GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

UNIT-4

REINFORCED EARTH
The concept of combining two materials of different strengths characteristics to
form a composite material of greater strength is quite familiar in civil engineering
practices and is in use for ages.
The reinforced concrete constructions are examples for such composite materials.
It combines the high tensile strength of steel with the high compressive, but
relatively low tensile strength of concrete.
Likewise, soils which have little if any tensile strength can also be strengthened by
the inclusion of materials with high tensile strength.
This mobilization of tensile strength is obtained by surface interaction between the
soil and the reinforcement through friction and adhesion.
The reinforced soil is obtained by placing extensible or inextensible materials such as
metallic strips or polymeric reinforcement within the soil to obtain the requisite
properties.
Soil reinforcement through metallic strips, grids or meshes and polymeric strips
sheets is now a well-developed and widely accepted technique of earth
improvement.
Anchoring and soil nailing is also adopted to improve the soil properties. The use of
reinforced earth technique is primarily due to its versatility, cost effectiveness and
ease of construction.
The reinforced earth technique is particularly useful in urban locations where
availability of land is minimum and construction is required to take place with
minimum disturbance traffic.

Types of reinforcing materials:

i) Strips: These are flexible linear element normally having their breadth, „ b‟ greater than
their thickness, „t‟. Dimensions vary with application and structure, but are usually within
the range t = 3-5 mm, b = 5-100 mm. The most common strips are metals. The form of
stainless, galvanized or coated steel strips being either plain or having several protrusions
such as ribs or gloves to increase the friction between the reinforcement and the fill. Strips
can also be formed from aluminum, copper, polymers and glass fibre reinforced plastic
(GRP). Reed and bamboo reinforcements are normally categorized as strips, as are chains.

ii) Planks: Similar to strips except that their form of construction makes them stiff. Planks
can be formed from timber, reinforced concrete or pre-stressed concrete. The dimensions
of concrete planks vary; however, reinforcements with a thickness, „t‟ =

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 1

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

100 mm and breadth, b= 200–300 mm have been used. They have to be handled with
care as they can be susceptible to cracking.

iii) Grids and Geogrids: Reinforcing elements formed from transverse and longitudinal
members, in which the transverse members run parallel to the face or free edge of the
structure and behave as abutments or anchors as shown

The main purpose is to retain the transverse members in position. Since the
transverse members act as an abutment or anchor they need to be stiff relative to their
length. The longitudinal members may be flexible having a high modulus of elasticity not
susceptible to creep. The pitch of the longitudinal members, pL is determined by their load
carrying capacity and the stiffness of the transverse element. A surplus of longitudinal and
transverse elements is of no consequence provided the soil or fill can interlock with the
grid. Mono and Bi Oriented grid as shown

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 2

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Grids can be formed from steel in the form of plain or galvanized weld mesh, or from
expanded metal. Grids formed from polymers are known as “Geogrids” and are normally
in the form of an expanded proprietary plastic product.

iv) Sheet reinforcement: May be formed from metal such as galvanized steel sheet,
fabric (textile) or expanded metal not meeting the criteria for a grid.

v) Nailing: Earth may be protected by geo-synthetics with earth nailing.

vi) Anchors: Flexible linear elements having one or more pronounced protrusions or
distortions which act as abutments or anchors in the fill or soil. They may be formed from
steel, rope, plastic (textile) or combinations of materials such as webbing and tyres, steel
and tyres, or steel and concrete

vii) Composite reinforcement: Reinforcement can be in the form of combinations of

materials and material forms such as sheets and strips, grid and strips and anchors,
depending on the requirements.
The Components Of Reinforced Earth

SOIL

It should be granular, cohesion less material, not too much silt or clay having particle
size not more than 125 mm.
Not more than 10 percent of the particles shall pass 75 micron sieve & the earth
reinforcement coefficient of friction to be either higher than or equal to 0.4 &
Plasticity Index < 6.
The soil must have moisture content suitable for compaction.

