Traffic Engineering PDF

TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING
Faculty of Engineering
School of Architecture and Construction Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Fourth Year
References:
Traffic Engineering an Introduction, Gordon Wells
Traffic Engineering Theory and Practice, Louis J. Pignataro
Transportation Engineering, Planning and Design, Paul H. Wright
Prepared: MSc. Shukri Saleh Namer

2013
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Fourth Year – Civil Engineering Department
Shukri S. Namer
Syllabus 1
1. Introduction to Traffic Engineering

a) Defining Traffic Engineering
b) Driver Characteristics
c) Vehicle Characteristics
2. Characteristics of Traffic Flow
a) Traffic Composition
b) Traffic Fluctuation
3. Measurements of Traffic Flow
a) Turning Movement Measurements
b) Volume Measurements
c) Speed Measurement and Delay
4. Origin Destination Survey
5. Traffic Capacity
a) Highway Capacity
b) Level of Service
c) Factors Affecting Street Capacity and Level of Services
d) Speed Flow and Concentration Relationship
6. Highway Intersection Design
a) Type of Intersections
b) Intersection Characteristics
7. Traffic Signal Design
8. Parking
Definition of Traffic Engineering

It is part of engineering which deals with traffic planning and design of roads, of frontage
development and of parking facilities and with the control of traffic to provide safe,
convenient and economical movement of vehicles and pedestrians.
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Phases of Traffic Engineering 2
1. The road user:
• Driver
• Pedestrian
2. The vehicle
3. Traffic volume
4. Speed, travel time, delay
5. Origin and destination
6. Traffic Capacity
7. Parking
8. Accidents (as measure of failure)
9. Public transit
Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian, the vehicle and the road
Four main components of the highway mode of transportation are:
 The driver
 The pedestrian
 The vehicle
 The road
Driver Characteristics
The human response process:
 Visual reception:
The receipt of stimuli by the eye is the most important source of information for both
driver and pedestrian.
 The principle characteristics of the eye are:
a) Visual acuity
b) Peripheral vision
c) Color vision
d) Glary vision and recovery
e) Depth perception
f) Hearing perception
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Pedestrian Characteristics 3
Some characteristics of the driver, with addition of others, which influence the design of
location of pedestrian control devices, such as:
 Special pedestrian signals
 Safety zones and islands at intersections
 Pedestrian underpasses
 Elevated walkways
 Crosswalks
Perception-and-reaction process
1. Perception: seeing the stimuli
2. Identification: understanding the stimuli
3. Emotion: what will do? To stop, blow horn or to pass!!!
4. Volition or reaction: to do the decision
PIEV time or Perception-Reaction time: It is used in the determination of:

PIEV time ≈ 2.5 sec. (AASHTO)
Vehicle characteristics
Criteria for the geometric design of highways are partly based on:
 Static characteristics:
◦ Weight of vehicles
◦ Size of vehicles (as a control of pavement design)
 Kinematic characteristics:
Involve the motion of the vehicle, without considering the forces that cause the
motion
 Acceleration capability of the vehicle.
 Braking
 Steering
 Lighting
 Power
 Fuel economy
 Operating cost
 Dynamic characteristics:
Involve the forces that cause the motion of the vehicle:
◦ Air resistance
◦ Grade resistance
◦ Rolling resistance
◦ Curve resistance
◦ Friction resistance
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The vehicle:
Cars range from compacted cars to articulated trucks. They differ in their:
◦ Maximum acceleration (kinematic characteristics)
◦ Turning radii (static characteristics)
◦ Weight and size (static characteristics)
◦ The ability of climb grades (dynamic characteristics)
Passenger Car:
All free wheeled, self-propelled vehicles generally designed for the transportation of persons,
but limited in the seating capacity to not more than nine passengers including:
 Taxicabs
 Limousines
 Station wagons
Truck:
All free wheeled, self-propelled vehicles generally designed for the transportation of persons,
and having a seating capacity of ten or more passengers, or all free wheeled vehicles having
duel tires on one or more axles, designed for transportation of freight rather than passengers,
includes:
◦ Tractor-truck
◦ Trailers
◦ Semitrailers
Road Characteristics
These effects:
 Stopping sight distance, and
 Passing sight distance, involves:
◦ Gradient
◦ Super elevation
◦ Geometric design of the road.
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Volume Studies 5
Characteristics of Traffic Flow

Traffic Composition:
Vehicles of different types have different road space requirements and different effects on the
capacity of highway and intersection because of variations in size and performance.
The overall effects on traffic operations by any vehicle can be expressed in terms of the effect
of the basic unit – usually a passenger car, so vehicles should be converted to equivalent
passenger car unit (pcu) as follows:
pcu factor
Class of vehicle
Flat Hilly Mountains
Private car, taxi, motorcycle 1.00 1.00 1.00
Pickup, bus up to 24 passengers 1.25 1.75 3.00
Truck, bus above 25 passengers 2.00 3.00 6.00
Heavy vehicle 3.00 5.00 10.0
Example-1
A rural highway has the following traffic composition:
Passenger car 50%
Heavy goods vehicle 42%
Buses above 25 passengers 5%
Motorcycles 3%
Find the equivalent passenger car unit if the total number of vehicles passing is (6000)?
Solution:
50
. = 6000 ∗ = 3000
100
42
. = 6000 ∗ = 2520
100
5
. 25 = 6000 ∗ = 300
100
3
. = 6000 ∗ = 180
100
. = (3000 ∗ 1) + (2520 ∗ 3) + (300 ∗ 2) + (180 ∗ 1) = 11340
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Traffic Fluctuation:
6
The flow of traffic is changing throughout the day, the week and the year.
The pattern of hourly traffic through a full day (24 hours) is indicative of the social pattern of
our lives. There is a peak as we go to working in the morning and another peak in returning
from work.
Within the week traffic stay constant from Saturday to Thursday but varies over the weekend.
The annual pattern shows considerable fluctuation through the year, so higher flow occurs in
summer time.
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Measurement of Traffic Flow (Traffic Data) 7
Traffic Volume
It’s the number of vehicles passing certain station during a given interval of time. Traffic
volume can be expressed in terms of annual traffic, daily traffic or hourly traffic
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
It’s the total of vehicle that passes over a given section of a lane or a roadway during one year
divided by 365 days
ℎ
=
365
AADT is the general scale of traffic flow in the road. This scale is not correctly one in the
geometric design because it is not detected the changes in the traffic which it may be changed
through certain months, certain weeks, certain days in one week, or certain hours in day, so
the traffic volume in some days on the rural roads may be record twice the number of AADT
AADTs are used in several traffic and transportation analysis for:
I. Estimation of highway user revenues

II. Computation of accident rates in terms of accidents per 100 million vehicles-miles
III. Evaluation on the economic feasibility of highway projects
IV. Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
V. Development of improvement and maintenance programs
Vehicle Classification (VC)
Records volume with respect to the type of vehicles, for example passenger cars, vehicle with
two axles tracks, VC is used in:
a. Design of geometric characteristics with particular reference to turning radii

requirements, maximum grades, lane widths….. etc.
b. Capacity analysis with respect to passenger car equivalents of tracks
c. Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machine
d. Structural design of highway pavements, bridges and so fort
Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
ℎ
=
.
Total volume is greater than (1 day) and less than year
It is often used for measuring traffic volumes when it varies little from day to day over the
course of the year. ADT can be used for:
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1. Planning of highway activities
8
2. Measurement of current demand
3. Evaluation of existing traffic flow
Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT)
It is a measure of travel along a section of road. It is the product of traffic (average weekly
volume or ADT) and the length of roadway in miles to which the volume is applicable VMTs
used mainly as a base for allocating resources for maintenance and improvement of highways
= ∗ ℎ ( )
Design Hour Volume (DHV)
It is the 30th highest hourly volume of the year (abbreviated 30 HV). It is used for design
purposes. The DHV is normally expressed as a percentage of ADT (about 15% of ADT)
= ∗ 100
10% − 17%
=
7% − 18%
Peak Hour Traffic
It is the highest number of vehicles per 60 minutes and it is required for the design of traffic
facilities, it can be used for:
1. Functional classification of highways

2. Design of geometric characteristics of highway, for example no. of lanes, intersection
signalization or channelization
3. Capacity analysis
4. Development of programs related to traffic operations, for example one way street
systems
5. Development of street parking regulations
= 0.7
TH: Percentage of trucks within peak hour
TD: Percentage of trucks within daily traffic
Directional Distribution
It is the hourly traffic load in each direction of travel. It is expressed as a percentage of two
directional volumes for the particular peak hour and is calculated for both morning and
evening peaks; i.e. (60/40) during the peak
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When it designs the grad intersections or interchanges, it is necessary to know the flowing of
9
the traffic in each bond during the peak period, also it must be the vehicle percentage which it
running left or right in each road as the following figure:
60%
40%
But it is difficult to do AADT; then the alternative is to use a count at any point in the year
and from this drive an annual average figure if local traffic flow patterns, over at least one or
two 12 months periods, are known, such as this one
Traffic flow as a percentage of Traffic flow as a percentage of

Month Month
annual average month annual average month
January 84 July 116
February 82 August 118
March 94 September 107
April 97 October 103
May 107 November 92
June 107 December 90
∑ ℎ ℎ
ℎ=
12
ℎ ℎ ℎ
% ℎ=
ℎ
Similarly the traffic movement in the (16 hrs.) from 6:00 to 22:00 have been found to
represent just under (93%) of the (24 hrs.) flow, and the daily flows from Saturday to
Thursday to be sensibly constant
To calculate the AADT it is economical to calculate the no. of vehicles during complete year
and divided the no. over 365, so it must be calculate the traffic volume through two months in
the year one month far away another month with 6 months (January and July; March and
September) and it must be taken in consider the hazard of the traffic in the one day through
week
So from 24 hours in 7 days of January and July it can be obtained the accuracy number of the
AADT value
7 + 7
=
14
Because the long period of account (6 months) it is more useful to take a certain point in the
year and from it calculate the AADT if it had the previous relationship between the traffic
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flow as a percentage from the AADT with the months of year, and if we take this point at the
10
peak period at hour, day, and month the result number will be more accuracy
It is seldom occur to obtained the number of vehicles at 24 hours through one week, so the
traffic volume for (16 hours) period from 6:00 to 22:00 is presented (93%) from the total
volume traffic in the (24 hours) and the flow from Saturday until Thursday is constant, so it is
logically to calculate the number of vehicles through (16 hours) in the one day and for three
days in the week (Thursday, Friday, and Saturday)
Example-2
There was a need to know the AADT for a rural project where 16 hours flows were counted
on Thursday, Friday and Saturday in June as follow:
Thursday 8000; Friday 8000; Saturday 10000
Solution
In June
7 (16 ℎ . ) = 10000 ∗ 5 + 8000 + 8000 = 66,000 ℎ
66,000
7 (24 ℎ . ) = = 70,968 ℎ.
0.93
70,968
= = 10,138 ℎ.
7
100
= 10,138 ∗ = 9474 ≅ 9500 ℎ.
107
Note:
June count could be converted to (16 hrs.) August average flow
August flow is (118%) of AADT flow:
118
∴7 (16 ℎ . ) = 66,000 ∗ = 72,785 ℎ.
107
72,785
∴ = = 10,398 ℎ.
7
100
= 10,398 ∗ = 8812 ≅ 8850 ℎ.
118
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Traffic Forecast
11
Future traffic volumes for the design are normally derived from the current traffic level and
the traffic. Forecast year for traffic design must be not more far away from the current time to
take a more accuracy of the results, so it taken about 15 to 20 years.
For important projects traffic forecasts should be based on through-traffic studies considering
the analysis of:
 Zonal socio-economic variables (e.g. population, jobs, employs, school places, car
ownership)
 Mobility
 Development of transport facilities and modal split
Future traffic to current traffic is a combined factor of (normal traffic growth, generated
traffic and development traffic)
= (1 + )
Where;
F : traffic forecast factor
i : annual rate of traffic increase
n : traffic analysis period
also;
Components of Future Traffic
1. Current traffic (Existing and Attracted)

