CELL THEORY 2.

Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins, found in

I. The Cell Theory both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
1. Development of Cell Theory: 3. Golgi Apparatus: Packages proteins for
o 1665 – Robert Hooke: Coined the transport.
term "cell" after observing tiny 4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
spaces in cork through a microscope. o Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes,
o 1674 – Anton van Leeuwenhoek: helps in protein synthesis.
First to observe living cells using a o Smooth ER: No ribosomes, involved
powerful microscope, discovered in lipid synthesis and detoxification.
single-celled organisms in water.
o 1830s – Matthias Schleiden & Cellular Organelles: Structure and Function
Theodor Schwann: Proposed that all Each organelle within the cell has a specific
plants and animals are made of cells. function that supports the cell's survival and
o 1858 – Rudolf Virchow: Discovered activity. Here's a breakdown of the major organelles
that all cells come from pre-existing discussed in the document:
cells, rejecting the idea of a. The Nucleus and Ribosomes
spontaneous generation. • Nucleus:
2. Three Main Principles of Cell Theory: o The control center of the cell,
1. All living organisms are composed of one or containing the cell's DNA, which
more cells. stores genetic information.
2. The cell is the smallest unit of life. o Responsible for DNA replication and
3. All cells arise from the division of pre- transcription of RNA, which directs
existing cells. protein synthesis.
II. Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells o Houses the nucleolus, which
1. Key Differences: produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
o Prokaryotic Cells: assembles ribosomal subunits.
▪ Do not have membrane-bound • Ribosomes:
organelles or a nucleus. o Protein factories of the cell,
▪ Example: Bacteria and translating genetic information
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). carried by messenger RNA (mRNA)
o Eukaryotic Cells: to synthesize proteins.
▪ Have membrane-bound o Found either floating in the
organelles, including a nucleus. cytoplasm (free ribosomes) or
▪ Examples: Animal, plant, fungi, attached to the endoplasmic
and protist cells. reticulum (bound ribosomes).
2. Detailed Comparisons Between Plant, b. The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Animal, and Prokaryotic Cells: • Smooth ER:
o Plasma Membrane: Found in both o Lacks ribosomes and is involved in
prokaryotes and eukaryotes, controls the the synthesis of lipids (like
entry and exit of substances. phospholipids for cell membranes
o Cytoplasm: The gel-like interior of all and steroid hormones) and
cells where organelles are suspended. detoxification of harmful substances.
o Mitochondria (Eukaryotic Cells Only): • Rough ER:
The powerhouse of the cell, generating o Studded with ribosomes and plays a
energy in the form of ATP. major role in synthesizing proteins
o Chloroplasts (Plant Cells Only): destined for secretion or for use in
Capture sunlight to perform membranes.
photosynthesis. c. The Golgi Apparatus
o Cell Wall: Found in plant cells and • A packaging and distribution center of the
prokaryotes, but absent in animal cells. cell, the Golgi modifies, sorts, and ships
It provides structure and protection. proteins and lipids produced by the ER.
III. Organelles and Their Functions: • It processes the materials and then
1. Nucleus: Controls cell activities by dispatches them via vesicles to their final
regulating gene expression. destination (e.g., within the cell or outside
via secretion).
d. The Lysosomes vesicles; also critical during cell division for
• Lysosomes function as the cell's waste separating chromosomes.
disposal system, digesting damaged i. Cilia and Flagella
organelles, macromolecules, and • Cilia: Short, hair-like structures that beat in
pathogens using powerful hydrolytic a coordinated fashion to move fluids across
enzymes. the cell's surface or propel single-celled
• Often compared to recycling centers, they organisms.
help recycle the cell's organic material. • Flagella: Longer, whip-like structures used
e. The Vacuoles to propel cells (e.g., sperm cells).
• Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs within • Comparison: Cilia are shorter and more
the cell, with their function varying based on numerous, while flagella are typically fewer
the cell type: in number and longer.
o Plant cells: Contain large central
vacuoles that store nutrients, waste TISSUES
products, and help maintain turgor I. Overview of Animal Tissues
pressure (which gives plants Hierarchy of Organization:
structural support). o Animal bodies have multiple levels of
o Animal cells: Contain smaller organization: cells → tissues → organs
vacuoles used for storing food and → organ systems → organisms.
waste. o Anatomy: Study of biological
o Food vacuoles are a key part of the structure.
endomembrane system, formed by o Physiology: Study of the function of
engulfing food particles via biological structures.
endocytosis. o Tissues are integrated groups of
f. The Mitochondria similar cells working together to
• Known as the powerhouse of the cell, perform a specific function.
mitochondria convert chemical energy from Tissue Classification:
food (like glucose) into ATP (adenosine Four Main Types of Tissues:
triphosphate), the energy currency of the 1. Epithelial Tissue:
cell. o Covers the body surface and lines
• Cellular respiration, a process occurring in internal organs and cavities.
mitochondria, breaks down glucose in the o Shapes of Epithelial Cells:
presence of oxygen to produce ATP, which • Squamous (flat like a fried egg): Thin
fuels the cell's activities. and allows for gas exchange (found in
g. The Chloroplasts (Plants and Algae) lungs and capillaries).
• Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis, • Cuboidal (cube-shaped): Found in
where light energy is converted into kidneys and glands, aids in secretion and
chemical energy stored in glucose. absorption.
• Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, the • Columnar (taller than wide): Lines
pigment that captures light energy, and are intestines, secretes digestive juices, and
found only in plants and algae. They are absorbs nutrients.
essential for producing organic molecules 2. Connective Tissue:
that all living organisms rely on for energy. ▪ Binds and supports other tissues.
h. The Cytoskeleton ▪ Six Major Types:
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that o Loose connective tissue: Joins skin to
helps maintain the cell’s shape and is involved in underlying tissue.
intracellular transport, cellular movement, and cell o Fibrous connective tissue: Forms
division. It consists of three main components: tendons, connecting muscles to bones.
• Microfilaments: Actin filaments involved in o Adipose tissue: Stores fat for energy.
muscle contraction and cell movement. o Cartilage: Provides flexible skeletal
• Intermediate Filaments: Provide structural support at joints.
support and help anchor organelles like the o Bone: Rigid support, made of collagen
nucleus. and minerals (calcium, magnesium).
• Microtubules: Hollow tubes that serve as o Blood: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and
tracks for the movement of organelles and waste products throughout the body.
 3. Muscle Tissue:
• Responsible for movement. Mitosis - Detailed Reviewer
• Three Types of Muscle Tissue: Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell
o Skeletal muscle: Voluntary movement divides its nucleus and contents, resulting in the
(walking, running). formation of two genetically identical daughter
o Cardiac muscle: Involuntary, found in cells. This process is essential for growth, tissue
the heart, pumps blood. repair, and asexual reproduction in multicellular
o Smooth muscle: Involuntary, lines organisms. It ensures that each daughter cell
organs like intestines and blood vessels. receives an exact copy of the parent cell's DNA. The
4. Nervous Tissue: process is tightly regulated and occurs after the
• Forms a communication network in the DNA has been replicated during interphase.
body. Stages of Mitosis:
• Neurons (nerve cells): Transmit electrical Mitosis is divided into four key stages: Prophase,
signals from one part of the body to another. Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase, followed
• Glial cells: Support neurons by insulating, by Cytokinesis.
nourishing, and regulating fluids. 1. Prophase:
II. Structure and Adaptation of Cells • Chromosome Condensation: Chromatin
1. Cell Specialization: fibers condense, and chromosomes
o Cells have specialized structures to carry out become visible under a microscope. Each
specific functions effectively. chromosome consists of two identical sister
o Specialized Animal Cells: chromatids joined at a centromere.
