CHARACTHERISTICS

OF PEDESTRIAN,
VEHICLE FLOW &
MOTION STUDIES
 Pedestrian Characteristics
The pedestrian is a major user of roadway system; when the system fails, he
or she is a major victim. Certain segments of the pedestrian population – notably the
very young and the very old – are either unaware of rules of safe pedestrian behavior
or unresponsive to efforts to enforce pedestrian traffic regulations.

Traffic engineers are challenged to design safe and convenient pedestrian

facilities that will function well even for those persons who willfully or ignorantly
disobey rules of safe walking behavior. Such facilities serve small children as well as
elderly and physically handicapped persons.
Designers of pedestrian facilities require knowledge of the space requirements as
walking speeds of individual walkers as well as an understanding of traffic flow
characteristics of groups of pedestrians.

Information required by the designer are:

 Space Requirements (needs) for Pedestrians

 Walking and Running Speeds

 Traffic Flow Characteristics of Pedestrians

 Space Requirements (needs) for Pedestrians

B
A study indicated that for the 95th percentile: o
d
y
• Shoulder Breadth 22.8” = 579 mm D
e
• Body Depth 13.0” = 333 mm p
t
h
Shoulder Br ea dth

We should give the pedestrian slightly more spaces to avoid bodily contact with
others & for things, that may pedestrian carry with them. So, an elliptical shape with
a 24-in. (610mm) major axis and an 18-in. (457mm) minor axis has been used for
determining the pedestrian standing areas.
It should be emphasized that 18 x 24-in ellipse is useful primarily for the
determination of space needs or capacities for elevators or other conveyances or
locations where the pedestrians are standing rather than walking.
For design of sidewalks or other pedestrian corridors, one needs to be concerned
with dynamic spatial requirements for avoiding collisions with other pedestrians.

A walking pedestrian requires a certain amount of forward space. This

forward space is a critical dimension, since it determines the speed of the trip and the
number of pedestrians that are able to pass a point in a given time period. The
forward space is categorized into a pacing zone and a sensory zone.
 Research shown that one pedestrian following another prefers to leave
an average distance-spacing between himself and the lead pedestrian of about 8-
ft (2.4 m). This corresponds to an average time-spacing of about 2 seconds
between pedestrians walking in time.
  Walking and Running Speeds
Under free-flow conditions pedestrian walking speeds tends to be approximately
normally distributed. Under such conditions,
Pedestrian walking speeds: 2.5 to 6.0 ft./sec (0.8 to 1.8 m/sec)
Mean walking speeds: 4.0 to 4.5 ft./sec (1.2 to 1.4 m/sec)

A pedestrian walking rate of 4.0 ft./sec (1.2 m/sec) is generally assumed for the
timing of pedestrian traffic signals. In areas where are large numbers of elderly
pedestrians, AASHTO recommends the use of a 2.8 ft./sec (0.9 m/sec) walking
rate.
  Walking and Running Speeds

The presence of significant numbers of handicapped persons would also dictate

the use of a lower rate of movement.

Also, walking speeds decrease with increase in pedestrian density. Empirical studies
indicate that for an average of 25 ft2 (2.3 m2) or more per pedestrian, walking
speeds are only slightly affected by pedestrian conflicts. But when the available
space per pedestrian drops below 25 ft2 (2.3 m2), the average walking speed
decreases sharply.
 Running Speeds

Running Speed = 7.80 ft./sec (2.38 m/sec)

Fastest Running Speed = 33 ft./sec (10 m/sec)
  Traffic Flow Characteristics of Pedestrian

 Pedestrian

It is a person traveling on foot, whether walking or running. In some

communities, those traveling using tiny wheels such as roller skates, skateboards,
and scooters, as well as wheelchair users are also included as pedestrians. In
modern times, the term usually refers to someone walking on a road
or pavement, but this was not the case historically.
 Pedestrian Speed

- It is the average pedestrian walking speed, generally expressed in units of

meters per second (m/sec).

 Pedestrian Flow Rate

- It is the number of pedestrians passing a point per unit of time, expressed as

pedestrian per 15 minute or pedestrian per minute. Point refers to a line of
sight across the width of a walkway perpendicular to the pedestrian path.