Traffic already is using the route plus traffic transferring to the new highway from
less attractive routes
2. Normal Traffic Growth
It is the increase of current traffic due to general increase in number and usage of
motor vehicles
3. Generated Traffic
It is including the trips which are generated and it was not if the routes do not open,
and it’s included three phases:
 New trips not previously made by any mode of travel
 Trips that previously were made by public transport
 Trips attracted by the new or improved highway, and it is estimating about
(5%-25%)
4. Development Traffic
It is traffic due to improvements in adjacent land
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Example- 3
12
Design data is required for the improvement of two-lane of a two-way highway with ventral
reserve. The current traffic in 2003 expressed by AADT is 3000 vehicles in both directions.
The improved road with a design life of 20 years will be opened to traffic in 2008, the
estimated annual growth rate of traffic is 8%.
K value = 12% of ADT
D (direction distribution) = 55% of total traffic
TH (Peak hour truck percentage) = 18% of hourly volume
Solution
= (1 + )
= 8%, = (2008 − 2003) + 20 = 25
= (1 + .08) = 6.848
∴ ( . ℎ 2028) = 3000 ∗ 6.848 = 20544 ℎ./
∴ ( ℎ )= ∗ ∗
∴ = 20544 ∗ 0.12 ∗ 0.55 = 1356 ℎ
ℎ ℎ
% ℎ = 100 − 18 = 82%
∴ = 1356 ∗ [0.82 ∗ 1 + 0.18 ∗ 2] = 1600 /ℎ

ℎ
The problems related to highway mode of transport are:
1. Highway related accidents

2. Parking facilities
3. Congestion
4. Delay
To prevent these problems we must collected correct data, the three categories of traffic
studies are:
1. Inventories
It provides a list or graphic display of existing information such as street widths,
parking spaces, transit routes, traffic regulation and so forth
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2. Administrative Studies
13
They use existing engineering records, available in government agencies and
departments
3. Dynamic Studies
They involve the collection of data under operational conditions and include studies
of speed, traffic volume, travel time and delay, parking and accidents
Methods of Measuring the Flow of Traffic
There are two methods of measuring the flow of vehicles along a road:
A. Manual Counting
1. Simply is to count every vehicle seen to pass a fixed point on a road. It is done by
pen and paper and groups of five members. The advantage of this method is to
classify the vehicles to
PSV: public service vehicles, buses, coaches, trains and trolley buses,
HGV: heavy goods vehicles, i.e. over 1.5 tons and having six or more road
wheels,
Cars: private cars, fans, mini bus, side cars and light commercial vehicles
Road no.: Date:
Observer: Weather:
Time
Private Cars PSV HGV
From To
IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII II IIII IIII III
09:30 or 9300 10:00 or 1000 IIII
20 12 13
10:00 or 1000 10:30 or 1030
2. Moving observer method: explain in speed and trip time object

3. TMC/48 electronic manual counter: it is using in the intersections by dividing the
day to 48 parts (each part 30 minutes)
Advantages
a. Flexibility
b. Simple and quick
c. Permits traffic classification by vehicle type
d. Cheap for short sample counts
Disadvantages:
a. Expansive for long counts or in unsocial hours

b. Unpopular in inclement weather
c. Accuracy depends on quality of observe
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B. Mechanical Counting
14
Consists of two elements: Detector, Counter
Type of Detectors
1. Positive contact detector
The wheels of any vehicle cause contact of two end of metal complete the
electrical circle. The maintenance of this instrument is difficult
2. Pneumatic detector
When the wheel of any vehicle press on the tube of this instrument given impulse
which is transfer to the two ends, one of them move through the tube and the other
push diaphragm to complete the electrical circle and so it is two impulse means
two axles and record one number i.e. one vehicle. The maintenance of this
instrument is easy and it is usual using in Iraq
3. Hydraulic detector
It is similar to the previous type (2) but involved a liquid. The maintenance of this
instrument is difficult, and it is need the liquid in continuous time
4. Magnetic loop detector
A wire buries in the surface of the road and when the vehicle passing over this
wire the magnetic field will be disturbed. It is very good as the long time usage
but it is not suitable for the random surveying
5. Photo-electric eyes, radar, infra-red or ultrasonic beam
It is putting a monitor instrument like a camera, or radar which is sending a wave
and reflected it. When the vehicle is passing it is crossing the wave path and
recording it. It is very complex instrument, hard maintenance, and it is needing a
professional observer also this instrument is more expensive but it is more
accuracy
Mechanical counting are employed for continuous counts, recording the distribution
of traffic, hour of the day, days of the week, moths of the year and from year to year
such counts are import to establish traffic trends. There are several to:
Advantages:
a. We can used this method at any time and any climate weather
b. Exact results if it is used in the suitable place and when its care and maintained in
time
c. Cheap if it is used for long periods
Disadvantages
a. Usually using in short periods

b. Needs for skill and high caution in work
c. It can’t classify the type of vehicles (till the vehicles have 3 axles it can’t
classified them)
d. It have expansive parts which is consists its
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Types of Volume Counts
15
1. Cordon Counts
It is using when it want to counting the vehicles in certain area like as Central
Business District in certain period. It closed the land or the area of study by the
illusions lines and then this area named with Cordon Area. Every street crossing the
illusions border is considering Count Station which is counting in this station the
number of people and vehicles enter or exit from the study area CBD.
The information which is taken from this method using in:
i. Planning parking facilities,
ii. Updating and evaluating the techniques of traffic operations,
iii. Making wide range planning for the freeway and arterial highway systems
2. Screen Line Counts
In this method, the study area will divide to the wide sections by illusions lines named
Screen Lines which it may be natural lines or it makes by the observer like as stream
of river, or freeway highway. The points established by cross the street with the
Screen Lines but not crossing more than one time. The traffic will be count in each of
these points.
The information which is taken from this method using in:
Facilities the detection of variations in the traffic volumes and traffic flow directions
due to changes in the land use pattern of the area study
3. Intersection Counts
This method used to classify the vehicles in the direct movements and turning
movement of the intersections.
Data used in determining phase lengths and cycle times for signalized intersections in
the design of channelization at intersections and in the general design of
improvements to intersections
4. Pedestrian Volume Counts
This method used to locate the cross street lines and its width or establish the traffic
signals depending on the pedestrian counts
5. Periodic Volume Counts
It must be continuous work, and because it is expansive method we must make
various types of time account about 15 minutes and continuously to calculate AADT
Traffic Volume Data Presentation
1. Traffic flow maps

2. Intersection summary sheets
3. Time-based distribution charts
4. Summary tables
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Origin-Destination Survey (O-D)
16
Origin: the location of where the trip begins
Destination: the location of where the trip ends
O-D Study: a measure of the patterns of movement of person and vehicles within a
particular area of interest
Methods of Conducting O-D Studies:
1. Road Side Interview

Stopping the car at the entrance of the city and asking the driver many equations
about his trip:
a. Where are you starting your trip at this day?
b. Where are you going?
c. What is your aid from this trip?
d. Which any scatter you will go in the city?
e. What is time which are you want to stopped?
f. After finished your visiting in the city where you are want to go?
Taking this sample at least 10% of the vehicles
2. Postcard Survey
In this method, it given the driver which is interring the city paper included some
equations to answer from him in his break time. This paper is free of tasks. This
method is special because not all drivers will return the paper just the interesting one
of them
3. Home Interview
This method is done by visit the houses in the city and asked the persons about their
trips in the previous day of this meeting
4. License Renewal or Registration Number Check
It is the best and expansive method but the only disadvantage is needed the large staff
which is presented in the entrance and existing of the city to according the number of
vehicles and their time
5. Telephone
6. Vehicle Tag System
The information obtained from the O-D as follow:
i. Type of vehicle
ii. No. of persons in vehicle, captaincy
iii. Origin and destination of trip
iv. Purpose of the trip
v. Parking locations
vi. Intermediate stops
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Uses of O-D Data
17
The O-D data enable the traffic engineer to determine:
1. Travel demand on existing and future transport

2. The adequacy of existing parking, mass transportation
3. Location of new bridges
4. Feasibility of bypass route
Running Movement
It is obtained by a turning movements count (no. of turning vehicles and their classifications),
the observer counts and records vehicles turning left, going straight ahead and turning right.
Notes that the vehicles turned left had the most effecting from its turned right
Turning Movement Count

Day: Time: Location:
Date: Name of Intersection: Observer:
← Left ← ↑ Straight ↓ → Right →
Cars PSV HGV Cars PSV HGV Cars PSV HGV
27 11 16 38 3 15 25 5 15
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Speed Studies 18
These studies are conducted mainly for the following purposes:
1. Planning traffic control-establishing speed zones, traffic signals, location of warning,

regulatory, and information signs-non passing zones …etc.
2. Determining the speed trends
3. For the accident studies
a. Relation of accident to speed
b. Analysis of high accident location
c. Effectiveness of remedial (measures put in)
4. Used in capacity studies
5. Used for geometric design
Locations and Limits of Speed Study
1. Major highways
2. Highways which its increased accident rates
3. Locations which its decided to put traffic signal or stopping traffic signal
4. Other locations need to make planning information to future studies
Speed and Delay Studies
1. Speed study and delays availability facts about counts, location and delay reason and
used it to treatment the congestion in certain location
2. Evaluation any new suggestion traffic services which it done by the time trip
3. Economic studies required knowledge the actual time trip
4. Time trip giving good idea for the road efficiency
5. Before and after study done to exam the change influence for the traffic control like
I. Not allow stopping vehicles
II. Insert traffic signals
III. Make the highway as one direction running
Speed Measurements
Types of speeds are
1. Spot Speed: the arithmetic mean of the speed of all traffic at a specified point
2. Running Speed: a speed over a specified section of highway
=
( )
3. Journey (Travel) Speed: the total distance traversed divided by the total time
required including all traffic delays
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= 19
( )
There are five methods of measuring this speed
1. Manual Method
This method done by two observers take their locations at distance (d), one of them
have a stop watch, when any vehicle passed one of their observer make signal to the
other and open the stop watch until this vehicle passed completely this distance and
then record this time (t) to calculate the speed by
=
Disadvantages of this method are
 Delay occurs at the signal and start the stop watch
 The driver make decreased his velocity when he shown the observers on the
roads
2. Enoscope
This method include two box mirrors which its put in two locations at determined
distance, the observer take his location at the middle of this distance and catch a stop
watch, he start the stop watch when he see the vehicle image in the 1st box mirrors and
close the stop watch when he see the same vehicle image in the 2nd box mirror
3. Using Electronics Truvelo and Venner Speedometers

