Traffic Flow Theory

Introduction
Traffic Flow Theory is a tool that helps transportation engineers understand and express the
properties of traffic flow. At any given time, there are millions of vehicles on our roadways.
These vehicles interact with each other and impact the overall movement of traffic, or the traffic
flow.

Whether the task is evaluating the capacity of existing roadways or designing new
roadways, most transportation engineering projects begin with an evaluation of the
traffic flow. Therefore, the transportation engineer needs to have a firm understanding
of the theories behind Traffic Flow Analysis.

Theory & Concepts

Types of Traffic Flow
Traffic flow can be divided into two primary types. Understanding what type of flow
is occurring in a given situation will help you decide which analysis methods and
descriptions are the most relevant.

1. uninterrupted flow is flow regulated by vehicle-vehicle interactions and

interactions between vehicles and the roadway. For example, vehicles traveling
on an interstate highway are participating in uninterrupted flow.
2. interrupted flow is flow regulated by an external means, such as a traffic
signal. Under interrupted flow conditions, vehicle-vehicle interactions and
vehicle-roadway interactions play a secondary role in defining the traffic flow.

Traffic Flow Parameters

Traffic flow is a difficult phenomenon to describe without the use of a common set of
terms. The following paragraphs will introduce most of the common terms that are
used in discussions about traffic flow.

 Speed (v) The speed of a vehicle is defined as the distance it travels per unit of
time. Most of the time, each vehicle on the roadway will have a speed that is
somewhat different from those around it. In quantifying the traffic flow, the
average speed of the traffic is the significant variable. The average speed,
called the space mean speed, can be found by averaging the individual speeds
of all of the vehicles in the study area.

1
  Volume Volume is simply the number of vehicles that pass a given point on the
roadway in a specified period of time. By counting the number of vehicles that
pass a point on the roadway during a 15-minute period, you can arrive at the
15-minute volume. Volume is commonly converted directly to flow (q), which
is a more useful parameter.
 Flow (q) Flow is one of the most common traffic parameters. Flow is the rate at
which vehicles pass a given point on the roadway, and is normally given in
terms of vehicles per hour. The 15-minute volume can be converted to a flow
by multiplying the volume by four. If our 15-minute volume were 100 cars, we
would report the flow as 400 vehicles per hour. For that 15-minute interval of
time, the vehicles were crossing our designated point at a rate of 400
vehicles/hour.
 Peak Hour Factor (PHF) The ratio of the hourly flow rate ( q60) divided by
the peak 15 minute rate of flow expressed as an hourly flow (q 15). PHF= q60/
q15
 Density (k) Density refers to the number of vehicles present on a given length
of roadway. Normally, density is reported in terms of vehicles per mile or
vehicles per kilometer. High densities indicate that individual vehicles are very
close together, while low densities imply greater distances between vehicles.

Headway, spacing, gap, and clearance are all various measures for describing the
space between vehicles. These parameters are discussed in the paragraphs below and
are shown graphically in figure 1.0.

 Headway (h) Headway is a measure of the temporal space between two

vehicles. Specifically, the headway is the time that elapses between the arrival
of the leading vehicle and the following vehicle at the designated test point.
You can measure the headway between two vehicles by starting a chronograph
when the front bumper of the first vehicle crosses the selected point, and
subsequently recording the time that the second vehicle’s front bumper crosses
over the designated point. Headway is usually reported in units of seconds.
 Spacing (s) Spacing is the physical distance, usually reported in feet or meters,
between the front bumper of the leading vehicle and the front bumper of the
following vehicle. Spacing complements headway, as it describes the same
space in another way. Spacing is the product of speed and headway.
 Gap (g) Gap is very similar to headway, except that it is a measure of the time
that elapses between the departure of the first vehicle and the arrival of the
second at the designated test point. Gap is a measure of the time between the
rear bumper of the first vehicle and the front bumper of the second vehicle,
where headway focuses on front-to-front times. Gap is usually reported in units
of seconds.

2
  Clearance (c) Clearance is similar to spacing, except that the clearance is the
distance between the rear bumper of the leading vehicle and the front bumper
of the following vehicle. The clearance is equivalent to the spacing minus the
length of the leading vehicle. Clearance, like spacing, is usually reported in
units of feet or meters.

Figure 1.0: Explanation of Parameters

Speed-Flow-Density Relationship
Speed, flow, and density are all related to each other. The relationships between speed
and density are not difficult to observe in the real world, while the effects of speed
and density on flow are not quite as apparent.