The materials shall be substantially free of shale or other soft, poor durability
particles.

SKIN
Skin is the facing element of the reinforced soil wall.
These elements keep the reinforcement at a desired elevation in the reinforced
soil wall and also protect the granular at the edge falling off.
Made of either metal units or precast concrete panels.

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 3

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

REINFORCING MATERIAL

A variety of materials can be used as reinforcing materials

Steel
Concrete
Glass fibre
Wood
Rubber
Aluminum
Reinforcement may take the form of strips, grids, anchors & sheet material,
chains, planks, rope, vegetation and combinations of these or other material
forms.
THE DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCED EARTH WALL

Rankine or Columb earth pressure theory should be used

Active earth pressure or passive earth pressure or at rest earth pressure are
adopted.
The various forces acting horizontal, vertical and shear stress should be
distributed on reinforced earth.
Suitable geometry surface failure is assumed on reinforced earth Reinforcing strip
length can resist the failure occurred by the slippage.
Safety factors are required and calculated from Rankine, Active earth
pressure theory.
The earth pressures on a reinforced earth walls can be calculated by both
horizontal and vertical earth pressures

Factors affecting the behavior and Performance of Reinforced Soil

REINFORCEMENT REINFORMENT SOIL SOIL STATE CONSTRUCTIO

DISTRIBUTION N
Forms(fibers,grid,anchor, Location Particle size Density Geometry of
bar,strip) structure
Surface properties compaction
Dimensions Orientation Grading Over Construction
burden system
Strength Mineral States of Aesthetics
Content stress
Stiffness Spacing Index Degree of Durability
properties Saturation

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 4

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

The Design Procedure For Reinforced Earth Wall In Form Of A Flowchart

Stability Checks:

External Stability (as for any earth-retaining structure)

The external stability of a reinforced soil wall is easily investigated since it behaves
essentially as a rigid body and conforms to the simple laws of statics external stability
assessment should consider the effects of dead loads, other loads (live load, dynamic load
etc.) and forces acting on the structure. The failure for sliding, overturning, tilting/bearing
and slip should be checked by external stability
Sliding
Overturning
Bearing Capacity

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 5

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Short and long term stability of soil needs to be considered to allow for the construction and
in-service condition as well as in changes in pore water pressure. Passive earth pressure
acting on the foot of the wall/structure below ground level may be ignored while
considering various forces for stabilization.

Internal Stability (MSE retaining structures)

Stability within a reinforced structure is achieved by the reinforcing elements carrying

tensile forces and then transferring to the soil by friction, friction and adhesion, or friction
and bearing. In addition forces can be transferred the soil through fill trapped by the
elements of the grid. The fill is than able to support the associated shear and compressive
forces. In the case of anchored earth such as soil nailing, stability within a structure is
achieved by the anchor elements carrying tensile forces and transferring these by friction
along the anchor shaft or anchor loop and bearing of the anchor to the surrounding fill.
Reinforcement Failure
Pullout
Failure of Reinforcement/Facing Connection

Local stability check

The resistance of the reinforcing element should be checked against rupture and adherence
failure whilst carrying the factored loads.

Wedge stability

The reinforcement structure will assume to fail internally in the form of wedge. It is not
known at which level the wedge is originated. Therefore the wedge originate from different
level to be checked. Checked for stability considering all the forces acting on it. Wedges are
assumed to behave as rigid bodies and may be any size and shape. Stability of any wedge is
maintained when friction forces acting on the potential failure plane in connection with the
tensile resistance/ bond of the group of reinforcing elements or embedded in the fill beyond
the plane are able to resist the applied loads tending to cause movement,

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 6

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Geosynthetics
Geo-synthetics are synthetic products used to stabilize terrain.
These are human-made materials made from various types of polymers used to
enhance, augment and make possible cost effective environmental, transportation
and geotechnical engineering construction projects.
They are used to provide one or more of the following functions; separation,
reinforcement, filtration, drainage or liquid barrier.
They are generally polymeric products used to solve civil engineering problems.
These include eight main categories geotextiles, geogrids, geonets, geomembranes,
geosynthetic clay liners,geofoam, geocells and geocomposites.
The polymeric nature of the products makes them suitable for use in the ground
where high levels of durability are required.
They can also be used in exposed applications.
Geo-synthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials.