Venner speedometer used two pneumatic tubes across the highway and transistor
alarm to calculate the time between the 1st pulse from the 1st pneumatic tube and 2nd
pulse from the 2nd pneumatic tube for the same vehicle which is passing over their
two tubes, this method is more accuracy for the above method
For Truvelo speedometer is same of the Venner speedometer but its electrical parts
completely
4. Radar Speedometer
For this method used black box putting beside the highway and send ray, when this
ray is collides the vehicles and reflected the speed of the vehicle will be record
directly, this method gives accuracy to (2-3 km/h)
5. Photography
In this method take photo for the highway and speed of vehicle passes this section of
the highway, view this clip video in the laboratory in the desirable speed ad from
knowledge the distance between two points and measure the spend time we can
calculate the actual speed of the vehicles. This method is more accuracy because no
attention of the vehicle and not delay or escape it but the police not use this method
because they are not waiting the film to punished the driver
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Sample Size
20
The larger sample size, the greater the probability that the estimated mean is not significantly
different from the true mean
Before analyzing spot speed information statistically, we need to understand some

definitions, these are
 Average travel speed

 Median speed
 Model speed
 The ith percentile spot speed
 Pace
 Standard deviation speeds
Spot Speed Studies
Speed characteristics determined from a spot speed study may be used to
1. Establish speed zones

2. Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid
3. Establish passing and no-passing zones
4. Analyze accident data
5. Evaluate the effects of speed enforcement programs and speed control measures
6. Determine speed trends
Typically, the duration of spot speed studies are at least (1 h) and sample size is at least (30
vehicles)
Average travel speed
Is the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds (which is the sum of all spot speeds
divided by the number of recorded speeds)
∑ ∑
= =
∑
Where;
arithmetic mean
number of observations in each group
mid value for the ith speed group
N number of observed value
Median speed
Is the speed at the middle value in a series of spot speeds are arranged in ascending order,
50% of the speed values will be greater than the median; 50% will be less than the median
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Modal speed
21
It is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a sample of spot speed.
The ith percentile spot speed
Is the spot speed value below which i percent of the vehicles travel, for example 85% spot
speed is the speed below which 85% of the vehicles travel and above which 15% of the
vehicles travel
Pace
Is the range of speed-usually taken at (10 km/h) intervals that has the greatest number of
observations
Standard deviation of speeds
Is a measure of the spread of the individual speeds, it is estimated as
∑ ( − ) ∑ ∑
= = −
−1 ∑ ∑
Where;
standard deviation
arithmetic mean
ith observation
N number of observations
For grouped data
(∑ )
∑( )−
∑
=
∑
Where;
frequency of speed class i
mid value of speed class i
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Example
22
The 1et 161 following reading for speed vehicles (spot speed) like: 33, 29, 30, 30, 28, 15, 32,
42 … etc, for taken more information make the statistically analyses for these data
Solution
Speed Midpoint No. of % of Cumulative
group of group speed speeds in % of total (f) . (x) f.x2
(km/h) (x) readings (f) groups observation
14.5-17.5 16 2 1 1 32 512
17.5-20.5 19 6 4 5 114 2166
20.5-23.5 22 12 8 13 264 5808
23.5-26.5 25 20 12 25 500 12500
26.5-29.5 28 30 19 44 840 23520
29.5-32.5 31 32 20 64 992 30752
32.5-35.5 34 28 17 81 952 32368
35.5-38.5 37 15 9 90 555 20535
38.5-41.5 40 10 6 96 400 16000
41.5-44.5 43 6 4 100 258 11094
Total 161 100 4907 155255
∑ . 4907
= = = 30.48 ≅ 30.5
∑ 161
∑ . ∑ . 155255 4907
= − = − = √964.32 − 929.03 = 5.94 ≅ 6.0
∑ ∑ 161 161
To standardize the spread, i.e. to express it as a % of the mean value known as the coefficient
of variation
6 30.5 = 20%
100
= = 6 15.0 = 40%
̅
6 50.0 = 12%
Where;
CV coefficient of variation
S standard deviation
̅ mean speed
100 ∗ 6
∴ = = 19.7% ≅ 20%
30.5
The CV gives a clear impression not only of the spread of the speed readings but also of the
significance of this spread
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
23
When drawing the above curve take the upper limit of each group of speed
Median speed: speed is middle or 50% speed from cumulative curve
85th %: it is taken as the design speed mostly, also it is speed below which 85% of the
vehicles are being driven
15th %: it is the minimum speed limit
Example
The table below shows the data collected on a rural highway in Howler during a speed study.
Develop the frequency histogram and the frequency distribution of the data, and determine:
1. The arithmetic mean speed

2. The standard deviation
3. The median speed
4. The pace
5. The mode or modal speed
Solution
∑ 4260
= = = 49.5 ⁄ℎ
∑ 86
∑ ( − ) 3632
= = = ∓6.5 /ℎ
−1 86 − 1
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
24
Speed Class Class % of Cumulative
class midpoint frequency (fi.ui) observation % of all ( − )
(km/h) (ui) (f) in class observation
34-35.9 35 2 70 2.3 2.3 420.50
36-37.9 37 3 111 3.5 5.8 468.75
38-39.9 39 2 78 2.3 8.1 220.50
40-41.9 41 5 205 5.8 13.9 361.25
42-43.9 43 3 129 3.5 17.4 126.75
44-45.9 45 11 495 12.8 30.2 222.75
46-47.9 47 4 188 4.7 34.9 25.00
48-49.9 49 18 882 21.0 55.0 9.00
50-51.9 51 7 357 8.1 64.0 15.75
52-53.9 53 8 424 9.3 73.3 98.00
54-55.9 55 11 605 12.8 86.1 332.75
56-57.9 57 5 285 5.8 91.9 281.25
58-59.9 59 2 118 2.3 94.2 180.50
60-61.9 61 2 122 2.3 96.5 264.50
62-63.9 63 2 126 2.3 98.8 364.50
64-65.9 65 1 65 1.2 100 240.25
Total 86 4260 100 3632.00
The median speed: is obtained from the cumulative frequency distribution curve = 49 km/h.
it is the 50th% speed
The pace: it is obtained from the frequency distribution curve as 45 to 55 km/h
The mode or modal speed: it is obtained from the frequency histogram as 49 km/h. it may be
obtained also from the frequency distribution curve shown where the speed corresponding to
the highest point on the curve is taken as an estimate of the modal speed
mode or modal speed

(Highest frequency)
Histogram of observed vehicle’s speed

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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25
25
20
% frequency
15
Pace
10
0
33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67
Vehicle speed, km/h
Frequency distribution curve
Cumulative Distribution Curve

100
90
80
70
60 P85 = 54.8 km/h
50
P50 = 48.5 km/h
40
30
20
10
0
33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Measurement of Running and Journey Speed
26
Running Speed
It is the average speed maintained over a given route while the vehicle is in motion. It is used
 For capacity determination

 As a measure of the level service
 For economic studies
Journey Speed
It is a direct method of traffic congestion, it is used
 For highway planning

 For analysis of economic studies
Methods of Measurement
1. Registration number method

For this method take highway with length (2-3 km) and two observers stopping at the
start and end of this road, each observer will record the number of vehicle and the
inter/exist time of this vehicle. The highway must be clear from the branch
intersection or the traffic signals to measure the running speed. After this cumulate the
number of certain vehicle and the inter time of it at start and end points of highway to
calculate the spend time for this vehicle to cross the distance of this highway without
stopping or delays
2. Elevated observer method
In this method the observer stopped at high place like high building or helicopter,
calculate the required time for an observed vehicle to cross the certain distance, and if
the high is small then the speed measured is spot speed
3. Moving observer method
This method is good for two way routes only and a minimum of six test runs should
made in each direction under same conditions
Hourly volume for one directional flow is determined by the following
+
= ; = −
+
Where;
q flow of vehicles in one direction
x average number of vehicles counted in the (q) direction when test car was travelling in
opposite direction
y net vehicles overtaking test car when it is travelling in the (q) direction
= −
w average journey time when test car is travelling in the (q) direction
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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a average journey time when test car is travelling in the opposite direction to (q)
27
t average journey time for all traffic in direction (q)
West y East
x
q
Test Car
This method is need three counts and driver
1st count is counting the vehicles which they in front and behind of their vehicle and the
difference between theirs called (y)
2nd count is counting the vehicles in opposite direction and classified their as cars, PSV, HGV
3rd count is control the time (start and end) and record the value of x and y in the certain
paper with the spend time
Example
Six runs were made in each direction along a two way highway against A and B square.
Flows were measured both and against the moving car and the following notes obtained:
Distance from A and B square = 6.4 km
Calculate the flow and stream speed in each direction?
Car Travelling from A to B Square
Trip (h : min) Number of vehicles

T (min) Overtaken Met
Commences Ends Overtaking
y X
16:05 16:16 11 2 1 1 401
16:34 16:44 10 3 2 1 360
17:05 17:17 12 4 1 3 419
17:35 17:44 9 5 3 2 -397
18:05 18:18 13 2 2 1 406
18:35 18:45 10 2 3 -1 412
average 10.8 min 1.2 399.2
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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Car Travelling from B to A Square
28
Trip (h : min) Number of vehicles
T (min) Overtaken Met
Commences Ends Overtaking
y X
16:19 16:31 12 3 2 1 320
16:50 17:03 13 7 3 4 319
17:20 17:32 12 4 2 2 307
17:50 17:59 9 4 3 1 331
18:20 18:33 13 5 2 3 317
18:50 19:01 11 7 1 6 305
average 11.7 min 2.8 316.5
+
= ; = − ; =
+
(316.5 + 1.2) ∗ 60
= = 847 ℎ
10.8 + 11.7
10.8 1.2
= − = 0.18ℎ = 10.8
60 847
6.4
= = 36 /ℎ
0.18
(399.2 + 2.8) ∗ 60
= = 1072 ℎ
10.8 + 11.7
11.7 2.8
= − = 0.19ℎ = 11.4
60 1072
6.4
= = 34 /ℎ
0.19
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Example
29
Find the hourly volume and speed for a test section length of (1 km) in urban road, data are
given below
No. of vehicles No. of vehicles No. of vehicles

North Bond Trip Time (min) in opposing overtaking test overtaken by the
direction (x) car test car
1 2.65 85 1 0
2 2.70 83 3 2
3 2.35 77 0 2
4 3.00 85 2 0
5 2.42 90 1 1
6 2.54 84 2 1
Total 15.66 504 9 6
Average 2.6 84 1.5 1
No. of vehicles No. of vehicles No. of vehicles
South Bond Trip Time (min) in opposing overtaking test overtaken by the
direction (x) car test car
1 2.33 112 2 0
2 2.30 113 0 2
3 2.71 119 0 0
4 2.16 120 1 1
5 2.54 105 0 2
6 2.48 100 0 1
Total 14.52 669 3 6
Average 2.4 111.5 0.5 1
= 9−6= 3 ; ( .) = 1.5 − 1 = 0.5
= 3 − 6 = −3 ; ( .) = 0.5 − 1 = −0.5
− (111.5 + 0.5) ∗ 60
= = = 1344 ℎ
+ 2.4 + 2.6
0.5 1
= − = 2.6 − = 2.6 = 0.04 ℎ ; = = = 25 /ℎ
0.04
− (84 − 0.5) ∗ 60
= = = 1002 ℎ
+ 2.4 + 2.6
0.5 1
= − = 2.4 + = 2.4 = 0.04 ℎ ; = = = 25 /ℎ
0.04
Note: if the traffic is suitable and the driver is not overtaking any vehicle and no vehicle
overtaken him, so (t = w)
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Example
30
Using moving observer method, seven runs have been made in each direction over a section
of road (1.65 km) in length with the following readings. Calculate the flow of traffic and
speed in each direction?
East Bond Trips

