SSC CGL 2016 General Awareness/Gs Capsule Polity/Economic/ History/ Geography/Science (Phy./Chem./Bio.)

SSC CGL 2016 GENERAL AWARENESS/GS CAPSULE
POLITY/ECONOMIC/ HISTORY/ GEOGRAPHY/SCIENCE (Phy./Chem./Bio.)

• Archimedes’ Principle: When a body is immersed fully x It is also the organelle that builds lysosomes (cells
or partially in a fluid, it experiences an upward force that digestion machines).
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it. (d) Lysosomes(suicidal bag): It is a kind of waste disposal
• Archimedes’ principle has many applications. It is used in system of the cell.
designing ships and submarines. Lactometers, which are (e) Mitochondria(power house): The energy required for
various chemical activities headed for life is released by
used to determine the purity of a sample of milk and
mitochondria in the form of ATP (adenosine-tri-phosphate)
hydrometers used for determining density of liquids, are
molecules.
based on this principle. ¾ ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.
• Density and Relative Density: The mass per unit ¾ Mitochondria are strange organells in the sense that they
volume of a substance is called its density. The SI unit of have their own DNA and ribosomes, therefore
density is kilogram per meter cube. Density= mitochondria are able to make their own protein.
mass/volume. ¾ Mitochondria is absent in bacteria and the red blood cells
• The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its of mammals and higher animals.
density to that of water: Relative density = Density of a (f) Centrioles: centrioles are concerned with cell division. It
substance/Density of water. Since the relative density is a initiates cell division.
(g) Plastids: These are present only in plant cells.
ratio of similar.
Types of plastids:-
BIOLOGY leucoplast
¾ Chromoplast(colour plastides) impart colour to flowers
CELL and fruits.
¾ Leucoplasts(white or colourless plastids) present in
1. Prokaryotes cells - cells that have no defined nucleus which starch, oils and protein are stored.
2. Eukaryote - cells which have definite nucleus ¾ Plastids are self replicating. i.e. they have the power to
Compounds called proteins and phospholipids make up divide, as they contain DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
most of the cell membrane. ¾ Plastides contains the pigment chlorophyll that is known
Substances like Co2 and O2 can move across the cell as chloroplast. It is the site for photo synthesis.
membranes by a process called diffusion. non –living parts with in the cell :-
Diffusion-It is a process of movements of substance from a Vacuoles: it is a fluid filled spaces enclosed by membranes.
region of high concentration to a region where its Its size in animal is small and in plant it is big.
concentration is low. Water also obeys the law of Amino acids and sugars are stored in vacuoles.
diffusion. Granules: It is not bounded by any membranes. It store fats,
The movement of water molecules is called osmosis. proteins and carbohydrates.
Cytoplasm : It is the fluid that fills a cell. Scientists used to Cell nucleus: The cell nucleus acts like the brain of the cell. It
call the fluid protoplasm. helps control eating, movement
Some of the important cell organells (living part) are : and reproduction. Not all cells have a nucleus.
(a) Endoplasmic reticulum : The nucleus contain, the following components :
Two types- (a) Nuclear envelope
1. rough endoplasmic reticular (RER) and (b) Chromatin : When the cell is in resting state there is
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). something called chromatin in the nucleus. Chromatin is
Functions of ER: made up of DNA, RNA and nucleus protein. DNA and RNA are
x It forms the supporting skeleton frame work of the cell. the nucleus acids inside the cell. When the cell is going to
x It provides a pathway for distribution of nuclear material. divide, the chromatin become very compact. It condenses
x It provides surface for various enzymatic reactions. when the chromatin comes together we can see the
(b) Ribosomes : It synthesis protein, and ER sent these chromosomes.
protein in various part of the cell. Whereas SER helps in the (c) Chromosomes: Chromosomes make organisms what they
manufacture of fats. are. They carry all the information used to help a cell grow,
thrive and reproduce.
Functions of these proteins and fats: ¾ Chromosomes are made up of DNA.
x Protein and fat (lipid) help in building the cell ¾ Segments of DNA in specific patterns are called genes.
membranes. This process is known as membranes ¾ In prokaryotes, DNA floats in the cytoplasm in an area
x biogenesis. called the nucleoid.
x SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and ¾ Chromosomes are not always visible. They usually sit
drugs. around uncoiled and as loose shards called chromation.
(c) Golgi apparatus : It is another packaging organelle like ¾ Chromosomes are usually found in pairs.
the endoplasmic reticulum ¾ Human Beings probably have 46 chromosomes (23
functions: pairs).
x Its functions include the storage modifications and ¾ Peas only have 12, a dog has 78 chromosomes.
packaging of products in vesicles.
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¾ The number of chromosomes is not related to the ¾ Connective tissue : Its main function is to bind and
intelligence or complexity of the creature. support other tissues.
(d) Nucleolus: It is a dense spherical granule contained There are a few types of connectivetissue.
within the nucleus.It stores proteins.
Cell Division Connective Tissue
Organisms grow and reduce through cell division. Arelor
There are two methods of replication mitosis and meiosis. (i) Tendon
(a) Mitosis: It duplicates its DNA and the two new cells (ii) Ligament
(daughter cells) have the same pieces and generic code. There
are five steps in this process. You should remember the term Adipose Skeletal
PMATI. It breaks down to : (i) Bone
1. Prophase (ii) Cartilage
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase Fluidl
4. Telophase (i) Blood
5. Interphase. (ii) Lymph
The main theme of meiosis is that there are two cell division.
Mitosis has one division A. Areolar tissue : It fills spaces inside organs found around
muscles, blood vessels and nerves. Its main function is to joins
Some important facts regarding cells : skin to muscles, support internal organs, help in the repair of
¾ Nerve cells in animals are the longest cells. tissues. Whereas tendon’s main function is to connect muscles
¾ Smallest human cell is red blood cell. to bones and ligament is connects bones to each other.
¾ Largest human cell is female ovum.
¾ The single largest cell in the world is of an ostrich. B. Adipose tissue : Its occurrence is below skin, between
¾ The smallest cells are those of the mycoplasma. internal organs and in the yellow bone Marrow. Its main
¾ Every minute about 3 millions cells in our body die. function is to storage of fat and to conserve heat.
¾ Sieve tube in plants and the mature mammalian red
blood cells do not have a nucleus. C. Skeletal tissue : Bone & cartilage occurrences is in nose,
¾ The red blood cell carries respiratory gases. epigotis and in intervertebral disc of mammals. Its main
¾ Sieve cells in plants transport nutrients in plants. function is to provide support and flexibility to body part.
¾ The lysosomal enzymes of the sperm cells digest the Whereas bone protects internal delicate organs provides
limiting membranes of the ovum (egg). Thus the sperm is attachments for muscles, bone marrow makes blood cells.
able to enter the ovum.
¾ During the transformation of tadpole into frog. The D. Fluid tissue : Blood & Lymph blood transport O2
embryonic tissues like gills and tail are digested by the nutrients, hormones to tissues and organs. Whereas
lysosome. leucocytes fight diseases and platelets help in cloting of blood.
¾ Mitochondria contain DNA, hence capable of replication. Lymph transport nutrients into the heart and it also forms the
¾ Matrix is a transparent, homogenous semi-fluid defense system of the body.
substance. In its active state. It remains saturated with
water. Muscular Tissue
It is specialized for an ability to contract muscle cells.
TISSUE Types of Muscular tissue:
Epithetical Tissue A. Skeletal muscle : It attached primarily to bones. Its main
(i) On the basis of cell layers function is to provide the force for locomotion and all other
(a) When an epithelium has a single layer of cells it is called a voluntary movements of the body.
simple epithelium. B. Cardiac muscle : It occurs only in the heart. The
(b) Where as a multiple tier of cells are known as stratified contraction and relaxation of the heart muscles help to pump
epithelium. the blood and distribute it to the various parts of the body.
(ii) On the basis of simple shape of cells: C. Smooth muscles : It can be found in stomach, intestines,
¾ Cuboidal : its occurrence is in kidney tubules, salivery and blood vessels these muscles cause slow and prolonged
glands, inner lining of the cheek. Its main function is to contractions which are involuntary.
give mechanical strength. D. Nervous tissue : This tissue is specialized with a capability
¾ Columnar : its occurrence is in sweat gland, tear gland, to conduct electrical impulses and convey
salivary gland its main function is to gives mechanical information from one area of the body to another. Most of the
strength concerned with secretions. nervous tissue (98%) is located in the central nervous system.
¾ Squamous : when it forms a living as that of blood The brain and spinal cord.
vessels, it is called endothelium. Types of Nervous Tissue
Its main function is to protect the underlying parts from ¾ neurons
injury, entry of germs, etc. ¾ neuroglia