Under uninterrupted flow conditions, speed, density, and flow are all related by the
following equation:
q = k*v
Where
q = Flow (vehicles/hour)
v = Speed (miles/hour, kilometers/hour)
k = Density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

Because flow is the product of speed and density, the flow is equal to zero when one
or both of these terms is zero. It is also possible to deduce that the flow is maximized
at some critical combination of speed and density.

Two common traffic conditions illustrate these points. The first is the modern traffic
jam, where traffic densities are very high and speeds are very low. This combination
produces a very low flow. The second condition occurs when traffic densities are very
low and drivers can obtain free flow speed without any undue stress caused by other
vehicles on the roadway. The extremely low density compensates for the high speeds,
and the resulting flow is very low.

3
Special Speed & Density Conditions
The discussion of the speed-flow-density relationship mentioned several speed-
density conditions. Two of these conditions are extremely significant and have been
given special names.

 Free Flow Speed This is the mean speed that vehicles will travel on a roadway
when the density of vehicles is low. Under low-density conditions, drivers no
longer worry about other vehicles. They subsequently proceed at speeds that
are controlled by the performance of their vehicles, the conditions of the
roadway, and the posted speed limit.
 Jam Density Extremely high densities can bring traffic on a roadway to a
complete stop. The density at which traffic stops is called the jam density.

Greenshield’s Model
Greenshield was able to develop a model of uninterrupted traffic flow that predicts
and explains the trends that are observed in real traffic flows. While Greenshield’s
model is not perfect, it is fairly accurate and relatively simple.

Greenshield made the assumption that, under uninterrupted flow conditions, speed and
density are linearly related. This relationship is expressed mathematically and
graphically below. See figure 1.0.
v=A-B*k
Where:
v = speed (miles/hour, kilometers/hour)
A,B = constants determined from field observations
k = density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

As noted above, you can determine the values of the constants A and B through field
observations. This is normally done by collecting velocity and density data in the
field, plotting the data, and then using linear regression to fit a line through the data
points. The constant A represents the free flow speed, while A/B represents the jam
density.

Figure 1.0: Speed vs. Density

4
Inserting Greenshield’s speed-density relationship into the general speed-flow-density
relationship yields the following equations:

q = (A-B*k)*k or q = A*k – B*k2

Where:
q = flow (vehicles/hour)
A,B = constants
k = density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

Figure 2.0: Flow vs. Density

This new relationship between flow and density provides an avenue for finding the
density at which the flow is maximized.

dq/dk = A – 2*B*k

setting dq/dK = 0 yields:

k = A/(2*B)

Therefore, at the density given above, the flow will be maximized. Substituting this
maximized value of k into the original speed-density relationship yields the speed at
which the flow is maximized.

v = A – B*(A/(2*B)) or v = A/2

This indicates that the maximum flow occurs when traffic is flowing at half of free-
flow speed (A). Substituting the optimum speed and density into the speed-flow-
density relationship yields the maximum flow.

q = (A/2)*(A/(2*B)) or q = A2/(4*B)

Figure 3.0 shows the relationship between flow and speed graphically.

5
Figure 3.0: Flow vs. Speed

As you can see, Greenshield’s model is quite powerful. The following can be derived
from Greenshield’s model:

 When the density is zero, the flow is zero because there are no vehicles on the
roadway.
 As the density increases, the flow also increases to some maximum flow
conditions.
 When the density reaches a maximum, generally called jam density, the flow
must be zero because the vehicles tend to line up end to end (parking lot
conditions).

As the density increases the flow increases to some maximum value, but a continual
increase in density will cause the flow to decrease until jam density and zero flow
conditions are reached.

Time-Space Diagrams
A time–space diagram is commonly used to solve a number of transportation- related
problems. Typically, time is drawn on the horizontal axis and distance from a
reference point on the vertical axis. The trajectories of individual vehicles in motion
are portrayed in this diagram by sloping lines, and stationary vehicles are represented
by horizontal lines. The slope of the line represents the speed of the vehicle. Curved
portions of the trajectories represent vehicles undergoing speed changes such as
deceleration.

6
Diagrams that show the position of individual vehicles in time and in space are very
useful for understanding traffic flow. These diagrams are especially useful for
discussions of shock waves and wave propagation.

The time-space diagram is a graph that describes the relationship between the location
of vehicles in a traffic stream and the time as the vehicles progress along the highway.
The following diagram is an example of a time-space diagram.

Time-space diagrams are created by plotting the position of each vehicle, given as a
distance from a reference point, against time. The first vehicle will probably start at
the origin, while the vehicles that follow won’t reach the reference point until slightly
later times. Reductions in speed cause the slopes of the lines to flatten, while increases
in speed cause the slopes to become greater. Acceleration causes the time-space curve
for the accelerating vehicle to bend until the new speed is attained. Curves that cross
indicate that the vehicles both shared the same position at the same time. Unless
passing is permitted, crossed curves indicate collisions.