Journey time Vehicles overtaking test Vehicles overtaken by
x-count
(min : sec) car test car
1:50 38 1 4
2:02 42 2 3
2:00 40 1 5
1:56 38 1 4
1:58 38 1 4
1:48 35 1 6
2:13 41 2 2
Total = 13:47 272 9 28
−19
Average = 1:58 = 2.0 min 38.8 9 – 28 = -19 ( .) = = −2.7
7
West Bond Trips
Journey time Vehicles overtaking test Vehicles overtaken by
x-count
(min : sec) car test car
2:05 27 3 4
2:00 26 2 4
2:10 28 4 4
1:58 25 2 5
2:15 30 4 3
2:07 28 3 3
2:10 31 2 5
Total = 14:45 195 20 28
−8
Average = 2:06 = 2.1 min 27.9 20 – 28 = -8 ( .) = = −1.1
7
− (27.9 − 2.7) ∗ 60
= = = 369 ℎ
+ 2.0 + 2.1
2.7 1.65
= − = 2.0 + = 2.4 = 0.04 ℎ ; = = = 41 /ℎ
0.04
− (38.8 − 1.1) ∗ 60
= = = 552 ℎ
+ 2.0 + 2.1
1.1 1.65
= − = 2.1 + = 2.2 = 0.04 ℎ ; = = = 41 /ℎ
0.04
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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Delays
31
There are two types of delays
1. Fixed delays
Occurs mostly at roadway intersection like:
i. Traffic signals
ii. Railway crossing
iii. Roundabouts
iv. Stop signs
v. Pedestrian crossing
2. Operational (Running) delays
This delay is primary a reflection of the interacting effects traffic on the highway or
street
i. Parking and un-parking vehicles
ii. Pedestrians
iii. Crossing caused vehicles at uncontrolled intersections
iv. Congestion caused by heavy traffic
Delay Studies
Intersection is the major delay in the traffic stream. There are several factors affecting
intersection delay:
1. Physical factors
Such as: number of lanes, width, grades channelization, bus stop
2. Traffic factors
Such as: volume on each approach, turning movement, driver approach speeds,
parking and pedestrian
3. Traffic control
Such as: timing of signals, stop signs
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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Example
32
To find the delay at intersection by using stopped time delay method
1. Count the number of vehicles stopped in the intersection approach (every 15 sec.)
2. Count the vehicles during the same time
3. The results show below
Time Stationary vehicles (total no. of vehicles) Approach volume

Final delay
starting
0 15 30 45 Stopping Un-stopping at each min.
(h : min)
8:00 0 2 7 9 11 7 0
8:01 4 0 0 3 6 14 -13
8:02 9 16 14 6 18 0 27
8:03 1 4 9 13 17 0 10
8:04 5 0 0 2 4 17 -14
Sub-total 19 22 30 33 56 38
10
Total 104 94
The final delay = 104 – 94 = 10 vehicles is still stopping at intersection after 4 min.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY 33
Traffic flow theory involves the development of mathematical relationships among the
primary elements of a traffic stream: flow; density and speed. These relationships help the
traffic engineer in planning, designing, and evaluating the effectiveness of implementing
traffic engineering measures on a highway system.
Traffic flow theory is used in:
 Design to determine adequate lane lengths for storing left turn vehicles on a separate
left turn lanes
 The average delay at intersections and freeway ramp merging areas
 Simulation, where mathematical algorithms are used to study the complex
relationships that exist among the elements of a traffic stream or network.
Traffic Flow Parameters (Elements)
Time Space Diagram
Time space diagram is a graph that describes the relationship between the location of vehicles
in a traffic stream and the time as the vehicle progress along the highway.
At time 0 vehicles (1, 2, 3, and 4) are at distances (d1, d2, d3, and d4) respectively, from a
reflect point, whereas vehicles (5 and 6) cross the reference point later at times (t5 and t6).
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Flow (q)
34
Flow is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass a point on a highway lane during a
time period less than (1 h.), it can be determine by:
3600
= ( ℎ ⁄ℎ)
Where;
n = no. of vehicles passing a point in the roadway in (T, sec.)
q = the equivalent hourly low (vehicle/h).
Density (k)
Density or concentration and it is the no. of vehicles travelling over a unit length of highway
at an instant of time (1 mile or 1 km) and it is expressed by (vehicle/km), it can be determine
by:
= ( ℎ ⁄ )
Where;
k = density, vehicle/km
q = flow rate, vehicle/h
S = average travel speed, km/h
Speed ( )
Time mean speed is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time
1
=
Where;
n = no. of vehicles passing a point on the highway
= speed of the ith vehicle

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Space Mean Speed ( )
35
Time mean speed is the harmonic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time
= = =
∑ ∑
Where;
= average travel speed, km/h
L = length of the highway segment, km
ti = travel time of the ith vehicle to traverse the section, h
n = no. of travel times observed, and
ta = speed of the ith vehicle ∑ = average travel time over L, h
Example:
Three vehicles are recorded with speeds of (40, 60 and 80 km/h). The time to traverse (1 km)
is (1.5 min., 1.0 min. and 0.75 min.) respectively, what s the time mean speed and space
mean speed?
40 + 60 + 80
= = 60 ⁄ℎ
4
3 ∗ 1 ∗ 60
= = 55.4 ⁄ℎ
(1.5 + 1.0 + 0.75)
Example:
Calculate the flow, density, time mean speed and space mean speed for the four cars (A, B, C,
and D) with their positions and speeds obtained by photography as in Fig. below, the cars
pass point X at (as sec.)?
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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∗ 3600 4 ∗ 3600
ℎ : = = = 1200 ℎ 36
12 12
4
ℎ : = = ∗ 1000 = 8 ℎ ⁄
500
1 1
: = = (25 + 30 + 45 + 55) = 38.75 ⁄ℎ
4
Where ti is the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel from X and Y speed ui and L (m) is the
distance between X and Y
500
= ∗ 3600 = 32.7
1000 ∗ 55
500
= ∗ 3600 = 40.0
1000 ∗ 45
500
= ∗ 3600 = 60.0
1000 ∗ 30
500
= ∗ 3600 = 72.0
1000 ∗ 25
4 ∗ 500 ∗ 3600
: = = = 35.2 /ℎ
∑ 1000 ∗ (32.7 + 40 + 60 + 72)
Time Headway (h)
Time headway is the different between the time the front of the vehicle arrives at a point on
the highway and the time the front of the next vehicle arrives at that same point. It is usually
expressed in (sec.)
In the time-space diagram, the time headway between vehicles (3 and 4) at (d1) is (h3-4)
Space Headway (Spacing) (d)
Spacing s the distance between the front of a vehicle and the front of the following vehicle, it
is usually expressed in (m).
In the time-space diagram, the space headway between vehicles (3 and 4) at time (t5) is (d3-4)
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Flow-Density Relationship
37
= ∗
= ∗ … (a)
Each of these variables depends on:
 Characteristics of highway,
 Characteristics of the vehicle,
 Characteristics of the driver, and
 Environmental factors such as weather.
Homework:
Figure below shows vehicles travelling at constant speeds on a two-lane highway between
sections X and Y with their positions and speeds obtained at an instant of time by
photography. An observer located at point X observes the four vehicles passing point X
during a period of (T, sec). The velocities of the vehicles are measured as (45, 40, 35, and 20
km/h) respectively. Calculate the flow, density, time mean speed and space mean speed?
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow 38
It means the relationship between the density (vehicle/m) and the corresponding flow of
traffic on a highway.
1. When the traffic density on a highway is zero then the traffic volume also zero
because no vehicles on the highway
2. The traffic flow is increasing when the density is increased
3. When the density is reached to maximum valued it is called (Kjam) and it symbol is
(kj), the value of the traffic flow is reached to zero because the vehicles become one
behind another and closed the roadway
4. When (k) is increasing the (q) increased from zero to (qmax), and then the increasing
of (k) caused decreased of (q) until its value becomes zero when the (k) value reaches
to (kj), as shown in the figure (a)
5. From figure (c), when the traffic flow is too small then the vehicles can be run with
too high velocity. When the (q=0) then the velocity called (free low speed or mean
free speed) symbol by and its value depend on the physical characteristics of the
roadway. For continuous increased in (q) so the velocity decreased continuously until
reached to the point which passed certain point in certain time on the highway and
this called the (reduction in flow) which will be caused the (congestion) and
gradually the velocity and the flow becomes zero
6. From question (a) and figure (a) so ( = / )and the slope of lines (OB, OE, OC)
indicated the space mean speeds in densities (kB, kE, kC) respectively
The slope of the line (OA) is indicated the velocity when the (k=0) and can say the
waves between the vehicles are zero (i.e vehicle / 6 km), so the slope of this line is
indicated the mean free speed (uf) and it is define:
Mean free speed (uf) is the maximum sped that can be obtained on the highway
7. The slope of line (OE) is indicate the velocity ( ) in (qmax) and this maximum flow
called (highway capacity), so it is favorable in the roadway to work at densities not
increased more than (the required maximum flow) by large amount
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
39
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
TRAFFIC CAPACITY 40
Traffic capacity is the ability of highway to accommodate traffic
Practical capacity: the flow which produces a minimum acceptable journey speed, or
Practical capacity: the maximum traffic volume for comfortable free flow conditions
Traffic Capacity
The maximum numbers of vehicles that can be pass over a given section of a lane or roadway in one
direction (or in both directions for a two lane highway) during a given time period (one hour) under
prevailing roadway and traffic condition
Maximum
It is the maximum traffic volume which is passes without stopping or peak conflicted and in
the capacity status of the highway the service level is not in ideal condition
No. of Vehicles
The unit of capacity is passenger cars/hour (pcu/h); the buses and trucks are reduced the
capacity of highway at big effects
One Direction verses Two Directions
In the multi-lanes highway the traffic in one direction is not effect on the other traffic
direction; but in the highway with two lanes or three lanes there is waved between the two
lanes which effected at the flow of traffic and the traffic capacity
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
A Given Time Period
41
The unit of volume and capacity is (veh./h), so as the flow of vehicles is no charges with the
constant period time so the volumes and capacities may be counted for short periods like (5
or 15 minutes). For large variables in hour take the peak hour factor (PHF) which is
explained in the following formula and always is less or equal to (1)
=
ℎ ∗ .
For example:
Hourly volume = 1500 vehicle
Highest 5 min. volume = 150 vehicle
1500
∴ = = 0.83
150 ∗ 12
Prevailing Roadway and Traffic Conditions
It is included the physical conditions for the highway which is effected at the traffic capacity
like, width of lane, width of highway shoulder, sight distance and the grades.
Prevailing traffic conditions which are reflect changes in properties of highway flow like, the
parked cars, passing of pedestrians or ratio of truck vehicles which are change for (15 min.)
as example.
Factors Affecting Capacity
1. Physical features of the highway which do not change unless the geometric design of
the highway changes (lane width, lateral clearance, shoulders, auxiliary lanes)
2. The traffic conditions, which are determined by the composition of the traffic: trucks
and buses, large distribution, variation of traffic flow and traffic interruptions
3. The ambient conditions that include visibility, road surface conditions, temperature
and wind (alignment and grades).
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
42
From the above figure:
 The traffic condition for any highway is follow the shown diagram specially in
normal conditions, and when the flow going to the unstable conditions then the
stopping of any car caused stopping the traffic flow and the rate cars will try to take
another lanes and make a congestion in this highway.
 When the distances between the junctions are small (like as in the cities) therefore the
freedom of the movement in the highway reduced too.
 There are a relationship for the lane width and its type with the above figure and its
shown the following diagram
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Basic relationships between speed and volume (flow) are:
43
1. The speed decrease on each road as the flow increases indicating that these
measurements lie within the zone of normal conditions
2. Traffic flow at any particular speed increases as the roads get wider
3. There are many different factors between the rural roads and urban roads:
a. Parked cars
b. Pedestrian conflicts
c. Heavier concentration of commercial vehicles
d. Speed limits and greater caution of the drivers in built up areas
4. There are many effected factors:
a. Lane and shoulder widths
b. Vertical and horizontal curves
c. Gradients
d. Rain, snow, ice, and wind
Volume – Capacity Ratio (V/C)
The capacity of any road to carry traffic is a function not only of its width but also of the
speed/flow relationship. More vehicles can be accommodated at a lower level of service with
a higher (V/C) ratio.
Sometimes draw the network of the city highway and putted the ratio of (volume/capacity)
and from this we can knowing which is the highway needed to remove and the highway
which had (V/C) greater than (1.0) take the bright color to attention to the conflict highways.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
LEVEL OF SERVICE 44
In the American States it divided the relationship between the velocity and the traffic volume
to many levels called level of service which it starts in Level A that have small number of
vehicles and high speed and ends in Level F that the traffic volume is greater than the
capacity of highway and make the forced flow.
Level of Service Flow (pcu/h) Speed (km/h)

