sharwood Smith
1993) is a relatively unobtrusive technique to promote learner attention to targeted
linguistic forms. Thus, L2 eye-tracking studies have looked at various facets of
instructed SLA theory such as attention and task-based cognitive processing as well
other areas such as language testing (e.g., Bax 2013; Brunfaut and McCray 2015;
Suvorov 2013) and video captioning (e.g., Montero Perez et al. 2015; Winke et al.
2013). Since one of the clearest potential uses for eye-tracking is its ability to provide
rich learner process data, the following review will highlight a selection of studies
that have explored L2 processing and language learning.
Godfroid et al. (2013) used eye fixation times as a measure of noticing unknown
words during EFL reading. Noticing was defined as “a cognitive process in which
the amount of attention paid to a new language element in the input exceeds a critical
threshold, which causes the language element to enter working memory and become
the object for further processing” (p. 493). It was operationalized as increased
fixation duration on a target pseudo-word in comparison to fixation duration to a
baseline known word. Results showed longer focal attention for target than control
words. Crucially, gaze duration was positively related to the likelihood of word
retention on a subsequent vocabulary test. The authors interpret this as evidence that
eye-tracking metrics can measure noticing (see also Godfroid et al. 2010).
In another study of noticing, Kuhn (2012) focused on error detection in lengthier
texts by EFL users. With self-built eye-tracking equipment, he established that
noticing could be related to total fixation durations of an average duration of
400 to 500 ms. However, considerable individual differences existed in terms of
exact lengths. In Kuhn’s study, noticing was positively related to error correction by
the EFL participants. Again, this work supports the use of eye-tracking techniques in
investigating the construct of noticing.
More recently, Révész et al. (2014) applied eye gaze measures to task-based
language pedagogy to objectively gauge the cognitive demands induced by low- and
high-complexity versions of a structure-focused picture selection task targeting the
456 M.C. Michel and B. Smith
Major Contributions
To date, only a handful of studies have been published that used eye-tracking in a
CALL environment. These studies are mostly of a qualitative, small-scale, and
explorative nature and focus on synchronous computer-mediated communication
(SCMC or text chat). This is largely because the earliest CALL researchers to adopt
eye-tracking technology did so as a way of providing more robust learner process
data to describe SCMC phenomena. Until recently (and continuing on today,
unfortunately) many SCMC studies relied solely on chat transcript logs – a very
static approach to explaining an extremely dynamic process (e.g., O’Rourke 2008;
Eye-Tracking Research in Computer-Mediated Language Learning 457
Smith 2010). In this line of argumentation, Smith (2010, 2012) argues that eye gaze
data may help to inform some of the contentious debates in SLA (e.g., is noticing a
prerequisite for learning?) and that the gaze tracking may be able to confirm or
disconfirm other established but more intrusive methodologies (e.g., stimulated
recall and think-alouds). Given their low number, each of these studies will be
reviewed by highlighting their major insights.
The earliest published CALL study that employed eye-tracking technology is
O’Rourke (2008). He used eye-tracking as a method of illustrating the insufficiency
of relying on output chat logs alone. While examining just a very short extract
(14 turns) of one native speaker chatting with an English L2 user of German he
revealed illustrative behavioral patterns during SCMC. The tracking of eye move-
ments revealed learner habits that could not have been detected using other sources.
For example, participants displayed three different behaviors when reading their own
output (a form of monitoring): (a) reading while drafting (simultaneous monitoring);
(b) reading after drafting but before sending (presend monitoring); and (c) reading
after sending (postsend monitoring).
O’Rourke (2012) extended his earlier analysis which revealed at least three types
of information eye gaze data may provide. First, the author analyzed “fixation
intervals, [defined as] the time that elapses between the end of one fixation and the
start of another” (p. 321). Interpreting fixation intervals of 500 ms or longer as
transitions between the screen and the keyboard, the author showed that the same
speaker made more transitions and had shorter intervals in the L2 than in the L1. This
pattern ties in with a view that more monitoring is needed when conversing in a
language other than the mother tongue. Second, O’Rourke identified two different
gaze behaviors when looking-back, that is, reading the on-screen transcript of the
conversation. There is “target-focused scanning”, fast reading to search for an item
one recalls in order to inform one’s own writing, for example, checking the correct
spelling of a word used earlier. In addition, while waiting for the contribution of their
partner writers “browsed” through the earlier turns, which seemed to function as a
way to refresh and organize the recent discourse. Third, the gaze replay allowed one
to reconstruct sequential aspects the individuals’ chat experience. That is, the chat
log alone does not show in what sequence an individual likely noticed salient
information in the conversation, but the eye gaze record does.
Prendergast (2011) qualitatively analyzed discourse patterns, negotiation rou-
tines, and noticing during SCMC drawing on the eye gaze data of six English
participants conversing in French with a native speaker tandem partner. The results
reinforce many of the findings of O’Rourke’s studies (e.g., individually sequenced
experience). One additional outcome was that in the NNS-NS dyads, typos by the
NS often resulted in longer/more fixations by the NNS and sometimes triggered
language related episodes or uptake of the erroneous spelling.