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arranged into 70 columns. Maximum discharge is 100
Important facts regarding animal tissue:- watts.
¾ Muscles contain special protein called contractile protein.
Which contract and relax to cause THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
¾ Fat storing adipose tissue is found below the skin and
between internal organs. ¾ The Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and
¾ Two bones are connected to each other by a tissue called spinal cord.
ligament. This tissue is very elastic. ¾ The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) connects the CNS
¾ The skin, the living of the mouth, the living blood vessels, to other parts of the body, and is composed of
kidney tubules are all made up of epithelial tissue. nerves(bundles of neurons)
¾ Voluntary muscles and cardiac muscles are richly
supplied with blood where as involuntary muscles are The Neuron
poorly supplied with blood. Nervous tissue is composed of two main cell types: neurons
and glial cells. Neurons transmit
MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEM nerve messages. Glial cells are in direct contact with neurons
and often surround them.
Skeletal Systems of Various Animals The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system.
Skeletons are either a fluid-filled body cavity, exoskeletons, or Humans have about 100 billion neurons
internal skeletons. in their brain alone! While variable in size and shape,
Note : Spiders use a combination of an exoskeleton for
protection and fluid pressure for movement. a. Parts of Neuron:
¾ Sharks, and rays have skeletons composed entirely of All neurons have three parts.
cartilage; other vertebrates have an embryonic cartilage Dendrites receive information from another cell and transmit
skeleton progressively replaced by bone as they mature the message to the cell body.
and develop. The cell body contains the nucleus, mitochondria and other
¾ Some areas of the human body, however, retain cartilage organelles typical of eukaryotic cells.
in the adult: in joints and flexible structures such as the The axon conducts messages away from the cell body.
ribs, trachea, nose and ears.
¾ The upper bones of the limbs are single: humerus (arm) b. Types of Neuron:
and femur (leg). Three types of neurons occur:
¾ Below a joint (elbow or knee), both limbs have a pair of Sensory neurons typically have a long dendrite and short
bones (radius and ulna in the arms; tibia and fibula in axon, and carry messages from sensory receptors to the
legs) that connect to another joint (wrist or ankle). central nervous system.
¾ The carpals makeup the wrist joint; the tarsals are in the Motor neurons have a long axon and short dendrites and
ankle joint. transmit messages from the central nervous system to the
muscles (or to glands).
Bone
¾ Bones have cells embedded in a mineralized (calcium) SYNAPSES
matrix and collagen fibers. The junction between a nerve cell and another cell is called a
The spongy bone of the femur, humerus, and sternum synapse.
contains red marrow, in which stem cells reproduce and The space between two cells is known as the synaptic cleft.
form the cellular components of the blood and immune ¾ The function between two neurons is called a ‘ganglion’.
system. Yellow marrow, at the center of these bones, is
used to store fats. The outer layer of the bones is known THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
as the periosteum. Hormones
¾ When fractures occur, the pain is carried to the brain by The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete
nerves running through the periosteum. chemical messages we call hormones. These signals are
passed through the blood to arrive at a target organ, which
Skeletal Muscle Systems has cells possessing the appropriate receptor.
When one muscle flexes (or contracts) the other relaxes, a Exocrine glands (not part of the endocrine system) secrete
process known as antagonism. products that are passed outside the body. Sweat glands,
Muscles have both electrical and chemical activity. salivary glands, and digestive glands are examples of exocrine
glands.
Contraction of Nonmuscular Cells Hormones are grouped into three classes based on their
¾ Some fish have modified muscles that discharge structure:
electricity. These fish have electric organs consisting of 1. steroids
modified muscles known as electroplates. The South 2. peptides
American electric eel has more than 6000 plates 3. amines

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The Nervous and Endocrine Systems Hypothalamus
The pituitary gland (often called the master gland) is located The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a
in a small bony cavity at the base number of small nuclei with a variety of functions.
of the brain. A stalk links the pituitary to the hypothalamus, One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to
which controls release of pituitary link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the
hormones. The pituitary gland has two lobes: the anterior and pituitary gland.
posterior lobes.
Too little or two much GH(Growth hormone) can cause Pituitary gland
dwarfism or gigantism, respectively. Hypothalamus receptors It is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing
monitor blood levels of thyroid hormones. Low blood levels of 0.5 grams in humans.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) cause the release of TSH- Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control:
releasing hormone from the hypothalamus, which in turn x growth,
causes the release of TSH from the anterior pituitary. TSH x blood pressure,
travels to the thyroid where it promotes x certain functions of the sex organs,
production of thyroid hormones, which in turn regulate x metabolism,
metabolic rates and body temperatures.
x pregnancy,
Gonadotropins (which include follicle-stimulating hormone,
FSH, and luteinizing hormone, LH) affect the gonads by
x childbirth,
stimulating gamete formation and production of sex x nursing,
hormones. Prolactin is secreted near the end of pregnancy x water/salt concentration,
and prepares the breasts for milk production. x temperature regulation
x pain relief.
II. THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY Thyroid
ADH(Antidiuretic hormone) controls water balance in the The thyroid gland, or simply the thyroid is one of the largest
body and blood pressure. Oxytocin is a small peptide endocrine glands in the body.
hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during It is found in the interior neck, below the Adam's apple.
childbirth.
Thyroid secretion is usually higher in winter than in summer. It controls
Endocrines: The Postal System of Communication and Co- x rate of use of energy sources,
Ordination x protein synthesis,
¾ Hormones are chemical substances manufactured by x controls the body's sensitivity to other hormones.
organs called endocrine glands or ductless glands. Pancreas
Ductless glands are also sometimes called ‘exocrine The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive system and
glands’. endocrine system of vertebrates.
In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity behind the
stomach.
It produce several important hormones

x including insulin,
x glucagon,
x somatostatin, and
x pancreatic polypeptide which circulate in the blood.
The pancreas is also a digestive organ, secreting pancreatic

juice containing digestive enzymes that assist digestion and
absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. These enzymes
help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins,
and lipids in the chyme.
¾ Thyroid is situated in the neck in front of the wind pipe. It

ENDOCRINE GLAND OF THE BODY manufactures two hormones: triodothyro (T3) and
tetraiodothysonine (T4), are called tyrosine. Both these
Adrenal gland hormones contain iodine.
The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are ¾ Hypothyroidism (hypo, ‘under’)–diminished thyroid
endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones activity. Hypothyroi-dism in childhood gives rise to a
including adrenaline. conditions called cretinism.
They are found above the kidneys.