A Free 95+
B Stable 90 – 95
C Stable 80 – 90
D Stable but Approaching 65 – 80
E Unstable 50 – 65
F Forced Under 50
Level of Service
It is a term used to classify the varying conditions of traffic flow that take place on a
highway. It is a qualitative measure o the effect of a number of factors which include:
 Speed and travel time

 Traffic interruptions
 Freedom to maneuver
 Safety
 Driving comfort and convenience
 Economy considered from point of view of vehicle operating cost
And because it is difficult to put the standard number for all above factors it is depending for
just two factors as:
1. Travel time 2. Volume / capacity ratio (V/C)

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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Level – A
45
Free flow, low volumes, speed controlled by driver’s desires, speed limits or physical
roadway conditions
Maximum volume for 2-lanes one direction = 1400 pcu/h; Speed ≥ 97 km/h
Level – B
Stable flow, operating speeds beginning to be restricted, little or no restrictions on

maneuverability from other vehicles
Level – C
Stable flow, speed and maneuverability from more closely restricted
Level – D
Approaches unstable low, tolerable speeds can be maintained but temporary restrictions to
flow caused substantial drops in speed. Little freedom to maneuver and convenience low
Level – E
Volumes near capacity, speed typically in neighborhood of (30 mph, 48 km/h), flow unstable,
stoppages of momentary duration. Ability to maneuver severely limited
Maximum volume for 2-lanes one direction = 3000 pcu/h; Speed ≥ 48-64 km/h
Level – F
Forced flow, low-operating speeds, volumes below capacity, queues formed
Maximum volume for 2-lanes one direction = 0 - 2000 pcu/h;
Speed ≥ stop (zero) - 48 km/h
For multilane rural with controlled access highway 2-lanes, one direction
Level of Service Capacity (pcu/h) Speed (km/h)

A 1400 ≥ 97
B 2000 ≥ 88
C 2750 ≥ 80
D 3600 ≥ 64
E 3000 48 – 64
F 0 – 2000 0 – 48
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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Level of Service Characteristics by Highway Type
46
Multilane Rural
Two Lanes Without Access Controlled Access Highway
Level of Control
Service Operating Operating Operating
Service Service
Speed, Speed, Speed, Service Volume
km/h Volume km/h Volume km/h
1400 passenger
A 400 600
vehicles per hour
passenger passenger
on 2-lanes, one
≥ 97 vehicles per ≥ 97 vehicles ≥ 97
direction
Free hour two- per lane
additional lane,
Flow way per hour
1000 vph-lane
2000 passenger
B 900 1000
vehicles per hour
passenger passenger
on 2-lanes, one
direction
Stable hour two- per lane
additional lane,
Flow way per hour
1500 vph-lane
3000 passenger
C 1400 1500
vehicles per hour
passenger passenger
on 2-lanes, one
direction
Stable hour two- per lane
additional lane,
Flow way per hour
1800 vph-lane
D 3600 passenger
1700 1800
vehicles per hour
passenger passenger
Approach on 2-lanes, one
ing direction
hour two- per lane
Unstable additional lane,
way per hour
Flow 1800 vph-lane
2000 2000
E
passenger passenger
2000 vph
≥ 48 vehicles per ≥ 48 vehicles 48 – 64
Unstable (both lane necks)
hour two- per lane
Flow
way per hour
F Under 2000
passenger
Volume Vehicles
Forced < 48 vehicles per < 48 48 – stop
varying backed-up
Congested hour two-
Flow way
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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INTERSECTIONS 47
An intersection is the general area where two or more highways join or cross. It is the focal
point of conflict and congestion.
 Intersections cause of a large proportion of traffic delays,

 They cause accidents
Highway Intersection Design Objectives
Due to the congestion, proper intersection control is employing to accomplish the following
objectives:
1. Increase intersection capacity: i.e., parking restrictions in the vicinity of the

intersection, right turn reduce conflict point and the use of traffic analysis
2. Reduction and prevention of accident: most of the accidents occur at intersections.
(about 1/3 of total accidents occur in urban area and 25% of total occur in rural area)
3. Protection of major streets: provide most continuous movement along major streets at
greater speed and increase safety.
In the selection of intersection type, the following factors be consider:
1. Traffic volume and delay design speeds;

2. Pedestrian movement;
3. Cost and availability of land, and
4. The accident record of the existing intersection
Types of Intersection Control
A. Priority Intersections
The universal adoption of the give way to traffic on the left rule at stop control of
junctions has considerably increased the number of occasions at which a driver has to
merge or cross a major road traffic stream making use of gaps or lags in one or more
conflicting streams.
B. Signalized Intersections
There are many types:
1. Vehicle actuated signals
2. Fixed time signals
3. Turning traffic
4. Other signal operations
C. Rotary Intersections
D. Grade-Separated Intersections
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Intersection Types
48
Four types of intersections:
A. Three-leg intersections
B. Four-leg intersections
C. Multi-leg intersections
D. Rotary intersections
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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Intersection Characteristics
49
1. Maneuvers (Turning Movement)
a. Diverging
b. Merging
c. Crossing
d. Weaving, accomplished to merging maneuver followed by a diverging maneuver

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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2. Conflicts
50
Conflict means not only potential accident spots but also actual delay spots. A conflict
arises whenever the paths followed by vehicles diverge, merge or cross.
There are also conflicts the vehicles with the pedestrian passing. The number of
conflicts that can be expect at different intersections is show.
4-leg intersection single-lane approach no signal control

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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TRAFFIC SIGNALS 51
It is reduced the conflicts in this method by used the traffic signals (time separations) instead
of distance separations (in space-grade separated interchanges) and this method caused delays
the traffic also but less than if it is not and this method is less expansive from the
interchanges.
It is possible to use the police officer to do this but it’s not economical because of the large
period needed and the management of signals by mechanical method is more efficiency from
the police officer.
The traffic signals used in the first time at 1868 in London and were Green, Red signals only
and it is lighting by gas in night.
In 1932 it is depended the usual traffic signals in certain time (Green, Amber and Red) and it
is taken from the U.S. system.
To be effective any traffic signals control must fulfill four basic requirements:
1. Meaning: Red: Stop; Green: Go

2. Attention: Black back or black and amber back board
3. Respect: Traffic signals control must be respectable form users of road
4. Time of response: Used the amber for this purpose
The above requirements are shorten to MART
The traffic signals control is means:
Red: Stop
Red/Amber Stop, but advises prepare to go
Green Go, if safe to do so
Amber Stop, unless unsafe to do so
There are two methods for traffic signal control and organizing its periods:
1. Vehicle Actuated Signals
When the car accessed to the intersection it is indicated for traffic demand in the
controller box; and when no traffic in the intersect traffic then the green signal will light
for the car in the same time the red signal lighted for the opposite traffic.
If there is traffic in the intersect side, then the controller record demand for passing traffic
and the car is waiting until clear in the opposite direction for period which is named
(maximum wait period). After this period, it will give to the waited car the green light
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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and if it found another car following the first car then the green period will extend until
52
the second car passing.
When the traffic load is large amount flow in both directions then each direction will take
green light for period called (maximum green time), and then the control converted to
another type which is called (fixed time signals).
There are two methods to record demand of traffic:
1. Detector Pad:
There is a rubber pad which covered cross the street and it connected with metal
connect that is transfer the message to the controller when the car passing over it and
press it.
2. Loop Detectors:
There is rubber-sheathed wire loops, which are filled under the pavement surface of
the road and connected with crystal controlled, oscillate with rapid frequencies; so
when the car is passing over these wires caused convert for the traffic signal line.
The second method is using in the UK now and its favorite for the following reasons:
a. There is no object on the surface road which may be damaged by the cars or
environment
b. Placing of this cable needs small amount of excavate in the road surface with width
equal to cable width compare with detector pad which is needed a building
c. It is ability to regulate this detector whenever neglected the stopped cars and may be
able to make it more sensitive for bicycle and motorcycles
d. The expansive cost for this type is less than first type
The loop detectors are putting as the rectangular shape at the width of the street, which is
enter the intersection, whose precession the traffic signal. It may be as diamond shape or
eight-side shape and for the three axes X, Y, and Z, which is registered the traffic “calls” in
the controller. So extend the green period by (1.5 second) and the X, Z axes also extend for
traffic by (1.5 seconds) then the distances between loops are (39, 25, and 12 meters) for X, Y
and Z respectively from the stop sign.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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Definitions for Vehicle Actuated Signals
53
Minimum Green Period:
The shortest period of right way, long enough for a stationary vehicle at the stop line to start
up and clear the intersection
Vehicle Extension Period:
With loop detector a (1.5 seconds) extension to the minimum green time has made for the
crossing of each of the loops
With pad detectors, affixed location specific, time has added to the minimum green time for
each registered demand up to the maximum green period
Maximum Green Period:
Starts at the beginning of the green period if vehicles are waiting on the other approach, or
from the time of the first demand on that approach
Inter Green Period:
The time between one approach losing the green and another approach obtaining it. Four
seconds inter green is normal but if it is necessary to clear traffic from the intersection it is
possible to vary this by incorporating an “All Red” period
2. Fixed Time Signals