Shock Waves
Shock waves that occur in traffic flow are very similar to the waves produced by
dropping stones in water. A shock wave propagates along a line of vehicles in
response to changing conditions at the front of the line. Shock waves can be generated
by collisions, sudden increases in speed caused by entering free flow conditions, or by
a number of other means. Basically, a shock wave exists whenever the traffic
conditions change.

7
The equation that is used to estimate the propagation velocity of shock waves is given
below.
vsw = (qb – qa)/(kb – ka)
Where
vsw = propagation velocity of shock wave (miles/hour)
qb = flow prior to change in conditions (vehicles/hour)
qa = flow after change in conditions (vehicles/hour)
kb = traffic density prior to change in conditions (vehicles/mile)
ka = traffic density after change in conditions (vehicles/mile)

Note the magnitude and direction of the shock wave.

(+) Shock wave is travelling in same direction as traffic stream.

(-) Shock wave is traveling upstream or against the traffic stream.

For example, let’s assume that an accident has occurred and that the flow after the
accident is reduced to zero. Initially, the flow was several vehicles per hour. Also, the
density is much greater after the accident. Substituting these values into the shock
wave equation yields a negative (-) propagation velocity. This means that the shock
wave is traveling against the traffic. If you could look down on this accident, you
would see a wave front, at which vehicles began to slow from their initial speed,
passing from vehicle to vehicle back up the traffic stream. The first car would notice
the accident first, followed an instant later by the second car. Each vehicle begins
slowing after its driver recognizes that the preceding vehicle is slowing.

Queuing Theory
Greenshield’s model was developed to aid our understanding of uninterrupted flow.
Unfortunately, Greenshield’s model is unable to cope with the added complexities that
are generated under interrupted flow conditions. Interrupted flow requires an
understanding of Queuing Theory, which is an entirely separate model of traffic flow.

Queuing Theory can be used to analyze the flow of traffic on the approach to and
through an intersection controlled by a traffic signal. This is accomplished by
analyzing the cumulative passage of vehicles as a function of time. The queuing
diagram for interrupted flow shows the flow on one intersection approach. Traffic is
stopped from time t1 to t2 during the red signal interval. At the start of the green
interval (t2), traffic begins to leave the intersection at the saturation flow rate (q G), and
continues until the queue is exhausted. Thereafter, the departure rate D(t), equals the

8
arrival rate, A(t), until t3, which is the beginning of the next red signal. At this point,
the process starts over.

Queuing Diagram for Interrupted Flow

1.) Papacostas , C.S. and Prevedouros, P.D., Transportation Engineering and Planning, 2 nd Edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1993

Glossary
Density-- the number of vehicles occupying a road lane per unit length at a given
instant.

Flow-- the number of vehicles passing a point per unit of time; often
called volume when the time unit is one hour.

Gap-- the time interval between the passage of consecutive vehicles moving in the
same stream, measured between the rear of the lead vehicle and the front of the
following vehicle.

Headway-- the time interval between passage of consecutive vehicles moving in the
same stream, measured between corresponding points (e.g. front bumper) on
successive vehicles.

9
Interrupted Flow-- occurs when flow is periodically interrupted by external fixtures,
primarily traffic control devices.

Jam Density-- the density when speed and flow are zero.

PHF (Peak Hour Factor)-- This describes the relationship between hourly volume
and the maximum rate of flow within the hour: PHF = hourly volume/maximum rate
of flow. For the 15 minute periods, PHF = volume/4 x (maximum 15 minute volume
within the hour)

Shockwaves-- Shockwaves occur as a result of differences in flow and density which

occur when there are constrictions in traffic flow. These constrictions are called
bottlenecks. The speed of growth of the ensuing queue is the shockwave, and is the
difference in flow divided by the difference in density.

Space Mean Speed-- the arithmetic mean of the speed of those vehicles occupying a
given length of road at a given instant.

Spacing-- the distance between vehicles moving in the same lane, measured between
corresponding points (front to front) of consecutive vehicles.

Speed-- the time rate of change of distance.

Time Mean Speed-- the arithmetic mean of the speed of vehicles passing a point
during a given time interval.

Travel Time-- the total time required for a vehicle to travel from one point to another
over a specified route under prevailing conditions.

Uninterrupted Flow-- occurs when vehicles traversing a length of roadway are not
required to stop by any cause external to the traffic stream, such as traffic control
devices.

Volume-- Traffic volume is the most basic and widely used parameter in traffic
engineering, vehicles per mile, or vehicles per kilometer.

10