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Goiter– is called enlargement of the thyroid gland. It ¾ Fibrinogen is a protein which is essential for clotting of
manifests itself as a swelling in the neck. blood, another protein globulins aid in the defense
A goiter may be associated with increased, normal or mechanisms of the body.
descreased activity of the thyroid gland. ¾ Red Blood Cells:– are the most numerous of the blood
¾ Government of India launched the Universal salt cells, they neither have a nucleus nor mitochondria, RBC
iodisation programme in 1986. are a reddish coloured protein containing iron.
Pancreas— Reduction on the quantity of effective insulin The normal quantity of hemoglobin present in blood in
gives rise to diabetes mellitus (diabetes, siphon, 12-15 g in every 100ml of blood. A decrease in this
mellitus of honey) commonly called simply diabetes. quantity is called ‘anemia’.
The six endocrine glands of the body are. ¾ The average life span of a red cell is about four months.
1. Thyroid They are produced in the hollow of the bones (bone
2. Pancreas marrow).
3. Adrenals ¾ White Blood Cells:– Differ from RBC in three aspects—
4. Gonads first, they have nuclei, secondly, they do not contain
5. Parathyroids hemoglobin, and are therefore nearly colourless, finally,
6. Pituitary some white cells can move and engulf particles or
¾ Saliva contain an enzyme called ‘anylax’ which breaks bacteria the process in called ‘phagocytosis’.
down the starch in food into maltose.
Bite is an essential supplement to the recreations enzyme for WBC are further subdivided in five groups.
digestion of fats. (1) Neutroplis
(2) Eosinophils
Kidneys, The Fascinating Filters (3) Basrophils
Nephron is the filteration unit of kidney. (4) Lymphocytes
¾ Excessive eating (polyphagia), excessive drinking (5) Monocytes
(polydipsia) and too much of urine (polyusia) are three
cardinal symptoms of diabetes. The ‘hypothesis’ produces Platelets: It helps in blood clotting.
a chemical substance called ‘antidivretic hormone (ADH). A, B, AB and O are the four blood groups. The classification is
¾ The Adrenal gland maintains the regulating salt in the based on the type of substance present on the surface of red
body and is located in an organ lying just over the kidney. blood cells.
As soon as the salt (sodium) concentration become just a
little less than normal, it release into the blood stream a THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
substance called ‘aldosterone’. HUMAN HEART
¾ Renal transplantation or dialysis (artificial kidney) are The human heart is an organ that pumps blood throughout
the supportive measure when the damage to kidney the body via the circulatory system, supplying oxygen and
reaches a certain point. nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and
other wastes.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
The Lymphatic System The human heart has four chambers:
¾ The spleen serves as a reservoir for blood, and filters or x The right atrium and right ventricle together make up the
purifies the blood and lymph fluid that flows through it. "right heart,"
¾ If the spleen is damaged or removed, the individual is x the left atrium and left ventricle make up the "left
more susceptible to infections. heart."
Immunity x A wall of muscle called the septum separates the two
¾ Antibodies : Antibodies are a type of protein molecule sides of the heart.
known as immunoglobulins. x Valves prevent backflow, keeping the blood flowing in
one direction through the heart.
Table
A double-walled sac called the pericardium encases the
Blood: The Vital Fluid heart, which serves to protect the heart and anchor it inside
Blood is a connective tissue.Most of the cells are faint yellow the chest.
and without a nucleus. A dense accumulation of these cells is Between the outer layer, the parietal pericardium, and the
responsible for the red colour of the blood. These cells are inner layer, the serous pericardium, runs pericardial fluid,
called ‘erythrocytes’ or red blood cells. These are also another which lubricates the heart during contractions and
two types of cells—the ‘leucocytes’ or white blood cells and movements of the lungs and diaphragm.
‘thrombocytes’ or platelets.
Plasma—It is fluid which contain 90 percent water. The chief The heart's outer wall consists of three layers:-
salt dissolved in plasma is sodium chloride, or common table
salt. The salinity of plasma is one-third that of sea water.
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x The outermost wall layer, or epicardium, is the inner Human Reproduction and Development
wall of the pericardium. ¾ Gonads are sex organs that produce gametes. Male
x The middle layer, or myocardium, contains the muscle gonads are the testes, which produce sperm and male sex
that contracts. hormones. Female gonads are the ovaries, which produce
x The inner layer, or endocardium, is the lining that eggs (ova) and female sex hormones.
contacts the blood.
The sinoatrial node produces the electrical pulses that drive The Male Reproductive System
heart contractions. ¾ Sperm production begins at puberty and continues
throughout life, with several hundred million sperm
HUMAN HEART FUNCTION being produced each day. Once sperm form they move
The heart circulates blood through two pathways: into the epididymis, where they mature and are stored.
1. The pulmonary circuit
2. The systemic circuit External Genitals
In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated blood leaves the right ¾ The female external genitals are collectively known as the
ventricle of the heart via the pulmonary artery and travels to vulva.
the lungs, then returns as oxygenated blood to the left atrium
of the heart via the pulmonary vein. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
STDs can affect the sex partners, fetus, and newborn infants.
In the systemic circuit, oxygenated blood leaves the body via STDs are grouped into three categories.
the left ventricle to the aorta, and from there enters the
arteries and capillaries where it supplies the body's tissues Category One
with oxygen. Deoxygenated blood returns via veins to STDs that produce inflammation of the urethra, epididymis,
the vena cava, re-entering the heart's right atrium. cervix, or oviducts. Gonorrhea and chlamydia are the most
common STDs in this category. Both diseases can be treated
The cardiovascular system circulates blood from the heart to and cured with antibiotics, once diagnosed.
the lungs and around the body via blood vessels. Category Two
STDs that produce sores on the external genitals. Genital
Blockage of any artery can cause a heart attack, or damage to herpes is the most common disease in this class. Symptoms of
the muscle of the heart. A heart attack is distinct from cardiac herpes can be treated by antiviral drugs, but the infection
arrest, which is a sudden loss of heart function that usually cannot be cured. Syphilis is a bacterially caused infection, and
occurs as a result of electrical disturbances of the heart can, if left untreated, cause serious symptoms and death.
rhythm. However, the disease is curable with antibiotics.
The heart contains electrical "pacemaker" cells, which cause it