When the vehicle actuated signal working at the maximum green period as continuous
state, and then convert to the fixed time. So each directions have limit green, red and
amber periods with no change and these periods calculated upon the traffic volume on
the road and the road capacity; so this method may be caused unnecessary delays for
using the intersection with capacity less than the ultimate capacity of it’s in the out of
ultimate periods
3. Turning Traffic
The forward traffic signal is working with the turning traffic and all caused problems
that corresponding with it.
The turning left may be “lockup” the intersection utill the traffic signals is presented
unless its special conditions to treatment with the motion of the traffic. There are two
methods to considerable the turnings: traffic signals controlled junctions and the other
method that is explain for the main method.
a. Late start
b. Early cut-off from which is evolved the
c. All-red period
It may be merge two methods for above and in the emergency state to choice one of
them then the favorite ones is the early cut-off from the safety principle
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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 The turning movements have the ability and more conditional situation if the
54
oncoming of the intersection is widely enough to separate the forward traffic
and turning right from the turning left
 It is more necessary matter to use late start and early cut-off if the road has two
directions
 In the several cases it is possible to prevent the turning left is necessary and
accepted until in the traffic signal controlled junctions
 Early cut-off or late start of the opposing phase has employed when the
number of the turning vehicles is not sufficient to justify the provision of a left
turning phase, but where left-turning vehicles have difficulty in completing the
traffic movement.
Storage space for left turning vehicles is mostly needed in early cut-off
method rather that in late start method because in the early cut-off method is
allowed to move the vehicles to left in the end of green period when the traffic
flow in the opposite direction will decreased or stop. In the late start method,
the movement of vehicles to left is lockup in the end of green period.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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4. Other Signal Operations
55
In additional ordinary traffic signal, operations which are included variable green
periods to passing and clean the intersection from the turning left. There is an other
methods on importance of them is Selective Vehicle Detection (SVD) which is allow
to pass the truck vehicles (buses) before another types of vehicles for the principle
that the movement of large number of persons and goods is more important than the
other state.
There are many methods to detection the buses:
 There are an instrument which is fixed in the base of bus to give this
specialized.
 Detector loops are line under the surface road and connected to the electrical
unit that is place at the roadside to detect the passing buses.
 Developing the traffic signal controller to combined with the message send
from detector when the bus passing at each loop; this message is send from the
unit at the roadside to the controller to change the standard time cycle. This
change may be cause extend the green period for the approach having buses
corresponding to the green period at the opposite direction until in sometimes
in the cycles with two phases may be neglected the green period in the
opposite direction to accelerate the green phase for the direction which having
buses.
Example-1
Sometimes there are more than two major traffic conflicts and then it is necessary to employ
more than two phases in the traffic control system.
As where at normal cross roads there is a heavy left turning movement on one of the
approaches.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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Example
56
Traffic signals are to be install at a T-Junction where there is a heavy left turning movement
and a normal right turning movement from the major rood.
a. How many phases would be required for conventional signal control?

b. Illustrate the traffic movements in the system selected
Solution
a. The correct no. of phases for conventional signal control at this intersection is two,
there is no need to provide a third phase to cater for the heavy left turning movement
for the minor road because it does not conflict with any other flow out a T-Junction.
b.
Phase –A Phase – B
How to Design the Traffic Signal Control?

1. Calculate traffic flow in (pcu) for each approach (q).
Type of Vehicles Conversion factor to (pcu)
Private cars, taxis, light good vehicles 1.00
Heavy goods vehicles (HGV) 1.75
Public transport vehicles (PSV) 2.25
Motor cycle 0.33
Pedal cycle 0.20
2. Calculate saturation flow (S), which is the maximum flow that can pass through an
intersection from one approach without impedance by signals.
( )> . →→→→ →∴ = ( ⁄ )
( )< . →→→
Non Linear Relationship is using as this Table
W (m) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
S (pcu/h) 1850 1875 1975 2175 2250 2900
These numbers must be modification for
a. The gradient effect
% →→→ + % →→→ ∴ = .
% →→→ − % →→→ ∴ = .
Definition of gradient of the approach is the average slope between the stop line
and a point on the approach before it.
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b. Environment effect
57
 For good environment
• Dual carriage way approaches
• No noticeable pedestrian interferences
• No parked vehicles
• No interferences to traffic flow from left-turning vehicles
• Adequate turning radii
• →→→ + %
 For poor environment
• Low average speeds
• Interference from standing vehicles and left-turning vehicles
• Poor visibility
• Poor alignment
• →→→ − %
c. To calculate the saturation flow for the left-turning streams
→→→ = .
( ⁄ )
+
→→→ = .
( ⁄ )
+
Where; r = turning radius in meter
For Single File Streams (r = 12.16m) S= 1600 pcu/h
For Double File Streams(R = 13.68m) S = 2700 pcu/h
d. When the vehicles passed the stop line therefore is diverge to left direction to turn
and so the traffic flow will be decrease.
3. Assume inter green period (IG), which is the period between one phase losing right of
way and the next phase gaining right of way
Minimum IG = (4 Sec)
This (4 sec) may be increases in several cases:
a. There are turnings to the left therefore when the cars in the intersection caused
delay to flow it, so it may be add time to clear the intersection.
b. When there are cars with high speed in the beginning of red period and this added
seconds caused to increase the safety in the intersection.
Amber period = (3 Sec) Red/Amber period = (2 Sec)
Phase-I
A A A A A
G R
IG = 4 Sec R
Phase-II (In Iraq)
R G A A A A
IG = (4 Sec)
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Phase-I
58
A A A R R R
G R
IG = 6 Sec
Phase-II
A
R
R G A A A R R R
All Red
IG = (6 Sec)
R = Red; G = Green; A = Amber; R/A = Red / Amber (Signal used in UK)
The sequential signals are:
In IRAQ In UK
Red Red
Green Red / Amber (2 Sec)
Amber Green
IG
All Red Amber (3 Sec)
4. Calculate lost time which is total time during a full cycle that is not effectively used
for vehicles movement in one or other direction
Lost Time = Lost time during the inter green period (all Red periods) + Starting
and Stopping losses (S – PS) losses
L = 2n + R (2 = s & s = 2 Sec)
Where;
L: lost time (Sec)
n: no. of phases
R: total all red or red / red-amber times (Sec)
or
= ( − ) ( = −( & )= − )
IG: inter green period (Sec)
5. Calculate =
= = +
To greater (y) value from at a normal four-way junction, the north and south
approaches added to the greater of the two values from the other pair of approaches.
Where;
= =
6. Calculate the optimum cycle time (Co) for an intersection
. +
= ( = ; = )
−
This optimum cycle time gives the least’s average delay to all vehicles, using the
intersection
7. Calculate the total effective green time (g)
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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= −
59
Then effective green time for the phases:
= ∗ ; = ∗ …
: =
8. Calculate the actual green time for individual phases (G1, G2, etc …)
G1 = g1 – Amber period (3 Sec) + (S & S losses (2 Sec))
∴ = −
Actual Green Time = Effective Green Time – 1
Variation in the discharge across the stop line
 Area under the curve represent the no. of vehicles that cross the stop line during the
green period.
 The height of the rectangular is equal to the saturation flow and the base of the
rectangular is the effective green time.
 The time intervals between the commencement of green and the commencement of
the effective green, and termination of effective green and the termination of the
amber period is refer to as the lost time due to starting delay.
 Lost time due to starting delays = 2 Sec.
∴ Effective Green Time =
Actual Green Time + 3 Sec (Amber period) – 2 Sec (lost time)
∴g=G+1
For Example
In the four-leg intersections like the figure shown:
If necessary enter late start or early cut-off to able the

coming cars from the west to turning left we must take the
following steps:
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 Control at these discharges by using two-phase system
60
 Calculate (q/S)
 For S, N phases therefore (ymax) is called (ymax N-S), so for E, W phases it must be
calculated which is the largest (yw (total West)) or (ywl (West-left))+yE; the largest value from
its registered (ymax E/W). This favorite is done because the discharge in W direction is
continuous during the green period therefore in E direction the discharge is used the
green period with WL
 If yWL + yE > yW, the y value for the first stage = yE; and for the second stage = yWL
 If yWL + yE < yW, the green time that flow W requires should be divided in portion to
the y values of streams WL and E, then the y value for the first stage
.
= = ∗
+ +
.
= = ∗
+ +
The same procedure may be using with a late start for the opposing flow.
Delay at Traffic Signals