These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many civil,
geotechnical, transportation, hydraulic and private development applications including
roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams,
landfill liners, land fill covers structures.

The Important Properties Of Geo-Synthetics Required For Reinforcement Function

Basic Physical Properties

a. Constituent material and method of manufacture b.
Mass per unit area
c. Thickness
d. Roll width, roll length

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 7

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Mechanicalproperties
a. Tensile strength
b. Tensile modulus
c. Seam strength
d. Interface friction

e. Fatigue resistance
f. Creep resistance
Hydraulic Properties
a. Compressibility
b. Opening size
c. Permittivity
d. Transmissivity
Constructability/survivability Properties
a. Strength and stiffness
b. Tear resistance

c. Puncture resistance
d. Penetration resistance
e. Burst resistance

f. Cutting resistance
g. Inflammability
h. Absorption

Durability (Longevity)
a. Abrasion resistance
b. Ultra-violet stability
c. Temperature stability
d. Chemical stability
e. Biological stability
f. Wetting & drying stability
The Functions Of Geo-Synthetics
Reinforcement
Filtration
Separation
Drainage
Erosion Control
Barrier/Protection

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 8

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Reinforcement:

Reduction of Stress Intensity (Concentration) through Wider Distribution The stresses over
the subgrade are higher in unreinforced flexible pavements than in geo-synthetic-reinforced
pavement due to stress distribution factor

Reinforcement Mechanisms Induced by Geo-synthetics:

(a) Lateral Restraint

(b) Increased Bearing Capacity; and

(c) Membrane Tension Support

Filtration

Retaining soil particles subjected to hydraulic forces which allow the passage of
liquids/gases. This function is often partnered with separation.

Separation

a. Preventing intermixing of soil types or soil/aggregate to maintain the integrity of each

material yet still allow the free passage of liquids/gases. Commonly used in between
sub-base/subgrade and around drainage materials.

b. Contamination of the base course layers leads to a reduction of strength, stiffness and
drainage characteristics, promoting distress and early failure of roadway.
Drainage

Allowing fluids and gases to flow both through the plan of the material. Commonly used as
components in geo-composites used for surface water runoff or for gas collection under
membranes.

Separation and Drainage Functions

a. Piping Resistance: Apparent Opening Size - AOS (as related to soil retention),

b. Permeability: Flow capacity, and clogging potential.

c. Strength and Durability: Grab, Puncture strengths

Erosion Control

Protecting and reinforcing slopes and drainage channels from erosive agents whilst allowing
the establishment of vegetation cover.

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 9

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Barrier/Protection

Preventing or limiting localized damage to an adjacent material, usually a geomembrane

used to line a lagoon or a landfill. Thick geotextiles prevent puncture or excessive strain in
the membrane.
Geo synthetics classified
Geo synthetics are classified as follows
Geotextiles
Geogrids
Geonets
Geo-membranes
Geo-synthetic clay liners
Geocells/geo web members
Geofoam
Geo-composites

Geotextiles are defined as “any permeable textile used with foundation soil, rock, earth, or
any other geotechnical engineering-related material as an integral part of a human-made
project, structure, or system”.

Geogrids

They have open grid like configuration i.e. they have large aperture between individual
ribs.They have Low strain and stretch about 2% under load.

