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    Future Research Directions for Applied Linguistics
    Future Research Directions for Applied Linguistics
    Future Research Directions for Applied Linguistics
    Ebook586 pages7 hours

    Future Research Directions for Applied Linguistics

    By Simone E. Pfenninger

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    This edited volume provides an overview of current thinking and directions for further research in applied linguistics by bringing together in a single volume a range of perspectives regarding original research agendas and innovative methodological approaches. It focuses not only on the challenges that applied linguistics researchers have been facing in recent years but also on producing workable and productive research designs and on identifying ways of how alternatives to conventional research methodologies can be used. Discussions featured in the volume include the so-called ‘Bilingual Advantage’ in psycho- and neurolinguistics; the optimal starting age debate in foreign language learning; the growing interest among applied linguists in more nuanced and more complex (statistical) data analysis and the priority given to more descriptive and social approaches to linguistics rather than to theorising. The collection will be a useful reference and stimulus for students, researchers and professionals working in the areas of applied linguistics, psycholinguistics, second language acquisition and second language education.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherMultilingual Matters
    Release dateJan 19, 2017
    ISBN9781783097142
    Future Research Directions for Applied Linguistics

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      Future Research Directions for Applied Linguistics - Simone E. Pfenninger

      1Introduction

      Simone E. Pfenninger and Judit Navracsics

      As a genuine ‘language-centered problem-solving enterprise’ (Grabe, 2010: 34), applied linguistics has been at the busy intersection between various allied fields of general linguistics, such as psychology, education, sociology, public policy, information technology and others. Indeed, many scholars feel that linguistics represents only one among the many disciplines contributing to applied linguistics, rather than its core (see Cook, 2009). The call for papers to the 2011 AILA conference goes even further and lists 28 areas in applied linguistics (Schmitt & Celce-Murcia, 2010). It is therefore not surprising that this is a field that is notoriously difficult to define – almost ‘elusive of definition’ (Widdowson, 2005: 12) – embracing, inter alia, neurolinguistic, psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic issues in the ‘real world’, language education and policy, and second language acquisition (SLA), foreign language (FL) teaching and learning. Thus, it does not represent one scholarly domain but rather a multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary science; what goes under the name of applied linguistics is acknowledged to be highly diverse (Hall et al., 2011; Kaplan, 2010; Widdowson, 2005). The diversity of research issues addressed in applied linguistics, the steady growth of the field, the variety of (alternative) methods and procedures, the contextual diversity of acquisition/learning processes, the considerable increase in new statistical analyses, and the rate at which the field has been changing require those involved in this discipline to constantly reinvent themselves, to have a wide and thorough knowledge of new methods of data collection and analysis, and to make the transition from old-school to new-school approaches to language development. Furthermore, the greater attention currently being paid to this field has multiplied the number of points of view from which it can be analyzed.

      To the extent that this collection, as its title implies, offers a snapshot of future implications for applied linguistics, our intention is to contribute to the progress and academic development of this broad discipline. This edited volume aims to be a timely overview of current thinking and directions for further research in applied linguistics by bringing together in a single volume a range of perspectives regarding original research agendas and innovative methodological approaches. The focus is thus not only on the challenges that applied linguistics research has been facing in recent years but also on producing workable and productive research designs (possibly in uncharted territories) and on identifying ways as to how alternatives to conventional research methodologies can be operationalized. We are now at a point where it is becoming essential to initiate a reassessment of central themes and controversial issues in this branch of linguistics, to examine who is practising, where, and with what methods. Many applied linguists are beginning to do just that. There have been several excellent reviews of key theories, methodologies and the history of applied linguistics (e.g. de Bot, 2015; Gabrys´-Barker, in prep.; Loewen & Plonsky, 2015; Paltridge & Phakiti, 2010), as well as collections that offer directions for further research with respect to specific areas of applied linguistics or a specific theoretical framework (e.g. Bruthiaux, 2005; Verspoor et al., 2012). However, particularly for those new to these debates, it is necessary to stress a selection of salient points, such as: (1) new theoretical perspectives on research conundrums in applied linguistics, e.g. the so-called ‘bilingual advantage’ (BA) in psycho- and neurolinguistics or the optimal starting age debate in FL learning; (2) the growing interest among applied linguists in more nuanced and more complex (statistical) data analysis; and (3) the priority given to more descriptive and social approaches to linguistics rather than to theorizing. In what follows we examine these three main themes that emerge from the 12 chapters in this volume, starting with the contribution of applied linguistics to issues such as the BA debate.