The delay in seconds per vehicles due to traffic signal is equal to:
( − )
= . +
( − ) . ( . − . )
Where;
d= delay / vehicle (Sec)
Co= cycle time (Sec)
G = actual green time (Sec)
q= flow (vehicle/h)
S= saturation flow (vehicle/h)
The pcu factor will be the overall pcu volume divided by the overall volume in (vehicle/h) =
(1.10 to 1.35)
We can convert the S (pcu/h) to S (vehicle/h) by divided the first term over pcu factor, and
in the same method we can convert q for all phases from pcu/h to vehicle/h or take these
values from the field study directly in vehicle/h.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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Example-1
61
What is the saturation flow of an approach with good environmental conditions and a
continuous uphill gradient (2%) where all vehicles discharge straight across the intersection
and where the approach width is (10.5m)?
Solution
For W > 5.5m then S = 525 W
∴ = ∗ . = . /
For good environmental conditions the saturation flow will increased by (20%)
∴ = . ∗( + . )= /
For the uphill gradient, the (S) will decreased (3%) for each (1%) uphill gradient
∴ = ∗ − ∗ = . /
We can solve this example by one-step as follow:
∴ = ∗ . ∗ . ∗( − . ∗ )= ∗ . ∗ . ∗ . = . /
Example-2
Design a control signal for this junction shown. Use two phases system, IG = 4 sec for each
phase?
N
W E
S
Left movement Straight movement Right movement
App. N S E W N S E W N S E W
q, pcu 100 352 180 650 200 200 700 200 400 50 400 140
W, m 3 3 2 2.6 3 3 2 2.8 3 3 2 2.6
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Solution
62
The two phases will be N-S and E-
= 100 ∗ 1.75 + 200 + 400 = 775 ⁄ℎ
= 352 ∗ 1.75 + 200 + 50 = 866 ⁄ℎ
= 180 ∗ 1.75 + 700 + 400 = 1415 ⁄ℎ
= 650 ∗ 1.75 + 200 + 140 = 1478 ⁄ℎ
For all approach W > 5.5, so S = 525W
∴ = 525 ∗ 9 = 4725 /ℎ
∴ = 525 ∗ 9 = 4725 /ℎ
∴ = 525 ∗ 6 = 3150 /ℎ
∴ = 525 ∗ 8 = 4200 /ℎ
Phase-I Phase-II
N S E W
q, pcu/h 775 866 1415 1478
S, pcu/h 4725 4725 3150 4200
y = q/S 0.164 0.183 0.449 0.352
ymax 0.183 0.449
Y = ∑ ymax 0.632
L = ∑ (IG – 1) = (4 - 1) + (4 - 1) = 6 sec
1.5 + 5 1.5(6) + 5
= = = 38.0
1− 1 − 0.632
Total effective green time = Co – L = 38 – 6 = 32 sec
0.183
= ( )= (32) = 9.3 sec →→→→→ =9−1=8
0.632
0.449
= ( )= (32) = 22.7 sec →→→→→ = 23 − 1 = 22
0.632
To check: ∑ gN-S + gE-W = 9.3 + 22.7 = 32 = Total effective green time
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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The time setting of the two phases:
63
Phase-I (N-S):
8 IG = 4 38
G A A A R R
Phase-II (E-W):
12 34 IG = 4
R G A A A R
If the composition of the traffic in all approaches is (0.5%) HGV, (13%) Busses and (82%)
passenger car, so
Pcu factor = 0.82*1 + 0.13*2.25 + 0.05*1.75 = 1.2
Phase-I Phase-II
N S E W
q, pcu/h 646 722 1179 1231
S, pcu/h 3938 3938 2625 3500
G, sec 8 8 22 22
Co, sec 38
( − )
= . +
( − ) . ( . − . )
( − ) ∗ ∗
= . +
∗ ( − ) ∗ ( ∗ − ∗ )
( − ) ∗ ∗
= . +
∗ ( − ) ∗ ( ∗ − ∗ )
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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( − ) ∗ ∗
= . + 64
∗ ( − ) ∗ ( ∗ − ∗ )
( − ) ∗ ∗
= . +
∗ ( − ) ∗ ( ∗ − ∗ )
= . ≅
= . ≅
= . ≅
= . ≅
Example-3
Design a typical good junction shown below with a (5 sec) inter green period on one phase
and a (6 sec) inter green on the other, use two phases assuming that turning traffic is
negligible (one way junction)?
Data:
Approach N S W E
Flow, pcu/h 650 600 1500 1400
Width of way, m 3.05 3.65 7.3 7.3
Solution
Amber = 3 sec
R = (5-3) + (6-3) = 5 sec
L=2n + R = 2*2 + 5 = 9 sec or L = ∑ (IG – 1) = (5 - 1) + (6 - 1) = 9 sec
Approach
N S E W
q, pcu/h 650 600 1400 1500
S, pcu/h 1850 1900 3833 3833
y = q/S 0.351 0.316 0.365 0.391
ymax 0.351 0.391
Y = ∑ ymax 0.742
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1.5 + 5 1.5(9) + 5
= = = 71.7 ≅ 72 65
1− 1 − 0.742
0.351
= ( )= (63) = 29.8 sec →→→→→ = 30 − 1 = 29
0.742
0.391
= ( )= (63) = 33.2 sec →→→→→ = 33 − 1 = 32
0.742
Phase-I (N-S):
29 IG = 5 72
G A A R R R R
Phase-II (E-W):
34 66 IG = 6
R G A A A R R R
Example -4
Design a 3-phases traffic signal for the intersection shown data below. IG for each North and
South phases is equal to (4 sec), and IG for E-W phase is equal to (6 sec). There is a heavy
left turning traffic from North to South and versa vase.
Approach
N S E W
q, pcu/h 1100 1100 400 300
Width of approach, m 15 15 8.3 8.3
No. of way 2 2 2 2
Width of median, m 1 1 1 1
Solution
Calculation of width of way
WS = WN = (15 – 1) / 2 = 7 m WE = WW = (8.3 – 1) / 2 = 3.65 m
Approach
N S E W
q, pcu/h 1100 1100 400 300
S, pcu/h 3675 3675 1900 1900
y = q/S 0.3 0.3 0.211 0.158
ymax 0.3 0.3 0.211
Y = ∑ ymax 0.811
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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L = ∑ (IG – 1) = (4 - 1) + (4 - 1) + (6 - 1) = 11 sec
66
1.5 + 5 1.5(11) + 5
= = = 113.8 ≅ 114
1− 1 − 0.811
0.3
= ( )= (103) = 38.1 sec →→→→→ = 38 − 1 = 37
0.811
0.3
= ( )= (103) = 38.1 sec →→→→→ = 38 − 1 = 37
0.811
0.211
= ( )= (103) = 26.8 sec →→→→→ = 27 − 1 = 26
0.811
To check: ∑ gN + gS + gE-W = 38.1 + 38.1 + 26.8 = 103 = Total effective green time
Phase-I (N):
37 IG = 4 114
G A A A R R
Phase-II (E-W):
41 67 IG = 6 114
R G A A A R R R R
Phase-III (S):
73 110 IG = 4
R G A A A R
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Example-5
67
For early cut-of and late start facilities, the following hourly flows (table below) and
saturation flows relate to an intersection to be controlled by two-phase signals incorporating a
late start feature. Minimum inter green periods are employed and starting delays are (2 sec),
for each green plus amber period.
State of Approach Flow, pcu/h S, pcu/h

West, straight head and right turning 400 1900
West, left turning 200 1600
East, all movements 700 1900
North, all movements 500 1900
South, all movements 600 1900
Is the period that left-turning vehicles from the west approach require to complete their
turning movement without obstruction from the straight head flow on East approach (5 sec,
11 sec or 16 sec)?
Solution
W
N S E
WL WS+R
q, pcu/h 500 600 700 200 400
S, pcu/h 1900 1900 1900 1600 1900
y = q/S 0.263 0.316 0.368 0.125 0.211
ymax 0.316 0.493
Y = ∑ ymax 0.809
L = ∑ (IG – 1) = (4 - 1) + (4 - 1) = 6 sec
1.5 + 5 1.5(6) + 5
= = = 73.3 ≅ 73
1− 1 − 0.809
0.316
= ( )= (67) = 26.2 sec →→→→→ = 26 − 1 = 25
0.809
0.493
= ( )= (67) = 40.8 sec →→→→→ = 41 − 1 = 40
0.809
0.368
= ( )= (40) = 29.9 sec →→→→→ = 30 − 1 = 29
0.493
0.125
= ( )= (40) = 10.1 sec →→→→→ = 10 − 1 = 9
0.493
To check: ∑ gN-S + gE-W = 26.2 + 40.8 = 67 = Total effective green time
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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The time setting of the two phases:
68
Phase-I (N-S):
25 IG = 4 73
G A A A R R
Phase-II (E-W)
29 69 IG = 4
R G A A A R
Phase-II (E)
40 69 IG = 4
R G A A A R
In the last two seconds (11 sec) we must lighting the amber with the green in the W L
direction to attention the drivers in the last green and change it to the (E) direction.
For early cut-off
Phase-I (N-S):
25 IG = 4 73
G A A A R R
Phase-II (E-W)
29 69 IG = 4
R G A A A R
Phase-II (E)
29 58 IG = 4 73
R G A A A R R
It must be in the end of green (last two seconds) compound with the amber to attention the
driver in the end of amber period to change the traffic to the opposite direction not to the
another phase.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
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Example-6
69
Design hour traffic flows at 4 legs-3 phase intersection are given in the table below. Inter
green period of (5 sec) and the starting delay of (20 sec) per green intervals are used with
fixed amber period of (3 sec). The setting of the phases as follows:
Phase-I: East and West, for straight and right turn movements
Phase-II: East and West, for left turn traffic where they have their own lanes
Phase-III: North and South, all direction movements of traffic
Flow and Directions in pcu/h

Width, m
Approach Left Straight Right
North 100 445 178 2*3.65
South 68 390 111 2*3.65
East 209 460 60 2*3.5
West 275 550 75 2*3.5
Find:
a. The cycle time that gives the minimum delay over all the intersection and the actual
green periods per phase.
b. Estimate the maximum number of vehicles that can pass the stop lines during the time
of phase-III.
Solution
Phase I II III
Approach E W EL WL N S
q, pcu/h 520 625 209 275 798 620
S, pcu/h 1875 1875 1600 1600 3833 3833
y = q/S 0.277 0.333 0.131 0.172 0.208 0.162
ymax 0.333 0.172 0.208
Y = ∑ ymax 0.713
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
L = ∑ (IG – 1) = 3 * (5 - 1) = 12 sec
70
1.5 + 5 1.5(12) + 5
= = = 80.1 ≅ 80
1− 1 − 0.713
0.333
= ( )= (68) = 31.8 sec →→→→→ = 32 − 1 = 31
0.713
0.172
= ( )= (68) = 16.4 sec →→→→→ = 16 − 1 = 15
0.713
0.208
= ( )= (68) = 19.8 sec →→→→→ = 20 − 1 = 19
0.713
To check: ∑ gI + gII + gIII = 31.8+ 16.4 + 19.8 = 68 = Total effective green time
Phase-I (E-W):
31 IG = 5 80
G A A A R R R
Phase-II (EL-WL)
36 51 IG = 5 80
R G A A A R R R
Phase-III (N-S)
56 75 IG = 5
R G A A A R R
32
= 32 sec > 20 , = − 3∗ −2 = − 2.8 = −3
20
29 IG = 5 80
G A A A R R R
Phase-II (EL-WL)
34 49 IG = 5 80
R G A A A R R R
Phase-III (N-S)
54 73 IG = 7
R G 5A R R
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
gIII = 20 sec S = 3833 pcu/h
71
( )∗ ( )
. . =
∗
∴ . . = = . ≅
Since all vehicles are passenger cars;
∴ . . =
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
INTERCHANGE 72
Factors Affecting the Design of Interchange
1. Topography of the site

2. Traffic projection and character
3. Land availability
4. Impacts of surrounding area
5. Overall environment
6. Economic viability
7. Financial constraints
Spacing of the Interchange should be (5 miles) and
 Not less than (2 miles) in rural area

 Not less than (1 mile) in urban area
Functions of Interchange
 Provide grade separation between two or more traffic arteries

 To make possible the easy transfer from one artery to the other or between local street
and freeway
Interchange Type
A: Minor Interchange:
They are between two roads of which at least is not a freeway usually a freeway and a
highway, such as the cloverleaf, trumpet, and diamond
B: Major Interchange:
They are between two freeways, turning movement take place on direct ramps, three
level interchange or four level interchange
Three-Leg Interchanges
These consist of one or more highway grade separations with three intersecting legs. All
traffic moves over one-way roadways. In plain view, the roadway layout generally resembles
at T or a Y, or delta. A T, or trumpet interchanges is a three-leg interchange in which two of
the three legs form a through road and the angle of intersection with the third leg is about 90 o
(Fig 1a). When all three intersections leg are through roads, or the intersection angle of two
legs with the third leg is small, the interchange has called a Y, or delta, interchange (Fig 1b).
Any basic interchange pattern, regardless of through road characteristics or intersection
angle, can be adapted to specific site conditions.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Four-Leg Interchanges
73
These consist of one or more highway grade separations with four legs. General categories od
four-leg interchanges include ramps in one quadrant, diamond, full cloverleaf, partial
cloverleaf, and semi direct- and direct connection interchanges. Partial cloverleaf include
interchanges with ramps in two or three quadrants.
Interchanges with ramps in one quadrant (Fig 1c) are generally used where low-volume roads
intersect and topography necessitates incorporation of some form of interchange. With such
interchanges, turning traffic is facilitated through the use of a single two-way ramp of near-
minimum design. Since interchanges are rarely used in areas with a low volume of traffic,
application of this type or interchange is somewhat limited. A possible use of a ramp in only
one quadrant is for the intersection of a scenic parkway and a state or county two-lane
highway. For such a setting, preservation of the existing topography, absence of truck traffic,
and relatively small number o turning movements would justify this type of interchange. To
control turning movements, however, left-turn lanes must be provided on the through roads
and a high degree of channelization is required at the terminals and the median.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Diamond Interchanges
74
One of the more common types of interchange used, diamond interchanges are generally
employed where a highway with large traffic volume crosses but is separated by a bridge
from a road carrying comparatively light or slow-speed traffic (Figs 1d and 2). The diamond
layout is the simplest form of all movements interchange. The two highways are connected
by four one-way ramps that may be straight or curved to suit the existing topography or site
conditions. The ramps connect with one of the highways at a flat angle.
If the roads carry moderate to large traffic volumes, ramp traffic may be regulated through
the use of signal-controlled ramp terminals. When this is the case, widening may be required
at the ramp or at the cross street through the interchange area, or at both locations. Each ramp
terminal at the minor road is formed with a T or Y at-grade intersection, which allows one
left and one right turning movement. If the volume of traffic is large enough, he cross street
may be divided and separate lanes provided for the left turns.
A diamond interchange has many advantages over a partial cloverleaf (Fig 1f). Unlike a
cloverleaf design where traffic typically slows when entering the ramp, diamond interchanges
allow entry and exist at relatively high speeds. Also, they occupy a comparatively narrow
band of right-of-way, which may not be more than that required for the highway proper.
Split-Diamond Interchanges
These consist of two pairs of parallel or nearly parallel streets connected by two pairs of
ramps (Fig 2). As indicated in (Fig 2a), which shows a split-diamond interchange for two-
way streets, the parallel streets need not be consecutive. Figure (2ab) is an example of a split-
diamond interchange for one-way streets. In the case illustrated, connecting (frontage) roads
parallel to the elevated highway are provided between the cross streets to improve traffic
movement.
A split-diamond interchange reduces traffic conflicts by accommodating the same amount of