to contract — producing a heartbeat. Category Three
The aorta is the main artery leaving the heart. This class of STDs includes viral diseases that affect organ
The pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries oxygen- systems other than those of the reproductive system. AIDS
poor blood. and hepatitis B are in this category. Both can be spread by
The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the sexual contact or blood. Infectious individuals may appear
lungs. symptom-free for years after infection.
The veins have valves that prevent backflow of blood Blood The separation of intercourse frompregnancy uses methods
pressure. blocking one of the three stages of reproduction”
¾ release and transport of gametes
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ¾ fertilization
¾ implantation
¾ Asexual reproduction allows an organism to rapidly
produce many offspring without the time and resources
PLANT REPRODUCTION
committed to courtship, finding a mate, and mating.
¾ The hydra produces buds; starfish can regenerate an Flowers
entire body from a fragment of the original body. Reproductive parts of the flower are the stamen (male,
collectively termed the androecium) and
Sexual Reproduction carpel (often the carpel is referred to as the pistil, the female
¾ In sexual reproduction new individuals are produced by parts collectively termed the gynoecium).
the fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote.
¾ Sperm are male gametes, ova (ovum singular) are female Pollen
gametes. Pollen grains contain the male gametophyte
¾ Meiosis produces cells that are genetically distinct from (microgametophyte) phase of the plant. Pollen
each other. grains are produced by meiosis of microspore mother cells
¾ fertilization is the fusion of two such distinctive cells. that are located along the inner edge
of the anther sacs (microsporangia).
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Alcohol and aspirin are absorbed through the stomach lining
Pollination into the blood.
The transfer of pollen from the anther to the female stigma is
termed pollination. This is accomplished by a variety of Epithelial cells secrete mucus that forms a protective
methods. Entomophyly is the transfer of pollen by an insect. barrier between the cells and the stomach acids.
Anemophyly is the transfer of pollen by wind. Other
pollinators include birds, bats, water, and ULCERS
Humans. Peptic ulcers result when these protective mechanisms fail.
Bleeding ulcers result when tissue damage is so severe that
Double Fertilization bleeding occurs into the stomach.
The process of pollination being accomplished, the pollen Perforated ulcers are life-threatening situations where a hole
tube grows through the stigma and style toward the ovules in has formed in the stomach wall.
the ovary. At least 90% of all peptic ulcers are caused by Helicobacter
Fruit pylori.
The ovary wall, after fertilization has occurred, develops into Other factors, including stress and aspirin, can also produce
a fruit. Fruits may be fleshy, hard, multiple or single. ulcers.
Note:- View the Seeds of Life site for illustrations and
information about fruits and seeds. Seeds germinate, and the THE SMALL INTESTINE
embryo grows into the next generation sporophyte. x The small intestine is the major site for digestion and
absorption of nutrients.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM x it is about 22 feet (6.7 meters) long.
Stages in the Digestive Process
1. MOVEMENT : propels food through the digestive system Parts of small intestine:
2. SECRETION : release of digestive juices in response to a 1. Duodenum
specific stimulus 2. Jejunum
3. DIGESTION : breakdown of food into molecular 3. Ileum
components small enough to cross the plasma membrane
4. ABSORPTION: passage of the molecules into the body’s Sugars and amino acids go into the bloodstream via
interior and their passage throughout the body capillaries in each villus.
5. ELIMINATION: removal of undigested food and wastes Glycerol and fatty acids go into the lymphatic system.
Starch and glycogen are broken down into maltose by small
The human digestive system, is a coiled, muscular tube (6-9 intestine enzymes.
meters long when fully extended) stretching from the mouth Maltose, sucrose, and lactose are the main carbohydrates
to the anus. present in the small intestine; they are absorbed by the
microvilli.
The Mouth and Pharynx Enzymes in the cells convert these disaccharides into
Chemical breakdown of starch by production of salivary monosaccharides that then leave the cell and enter the
amylase from the salivary glands into glucose. This mixture of capillary.
food and saliva is then pushed into the pharynx and Gluten enteropathy is the inability to absorb gluten, a protein
esophagus. found in wheat.
Fat digestion is usually completed by the time the food
The STOMACH reaches the ileum (lower third) of the small intestine. Bile
salts are in turn absorbed in the ileum and are recycled by the
Gastric juice in stomach contains: liver and gall bladder.
x hydrochloric acid(HCl),
x pepsinogen, and LIVER
x mucus
The liver produces and sends bile to the small intestine via
Functions of Hydrochloric acid(HCl) : the hepatic duct.
x It kills microorganisms, Bile contains cholesterol, phospholipids, bilirubin, and a mix
x It lowers the stomach pH to between 1.5 and 2.5. of salts.
x It lowers pH of the stomach so pepsin is activated.
In addition to digestive functions, the liver plays several other
Pepsinogen is an enzyme that starts protein digestion roles:
and controls the hydrolysis of proteins into peptides. (1) detoxification of blood;
(2) synthesis of blood proteins;
Chyme, the mix of acid and food in the stomach, leaves the (3) destruction of old erythrocytes and conversion of
stomach and enters the small intestine. haemoglobin into a component of bile;
(4) production of bile;
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(5) storage of glucose as glycogen, and its release when blood Vitamins:Vitamins are organic molecules required for
sugar levels drop; and metabolic reactions. They usually
(6) production of urea from amino groups and ammonia. cannot be made by the body and are needed in trace amounts.
Vitamins may act as enzyme
GALL BLADDER cofactors or coenzymes.
It stores excess bile for release at a later time. VITAMINS

We can live without our gall bladders, in fact many people
have had theirs removed. The drawback, however, is a need to
be aware of the amount of fats in the food they eat since the
stored bile of the gall bladder is no longer available.
Glycogen is a polysaccharide made of chains of glucose
molecules.
In plants starch stored in the form of glucose, while animals
use glycogen for the same purpose.
Low glucose levels in the blood cause the release of

hormones, such as glucagon, that travel to the liver and VITAMIN K (Phylloquinone)
stimulate the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which is
then released into the blood(raising blood glucose levels). SOURCE
When no glucose or glycogen is available, amino acids are Green leafy vegetables, soya beans. The human body can also
converted into glucose in the liver.The process produce Vitamin K through germs in the colon(part of small
of deamination removes the amino groups from amino acids. intestine).
Urea is formed and passed through the blood to the kidney for
export from the body. Conversely, the hormone insulin FUNCTION
promotes the take-up of glucose into liver cells and its x Helps blood clotting, prevent over bleeding
formation into glycogen. x Maintains health of the liver
Liver Diseases Jaundice occurs when the characteristic SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
yellow tint to the skin is caused Uncontrol bleeding from wounds due to clotting difficulty
by excess hemoglobin breakdown products in the blood, a
sign that the liver is not properly SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
functioning. Can lead to liver damage
Hepatitis A, B, and C are all viral diseases that can cause liver
damage.
Cirrhosis: Cirrhosis of the liver commonly occurs in VITAMIN E (Tocopherol)=Beauty Vitamin
alcoholics, who place the liver in a stress situation due to the
amount of alcohol to be broken down. Cirrhosis can cause the It is also known as Antisterility Vitamin.
liver to become unable to perform its biochemical functions.
Chemicals responsible for blood clotting are synthesized in SOURCE
the liver, as is albumin, the major protein in blood. Green leafy vegetables, whole-wheat cereals, nuts, sprouts,
egg yolk
The Pancreas
The pancreas produces pancreatic juice and several FUNCTION
hormones, such as glucagon and insulin.
x Maintains normal conditions of cells, and healthy skin
and tissues
(D) The Large Intestine
The large intestine is made up by the colon, cecum, appendix,
x Protects red blood cells
and rectum. x Antioxidation
Protein: Proteins are polymers composed of amino acids. x Enhance immunity
Lipids and fats: Lipids and fats generate the greatest energy
yield, so a large number of plants SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
and animals store excess food energy as fats. Lipids and fats x New born infants: haemolytic anaemia
are present in oils, meats, butter, and plants (such as avocado x Adults: weakness
and peanuts). Some fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, are
essential SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
and must be included in the diet. When present in the x Low thyroxine level
intestine, lipids promote the uptake of x Fertility Desease
vitamins A, D, E, and K. x Headache, dizziness, fatigue
76
x Stomach discomfort, poor appetite x Nervousness, irritability
VITAMIN D (Calciferol)=(Sunhine Vitamin) VITAMIN B
SOURCE VITAMIN B1 (Thymine)