 Pedestrian Flow per Unit of Width

- It is the average flow of pedestrians per unit of effective walkway width,
expressed as pedestrians per minute per meter (p/min/m).
 Pedestrian Density

- It is the average number of pedestrians per unit of area within a walkway or

queuing area, expressed as pedestrians per square meter (p/m2).

 Pedestrian Space

- It is the average area provided for each pedestrian in a walkway or queuing

area, expressed in terms of square meter per pedestrian. This is the inverse of
density, and is often a more practical unit for analyzing pedestrian facilities.

 Platoon
- It refers to a number of pedestrians walking together in a group, usually
involuntarily, as a result of signal control and other factors.
 Pedestrian Speed-Density Relationships

The fundamental relationship between speed,

density, and volume for pedestrian flow is
analogous to vehicular flow. As volume and density
increase, pedestrian speed declines. As density
increases and pedestrian space decreases, the degree
of mobility afforded to the individual pedestrian
declines, as does the average speed of the
pedestrian stream.
The relationship among density, speed, and flow for pedestrians is similar
to that for vehicular traffic streams, and is expressed in equation

qped = kped * uped

where: qped= unit flow rate (p/min/m),

uped= pedestrian speed (m/min),
kped= pedestrian density (p/m2 ).
 Factors Affecting Pedestrian Demand
o The nature of the local community - Walking is more likely to occur in a community that
has a high proportion of young people

o Car ownership -The availability of the private car reduces the amount of walking, even for
short journey

o Local land use activities- Walking is primarily used for short distance trips. Consequently
the distance between local origins and destinations (e.g. homes and school, homes and
shops) is an important factor influencing the level of demand, particularly for the young and
elderly.

o Quality of provision- If good quality pedestrian facilities are provided, then demand will
tend to increase.
 Data Collection

Before deciding on the appropriate extent and standard of pedestrian

facilities, it is important to assess the potential demand.

The possible methods of obtaining such estimates are:

o Manual Count
o Video Survey
o Attitude Survey
o Manual Count

Count the flow of pedestrian through a junction, across a road, or along a road
section/footway manually using manual clicker and tally marking sheet. Manual
counts need to satisfy the following conditions.

 The day(s) of the week and month(s) of the year when observations are made must be
representative of the demand. School holidays, early closing, and special events should be
avoided since they can result in non-typical conditions.
 The survey locations need to be carefully selected in order to ensure that the total existing
demand is observed.
o Video Survey

Cameras are setup at the selected sites and video recording taken of the pedestrians
during the selected observation periods. A suitable vantage point for the camera is
important. Such survey produces a permanent record of pedestrian movement and
their interaction with vehicles. In it the record of behavior pattern is also obtained
which helps in analyzing the crossing difficulties.
o Attitude Survey

Detailed questionnaire requires enabling complete information about pedestrian’s

origins and destination points, also can gather information on what new facilities, or
improvements to existing facilities, need to be provided to divert trips to walking, or
increase the current pedestrian activities.
Design Principle of Pedestrian Facilities

 Sidewalk
 Crosswalk
 Traffic Islands
 Pedestrian Overpass & Underpass
 Street Corner
  Sidewalks

Sidewalks are pedestrian lanes that provide people with space to travel within
the public right-of-way that is separated from roadway vehicles. They also provide places
for children to walk, run, skate, ride bikes, and play. Sidewalks are associated with
significant reductions in pedestrian collisions with motor vehicles.

Width: The minimum clear width of a pedestrian access route shall be 1.22 meters exclusive of
the width of curb. It varies according to pedestrian flow rate and different Level of Service.
Cross Slope: The cross slope of the pedestrian access route shall be maximum of 1:48.
Surfaces: Surface should be firm, stable, slip resistance and prohibit openings & avoid service
elements (i.e. manholes, etc.)
Sidewalks
 Crosswalks

Marked crosswalks indicate optimal or preferred locations for pedestrians to

cross and help designate right-of-way for motorists to yield to pedestrians.
Crosswalks are often installed at signalized intersections and other selected
locations. It should be located at all open legs of signalized intersection. It
should be perpendicular to roadway.
The parallel line should be 0.2-0.6 m in width and min. length 1.8 m (standard 3m).
Marking may be of different type to increase visibility like as solid, standard,
continental, dashed, zebra, ladder. It is shown in the figure.
 Traffic Islands

Traffic islands to reduce the length of the crossing should be considered for the
safety of all road users. It is used to permit safe crossing when insufficient gap in
two directions traffic & helps elderly, children and disabled.