Likewise, Örnberg Berglund (2012, 2013) reiterates O’Rourke’s findings, specif-
ically, how eye gaze data help to reconstruct the experienced conversation. Her data
are based on a small-scale study among eight L2 users of English chatting with their
teacher who provided corrective feedback. In addition to eye gaze recordings, she
also collected keystroke logging data. Based on a qualitative analysis she argued that
458 M.C. Michel and B. Smith
participants often seemed to be focused on their own writing and read the teacher’s
contributions only once they had finished with their own composition and had hit the
enter button. Still, all of the teacher’s comments were seemingly noticed, though at
times long (up to 2 minutes) after they were posted. Furthermore, Örnberg Berglund
provides evidence that the feedback target needs to be understood by a learner before
it triggers increased fixation counts and times.
The work of Smith is a major step forward in eye-tracking SCMC interactions. He
takes a more quantitative approach to using eye gaze data in SCMC and introduces
gaze data as a measure of noticing (cf. Godfroid et al. 2010). Smith (2010) inves-
tigated the visual behavior of eight L2 users of English conversing with a native
speaker who provided recasts. This study targeted the following research questions:
(a) Do learners notice intensive recasts; (b) Do some types of intensive recasts get
noticed more than other types; and (c) Does noticing lead to target-like use of the
recast item. Noticing was defined as a fixation of at least 500 ms. Findings revealed
that learners attended to (i.e., noticed) roughly 60% of intensive recasts at this level.
Furthermore, the data showed that lexical recasts were much easier than grammatical
recasts for students to notice, retain, and produce more accurately on a written
posttest. Finally, lexical recasts were used more productively in the subsequent
chat interaction.
In a follow-up study, Smith (2012) targeted the noticing of recasts by 18 L2 users
of English who were chatting with a native speaker. Noticing in the eye gaze data
were established through coding of heat maps (and not a specific minimum fixation
duration). Accordingly, items were coded as having been noticed when longer
viewing times (i.e., “hotter” in the heat map) were visible relative to baseline
viewing data. These “noticing events” in the eye gaze record were compared with
those present in stimulated recall comments. Both noticing events were analyzed in
relation to gains on immediate and delayed posttest scores on the recast items.
Results showed that while both measures of noticing were able to predict posttest
success, the eye fixations were slightly better indicators. Findings also revealed that
learners engaged in similar amounts of viewing activity across recasts targeting
various linguistic categories. Overall, semantic and syntactic targets were noticed
more easily than morphological targets.
The study by Smith and Renaud (2013) extrapolated the above setup to Spanish
and German as target languages. Sixteen learners interacted with their tutor receiving
recasts on morphosyntax and semantics. This time, noticing was defined as any
fixation longer than 200 ms. The analysis counted both the total duration of all
fixations and the total number of fixations. Findings showed a positive relationship
between increased “total” time of eye fixations on lexical and grammatical form and
posttest success on previously unknown targets. Moreover, data tentatively
suggested that recasts that were fixated on exactly three times were most successful
in yielding correct posttest answers. Finally, the gaze data provided evidence that
recasts were noticed about 72% of the time – an encouraging number.
Leaving the area of SCMC, Stickler and Shi (2015) employed eye gaze data and
stimulated recall when researching what learners (N=10) attended to during multi-
modal online Chinese Tutorials. Heat map analyses showed great variation (3% to
Eye-Tracking Research in Computer-Mediated Language Learning 459
97%) in the use of Pinyin. That is, participants at lower levels (beginners to
intermediate) did focus a lot on the Pinyin script, while more advanced learners
spent most of the time on the Chinese characters. The eye gaze data also revealed
some unexpected user behavior, for example, participants spent quite some time on
the “social” areas of the screen which indicated who was currently acting in the
online environment.
To summarize, the work so far using eye-tracking methodology in a CALL
context has focused on SCMC. Most of these studies are exploratory in nature and
helped to identify characteristics of learner attention. Most importantly, eye gaze
data have provided evidence for different monitoring and reading patterns (e.g.,
scanning vs. browsing) and have lent support to the assumption that each chat
partner experiences an individual chat conversation, in particular because contribu-
tions are perceived and noticed in a different sequence from which they appear in the
chat log (O’Rourke 2012). The works of Smith (2010, 2012) and Smith and Renaud
(2013), taking a more quantitative approach, have shown how eye fixation data can
be related to noticing and language development. Their work represents a method-
ological step forward because they propose how to quantify the noticing of recasts
during SCMC. Taken together, the work on eye-tracking and SCMC provides strong
arguments for the perspective that CALL via text chat must not be studied by means
of chat transcript analyses alone as these present impoverished data, which at a
minimum underreport key aspects of the interaction. Eye-tracking methodology can
help overcome this shortcoming. Finally, Stickler and Shi (2015) have made an
important first move to use eye gaze data to understand learner’s viewing behavior in
an online tutorial environment. With growing numbers of online language classes,
more work in this area is to be expected.