Egg yolk, liver, cod liver oil, fish. Our skins also produces
Vitamin D when exposed to sunlight SOURCE
sprouts, yeast
FUNCTION Desease
x Helps body absorb and utilize calcium and phosphorus, Beri-beri
so as to maintain bones, teeth and brain healthy
x Maintains normal calcium level in blood VITAMIN B2 (Ryboflabin)
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY SOURCE

x Children: rickets Sprout, present in cow's milk(yellowish)
x Adults: Osteomalacia, Osteoporosis Desease
Cheilosis, ulceration
SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
x Calcified cartilage VITAMIN B6 (Pyridoxine)
x High calcium level in the blood causes abnormal heart
beat and damage to organs such as kidneys FUNCTION
It is responsible for rememeber dreams.
x Vomiting, diarrhea
x Sore eyes SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
x Itchy skin x Anaemia
x Nervousness, insomnia, depression
VITAMIN A (Retinol)
x Muscle cramps
SOURCE
VITAMIN C (Ascorbic acid)
Dairy products, cod liver oil,liver, dark green and yellow
vegetables and fruits
SOURCE
Citrus fruits (orange, grapefruit, lemon), strawberry, black
FUNCTION
current, kiwi fruit, tomato, green leafy vegetables, green
x Maintains eye health pepper
x Promotes growth and development, maintains healthy
bones and teeth FUNCTION
x Enhances the protection and regeneration of cells and x Helps synthesize collagen; promotes the growth and
mucous membrane repair of cells, gum, teeth, blood vessels and bones
x Maintains healthy respiratory and intestinal tracts x Helps healing after operation and injury
x Maintain healthy hair, nails and skin x Helps calcium and iron absorption
x Enhances immunity
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
x Night blindness, dry eyes SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
x Dry skin x Scurvy
x Stomach discomfort x Gum
x Poor growth x inflammation and bleeding, fall of teeth
x Weak bones and teeth x Susceptibility to skin bleeding, burst of capillary vessels
x Weakness, fatigue
SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
x Bone pain, swollen and aching joints
x Dry, scaly, peeling, and itchy skin, rash
x Hair loss SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
x Poor appetite, fatigue x Abdominal pain
x Vomiting, stomach discomfort x Diarrhea
x Liver injury x Kidney stone
x Headache, bone pain

77
In smokers and drinkers vitamin C is absent.
TYPES OF VITAMINS:
Vitamin Chemical Name Food Sources Deficiency Diseases
A Retinol Milk, eggs, fish, butter, cheese and Night blindness, Skin dryness.
liver.
B1 Thiamine Legumes, whole grain, nuts. Beri-beri.
B2 Riboflavin Egg, milk, cheese, nuts, bread Inflammation of tongue, sores in the
products. corners of the mouth.
B3 Niacin or Nicotinic Meat, fish, pea nuts, whole grain. Skin disease, diarrhoea, depression,
acid dementia.
B5 Pantothenic acid Eggs, liver, dairy products. Fatigue, muscle cramp.
Pellagra
B6 Pyridoxine Organ meats, cereals, corn. Anaemia, kidney stones, nausea,
depression.
B12 Cyanocobalamin Meat, fish. pale skin, constipation, fatigue.
C Ascorbic acid Oranges, tomatoes, sweet and white Scurvy, anaemia, ability to fight
potatoes. infections decreases.
D Calciferol Direct sunlight, fish oils, eggs. Rickets, osteomalacia.
E Tocopherol Vegetable oils, olives, tomatoes, Neurological problems, problems of
almonds, meat, eggs. reproductive system.
K Phylloquinone or Soyabeans, green leafy vegetables, Failure to clot blood.
Naphthoquinone dairy products, meat.
Minerals:
Iron(for hemoglobin), iodine (for thyroxin), calcium (for bones), ¾ Amoeba is a microscopic single celled organism found in
and sodium (nerve message transmission) are examples of pond water. When it sense food, it pushes out one or more
minerals. finger like projection (pseudopodia) around the food
particles and engulf it and then the food becomes trapped
in a food vacuole.
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretory Systems in Various Animals
Components of this system in vertebrates include the kidneys,
liver, lungs, and skin.
Water and Salt Balance

The excretory system is responsible for regulating water
balance in various body fluids.
Osmoregulation refers to the state aquatic animals are in: they
are surrounded by freshwater
and must constantly deal with the influx of water.
Excretory System Functions

1. Collect water and filter body fluids.
2. Remove and concentrate waste products from body fluids and
Digestion in Animals Facts from NCERT
return other substances to body fluids as necessary for
¾ Starfish feeds on animals covered by half shells of calcium
homeostasis.
carbonate.
3. Eliminate excretory products from the body.
¾ The saliva breakdown the starch into sugar.
¾ Liver situated in the upper part of the abdomen on the right
The Human Excretory System
side. It is the largest gland in the body.
The urinary system is made-up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder,
¾ In the process of digestion carbohydrates get broken down
and urethra. The nephron, an evolutionary modification of the
into simple sugars such as glucose. Fats into fatty acid and
nephridium, is the kidney’s functional unit.
glycerol. Proteins into amino acid.
The nephron has three functions:
¾ The grass is rich in cellulose a type of carbohydrates human
1. Glomerular filtration of water and solutes from the blood.
cannot digest cellulose.

78
2. Tubular reabsorption of water and conserved molecules back Bryophyte
into the blood. ¾ These are called the amphibians of the plant kingdom.
3. Tubular secretion of ions and other waste products from There is no specialized tissue for the conduction of water
surrounding capillaries into the distal tubule. and other substances from one past of the plant body to
another.
Kidney Stones E.g. : moss (fumaria) and marchantia
In some cases, excess wastes crystallize as kidney stones. They
grow and can become a painful irritant that may require surgery Pteridopheysta
or ultrasound treatments. ¾ In this group plant body is differentiated into roots, stem
and leaves and has specialized tissue for the conduction of
Kidney Functions water and other substances from one plant of the plant
1. Maintain volume of extracellular fluid body to another. Eg- marsilea, ferns, and horse tails.
2. Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid
3. Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular Gymnosperms
fluid. ¾ The plant of this group bear naked seeds and one usually
4. Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, perennial and evergreen and woody. Eg- pines such as
and uric acid. deodar.
Hormone Control of Water and Salt Angiosperms