It works best when refuge area median is greater than cross walk width or 3.6 m,
have a surface area of at least 4.6 m2, are free of obstructions, have adequate
drainage, and provide a flat, street level surface to provide accessibility to people
with disabilities.
The Refuge area width should be at least 1.2 m wide and depend upon traffic speed. It
should be 1.5m wide on streets with speeds between 40-48 kph, 1.8 m wide(48-56 kph),
and 2.4 m (56-72 kph).
  Pedestrian Overpass & Underpass

Pedestrian facilities at-grade and as directly as possible are always preferred. However,
where grade separation is indicated, paths that are attractive, convenient and direct
can become well-used and highly valued parts of a city’s pedestrian infrastructure.

These are expensive method but eliminate all or most conflicts. These may be
warranted for critical locations such as schools factory gates, sports arenas, and major
downtown intersections (specially in conjunction with transit stations).

Minimum width is required 1.22 m, although 1.83 is preferred.

Overpass

Underpass
  Street Corner

Available Time-Space: The total time-space

available for circulation and queuing in the inter-
section corner during an analysis period is the
product of the net corner area and the length of
the analysis period. For street corners, the analysis TS = C(Wa * Wb – 0.215R2)
where: TS= available time-space(m2-sec)
period is one signal cycle and therefore is equal to
Wa= effective width of sidewalk a(m)
the cycle length. The following equation is used to
Wb= effective width of sidewalk b(m)
compute time-space available at an intersection
R= radius of corner curb (m)
corner. Intersection Corner Geometry is shown.
C= cycle length (s)
Pedestrian signals are designed basically considering minimum time gap required for
crossing the pedestrians. This minimum time gap can be calculated by using
following gap equation.

𝑾
𝐆𝐬 = + 𝒕𝒄 𝑵 − 𝟏 + 𝒕𝒔
𝑼𝒑𝒆𝒅

where: Gs = min. time gap (sec)

W = width of crossing section (m)
tc = consecutive time between two pedestrian (sec)
ts = startup time (sec)
N = number of rows
uped = pedestrian speed (m/sec)
 Vehicle Characteristics
Criteria for the geometric design of highways are partly based on the static,
kinematic, and dynamic characteristics of vehicles.

• Static characteristics include the weight and size of the vehicle.

• Kinematic characteristics involve the motion of the vehicle without

considering the forces that cause the motion.

• Dynamic characteristics involve the forces that cause the motion of

the vehicle.
 Vehicle Characteristics
Since nearly all highways carry both passenger-automobile and truck traffic, it is
essential that design criteria take into account the characteristics of different types of
vehicles.
A thorough knowledge of these characteristics will aid the highway and/or traffic
engineer in designing highways and traffic-control systems that allow the safe and
smooth operation of a moving vehicle, particularly during the basic maneuvers of
passing, stopping, and turning.

The characteristics of the design vehicle are then used to determine criteria for
geometric design, intersection design, and sight-distance requirements.
 • Static Characteristics

The size of the design vehicle for a highway is an important factor in the
determination of design standards for several physical components of the highway.
The static characteristics of vehicles expected to use the highway are factors that
influence the selection of design criteria for the highway.

These include lane width, shoulder width, length and width of parking bays, and
lengths of vertical curves.

The axle weights of the vehicles expected on the highway are important when
pavement depths and maximum grades are being determined.
 • Static Characteristics
It is therefore necessary that all vehicles be classified so that representative static
characteristics for all vehicles within a particular class can be provided for design
purposes.
AASHTO has selected four general classes of vehicles:
• Passenger Cars (sport/utility vehicles, minivans, vans, pick-up trucks)
• Buses (city transit, school buses, articulated buses)
• Trucks (single-unit trucks, truck tractor-semitrailer combinations, truck
tractors with semitrailer in combination with full trailers, etc.)
• Recreational Vehicles (motor homes, cars with camper trailers, cars with
boat trailers, motor homes pulling cars)
 • Static Characteristics

In carrying out the design of any of the intersections, the minimum turning radius for
the selected design vehicle traveling at a speed of 16 kph should be provided.