Strength is more that other common geotextiles. Function: Used exclusively for
reinforcement

Geonets are open grid-like materials formed by two sets of course, parallel, extruded
polymeric strands intersecting at a constant acute angle. The network forms a sheet with in-
plane porosity that is used to carry relatively large fluid or gas flows.

Geomembranes are continuous flexible sheets manufactured from one or more synthetic
materials. They are relatively impermeable and are used as liners for fluid or gas
containment and as vapour barriers.
Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are geocomposites that are prefabricated with a bentonite
clay layer typically incorporated between a top and bottom geotextile layer or geotextile
bentonite bonded to a geomembrane or single layer of geotextile. Geotextile-encased GCLs

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 10

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

are often stitched or needle punched through the bentonite core to increase internal shear
resistance. When hydrated they are effective as a barrier for liquid or gas and are commonly
used in landfill liner applications often in conjunction with a geomembrane.

Geocells are relatively thick, three-dimensional networks constructed from strips of

polymeric sheet. The strips are joined together to form interconnected cells that are infilled
with soil and sometimes concrete. In some cases 0.5 m to 1 m wide strips of polyolefin
geogrids have been linked together with vertical polymeric rods used to form deep geocell
layers called geomattresses. soil confinement

Geofoam blocks or slabs are created by expansion of polystyrene foam to form a low-
density network of closed, gas-filled cells. Geofoam is used for thermal insulation, as a
lightweight fill or as a compressible vertical layer to reduce earth pressures against rigid
walls.

Geocomposites are geosynthetics made from a combination of two or more geosynthetic

types. Examples include: geotextile-geonet; geotextile-geogrid; geonet geomembrane; or a
geosynthetic clay liner (GCL). Prefabricated geocomposite drains or prefabricated vertical
drains (PVDs) are formed by a plastic drainage core surrounded by a geotextile filter .
The Properties Of Geotextiles

Physical properties
Mechanical properties
Hydraulic properties
Endurance properties
Degradation properties

Physical properties of Geotextiles

a. Specific gravity
b. Mass per unit area
c. Thickness
d. Stiffness

Mechanical properties of Geotextiles

a. Compressibility

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 11

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

b. Tensile strength
c. Seam strength
d. Fatigue strength
e. Burst strength
f. Tear strength
g. Impact strength
h. Puncture strength
i. Friction strength
j. Pull out strength

THE CLASSIFICATION OF GEO TEXTILES

Geotextile:
Geotextiles are polymer fabrics used in the construction of roads, drains, harbour works,
and breakwaters,and for land reclamation and many other civil engineering
purposes. Geotextiles, a newly emerging field in the civil engineering and other fields, offer
great potential in varied areas of applications globally.

Types of geotextiles:
Geotextiles are a permeable synthetic material made of textile materials. They are usually
made from polymers such as polyester or polypropylene. The geotextiles are further
prepared in three different categories – woven fabrics, non-woven fabrics and knitted
fabrics.

Woven Fabrics: Large numbers of geosynthetics are of woven type, which can be sub-
divided into several categories based upon their method of manufacture. These were the
first to be developed from the synthetic fibers. As their name implies, they are
manufactured by adopting techniques which are similar to weaving usual clothing textiles.
This type has the characteristic appearance of two sets of parallel threads or yarns .the yarn
running along the length is called warp and the one perpendicular is called weft.

Woven fabric
The majority of low to medium strength woven geosynthetics are manufactured from
polypropylene which can be in the form of extruded tape, silt film, monofilament or
multifilament. Often a combination of yarn types is used in the warp and weft directions to

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 12

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

optimize the performance/cost. Higher permeability is obtained with monofilament and

multifilament than with flat construction only.