      New Theoretical Perspectives on Research Conundrums in Applied Linguistics

      The volume opens with a piece by de Bot that reflects on the ongoing debate regarding the BA, and provides a conceptual framework for the more narrowly focused discussions that follow in Chapters 3 and 4. Analyzing some of the main language use activities that are assumed to be responsible for the BA, de Bot describes a new phase in bilingualism research, a phase that is characterized by finer grained analyses of task effects and a focus on the effects of a BA on different populations in different contexts and life circumstances. In lieu of definite answers, de Bot suggests that ‘rather than trying to find the BA it is better to see what advantages bilingualism may bring for different populations and tasks’ (p. 28). He also calls attention to the general tendency in academic publishing to favour positive outcomes over so-called null effects. In particular, he points out how results supporting a BA are still more likely to be published than results challenging such an advantage (de Bot, 2015; de Bruin et al., 2015; but cf. Bialystok et al., 2015). Csépe (Chapter 3) discusses insights into the BA that can be gained through the use of recently developed neuroscientific methods that improve the detectability of any advantage for bilinguals, as well as language use activities that are assumed to be responsible for the BA. She shares with de Bot the belief that the debate on the benefits and drawbacks of growing up bilingual is still in its infancy – at least from a methodological point of view. Csépe does, however, seem less troubled by task effects and the low ecological validity of tests assessing the BA. Her main concern is the importance of neuroscientific research that focuses on questions of separability and domain specificity. In Chapter 4, Navracsics and Sáry raise the question of the quality of linguistic awareness as reflected by the age and manner of becoming bilingual. Having employed a psychophysical technique measuring reaction time and accuracy judgement, they see the development of semantic awareness independent of age or manner. At the same time, phonological awareness at the written level is much more dependent on age and manner of language acquisition, and they find second language (L2) learners faster but not less successful than natural bilinguals in phonological processing. In terms of the validity of the bilingual cognitive advantage, the data provide evidence that processing two languages is more time consuming, and it should be taken into account in all testing circumstances.

      The potential and the benefits of research in neurolinguistics and the impact of language learning on brain processing is perhaps not a prominent immediate concern of applied linguistics (see Grabe, 2010: 39). However, significant advances in the relationships between brain functioning and language learning in recent decades suggest that research insights from neurolinguistics have become too important to ignore. This is also a main focus in Chapter 5 by van Heuven, who discusses alternative neurolinguistic methods such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related potentials (ERP), which may supplement, or even replace, conventional paradigms to gain a better grip on the mental and cerebral representation of the phonology and phonetics of bilinguals (see also Sereno & Wang, 2007). Van Heuven – like Navracsics and Sáry in Chapter 4, and Pfenninger and Singleton in Chapter 6 – also addresses the thorny question of the impact of starting age on L2/FL attainment. Focusing on four groups of listeners in naturalistic settings – a monolingual Dutch group, a monolingual English group, late bilinguals and early bilinguals – he presents evidence for the hypothesis that even very gifted late learners of the target language still differ – subtly but measurably – from native speakers of the target language in terms of their perceptual representation of the sound system of the target language. Late bilinguals may acquire pronunciation skills that are indistinguishable from those of monolingual speakers of either target language, but are non-native in the details of their perceptual representation of either sound system. Taking as a starting point the classic myth that childhood is the best time to start to learn an FL, Pfenninger and Singleton (Chapter 6) review research that has a closer look at the ‘earlier = better’ claim. While findings concerning the age factor in naturalistic settings speak in favour of an early start to L2 learning in these settings – as exemplified in van Heuven’s Chapter 5 – research in formal instructional L2 learning settings has confirmed the finding relating to the initial faster rate of older starters (e.g. Álvarez, 2006; Cenoz, 2003; Mora, 2006), but has not confirmed the long-term benefits of an early start. Classroom studies in a range of countries have shown not only a rate advantage for late starters over early starters, but also very few linguistic advantages to beginning the study of an FL earlier in a minimal input situation (see, for example, Larson-Hall, 2008; Muñoz, 2006, 2011; Myles & Mitchell, 2012; Náves, 2009; Pfenninger, 2014a, 2014b; Unsworth et al., 2012).