▪ Red Blood Cells: Carry oxygen through • Nuclear Envelope Breakdown: The nuclear
hemoglobin, no nucleus (in some envelope and nucleolus (where ribosomes
species) to maximize space for oxygen. are made) disappear, signaling the cell's
▪ Nerve Cells (Neurons): Long, with preparation for division.
connections at both ends to transmit • Formation of Mitotic Spindle: Spindle
signals efficiently over distances. fibers, made of microtubules, form between
▪ Sperm Cells: Tail for swimming, head two centrosomes (or centrioles in animal
equipped with enzymes to penetrate the cells) that migrate to opposite poles of the
egg. cell. These fibers will eventually attach to
▪ Skin Cells: Fit tightly together like a wall, the centromeres of chromosomes.
forming a protective barrier for the body. 2. Metaphase:
o Specialized Plant Cells: • Chromosome Alignment: Chromosomes
▪ Root Hair Cells: Large surface area to are aligned at the metaphase plate, an
maximize water and mineral absorption imaginary line equidistant from the two
from soil. poles of the spindle. This alignment ensures
▪ Palisade Cells (Leaf Cells): Rich in that each daughter cell will receive one copy
chloroplasts, carry out photosynthesis. of each chromosome.
▪ Xylem Vessels: Hollow tubes that • Spindle Attachment: The spindle fibers
transport water throughout the plant, attach to the kinetochore of each sister
reinforced by lignin. chromatid, ensuring that they can be pulled
2. Cell Modifications: apart in the next phase.
o Microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption 3. Anaphase:
(found in intestines). o Separation of Chromatids: The
o Cilia: Hair-like projections that move mucus centromeres split, and the spindle fibers
and other materials (found in respiratory begin to pull the sister chromatids apart.
pathways). These chromatids, now considered
individual chromosomes, move toward
opposite poles of the cell.
o Cell Elongation: The cell elongates as the
microtubules push against each other,
helping to separate the poles further apart,
which aids in the division process.
 4. Telophase:
o Chromosomes Decondense: The Mitosis and Disease:
chromosomes at each pole begin to • Cancer: One of the most significant
decondense back into chromatin, becoming consequences of uncontrolled mitosis is
less visible. cancer. Mutations in genes that regulate the
o Reformation of Nuclear Envelope: Nuclear cell cycle (such as tumor suppressor genes
envelopes reassemble around each set of or oncogenes) can lead to unregulated cell
chromosomes, forming two distinct nuclei in division, forming tumors. In cancer, cells
the same cell. ignore normal regulatory signals that would
o Nucleolus Reappears: The nucleoli otherwise halt division.
reappear in each daughter nucleus, • Errors in Mitosis: Errors during mitosis,
signaling that the cell is returning to its non- such as improper chromosome segregation,
dividing state. can result in aneuploidy (abnormal numbers
Cytokinesis (Not technically part of mitosis but of chromosomes), which is linked to
follows immediately after): conditions like Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
• Division of the Cytoplasm: Cytokinesis or cancer.
completes cell division by physically separating
the cytoplasm into two distinct daughter cells.
• In Animal Cells: A cleavage furrow forms,
pinching the cell membrane until the cell is split
in two.
• In Plant Cells: A cell plate forms in the middle
of the cell, eventually developing into a new cell
wall that separates the two daughter cells.

Key Processes and Importance of Mitosis:

• DNA Replication: Before mitosis can occur,
DNA must be replicated during the S phase
of interphase. This ensures that both
daughter cells will have an identical set of
chromosomes.
• Genetic Continuity: Mitosis preserves
genetic continuity across generations of
cells, ensuring that all cells in an organism
(except gametes) contain the same DNA.
• Growth and Development: Mitosis is
responsible for the growth of an organism by
increasing cell numbers. It also plays a
critical role in development by allowing for
the formation of complex tissues and organs
from a single fertilized cell.
• Tissue Repair and Regeneration: Mitosis
helps repair damaged tissues by replacing
dead or damaged cells. For example, skin
cells frequently undergo mitosis to replace
those lost through wear and tear.
• Asexual Reproduction: In some organisms,
mitosis allows for asexual reproduction,
producing offspring that are genetically
identical to the parent.