Water reabsorption is controlled by the antidiuretic hormone ¾ The seeds develop inside an organ which is modified to
(ADH) in negative feedback. become a fruit. These are also called flowering plants.
ADH is released from the pituitary gland in the brain. Dropping ¾ Plant embryos in seeds have structures called cotyledons.
levels of fluid in the blood signal the hypothalamus to cause the Cotyledons are called seed leaves because in many
pituitary to release ADH into the blood. ADH acts to increase instances they emerge and become green the seed
water absorption in the kidneys. germinates.
Aldosterone, a hormone secreted by the kidneys, regulates the ¾ Plants with seeds having a single cotyledon are called
transfer of sodium from the nephron to the blood. When sodium monocotyledons or monocots. Eg- paphiopedilum.
levels in the blood fall, aldosterone is released into the blood, ¾ Plants with seeds having two cotyledons are called dicots.
causing more sodium to pass from the nephron to the blood. E.g-Egipomoce.
This causes water to flow into the blood by osmosis. Renin is
released into the blood to control aldosterone. Pisces
¾ These are fish. They are cold blooded and their hearts have
PHOTOSYNTHESIS only two chambers unlike the four that human have.
¾ The raw materials of photosynthesis, water and carbon ¾ Some with skeletons made entirely of cartilage, such as
dioxide, enter the shark.
¾ cells of the leaf, and the products of photosynthesis, sugar ¾ Some with skeleton made of both bones and cartilages such
and oxygen,leave the leaf. as tuna or rohu.
¾ Water enters the root and is transported up to the leaves
through specialized plant cells known as xylem. Amphibian
¾ Carbon dioxide cannot pass through the protective waxy ¾ They have mucus glands in the skin and a three chambered
layer covering the leaf (cuticle), but it can enter the leaf heart. Respiration is through either gills or lungs.
through an opening flanked by two guard cells. Eg- frogs, toades, and salamanders.
¾ Likewise, oxygen produced during photosynthesis can only
pass out of the leaf through the opened stomata. Reptilia
¾ These animals are cold blooded have scales and breathe
Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments through lungs. While most of them have a three chamber
¾ Chlorophyll, the green pigment common to all heart while crocodile have four heart chambers. Eg- snakes,
photosynthetic cells,absorbs all wavelengths of visible light turtles, lizards and crocodiles.
except green, which it reflects to bedetected by our eyes.
¾ Black pigments absorb all of the wavelengths that strike Aves
them. ¾ These are warm blooded animals and have a four
chambered heart. They lay eggs. They breathe through
DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS lungs. All birds fall in this category.
Differentiation in Plants
Thallophyta Mamalia
¾ The plants in this group are commonly called algae. These ¾ They are warm blooded animals with four chambered
plants are predominantly aquatic. hearts.
E.g. : Spirogyra, cladophora and chara. ¾ They have mammary glands for the production of milk to
nourish their young. They produce live young ones.

79
¾ However a few of them like platypus and the echidna lay ¾ Chemical method : salt and edible oils are the common
eggs. chemical generally used.
¾ Sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are common
MICRO ORGANISMS: FRIEND AND FOE preservatives. These are also used in the James and
Micro organisms are classified into four major groups. These squashes to check their spoilage.
groups are bacteria, fungi,
protozoa and algae. Preservation by sugar :
¾ Viruses : They reproduce only inside the cells of the host ¾ Sugar reduces the moisture context which inhibits the
organisms which may be bacterium, plants or animal. growth of bacteria which spoil food.
¾ Common cold, influnenza and most coughs are caused by ¾ Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage of pickles become
viruses. bacteria cannot live in such an environment.
¾ Serious diseases like polio and chickepox are also caused by ¾ Pasteurized milk : the milk is heated tonabout 70˚C for 15
viruses. to 30 seconds and then suddenly chilled and stored.
¾ Micro organisms may be single celled like bacteria, Some ¾ This process was discovered by lowise Pasteur. It is called
algae and protozoa. Multicellular such as algae and fungi. pasteurisation.
¾ Micro organisms like amoeba can live alone, while fungi and
bacteria may live in colonies. Some Common Plant Disease Caused by Microorganisms
Friendly Micro Organisms Plant disease Microorganisms Mode of transmission

¾ Making of curd and breed:-milk is turned into curd by Citrus canker Bacteria Air
bacteria. The bacterium “lactobacillus” promotes the Rust of wheat Fungi Air, seeds
formation of curd. Yellow vein mosaic of bhindi Virus insect
¾ Yeast reproduces rapidly and produces CO2 during Some Common Human Disease Caused by Micro Organisms
respiration. Bubbles of the gas fill the dough and increase Human disease Causative Mode of transmission Preventive
its volume. measure microorganisms
¾ Yeast is used for commercial production of alcohol and
wine. For this purpose yeast is grown as natural sugars FACTS FROM HUMAN MACHINE
present in grains like barley, wheat, rice, crushed fruit juice Spider Web
etc. Spiders can produce silken thread using spinneret glands on
¾ This process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is known as their abdomen.
fermentation. Lewis Pasteur discovered fermentation.
FACTS ABOUT FISH
Medicinal Use of Micro Organisms (II) AMPHIBIANS
¾ The medicine which kills or stops the growth of diseases Amphibians lay their eggs in water, and young amphibians tend
causing microorganism is called antibiotics. to resemble small fish.
¾ Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are some of The tadpole, or newborn frog, is born and lives in water. It has a
the commonly known antibiotics. Which are made from tail that allows it to swim
fungi and bacteria. like a fish. It also has gills so that it can breathe under water. As
¾ Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin. the tadpole grow into a frog, it
¾ Antibiotics are not effective against cold and flu as these are loses its gills and tail, and develops legs for moving on land.
caused by virus. Most amphibians can both walk
and swim in water.
Vaccine
¾ Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for small pox. Mammals (Class Mammalia)
Mammals developed a four chambered heart, hair covering, and
Harmful Microorganisms most do not lay eggs and he exception is the monotremes).
¾ Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person
to a healthy person SOME IMPORTANT TABLES
¾ through air water, food, or physical contact are called
communicable diseases. i.e.- cholera, common cold, chicken COMMON NAMES OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS:
pox and TB. Common Names Chemical Compounds Chemical
¾ Another is female anopheles mosquito which caries the Formula
parasite of malaria. Baking Powder Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3
¾ Female aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengu virus. Bleaching Powder Calcium Oxychloride CaOCL2
¾ Robert Koch discovered the bacteria (bacillus anthracis) Chloroform Trichloro Methane CHcl3
which causes anthrax disease. Chalk (Marble) Calcium Carbonate CaCo3
Caustic Potash Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Common Methods of Caustic Soda Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Preserving Food in our Homes Dry Ice Solid Carbondioxide CO2
80
Gypsum Calcium Sulphate CaSo4 Bronze Copper and Tin
Green Vitriol Ferrous Sulphate FeSo4 Gun Metal Copper, Zinc and Tin
Heavy Water Deuterium Oxide D2O German Silver Copper, Zinc and Nickel
Vinegar Acetic Acid CH3COOH Duralumin Aluminium, Copper, Magnesium and
Washing Soda Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3 Manganese
Slaked Lime Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Magnesium Aluminium and Magnesium
Potash Alum Potassium KALSO4 Nickel Steel Iron and Nickel
AluminiumSulphate Stainless Steel Iron, Chromium and Nickel
Quick Lime Calcium Oxide CaO Electrum Silver and Gold
Plaster of Paris Calcium Sulphate CaSO42H2O Solder Tin and Lead
Invar Iron and Nickel
Mohr's Salt Ammonium Ferrous FeSO4(NH4)2S
Sulphate O4.6H2O Important Facts About Human Body:
White Vitriol Zinc Sulphate ZnSo4.7H2O Largest and strongest Femur (thigh bone)
Marsh Gas Methane CH4 Bone in the body:
Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide MgO Smallest Bone in the Stapes in ear
Laughing Gas: Nitrous Oxide N2 O body:
Sugar: Sucrose C12H22O11 Volume of Blood in the 6 litres (in 70 kg body)
T.N.T. Trinitrotoluene C7H5N3O6 body:
Sand Silicon Oxide SiO2 Number of Red Blood 1. In male: 5 to 6 million/cubic
Cells(R.B.C.): mm
ORES AND ALLOYS: 2. In female: 4 to 5
ORES: million/cubic mm
Metal Ores Life span of Red Blood 100 to 120 days
Aluminium (Al) Bauxite, Corundum, felspar, Cryolite, Cells(R.B.C.):
Kaolin Life span of White Blood 3-4 days
Antimony (Sb) Stibnite Cell(W.B.C.):
Barium (Ba) Barite, Witherite Time taken by R.B.C. to 20 seconds
Cadmium (Cd) Greenockite complete
Calcium (Ca) Chalk, Quicklime, Calcite, Dolomite, one cycle of circulation:
Gypsum, Asbestus Other name of Red Blood Erythrocytes
Chromium (Cr) Chromite Cell (R.B.C.):
Copper (Cu) Malachite, Chalcocite, Chalcopyrite, Largest White Blood Monocytes
Cuprite Cells:
Gold (Au) Quartz, Calaverite, Silvenites Smallest White Blood Lymphocyte
Iron (Fe) Hematite, Magnetite, Lemonite, Copper Cells:
pyrites Who discovered Blood Karl Landsteiner
Lead (Pb) Galena Group:
Magnesium Magnesite, Dolomite, Epsom salt, Blood Platelets count: 150,000 - 400,000 platelets per
(Mg) Carnalite micro litre
Manganese Pyrolusite Haemoglobin (Hb): 1. In male: 14-15 gm/100 c.c. of
(Mn) blood
Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar 2. In female: 11-14 gm/100 c.c.
Potassium (K) Carnalite, Sylvite, Potash of blood
Silver (Ag) Argentite Hb content in body: 500-700 gm
Sodium (Na) Rock Salt, Trona, Borax pH of Urine: 6.5-8
Strontium (Sr) Strontianite, Silestine pH of Blood: 7.36-7.41
Tin (Sn) Cassiterite Volume of Semen: 2-5 ml/ejaculation
Zinc (Zn) Zincite, Ferulinite , Calamine Normal Sperm Count: 250-400 million/ejaculation
Uranium (U) Uraninite Menstrual cycle: 28 days
Tungsten (W) Wolframite, Scheelite Menopause age: 45-50 years
Nickel (Ni) Pentlandite, Milarite Blood clotting time: 3-5 minutes
Beryllium (Be) Beryl Weight of Brain: 1300-1400 gm in human adult
Normal Blood Pressure 120/80 mm Hg
ALLOYS: (B.P.):
Alloy Components Universal blood donor: O
Brass Copper and Zinc Universal blood AB