      It is subjects such as these that exemplify research at the heart of applied linguistics: studies of real-world issues, ‘facts’, beliefs and assumptions that constitute different ways of thinking and living. According to Widdowson (2005), the essential issue for applied linguistics is ‘whether, how, and how far the ideas and findings that have been refined out of actual data by idealization and analysis can be referred back reflexively to the domains of folk [e.g. teacher/learner] experience whence they came and be made relevant in practice’ (Widdowson, 2005: 20). As Widdowson (2005: 21) concedes, this is a difficult thing to do, ‘and it is very tempting to simplify matters’ such as by ignoring contextual factors, neglecting the diversity of local domains and making overgeneralizations. This leads us to the next theme of this volume.

      New Methodological Approaches to the Complexity of Real-world Issues

      Many authors in this volume endorse the development and use of new methodological approaches in applied linguistics. If we are to engage with real-world issues and take account of the complex variety of the ‘real world’, we need to: (1) take account of the interconnectedness of subsystems present; (2) develop research designs that base themselves on quantitative as well as qualitative findings such as mixed methodology; and (3) make more use of statistical models with built-in ecological validity, i.e. models that take account of both participant and item variability, allowing for the assessment of the impact of context-varying factors on age (over time).

      It will be suggested throughout this book (e.g. by de Bot, Penris & Verspoor; Cergol Kovačević; and Bátyi) that there is a need to see language (acquisition) as comprising factors that are dynamic rather than static, complex (in the sense of patterns emerging from components interacting within the ecology in which they operate), interdependent, developing in a non-linear hence unpredictable fashion, highly dependent on initial conditions, and constantly changing and subject to perturbations – all of which are main points of the concept of complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) (for a fuller treatment of dynamic systems theory as it has been applied to language and SLA, the interested reader is referred to de Bot, 2008; de Bot et al., 2007; Dörnyei et al., 2014; Jessner, 2008; Larsen-Freeman, 2015; Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). Penris and Verspoor’s study (Chapter 11) makes a convincing case that CDST has far-reaching consequences, beyond what one might normally expect with a new theory. They set out to identify measures that work for writing at advanced levels, especially of academic writing, where nominalizations and other non-finite constructions are used. To this end, the texts of one student were rated on academic style by seven independent judges, and a number of measures were correlated with the median of the ratings. In line with the main premises of CDST, Penris and Verspoor conclude that ‘linguistic development in writing is a rather erratic process when examined up close’. Given the fact that throughout the life span of a multilingual person many factors involved in multilingual development are subject to constant change, Jessner and Török (Chapter 10) argue that multilingualism lends itself to being researched from a CDST perspective. The aim of their chapter is to provide further insight into multilingual processing by shedding light on one of the key elements of the so-called M(ultilingualism)-factor, namely the implementation of strategies when trying to decode an unknown language. Research on strategies conventionally takes a rather reductionist approach, whereas the methodology discussed in this chapter takes into consideration the dynamics of the linguistic and other systems of the multilingual learners involved, thus proposing an alternative in the methodological approach to research on multilingual benefit.

