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Review of subduction and its association with geothermal system in

Sumatera-Java
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 6th ITB International Geothermal Workshop (IIGW2017) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 103 (2017) 012021 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/103/1/012021

Review of subduction and its association with geothermal

system in Sumatera-Java

A F Ladiba1, L Putriyana1, B br. Sibarani2, H Soekarno1

1
Research and Development Center of Electricity, New and Renewable Energy, and
Energy Conservation, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
2
Geothermal Master Study Program, Bandung Institute of Technology

[email protected]

Abstract. Java and Sumatera have the largest geothermal resources in Indonesia, in which
mostly are spatially associated with volcanoes of subduction zones. However, those volcanoes
are not distributed in a regular pattern due to the difference of subduction position. Subduction
position in java is relatively more perpendicular to the trench than in Sumatera. In addition, Java
has a concentration of large productive geothermal field with vapour dominated system in the
western part of Java, which may be caused by the various subduction dip along the island. In
order to understand the relationship between the subduction process and geothermal system in
the subduction zone volcanoes, we examined several kinematic parameters of subduction that
potentially relevant to the formation of geothermal system in overriding plate such as slab dip,
subduction rate, and direction of subduction. Data and information regarding tectonic setting of
Sumatera and Java and productive geothermal field in Sumatera and Java have been collected
and evaluated. In conclusion, there are three condition that caused the geothermal fluid to be
more likely being in vapour phase, which are: the subduction is in an orthogonal position, the
slab dip is high, and rate of subduction is high. Although there are plenty researches of
subduction zone volcanoes, only a few of them present information about its formation and
implication to the geothermal system. The result of this study may be used as reference in
exploration of geothermal field in mutual geologic environment.
Keywords: subduction zone, slab dip, volcanic arc, vapour phase

1. Introduction
Almost 75% of total productive geothermal power plant in the world are associated with subduction
zone volcanoes [1]. Indonesia which is located in Indo-Australian and Eurasian subduction zone, has a
line of volcanoes along the subduction zone. Those volcanoes make a number of potential geothermal
energy resources, where Sumatera and Java Island have the greatest number of them.
There are two categories of volcano; volcano at the volcanic arc which is genetically associated with
subduction, and back arc volcano which its magmatism does not directly relate to the subduction [2]. In
a study about relation between volcanic arc and geothermal field in Java Island, Setijadji [3] concluded
that the highest prospectivity of geothermal energy is occurred in volcanic arc with genetic association
with subduction process.
There is difference density of volcano distribution ratio between Sumatera-Java with 3: 3.5 ratio,
which is caused by the difference of the slab dip in each part of the subduction. In spite of having a same
subduction zone, there is irregularity trend formed in Java. Western part of Java (referred hereafter as

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 6th ITB International Geothermal Workshop (IIGW2017) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 103 (2017) 012021 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/103/1/012021

West Java) is the most seismically active region and has the highest volcanic density in the whole island
[3]. It is also the one and only region where we can find vapour dominated geothermal sytems in
Indonesia. It has five vapour dominated geothermal fields; Kamojang, Darajat, Patuha, Telaga Bodas,
and Wayang Windu. West Java also has the tighest contour map of WBF depth which means it has the
steepest angle of subduction (referred hereafter as slab dip) below it [4].
There are many researches about subduction and volcanic arc have been published, especially the
one in Indo-Australian and Eurasian subduction zone. For instance, there are study about 3D geometry
and evolution of the Indo-Australian plate by Richards, S., et al. [5], structural control of arc volcanism
by Acocella, V., and Funiciello, F., [6], and geothermal systems in volcanic arcs by Stelling, P., et al.,
[1], but it is hard to find the connection between subduction process and its implication to the geothermal
system

2. Methods
To understand the association between subduction with geothermal system in volcano subduction zone,
we have collected data from various scientific literature about tectonic setting include geothermal system
of some productive geothermal fields in Sumatera-Java. We examined some kinematic parameters of
subduction which appear to be relevant with geothermal system formed at the overriding plate; slab dip,
rate of subduction, and direction of subduction. Providing a simple framework in which to investigate
its implications for the geothermal systems, the result of this study could be helpful for better
understanding about the nature of volcanic arc and might be used as reference in exploration of
geothermal systems in mutual geologic environment.