Non-woven: Non-woven geo-synthetics can be manufactured from either short staple fibre
or continuous filament yarn. The fibers can be bonded together by adopting thermal,
chemical or mechanical techniques or a combination of techniques. The type of fibre (staple
or continuous) used has very little effect on the properties of the non – woven geo
synthetics. Non-woven geotextiles are manufactured through a process of mechanical
interlocking or chemical or thermal bonding of fibres/filaments. Thermally bonded non-
wovens contain wide range of opening sizes and a typical thickness of about 0.5-1 mm while
chemically bonded non-wovens are comparatively thick usually in the order of 3 mm. On the
other hand mechanically bonded non-wovens have a typical thickness in the range of 2-5
mm and also tend to be comparatively heavy because a large quantity of polymer filament is
required to provide sufficient number of entangled filament cross wires for adequate
bonding.

Nonwoven
Knitted Fabrics: Knitted geosynthetics are manufactured using another process which is
adopted from the clothing textiles industry, namely that of knitting. In this process
interlocking a series of loops of yarn together is made. An example of a knitted fabric is
illustrated in figure. Only a very few knitted types are produced. All of the knitted
geosynthetics are formed by using the knitting technique in conjunction with some other
method of geosynthetics manufacture, such as weaving.

Knitted fabric
Apart from these three main types of geotextiles, other geosynthetics used are geonets,
geogrids, geo-cells, geo membranes, geo composites, etc. each having its own distinct
features and used for special applications.

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 13

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 14

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Applications And The Purpose Of Geotextiles And Geomembranes

Pavements on soft soil
Increase in bearing
capacity
Pavement overlays Inhibit
crack propagation.
Rail roads
Prevent ballast contamination, distribute load on subgrade.
Embankments
Improve stability, provide drainage.
Retaining structures Reinforce
and protect backfill

Natural slopes
Protect slope against erosion, reinforce soil, and provide drainage.
Rivers, canals and reservoirs
Replace or improve traditional filter layers, erosion control.

Water pollution control
Extract and collect granular pollutants, reinforce and protect geomembranes, relieve
pore water or gas pressure below membranes.
Shore protection
Prevent erosion and sand migration, act as filter and drainage layer
Building elements
Form soil- cement filled bags and tubes to create columns

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. (a) Write the advantages and applications of reinforced earth structures with neat
sketches.
(b) Discuss the external stability aspects in the design of reinforced earth wall.
2. (a) What is the main difference between geo-grid and geo-textile? Explain the field
applications of geo-grid and geo-textiles.
(b) Explain separation and filtration functions of geo-textile. Mention applications
based on these functions.
3. (a) What is the objective of soil reinforcement?
(b) What are the factors governing the design of reinforced earth walls?
4. (a) What are geomembranes? How geomembranes differ from geo textiles?
(b) What are the applications of geotexitiles?
5. Explain the basic mechanism of reinforced earth. Discuss the various design formulae
in reinforced earth wall.
6. (a) What are geotextiles? Write a note on common nomenclature of geosynthetics.
(b) Explain with suitable examples the principles involved in geo-textile material as
reinforcement for improving the bearing capacity of soil.
7. (a) Explain any four engineering applications of reinforced earth with sketches.
(b) Describe the procedure of designing a reinforced earth wall.
8. (a) Distinguish between geo textiles and geo grids.

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 15

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

(b) Explain the applications of geo-textiles based on their separation and drainage
functions.
9. Explain the design principle of reinforced earth wall.
10. Explain clearly the functions of Geotextiles.
11. (a) What is reinforced earth? How does it differ from reinforced cement concrete
and mechanically stabilized soil?
(b) Distinguish between “frictional fill” and “cohesive frictional fill” used in reinforced
earth constructions.
12. (a) Distinguish between woven and non woven geotextiles. How they are
manufacture and what functions they can perform?
(b) What is a geo-grid? Explain different types of geo grids. How do they differ from
geotextiles functionally?
13. (a) What are the factors governing design of reinforced wall?
(b) With a neat sketch explain the various components of reinforced earth structure.
14. (a) What polymers are used as geosynthetics? What are their properties?
(b) Compare geotextiles and geomembrane.

BY C THEJASWINI VEENA Page 16