      The multidisciplinary approach of applied linguistics is also very strongly reflected in the greater focus on more sophisticated and more appropriate quantitative analyses from natural sciences methodology rather than the general and often inadequate approaches of the past. Attention to new statistical methods in applied linguistics has become particularly salient in view of two main developments in this field. One is the paradigm shift from qualitative to quantitative research designs that took place in applied linguistics in the 1990s and early 2000s. Lazaraton (2005: 214) sees three main problems with this paradigm shift: (1) she fears that general linear models (GLM) such as ANOVA and t-tests are used ‘in violation of at least some of the assumptions of the procedure’ (see also de Bot, 2012: 13–22), such as the inclusion of correlated data in linear models; (2) a great deal of the research becomes obscure for all but the most statistically literate; and (3) using high-powered parametric procedures may tempt one to overgeneralize results to other contexts or to other language users, when, in fact, many research designs do not use random selection from a population or random assignment to groups, but rather employ intact groups of a very limited demographic profile. Pfenninger and Singleton (Chapter 6) depart from the conventional approach to numeric data in applied linguistics with GLM as they address methodological and assessment issues that have been raised by the upsurge of interest in research on the age factor in FL settings. They suggest that multilevel modelling (MLM) approaches are ideal for a potentially generalizable study of age effects, as these analyses encourage us to shift from a myopic focus on a single factor such as the age factor to examining multiple relationships among a number of variables, including contextual variables – or in Brown’s (2011) words: ‘you are more likely to consider all parts of the picture at the same time, and might therefore see relationships between and among variables (all at once) that you might otherwise have missed or failed to understand’ (Brown, 2011: 11–12). Another pressing issue in current quantitative methods in SLA that is also addressed in Chapter 6 is to find a method that enables us to maximize the generalizability of the findings without sacrificing too much variability. Age-related research in this past decade has demonstrated an increased sensitivity to constraints on generalizability (or transferability) of results as well as features of the research design which support the causal connection between treatment and outcome that is inferred from the results (e.g. randomization). This is a reality for many areas in applied linguistics; as Gass (2006: 216) says, ‘[as] Applied Linguists, we do live within the real world and are subjected to real-world constraints on data’.

      Besides pushing the agenda for more statistical advances (see also Plonsky, 2013, 2014), the community of applied linguistics researchers has become increasingly receptive again to qualitative research in the last decade. Previous reviews have identified a trend of the rising presence of qualitative studies published in leading applied linguistics and language learning journals (e.g. Benson et al., 2009; Lazaraton, 2005). In particular, mixed methods research – the meaningful merging of qualitative and quantitative approaches – offers a radically different new strand of research methodology which allows investigators to obtain data about both the individual and the broader societal context and brings out the best of the qualitative and the quantitative paradigm while also compensating for their weaknesses (Dörnyei, 2009; Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011; Singleton & Pfenninger, 2015). According to the first issue of the Journal of Mixed Methods Research, this new research approach is defined as ‘research in which the investigator collects and analyzes data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or program inquiry’ (Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007: 4; see also Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). Thus, qualitative and quantitative research are combined at the data collection level and/or at the analysis level. Promoting the use of a mixed methods approach in future attrition research, Bátyi’s paper (Chapter 13) reports on the findings of a study carried out with former learners of Russian, which was a mandatory school subject for many years in Hungary. The result is a paper that exemplifies the mutually beneficial interchange that can occur between theoretically grounded qualitative research at one end of the spectrum and data-based quantitative approaches at the other: while attrition researchers generally insist on using uniform research tools to study the phenomenon, Bátyi reminds us to bear in mind that language learning and attrition are dynamic processes that may differ considerably between individuals. To understand these processes, both qualitative and quantitative data are needed in the future.

      Future Implications for Language Policy and Education

      Several chapters in this volume offer a sample of the richness of two academic disciplines within applied linguistics that are directly concerned with bridging theory and practice and are thus of direct relevance to the practices of a range of professionals, including language educators and language policy makers: language policy and FL teaching. Language policy – comprising language practice and language beliefs or ideology – fits into applied linguistics, as it constitutes arguably the most extensive branch of ‘language management’, that is, the effort by individuals, groups, or institutions with (or claiming to have) authority to modify the language practices or beliefs of other speakers. Language management, in turn, is said to be ‘at the very core of applied linguistics’ (Spolsky, 2005: 30). In Chapter 7, on language policy in Ukraine, Csernicskó creates a strong case for examining language policies that involve macro-level general national language policy. He first describes the language situation in Ukraine, paying particular attention to the changes in FL learning and teaching since the demise of the Soviet Union. The major portion of his chapter is devoted to a description of how the political elite in Ukraine strived to settle the language issue by introducing language laws that were supposed to regulate the use of Ukrainian and Russian. By comparing and analyzing five language acts, he illustrates the priorities of the power elite in passing these laws, and the implications for the future directions of Ukrainian language policy. His work exemplifies the view that language planning is a multidimensional activity that requires academic and community input. Also in the realm of language policy, Bülow and Harnisch (Chapter 9) look into gender-sensitive language use and its widespread implications for the future expression of gender equality. Their study elaborates a concern that real-world language policy making ought to adopt systematic and rational approaches informed by sociolinguistic research. Promoting a bottom-up rather than top-down approach, they demythologize the assumption that the generic masculine discriminates against women – a powerful argument in political and academic discourse, as the notion of ‘genus’ (a grammatical category) is easily conflated with the concept of ‘gender’, which is a social and biological category. Their findings support their view that ‘we need a non-ideological discourse in the future which takes account of the context and is based on valid empirical research and not on personal attitudes’.