3. Regional Geology
The island of Sumatera and Java sit atop the Eurasian plate, which overrides the subducting Indo-
Australian oceanic plates that converges obliquely at about 50 to 70 mm/yr [7]. The subduction along
Sunda trench contributes to the development of Sunda Orogeny in Java and Barisan Orogeny in
Sumatera [8]. The orogenies formed in parallel with the subduction is known as Sunda Arc which
spreads along northwestern Sumatera to Flores. This northward subduction nearly perpendicular to the
arc front in Java and increasingly oblique towards Sumatera [9], which affects the structure formed in
Sumatera and Java.
There are several differences in geological setting of Java and Sumatera which affect the styles of
geothermal fields there. Sumatera has a continental basement and its subduction style is an active
continental margin. Meanwhile, Java is underlain by different basement compositions, from a
continental basement in West and Central Java, to an island arc crust in East Java [10].
The potential geothermal field along Sunda arc, especially in Sumatera and Java island mostly has
high-enthalpy geothermal system. The densely populated of potential geothermal system in Sumatera
and Java island dominantly affected by typical of subduction zone.
Stresses resulting from the oblique subduction have been released periodically by dextral fault
movements parallel to the plate margin [11]; these have produced the major Sumatera Fault System
(SFS), which runs the entire length of the island [12]. The regional segmentation of West, Central and
East Java volcanic arc has directly affected different geothermal prospectivity of each segment. In this
case, prospectivity increases from the east to the west. West Java which is the most prospective at a
regional scale is spatially associated with the highest crustal heatflow and the highest crustal seismic
activities [3].
The geothermal fields in West Java are a major contributor of geothermal energy in Indonesia (figure
1). From 1513.5 MWe installed capacity in Indonesia, which is the number 3 installed national capacity
in the world, West Java supplied 77 % of it, around 1164 MWe [13].

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 6th ITB International Geothermal Workshop (IIGW2017) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 103 (2017) 012021 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/103/1/012021

Figure 1 Indonesia geothermal potency and installed capacity (modified from Geological Agency,
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia, in Directorate General of New, Renewable
Energy, and Energy Conservation, 2016)

4. Discussion
Formation of volcanic arc is strongly correlated with the subduction process. With examining some
kinematic parameters of subduction, we can interpret its correlation to the geothermal system which is
associated with volcanic arc at the overriding plate.
The oldest and the most productive geothermal field in Indonesia are located in West Java. This
region have five of eight vapour dominated geothermal fields of the earth. The factor contributing to
the occurrence of the five vapour-dominated reservoirs in West Java are intense heating due to prolonged
active volcanism, an absence of shear faulting, and the restrictive permeability range of the host and
caprocks surrounding a relatively permeable reservoir [14]. Since vapour dominated geothermal field
tends to be more stable and productive, this study is also conducted to review whether there is subduction
factor interfere in controlling the formation of vapour dominated system.

4.1. Slab dip

Tatsumi [15] emphasized that pressure controls the magma in subduction zones. Precise earthquake
hypocentral locations reveal that the depth to the top of the slab beneath the fronts of volcanic arcs is
constant, to within a few kilometres, along individual segments of arc, but varies from 80 km to 160 km
between different segments [16]. When the subducting plate reach the certain depth with certain
pressure, it could produce magma which would rising and implied to formation of volcanoes at the above
overriding plate. The shallower the dip of the slab, the greater the distance of the volcano arc formed
from the trench.
We examined the distance of the volcanoes to the trench in Sunda Arc, and found insignificant
difference of them (figure 2). In the other hand, from the contour depth of WBF zone, it can be seen that
West Java has the steepest slab dip among the Sunda Arc [4]. From this sight, the relation between slab
dip and the volcanic arc is not clearly seen.
England and Katz [16] have studied about location of volcanic arc formation which said that the
mechanism whereby the melt reaches the Earth’s surface are controlled by the dynamics of the wedge.
Hence, the arc front is located somewhere above the region in which the temperature in the wedge
exceeds a condition called as anhydrous solidus (the state where water contents are about ten times lower
than the concentrations estimated for wet melting), because the degree of hydrous melting increases
rapidly there. It supports the previous study by England and Wilkins [17] which said that the locations
of the arc controlled by a strongly temperature-dependent process either at the top of the slab or in the

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 6th ITB International Geothermal Workshop (IIGW2017) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 103 (2017) 012021 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/103/1/012021

wedge of mantle beneath the arcs, while the temperature depends on the convergence rate, V, and dip,
δ, of the slab.
Since they are counted as inseparable parameters, we would review the rate of subduction and its
influence to the subduction process and volcanic arc to understand the relation between two of them to
the temperature of the wedge.