Minimum turning radii at low speeds (16 kph or less) are dependent mainly on the size
of the vehicle.
Minimum safe radius for a given design speed from the rate of superelevation and
side-friction factor.

R = V2 / 127( 0.01e + f )
 • Kinematic Characteristics

Kinematic characteristics involve the motion of the vehicle without considering the
forces that cause the motion. The primary element among kinematic characteristics is
the acceleration capability of the vehicle.

Acceleration capability is important in several traffic operations, such as passing

maneuvers and gap acceptance. Also, the dimensioning of highway features such as
freeway ramps and passing lanes is often governed by acceleration rates.

Therefore , a study of the kinematic characteristics of the vehicle primarily involves a

study of how acceleration rates influence the elements of motion, such as velocity
and distance.
 • Kinematic Characteristics

A study of the kinematic characteristics of the vehicle primarily involves a study of

how acceleration rates influence the elements of motion, such as velocity and
distance.

We therefore review in this section the mathematical relationships among

acceleration, velocity, distance, and time.
• Kinematic Characteristics

Let us consider a vehicle moving along a straight line from point 0 to point m, a
distance x in a reference plane T. The position vector of the vehicle after time t
may be expressed as
rom = xî
o m î
x

where: rom = position vector for m in T

î = a unit vector parallel to lime om
x = distance along the straight line
 • Kinematic Characteristics

The velocity and acceleration for m may be simply expressed as:

um = r’om = x’î o m î
x
am = r’’om = x’’î

where: um = velocity of the vehicle at point m

am = acceleration of the vehicle at point m
x’ = dx/dt
x” = d2x/dt2
• Kinematic Characteristics

Two cases are of interest:

1) Acceleration is assumed constant.
2) Acceleration is a function of velocity.
 • Kinematic Characteristics

Acceleration Assumed Constant

When the acceleration of the vehicle is

x’’î = a dx‘/dt = a
assumed to be constant, The constants C1
and C2 are determined either by the initial x‘ = at + C1
conditions on velocity and position or by x = ½ at2 + C1t + C2
using known positions of the vehicle at
two different times.
 • Kinematic Characteristics

Acceleration as a Function of Velocity

The assumption of constant acceleration has some limitations, because the

accelerating capability of a vehicle at any time t is related to the speed of the vehicle at
that time (ut). The lower the speed, the higher the acceleration rate that can be
obtained. Figures 3.4a and 3.4b show maximum acceleration rates for passenger cars
and tractor-semitrailers at different speeds on level roads.
Acceleration as a Function of Velocity
• Dynamic Characteristics

Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion that tends it to

retard by at least five (5) types of resistance:
 Inertial Resistance
 Grade Resistance
 Rolling Resistance
 Curve Resistance
 Air Resistance
 • Dynamic Characteristics

 Inertial Resistance

Inertia is the tendency of a body to resist acceleration: the tendency to remain at rest
or to remain in motion in a straight line unless acted upon by some force. The force,
Fi required to overcome a vehicle’s inertia is,
𝒘
Fi = m * a = ∗𝐚
𝒈
where: m = vehicle mass (kg-sec2/m)
a = acceleration (m/sec2)
w = vehicle weight (kg)
g = accelerative force due to gravity (9.8 m/sec2)
 • Dynamic Characteristics

 Grade Resistance

When a vehicle moves up a grade, a component of the weight of the vehicle acts
downward, along the plane of the highway. This creates a force acting in a direction
opposite that of the motion. This force is the grade resistance. A vehicle traveling up
a grade will therefore tend to lose speed unless an accelerating force is applied.

where: m = vehicle mass (kg-sec2/m)

F g = m * g * sin Ɵ
g = accelerative force due to gravity (9.8 m/sec2)
Ɵ = angle of incline (degrees)
 • Dynamic Characteristics

 Rolling Resistance

A vehicle does not operate on a smooth, frictionless surface. There is resistance to

motion as the tires roll over irregularities in the surface. This resistance, termed rolling
resistance, Fr , includes that caused by the flexing of the tires and the internal friction
of the moving parts of the vehicle.