      Five of the 12 papers in this volume present theoretical and empirical evidence in the realm of language teaching and learning, which has been a domain that has often been considered the principal concern of applied linguistics (see, for example, Pennycook, 2005). Far ranging and comprehensive, Fábián’s Chapter 9 draws readers’ attention to the need to investigate micro language planning activities. She anchors her discussion firmly in the world of the classroom as she provides a four-component model in order to extend the existing theories of the critical thinking concept into a wider conceptual framework to allow a more comprehensive approach to the study of critical thinking practices in classroom environments worldwide. While a lot of attention is paid to developing and improving methods of teaching critical thinking in the classroom, little evidence of teachers’ critical thinking practices has been gathered. Her chapter considers some of the dilemmas involved in researching classroom critical thinking and makes an attempt to identify further areas of investigation in the subject. As mentioned above, Penris and Verspoor (Chapter 11) take a CDST approach to investigating the academic writing development of a young adult as ‘a long, complex, dynamic process’ over the course of 13 years. To trace the linguistic development of different subsystems from one level to the next, they zoom in on the dynamic relations between 13 variables measuring lexical and syntactic complexity across 49 written samples. The declared goal of their study is to show the high degrees of variability within the investigated variables and demonstrate how the latter grow in relation to each other. Making reference to introspective data from third language learners, the aim of Jessner and Török’s chapter (Chapter 10) is to take a holistic approach to strategy research in order to define the systemic interaction between the multilingual learner’s linguistic systems and the cognitive processing within the multilingual’s mind – in line with the dynamic model of multilingualism proposed by Herdina and Jessner (2002). The chapter perfectly exemplifies the idea that, in order to be able to offer a real-world response to the problems they face, applied linguists would be well advised to conduct their studies in close collaboration with the people who are experiencing the problem or whose needs are to be met (see also Hall et al., 2011: 18). Cergol Kovačević’s empirical study in Chapter 12 provides a deeper insight into the processing of identical and semi-cognates by comparing the visual and auditory processing of (semi-)cognates by Croatian learners of English. Studies of bilingual cognate processing have long been used as a means of uncovering details about the organization of the bilingual mental lexicon and lexical access. Since Croatian is an orthographically shallow language, it is visually processed differently from English with its deep orthography, which is why results from both visual and auditory tasks need to be integrated into the interpretation of the lexical processing of such language combinations. Fittingly in the context of this volume, these chapters span theory and practice, but also add specificity to the view that applied linguistics ‘should be concerned with bringing theory to bear on language-related problems while allowing practitioners to test their theories against systematically collected data’ (Bruthiaux, 2005: 9).

      Due to the fragmented and interdisciplinary nature of applied linguistics studies, this book is divided into three discipline-specific parts (Part 1: ‘Future Implications for Bilingualism’; Part 2: ‘Future Implications for Second Language Acquisition and Language Policy: Theoretical Consi­derations’; Part 3: ‘Future Implications for Instructed Second Language Acquisition: Empi­rical Evidence’). Having said that, we accept that this division is in some cases problematic. For example, the chapters on the future of the BA (Chapter 2), the multilingual brain (Chapter 5), and academic writing development (Chapter 10), as well as others, could just as easily have been placed in Part 2 due to the interrelatedness of theory and practice in applied linguistics, which we have tried to establish in this Introduction chapter. Furthermore, the scope of the included studies is relatively broad, yet it represents the colourful tapestry of the state of the art and the interdisciplinarity of the fields in question, and it reflects the wider development of applied linguistics in the last 40 or 50 years. We hope that viewing these perspectives collectively in one volume will lead to a deeper understanding and appreciation of the merits of the theoretical and methodological diversity in applied linguistics.