Figure 2 Subduction zone in Sumatra and Figure 3 Definition of rate of subduction in

Java (modified from Richards, et al., 2007) scheme. Convergent velocity (Vc) is sum of
[5]. subducting plate velocity (Vsup) and overriding
plate velocity (Vo) (modified from Acocella and
Funiciello, 2009) [6].

4.2. Rate of subduction

The rate of subduction could be defined as convergent velocity (Vc) which is sum of subducting plate
velocity (Vsup) and overriding plate velocity (Vo) [6] (figure 3).
The subducting plate velocity (Vsup) which is included in rate of subduction (Vc) has been observed
together with depth beneath volcanic arc to study about factor controlling the location of volcanic arc,
using a simple mathematical model [16]. It was a further study of previous research about temperature
structure in subduction zones which was concluded that temperature of the slab and the mantle wedge
which controlled the location of the arc, depend on a single dimensionless distance Vr δ2/κ, where V is
the rate of plate convergence (or Vc based on previous description), r is distance from the corner of the
wedge, δ is the dip of the slab and κ is thermal diffusivity (figure 4). In this scaling, the maximum
temperature in the mantle wedge Tr is given by equation 1:

𝛽
𝑉𝑟𝛿 2
𝑇𝑟 ≈ 𝑇0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [−𝐵 ( 𝜅
) ] (1)

where T0 is a scale temperature, and B, β and γ are constants, the values of which depend on the details
of the flow near the top of the slab.
The study has calculated the steady state wedge, Tr, plotted against Vr δ2/κ, and it is confirmed that
Tr is proportional with the dimensionless distance (figure 5).

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 6th ITB International Geothermal Workshop (IIGW2017) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 103 (2017) 012021 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/103/1/012021

The greater the number of Vδ, the more the temperatures it needs to reach the condition of melting
slab to produce magma and form the volcanic arc.

Figure 4. Schematic of subduction zone Figure 5. Maximum temperature in the

(modified from England and Katz, 2010) wedge, Tr, as a function of dimensionless
distance from the wedge corner, Vrd2/k,
where V is convergence speed, δ is dip of the
slab, and κ is thermal diffusivity [6].

4.3. Direction of subduction

Plate motion vectors can be used to predict deformation which produced as subduction outcome. Where
subduction is strongly oblique and steep, arc-parallel strike-slip faults can form. These frequently run
along the volcanic arc and have associated with permeable secondary structures whose orientations can
be determined similarly [18].
According to Hochstein and Browne [19], reservoir permeability in vapour-dominated system is >10
mD and surrounded by impermeable rock which has permeability <1-3 mD to prevent flooding from
the outside. Generally, fault has strong impact in creating secondary permeability in reservoir. In
Kamojang, the outer zone of reservoir has low permeability, 0,02 mD and in the inner zone is 150 mD
[20]. Meanwhile, the outer zone of Darajat reservoir is about 0,04-0,16 mD [21]. The occurence of
strike-slip which is affected by shear stress will generate transtension which could enrich the
permeability of reservoir. Therefore, the absence of shear faulting could support the vapour dominated
system to be occurred.
Great Sumatera dextral strike-slip was formed parallel with the arc. Gunderson, et al., [22] and
Santoso, et al., [23], have mapped north striking faults and identified half graben and graben structures.
Intensive structure in Sumatera caused the high permeability of reservoir and surrounded rock. It
generates the high rates of water inflow and produce liquid phase in reservoir. Study about exclusivity
of the vapour dominated geothermal system in West Java concluded that shear stress on faults that cross
through the reservoir and associated enhanced permeability possibly play an important role in preventing
a vapour-dominated system from developing [14].
Moving south from Sumatera to Java there is a change from oblique to perpendicular subduction.
While geothermal system in Sumatera are highly affected by Great Sumatera Fault, West Java
geothermal system have not been associated with regional faults like Sumatera’s. West Java can be
considered to be located at the transitional zone between oblique subduction in Sumatera and frontal
subduction at the eastern part of West Java [24]. In West Java, oblique subduction occured during
Cretaceous while orthogonal subduction during Tertiary periods (figure 6). Each of subduction activity

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 6th ITB International Geothermal Workshop (IIGW2017) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 103 (2017) 012021 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/103/1/012021

has formed different structural pattern, depending on the position of subduction track at that time [25].
These two kinds of subductions in Java tectonic were accommodated by wrench faults in the upper crust
in NW direction.