81
recipient: caused by Human
Average body weight: 70 kg Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
Normal body 37 degree Celsius 5. Measles -It is caused by Measles virus.
temperature: 6. Mumps -It is caused by Mumps virus.
Breathing Rate at rest: 12-16/minute 7. Rabies - It is caused by Rabies virus (Rhabdoviridae family).
Number of Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs 8. Dengue fever -It is caused by Dengue virus.
Largest Endocrine Gland: Thyroid gland 9. Viral encephalitis - It is an inflammation of the brain. It is
Normal Heart Beat at 72 beats per minute caused by rabies virus, Herpessimplex, polio virus, measles
rest: virus, and JC virus.
Largest Gland: Liver
Largest Muscle in the Gluteus Maximus or Buttock Disease caused by Bacteria:
body: Muscle 1. Whooping Cough - It is caused by a bacterium called
Smallest Muscle in the Stapedius Bordetella pertussis.
body: 2. Diphtheria - It is caused by Corynebacteriumdiphtheriae.
Largest Artery: Aorta 3. Cholera - It is caused by Vibrio cholerae.
Largest Vein: Inferior Vena Cava 4. Leprosy - It is caused by Mycobacterium leprae.
Largest and longest Sciatic Nerve 5. Pneumonia-It is caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Nerve: 6. Tetanus -It is caused by Clostridium tetani.
Longest Cell: Neurons (nerve cells) 7. Typhoid - It is caused by Salmonella typhi.
Minimum distance for 25 cm 8. Tuberculosis -It is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
proper vision: 9. Plague - It is caused by Yersinia pestis.
Pulse rate: 72 per minute
Thinnest Skin: Eyelids DISEASE CAUSED BY PROTOZOANS:
Weight of Heart: 200-300 gm 1. Malaria It is spread by it is a celled
Anopheles mosquitoes. single parasite
Common Drugs and Their Usage: The Plasmodium that
Drugs/Medicine Use parasite that causes multiplies
Anaesthetics It is a drug that induces insensitivity to malaria is neither a virus in red
pain. nor a bacteria blood cells
Antiflatulent It is a drug that reduces intestinal gas of humans.
Antipyretics It is a drug used to lower body 2.Amoebic It is caused by
temperature. dysentery Entamoebahistolytica.
Analgesics It is a drug that is used to prevent or 3.Sleeping It is caused by
relieve pain. Eg. Aspirin. sickness Trypanosomabrucei.
Antibiotics It is a drug that inhibits the growth of or 4. Kala azar It is caused by
destroys micro-organisms. Eg. Penicillin. Leishmaniadonovani.
Antihistamines It is a drug used to relieve symptoms of
cold and allergies. DISEASE CAUSED BY WORMS:
Antispasmodic It is a drug used to relieve spasm of 1. They are intestinal
involuntary muscle usually in stomach. Tapeworn parasites. It cannot live
Antacid It is a drug used for preventing or on its own. It survives
correcting acidity, especially in the within the intestine of
stomach. an animal including
Diuretics It is a drug that promotes the production human.
of urine. 2. It is caused by thread like filarial nematode
Laxative It is a drug used to provide relief in Filariasis worms. Most cases of
constitpation. filaria are caused by
the parasite known as
TYPES OF DISEASES Wuchereriabancrofti.
List of Diseases caused by Virus, Bacteria, Protozoa and 3. It is caused by small,
Worm: Pinworm thin, white roundworm
called
Disease caused by Viruses: Enterobiusvermicularis.
1. Chicken pox - It is caused by Varicella-zoster virus.
2. Small Pox - It is caused by Variola virus. VITAMINS AND MINERAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
3. Common Cold -It is caused by Rhinovirus. 1. Anaemia It is caused due to deficiency of
4. AIDS (Acquired Immunono Deficiency Syndrome) - It is mineral Iron.
2. Ariboflavinosis It is caused due to deficiency of
82
Vitamin B2. Acceleration Meter/second square m/s2
3. BeriBeri It is caused due to deficiency of Area Square meter m2
Vitamin B. Angular Velocity Radian/second ω
4. Goitre It is caused due to deficiency of Atmospheric Pressure Pascal Pa
Iodine. Capacitance farad F
5. Impaired clotting of It is caused due to deficiency of Depth of Sea Fathom ftm
the blood Vitamin K. Density Kilogram/cubic meter kg/m3
6. Kwashiorkor It is caused due to deficiency of Electric Current Ampere A
Protein. Electromotive Force Volt V
7. Night Blindness It is caused due to deficiency of Electrical Ohm/metre --
Vitamin A. Conductivity
8. Osteoporosis It is caused due to deficiency of Electric Energy Kilowatt hour kWh
mineral Calcium. Electric Power Watt W
9. Rickets It is caused due to deficiency of Electric Charge Coulomb C
Vitamin D. Electric Potential Volt V
10. Scurvy It is caused due to deficiency of Energy Joule J
Vitamin C. Force Newton N (kg
m/s2)
COMMON HUMAN DISEASES AND AFFECTED BODY PART: Frequency Hertz Hz
Disease Affected Body Part Heat Joule J
AIDS Immune system of the body Impulse Newton second Ns
Arthritis Joints Illuminance Lux lx
Asthma Bronchial muscles Inductance Henry H
Bronchitis Lungs Length Meter m
Carditis Heart Luminous Flux Lumen lm
Cataract Eye Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
Cystitis Bladder Mass Kilogram kg
Colitis Intestine Momentum Kilogram kg m/s
Conjunctivitis Eye meter/second
Dermatitis Skin Magnetic Flux Weber Wb
Diabetes Pancreas and blood Magnetic Flux Density Tesla T
Diphtheria Throat Power Watt W
Eczema Skin Power of Lens Dioptre D
Goitre Thyroid gland Plane Angle Radian Rad
Glossitis Tongue Radioactivity Becquerel Bq
Glaucoma Eye Resistance Ohm Ω
Gastritis Stomach Specific Heat Joule per kilogram J/(kg.K)
Hepatitis Liver kelvin
Jaundice Liver Solid Angle steradian Sr
Malaria Spleen Surface Tension Newton/square meter N/m2
Meningitis Brain and spinal cord Speed/Velocity Meter/second m/s
Myelitis Spinal cord Temperature Kelvin K
Neuritis Nerves Time Second S
Otitis Ear Viscosity Pascal second Pa.s
Osteomyelitis Bones Volume Cubic meter M3
Paralysis Nerves and limb Weight Newton N
Pyorrhoea Teeth Work Joule J
Peritonitis Abdomen
Pneumonia Lungs BLOOD GROUP AND ITS CLASSIFICATION :
Rhinitis Nose
Rheumatism Joints K.Landsteiner : Classified human beings (1900) in four groups
Tuberculosis Lungs on the basis of the reaction of their blood:A,B,AB and O.
Tonsillitis Tonsils Blood Carries Carries Can donate Can
Trachoma Eye group antigen antibody blood to receive
blood
SI Units of Measurement: from
Quantity SI Unit Symbol A A B A,AB A,O