      Acknowledgements

      This edited volume is the result of a collective effort of scholars and experts across seven countries. We wish to thank our amazing contributors, who have shown us some of the wealth of possibilities in applied linguistics research, and who have given each other invaluable suggestions for improvement. Most of all, we would like to express our gratitude to David Singleton, Kees de Bot, Marjolijn Verspoor and Vincent van Heuven, who have all played a vital part in shaping the finished product.

      At Multilingual Matters, special thanks are due to Laura Longworth for her kind patience, continued support, and incredible efficiency. Our heartfelt thanks also go to the anonymous reviewer, who provided us with insightful and generous feedback. Any remaining errors remain our own.

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      Part 1

      Future Implications for Bilingualism

      2The Future of the Bilingual Advantage

      Kees de Bot

      Introduction

      One of the hot topics in research on multilingualism in recent years is what has been labelled ‘the bilingual advantage’ (henceforth, BA). Inspired by the seminal work by Ellen Bialystok and her colleagues, there is now a large amount of research on this phenomenon. In this contribution we discuss a number of aspects related to the BA and critical research on it in recent years.

      In lay terms, the BA has been defined in terms of skills areas in which bilinguals outperform monolinguals. Bilinguals are assumed to be better with regard to:

      •creative thinking;

      •metalinguistic awareness;

      •logical thinking;

      •flexibility in thinking;

      •the enhanced ability to learn additional languages.

      Not all the links between these abilities and bilingualism have been supported by relevant research findings, and some of them are hardly testable. Operationalizing complex and often vague concepts like ‘creativity’, ‘logical thinking’ and ‘flexibility’ makes it difficult – if not impossible – to provide the empirical work to support the claims that these abilities are somehow enhanced by bilingualism. For a scientific approach, more refined and testable aspects need to be used. Most scientific research on the BA has focused on three components of cognitive processing:

      •Updating. Keeping and refreshing information in memory: this is measured using tests like the so-called ‘number recall test’.

      •Inhibitory control. The ability to ignore irrelevant information: this is typically measured using the Stroop test and the Flanker test.

      •Task switching. Swift switching between tasks, traditionally measured with tasks like the dimensional card sorting task. In this task, cards have to be categorized first on the basis of the colour of pictures and then on the basis of the shape of objects on the pictures. The switching between tasks typically leads to a slowing down of reaction times after the switch.

      A yet to be solved issue is whether these three cognitive functions should be treated as separate modules in the cognitive system. It seems to be the assumption behind the idea that domain-specific training leads to domain-general applicability: if the functions only exist with the cognitive content they are working on, then it is hard to see how they can exist independently of that content. Think of intelligence: it doesn’t exist by itself, but only becomes visible when certain tasks have to be carried out. Hence the question arises as to whether there is a module that supports task switching or whether task switching is an integral part of other activities, such as picking up the phone while cooking.

      How is the Bilingual Advantage Assessed?

      In current research, the existence of a BA is assumed to be demonstrated when, on certain tasks, there is a significant difference between bilinguals and a matched monolingual control group (see also Csépe, this volume, for a neurolinguistic perspective of the phenomenon). A major problem for this particular line of research is the question as to what counts as ‘matching’. As we will see later, there are many factors that could cause a difference between treatment group and control group. This is especially true for the research on the advantages of bilingualism in ageing. In the literature there is a substantial debate about the degree to which an advantage in older age is in fact a BA (e.g. Bialystok et al., 2004, 2006; Kousaiue & Philips, 2012; Salvatierra & Rosselli, 2010).

      Experimental tasks

      The three executive functions mentioned above have been studied extensively, using a number of tasks, in particular the anti-saccade task, the Flanker task, the Simon task and the Stroop task, as well as various formats of go/no-go tasks. In what follows we present a brief description of these different tasks.

      Anti-saccade task

      In this task, the informant has to focus on an asterisk in the centre of the screen. Another asterisk is projected on the left or the right of the centre. Depending on a cue (e.g. a colour) the participant has to look either in the direction of the new asterisk (congruent items) or in the opposite direction (incongruent items). The average difference between congruent and incongruent is the

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