Figure 6. Evolution of subduction zones and magmatic arc of West Java [26].

The West Java Fault as a major structure has two main NW trending of fault splays that formed Garut
circular structure or Garut Basin by negative flower structure. A research about regional structure in
West Java by Corbett and Leach [27], was conducted to know about deep seated structure and surface

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 6th ITB International Geothermal Workshop (IIGW2017) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 103 (2017) 012021 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/103/1/012021

structure relationship and resulted that the N-S to NNE-SSW trending surface structure is the surface
manifestation of NW-SE to WNW-ESE deep structures extensional system in West Java is N-S.
Movements along laterally offset basement faults generate popup structures and pull-apart grabens
in restraining and releasing bends, respectively [28]. If the vertical component is normal, faults tend to
be listric and to form a negative flower structure, which forms a depressed area [28]. The upper part of
negative flower structure is a pull-apart basin which is bounded by faults. This regional major deep
seated structure’s role in localizing magmatic heat source in an arc-volcanism and secondly, extensional
setting of structure that provide the favourable condition for secondary permeability in fluids interaction
and accumulation [27]. It can be argued that the oblique subduction has a important role in generating
the pathway for intrusion and enhancing the permeability.
On the other hand, the Indo-Australian plate is subducted under the Eurasian plate northwardly at
N200E and at rate of 6-7 cm/yr in West Java area [30]. This orthogonal subduction since Tertiary period
accomodate the appearance of 4 structure pattern in West Java, N-S, N-E, E-W, and N-W trending. The
fault structures of NE-SW trending are associated with oblique subduction activity during Cretaceous
period and has been reactivated during the Early Tertiary tectonic period with compression forces of N-
S trending. This trend has generated fault structures of NS striking as an extensional fault and fault
pattern with NNE-SSW direction as Synthetic Riedel Shear. It can be argued here that West Java Fault
probably the remnant of previous structure style when West Java was in oblique subduction.
There are NE and N-S striking faults found in 5 vapour dominated fields which act as favourable
fault in providing permeability zone. It is interpreted that these structures control the permeability in
reservoir while not intensify the surrounded permeability. That fact is supported by the absence of
shearing faulting which occured during Creataceous period. It caused the permeability in reservoir is
much higher than surrounding so they are able to produce vapour phase fluid. The transtension zone
which controlled the localizing of heat source also support the occurence of intense heating.
It is confirmed that direction of the subduction affected the structure formed at the overriding plate
which can support the act of the geothermal fluid in a geothermal system. The oblique subduction in
Sumatra generates NW-SE striking strike slip which enhance the permeability and caused high rates
water inflow. Its condition is suitable to create the liquid phase reservoir. The other way, transition
subduction that occured in West Java caused the lacking of shearing fault and enhance the higher
permeability in reservoir than surrounding. It support the vapour dominated reservoir to develop.

5. Conclusion
If the multiplicative value of slab dip and rate of subduction of Java is higher than Sumatera, the heat
source in Java tends to be higher, although there is uncertainty in this deduction since they are not the
only factors to be considered in this correlation.
The higher the obliqueness of direction of subduction, the higher the permeability formed in
overriding plate. It is caused by oblique subduction which generally forms extension in transtension
zone with permeable character. The permeability in Java is generally lower than in Sumatera due to the
absence of shearing fault in West Java. It has generated certain geological setting which makes some
area in West Java have significant differences between permeability of reservoir and surrounding rocks.
Coupled with intensive heating from the heat source, it leads vapour dominated geothermal system to
developed in West Java.
However, the precise correlation between kinematic of subduction process and geothermal system at
overriding plate remains unclear. This may be caused by lack of data on exact value of slab dip, rate of
subduction, and distribution of permeability of geothermal system. In order to understand more about
implication of subduction to the geothermal prospectivity, research about act of slab dip and rate of
subduction in structure formation at overriding plate, and further study about localization of vapour
dominated geothermal system in West Java are needed.

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 6th ITB International Geothermal Workshop (IIGW2017) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 103 (2017) 012021 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/103/1/012021

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