traffic at four rather than two crossroad intersections. This has the effect of reducing the left-
turn movements at each intersection from two to one. One drawback to the split-diamond
interchange, however, is that traffic leaving the elevated high-way cannot return to the same
interchange and continue in the same direction.
Cloverleaf Interchanges
A cloverleaf interchange provides direct connections for right turns between two highways
but utilizes loop ramps to accommodate left turns. A full cloverleaf (Fig 1e) has loops in four
quadrants, whereas a partial cloverleaf (Fig 1f) has loops in only two quadrants.
While a cloverleaf interchange greatly reduces accidents by eliminating all left turns, if does
possess drawbacks. For example, high speed and large volume of traffic require large radii
for the loop ramps and hence acquisition of very large areas of right-of-way. This has greatly
limited use of cloverleaf in urban regions. Even a slight increase in design speed can require
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
significantly greater radii. For a design speed of 25 mi/h, for instance, design standards call
75
for a loop radius of 150 ft. An increase of only 5 to 30 mi/h, an increase of 20%, requires a
radius of 230 ft., an increase of 53%. Furthermore, the area required for right-of-way
increases by about 130%.
Another disadvantage of cloverleaf is that left-turning traffic must travel a greater distance
than otherwise would be required and significant weaving movement may be generated. For a
loop designed for 20 mi/h and having a 90 ft. radius, for example, the extra travel distance
required is about 600 ft. In contrast, for a loop designed of 25 mi/h and having a 150 ft.
radius, the extra distance is roughly 1000 ft., and for 30 mi/h on a loop with a 230 ft. radius,
the extra distance is about 1500 ft. Moreover, since travel time on ramps varies almost
directly with the length of ramp, the time that might be saved by increased speed is lost over
the greater distance that must be traversed. In addition, weaving maneuvers associated with
the use of a cloverleaf for left turns can result in serious vehicle interference and a
corresponding slowdown of through traffic, especially when the flow exceeds 1000 vehicles
per hour.
Since it is seldom practical to provide for more than a single lane on a loop, a ramp can be
expected to accommodate no more than 800 vehicles per hour. If truck traffic is not
anticipated and the design speed for the ramp is 30 mi/h or higher, a design capacity of 1200
vehicles per hour can be used. Thus loop-ramp traffic capacity is a major constraint and can
limit the effectiveness of a cloverleaf interchange.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Partial Cloverleaf Ramp Arrangements
76
A partial cloverleaf interchange utilizes loop ramps in only two or three quadrants. This type
of interchange is desirable when the anticipated traffic distribution does not require a full
cloverleaf. A major design decision is selection of the quadrants in which ramps should be
placed.
The arrangement of ramps in a partial cloverleaf interchange should facilities major turning
movements at right-turn exists and entrances and limit impediments to traffic flow on the
major highway. If traffic on the major highway is much greater than that on the minor
intersecting road, right-turn exists and entrances, in general, should be placed on the major
highway. Such an arrangement, however, will require a direct left turn off the crossing road.
Directional Interchanges
These provide direct or semi connections between intersecting highways. They are often
preferred to cloverleaf interchanges, which are composed only of loops and consequently
may fail to meet the high speed and traffic volume demands of an expressway.
A direct connection is a one-way roadway that does not deviate greatly from the intended
direction of travel. An interchange that utilizes direct connections for all major left turns is
called a directional interchange (Fig 1h). It may also incorporate loops for major left turns.
Loops in conjunction with direct connections are generally used in rural areas where direct
connections in all quadrants cannot be justified.
A semi-direct connection is a one-way roadway that deviates from the intended direction of
travel but is more direct than a conventional loop (Fig 1g). Therefore, semi directional
interchange is similar to a directional interchanges except to accommodate major left turns.
Directional interchanges typically require several grade separations. Figure (1h) shows a
directional interchange with a four-level structure.
Directional interchanges are generally designed to accommodate many site-specific

conditions, including topography, geometry, and traffic demands. The design of individual
ramps should satisfy accepted standards for curvature, pavement widths, length of weaving
sections, and entrance and exit design criteria.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Ramps in Interchanges
77
A ramp is a roadway that connects two or more legs of an interchange and is used for turning
traffic (Fig 3). The main elements of a ramp are a connecting roadway and a terminal at each
end. The profile of the connecting roadway typically is sloped and the horizontal alignment is
curved. In general, design criteria for horizontal and vertical alignments of ramps are less
restrictive than those of the intersecting highways, but sometimes the design criteria are the
same.
In design of a ramp, the designer has to balance several factors. For example, consider
topography and costs of right-of-way, which influence selection and design of the ramp. To
conserve land, it may be necessary to locate the ramp so close to the highway that a retaining
wall must be constructed. The cost of the wall then has to be balanced against the cost of
acquiring additional right-of-way to eliminate need for the wall.
The type of ramp to use depends on the type of interchange. A trumpet interchange, for
example, utilizes one loop, one semi directional ramp, and two right directional or diagonal
ramps (Figs 1a and 3). Usually, a ramp is one-way roadway. Some ramp, such as a diagonal
ramp are one-way but allow both left and right turns at a terminal on a minor intersecting
road.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Ramp Design Speeds
78
The design speed for a ramp generally should be about the same as that for the intersecting
highway with the lower traffic volume. Although lower ramp speeds may be necessary, the
design ramp speed used should not be less than the values presented in table shown. The table
lists, as a guide, ramp design speeds to be used with various highway design speeds.
Suggested Ramp Design Maximum Speeds, mi/h, Based on Design Speed of Connected
Highways (according to AASHTO)
Highway Design Speed, mi/h

Ramp Design Speed, mi/h
30 40 50 60 65 70
Upper range (85%) 25 35 45 50 55 60
Middle range (70%) 20 30 35 45 45 50
Lower range (55%) 15 20 25 30 30 35
When a ramp connects a high-speed highway with a minor road or a city street, provision
should be made for a considerable reduction in speed for traffic leaving the high-speed
highway. An initial speed reduction can be accomplished through use of a deceleration lane
on the main highway. To allow for continuing deceleration on the ramp, the radii of the
curves on the ramp should be educed in stages. At the ramp terminal at the minor road, it may
be necessary t provide some form of signal or signing to stop or slow vehicles.
Ramp Curvature
The principles governing horizontal curvature are also applicable to the design of interchange
ramps. For example, use of compound curves and spirals is often beneficial in adapting a
ramp to site-specific conditions and providing a natural path for vehicles. Loops, except for
their terminals, may be composed of circular arcs or some other curve tha is formed with
spiral transitions.
Ramp Sight Distance
Safety demands provision for adequate sight distance along ramps and at the ramp terminals.
Sight distance along ramps should be at least as long as the safe stopping sight distance. Sight
distance for passing, however, is not required.
At the ramp terminals, a clear view of the entire exit terminal should be provided. The exit
nose and a section of the ramp pavement beyond the gore, the area downstream from the
shoulder intersection points, should be clearly visible.
Ramp Vertical Curves

In general, a ramp grade should be as practical to limit the amount of driving effort needed to
traverse from one road to another. A ramp profile typically resembles the letter S. It consists
of a sag curve at the lower end and a crest curve at the upper end. When a ramp goes over or
under another roadway, however, additional vertical curves may be required.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Shukri S. Namer
Ramp Terminal
79
This is the position of a ramp that adjoins the through traveled way. The terminal includes
speed-change lanes, tapers, and islands. A ramp terminal may be an at-grade type, as is the
case for a diamond interchanges, or a free-flow type that allows ramp traffic to merge with or
diverge from high-speed through traffic. For the free-flow type, the intersection with the
through traffic should be made at a relatively flat angle. The number of lanes on the ramp at
the terminal and their configuration also influence the type of ramp terminal to be used and
its associated design.

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TRAFFIC

Prepared: MSc. Shukri Saleh Namer

1. Introduction to Traffic Engineering

Definition of Traffic Engineering

PIEV time or Perception-Reaction time: It is used in the determination of:

Characteristics of Traffic Flow

Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

AADTs are used in several traffic and transportation analysis for:

I. Estimation of highway user revenues

Vehicle Classification (VC)

a. Design of geometric characteristics with particular reference to turning radii

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

Total volume is greater than (1 day) and less than year

Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT)

Design Hour Volume (DHV)

Peak Hour Traffic

1. Functional classification of highways

TH: Percentage of trucks within peak hour

TD: Percentage of trucks within daily traffic

Traffic flow as a percentage of Traffic flow as a percentage of

Thursday 8000; Friday 8000; Saturday 10000

7 (16 ℎ . ) = 10000 ∗ 5 + 8000 + 8000 = 66,000 ℎ

June count could be converted to (16 hrs.) August average flow

August flow is (118%) of AADT flow:

Components of Future Traffic

1. Current traffic (Existing and Attracted)

K value = 12% of ADT

D (direction distribution) = 55% of total traffic

TH (Peak hour truck percentage) = 18% of hourly volume

= 8%, = (2008 − 2003) + 20 = 25

∴ ( . ℎ 2028) = 3000 ∗ 6.848 = 20544 ℎ./

∴ = 20544 ∗ 0.12 ∗ 0.55 = 1356 ℎ

∴ = 1356 ∗ [0.82 ∗ 1 + 0.18 ∗ 2] = 1600 /ℎ

1. Highway related accidents

Methods of Measuring the Flow of Traffic

2. Moving observer method: explain in speed and trip time object

a. Expansive for long counts or in unsocial hours

a. Usually using in short periods

Traffic Volume Data Presentation

1. Traffic flow maps

Destination: the location of where the trip ends

Methods of Conducting O-D Studies:

1. Road Side Interview

Taking this sample at least 10% of the vehicles

The information obtained from the O-D as follow:

1. Travel demand on existing and future transport

Turning Movement Count

1. Planning traffic control-establishing speed zones, traffic signals, location of warning,

Locations and Limits of Speed Study

Speed and Delay Studies

Types of speeds are

There are five methods of measuring this speed

3. Using Electronics Truvelo and Venner Speedometers

Before analyzing spot speed information statistically, we need to understand some

 Average travel speed

Spot Speed Studies

Speed characteristics determined from a spot speed study may be used to

1. Establish speed zones

Average travel speed