Work in Progress
eye movement recordings to explore the relationship between receptive and produc-
tive online text processing on the one hand, and the quality of the writing product,
that is, the text produced, on the other hand. Finally, Michel and Smith (2017) are
investigating alignment during task-based text chat interactions between L2 users.
Where chat log analysis suggests convergence of SCMC partners at both the lexical
and structural level, eye gaze data can confirm or reject attention to potential models.
Figure 1, above shows a short stretch of conversation between two participants. Dots
represent fixations and are larger the longer a fixation is. Lines represent saccades
between those fixations. Here participant 1 consults the construction “to find the
groups” of participant 6’s turn (Model) when writing “to find the groups” herself
(Target).
Future Directions
dynamic data inherent to CALL; and (c) enable gaze recordings on other devices,
such as mobile phones and tablets. For the specific field of language learning in
digitally mediated contexts, we could reiterate Lai et al.’s (2013) request for
eye-tracking in education:
“[A]s far as the data analysis software is concerned, collaboration between software engi-
neers and educational researchers could help to modulate existing data analysis programs,
making them suitable for education studies while reducing the cost of software development.
In short, it is possible to cut down the price of eye-tracking systems if we take into
consideration the specific needs and features of educational research” (p.100).
Apart from collaborations with engineers, future work will benefit from combin-
ing eye gaze data with output from other tools (e.g., keystroke logging for writing;
optical character recognition for screen replay information), research expertise (e.g.,
corpus linguistics, human-computer interaction, multi-media learning), and triangu-
lation with other more established (offline) measures of SLA, such as stimulated
recall, comprehension tests, and verbal protocols (Hyönä 2010).
In the near future, CALL researchers will need to develop standardized
approaches for the analysis of eye movement data in a computer-mediated environ-
ment. Similarly, it is imperative that the field proposes and evaluates new standard
measures to complement traditional metrics used in eye-tracking research that might
not be appropriate for CALL. Further down the road, it is not unlikely that techno-
logical advances in the field of HCI will create gaze-based adaptive systems that
create new and exciting avenues for CALL.
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Index
A C
Access CALL. See Computer-assisted language
broadband access, 46, 49, 52 learning (CALL)
to computer(s), 46, 48, 49 Cambridge Advanced Learner’s
to data, 150 Dictionary, 436
digital device access, 47 Chinese, 319, 320, 458
to digital technology, 50 character writing, 321
home access, 46, 48 Civfanatics.com, 136
internet access, 46, 48 Classroom research, 35
school access, 46, 48, 49 Cobuild dictionary, 183
Adolescent fanfiction writing, 135 Cognitive event analysis, 354
Affinity group, 77 Cognitive presence, 265
identity, 107 Cognitive process, 321
Affordances, 137, 159 Collaboration, 264
Agency, 95 Collaborative academic writing, 163
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Collaborative games, 332
Languages (ACTFL), 319 Collaborative learning, 393
Antconc, 432 Collaborative writing, 134, 248
Antidote Prisme, 294 advantages, 252
Arabic, 319, 320 benefits, 249
ARPANET, 377 characteristics, 250
Assessment and Evaluation Language Research collaborative dialogue, 251
Center (AELRC), 319 covert collaboration, 250
Asynchronous communication, 159 feedback in, 252
Auto-ethnographic approach, 138 future research, 256–257
Automated analysis, 432 in group(s), 253
Automated essay scoring (AES), 316 group dynamics, 253
Automated scoring systems, 437 incidental collaboration, 250
Automatic writing evaluation (AWE), 294 instructor and learner preparation, 250
internet based contexts, 250
joint collaboration, 250
B LREs, 250
Basic English skills test plus (BEST Plus), 319 parallel collaboration, 250
Bayesian Essay Test Scoring System peer feedback, 249
(BETSY), 295 potential benefits, 255
BirdSong analytics, 409 problems and difficulties, 255–256
Blended, 158 process approach, 249
Blog, 163 student behavior, 251
Brown corpus, 183 trends in, 252
I L
ICALL, 162 Language, 18, 20, 23, 24
Identity, 132–135, 140, 144 assessment, 437
development, 270 awareness
texts, 75 computerized enhancement
Images, 149 techniques, 446
Implicit learning, 445, 448 definition, 442
Impression management, 145 feedback and grammar instruction,
Incidental collaboration, 250 445
Information and communication technologies, 5 feedback on L2 development, 445
Informed consent, 150 future research, 449–450
Input-based treatment, 447 problems in, 448–449
Intelligent computer assisted language learning education, 91, 96
(ICALL), 162 learning, 210, 211, 215, 383, 385,
automatic writing evaluation, 294–295 407, 408
description, 290 myth, 355
grammar checkers, 293–294 testing, 316
Index 469