Rolling resistance is higher on low-quality pavement surfaces, and it increases with

increase in vehicle speed.
 • Dynamic Characteristics

 Rolling Resistance

The rolling resistance force for passenger

cars on a smooth pavement can be
determined from the relation

where: Fr = rolling resistance force (kg)

Crs = constant (typically 0.012 for passenger cars)
Fr = (Crs + 0.077Ccr u2) *W
Crv = constant (typically 7x10-6 sec2/m2 for passenger cars)
u = vehicle speed (kph)
W = gross vehicle weight (kg)
• Dynamic Characteristics

 Rolling Resistance

For trucks, the rolling resistance can be obtained from,

Fr = (Ca + 0.278Cbu) * W

where: Fr = rolling resistance force (kg)

Ca = constant (typically 0.02445 for trucks)
Cb = constant (typically 0.00147 s/m for trucks)
u = vehicle speed (kph)
W = gross vehicle weight (kg)
 • Dynamic Characteristics

 Curve Resistance
When a passenger car is maneuvered to take a curve, external forces act on the front
wheels of the vehicle. These forces have components that have a retarding effect on
the forward motion of the vehicle. The sum effect of these components constitutes
the curve resistance. This resistance depends on the radius of the curve, the gross
weight of the vehicle, and the velocity at which the vehicle is moving.

where: v = the vehicle velocity (m/sec)

𝒗𝟐 ∗𝑾
Fc = ½ ( ) W = the vehicle weight (kg)
𝒈 ∗𝑹
g = the acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/sec2)
R = the radius of curvature (m)
 • Dynamic Characteristics

 Air Resistance

Air resistance includes the force required to move air from a vehicle’s pathway as well
as the frictional effects of air along its top, sides, and undercarriage. It is a function of
the frontal cross-sectional area of the vehicle and the square of the vehicle speed.

where: CD = aerodynamic drag coefficient (typically 0.4 for

passenger cars and 0.5 to 0.8 for trucks)
Fa = ½ * CD * A * (ρ * v2)
A = frontal cross-sectional area (m2)
ρ = air density (kg-sec2/m)
v = vehicle velocity (m/sec)
 • Dynamic Characteristics

Power Requirements

Power is the rate at which work is done. It is usually expressed in horsepower (a U.S.
unit of measure), where 1 horsepower is 746 Watts. The power P required to overcome
the various resistances (inertia, grade, rolling curve, air) and to propel a vehicle.

P = R * v , watts
where: R = sum of the various resistances (N)
v = vehicle velocity (m/sec)
 • Dynamic Characteristics

Braking Distance

The action of the forces on the moving vehicle and the effect of perception-reaction
time are used to determine important parameters related to the dynamic
characteristics of the vehicles.

These include the braking distance of a vehicle and the minimum radius of a circular
curve required for a vehicle traveling around a curve with speed u where u > 16
km/h.
v2 where: d = braking distance (m)
Db =
𝟐𝒂 v = design speed (m/sec)
a = deceleration rate (m/sec2)
 Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance

v2 where: G = percent of grade

Db = 𝟐𝒈(𝒇 ±𝑮)
+ G on upgrades
- G on downgrades
 • Dynamic Characteristics

Stopping Sight Distance

The minimum distance required to stop a vehicle traveling near the design speed
before it reaches a stationary object in vehicle’s path. This stationary object may be
another vehicle or some other object within the roadway.

The minimum stopping sight distance is based on the sum of two distances:
1. The distance traveled from the time the object is sighted to the instant the
brakes are applied.
2. The distance required for stopping the vehicle after the brakes are applied.
 Stopping Sight Distance

u2
SSD = 𝐮𝐭 + 𝟐𝒈(𝒇 ±𝑮)

where: t = perception-reaction (sec), usually 0.75 seconds

u = velocity at which the vehicle was traveling
when the brakes were applied (m/s).
END!