83
B B A B,AB B,O 4. Loud Electrical energy into sound energy
AB A,B None Only AB Universal Speaker
Accepter 5. Solar cell Solar energy into electrical energy
O None A,B Universal Only O
6. Tube light Electrical energy into light energy
donor
7. Electric Electrical energy into light and heat
SOME EQUIPMENTS USED TO TRANSFORM ENERGY: Bulb energy
S. No. Equipment Energy Transformed 8. Battery Chemical energy into electrical energy
1. Dynamo Mechanical energy into electrical 9. Electric Electrical energy into mechanical
energy motor energy
2. Candle Chemical energy into light and heat 10. Sitar Mechanical energy into sound energy
energy
3. Microphone Sound energy into electrical energy
MEDEIVAL HISTORY CAPSULE 2016

3. In 850, Vijayalaya captured Tanjore during the Pandya-
THE CHALUKYAS Pallava wars. To commemorate his accession, he built a
1. Pulakesin I (543-566) was the first independent ruler of Badami temple at Tanjore. The giant statue of Gomateswara at
with Vatapi in Bijapur as his capital. Shravanbelagola was also built during this period.
2. Kirthivarma I (566-596) succeeded him at the throne. When he 4. Vijayalaya’s son Aditya I (871-901) succeeded him to
died, the heir to the throne, Prince Pulakesin II, was just a baby throne.
& so the king’s brother, Mangalesha (597-610), was crowned 5. It was Rajaraj I (985-1014) during which the CHOLAS
the caretaker ruler. Over the years, he made many unsuccessful reached at its zenith. He snatched back lost territories from
attempts to kill the prince but was ultimately killed himself by the Rashtrakutas & become the most powerful of the Chola
the prince & his friends. rulers. Rajaraja’ is also famous for the beautiful shiva
3. Pulakesin II (610-642), the son of Pulakesin I, was a temple which he constructed at Thanjavur(TN). It is called
contemporary of Harshavardhana & the most famous of the Rajarajeswara after his name.
Chalukyan kings.His reign is remembered as the greatest period 6. Rajendra Chola (1014-1044), son of Rajaraja I, was an
in the history of Karnataka. He defeated Harshavardhana on the important ruler of this dynasty who conquered Orissa,
banks of the Narmada. Bengal, Burma & the Andaman & Nicobar Island. The Cholas
4. After conquering the Kosalas & the Kalingas, & eastern dynasty was at its zenith also during his reign. He also
Chalukyan dynasty was inaugurated by his(Pulakeshin II) conquered Sri Lanka.
brother Kubja Vishnuvardana. 7. Kulottunga I (1070-1122) was another significant Chola
5. By 631, the Chalukyan empire extended from sea to sea. ruler. Kulottunga I united the two kingdom of the eastern
However, Pulkeshin II was defeated & probably killed in 642, Chalukyas of Vengi & the Cholas of Thanjavur. After a long
when the Pallavas under Narsimhavarma I attack on their reign of about half a century, Kulottunga I passed away
capital & captured the chalukyan capital at Badami. sometime in 1122 & was succeeded by his son, Vikrama
6. The Chalukyas rose to power once again under the leadership of Chola, surnamed Tyagasamudra.
Vikramaditya I (655-681), who defeated his contemporary 9. The last ruler of the Chola Dynasty was Rajendra III (1246-
Pandya, Pallava, Cholas & Kerala rulers to establish the 79). He was a weak ruler who surrendered to the pandyas.
supremacy of the Chalukyan empire in the region. Later, Malik Kafur invaded this Tamil state in 1310 &
7. Vikramaditya II (733-745) defeated the Pallava king extinguished the Chola empire.
Nandivarma II to capture a major portion of the Pallava
kingdom. THE GHAZNAVIS
8. Vikramaditya II’s son, Kirtivarma II (745), was disposed by the
Rastrakuta ruler, Dhantidurga, who established the Rashtrakuta Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030)
dynasty. a) He was also known as “But-Shikan” (destroyer of the image)
because of seventeen plundering expeditions between 1000 AD
THE CHOLAS (9TH TO 13TH CENTURY) & 1027 AD in India.
1. The Chola dynasty was one of the most popular dynasties of b) Annexing Punjab as his eastern province, he claimed to have
south India which ruled over Tamil Nadu & parts of come here with twin objectives of spreading Islam in India, &
Karnataka with Tanjore as its capital. enriching himself by taking away wealth from India.
2. Early Chola rulers were the Karikala Cholas who ruled in c) In 1025, he attacked & raided the most celebrated Hindu
the 2nd century. temple of Somnath, Gujarat.

84

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SSC CGL 2016 GENERAL AWARENESS/GS CAPSULE

POLITY/ECONOMIC/ HISTORY/ GEOGRAPHY/SCIENCE (Phy./Chem./Bio.)

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