Lec Tel Eng 7

Echo in Networks
 Echo is caused by impedance mismatch in the discontinuities in the

transmission line, including repeaters and terminations.
 Good impedance match across the entire system eliminates the cause
of echo or reduces its level.
 In telecommunication networks, there are two-wire and four-wire
circuits. The interfaces of these types of circuits are the major points
of impedance mismatch.
Two-wire and Four-wire Circuit
 While two terminal stations A and B exchange information
(conversation etc.), in principle two distinct unidirectional means of
transmission, called channels, are necessary.
 They are capable of transmitting the information from the sender of
one unit to the receiver of the other.
 These two channels constitute the transmission circuit.
 The emitter and receiver are transducers and most often they are
separate units:
microphone-----receiver
keyboard--------printer
camera----------screen
sensor-----------actuator
 In full duplex mode, the transmission of information takes place
simultaneously in both directions.
 The two units (transducers) thus can emit (transmit) and receive
simultaneously.
 The two channels of the circuit must be available always and this is
typically the case of telephone circuits. For data, this is not
necessary.
Bidirectional communication (full duplex)

 In the half duplex mode, the transmission of information takes place
alternately in each direction. Each unit is normally in a condition of reception,
but leaves this mode in order to send.
Bidirectional Half duplex mode (switchover contacts are shown idle)
 The transmission is bi-directional. This mode is used particularly for certain

radio communications. It has the advantage of requiring only a single radio
channel, but requires a strict conversation protocol.
 In the case of exclusively unidirectional communication, the term simplex is
used.
 Bi-directional signals are usually transmitted either on a two-wire
circuit or a four-wire circuit.
 The 2-wire and 4-wire concept is used in a broader sense (referring to
the channel structure and not the physical medium) and is thus
applicable for any type of transmission medium.
 “Two-wire” simply means transmitting the signals in both directions
in the same physical channel; “four-wire” implies a separate channel
for each direction of transmission.
 The figure shows how a functionally 4-wire type connection can be
implemented on a 2-wire type medium, using different frequency
bands for each direction of transmission.
- microwave link with two different carriers but the same antennas
for both directions;
“Frequency division pseudo-4 wire” radio circuit

Transatlantic system with a single coaxial tube
- transatlantic link with multiple channels, on a single coaxial
cable by frequency shifting the forward channels with respect
to the return channels.
 The intermediate repeater needs to distinguish between the
two forward and return frequency bands by means of filters
and two separate amplifiers, or a single amplifier of double
bandwidth .
Amplification in a 4-wire system using 2-wire medium
 Nearly all subscriber loops of the PSTN make use of functionally 2-
wire type transmission using twisted-wire pairs.
 2-wire lines are extensively used in the subscriber network simply
because they are cheaper than 4-wire lines.
 If the line connection is monitored with an oscilloscope, then it is
impossible to separate signals traveling in opposite directions, since
the signals overlap in time domain.
 Also, it is not possible to separate the signals spectra by filtering,
since the signals overlap in frequency domain.
 The circuit performing the task of 2-wire to 4-wire conversion (or
interfacing) is called a hybrid circuit.
 There are four sets of wire-pair connections: the 2-wire subscriber
loop connection (L), the 4-wire transmit line, the 4-wire receive line
and a balancing circuit or network (N).
 Ideal operation is achieved only if the impedance of the balancing
network is equal to the 2-wire line impedance over the frequency
range of interest (300 ...3400 Hz).
Four-wire transmit
Balancing
Two-wire connection (L)
network (N)
Four-wire receive
Functional diagram of a hybrid circuit

 In the ideal case, half of the received 4-wire signal power moves into
the 2-wire line, and half is dissipated by the balancing network, and no
signal power is transferred back into the 4-wire line through the 4-wire
transmit port.
 Similarly, only half of the signal power from the 2-wire line is
transferred to the 4-wire transmit port.
The operation of an ideal, well-designed hybrid circuit can thus be
summarized:
a) the signal from the 2-wire subscriber line to the 4-wire network
(transmit port) experiences a 3 dB loss
b) the signal from the 4-wire network (receive port) to the 2-wire
subscriber line also experiences a 3 dB loss
c) no signal from the 4-wire network (receive port) is returned back
into the 4-wire network (transmit port).
Long-distance link with “2-wire” and “4-wire” circuits
Here is how it works: If the hybrid balancing network and the two-wire
line have identical impedance, the signal power from the receive pair
divides equally between the balancing network and the two-wire line; thus
no power enters the transmit pair, where it would return to the signal
originator. Similarly, if the impedance of the receive and transmit pair are
identical, the signal power that enters from the two-wire loop divides
equally so that half goes to the transmit pair, while the other to the receive
pair amplifier output where it gets dissipated at the amplifier output
impedance.
The key to a successful hybrid is the balance network, with
impedance that must match the local loop impedance. Any mismatch
between these two results in some undesired signal feeding through when
it is not wanted and line reflections and echoes.
T 4 wire
B 2 wire
R 4 wire

Lec Tel Eng 7

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Lec Tel Eng 7

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Echo in Networks

 Echo is caused by impedance mismatch in the discontinuities in the

Bidirectional communication (full duplex)

Bidirectional Half duplex mode (switchover contacts are shown idle)

 The transmission is bi-directional. This mode is used particularly for certain

“Frequency division pseudo-4 wire” radio circuit

Functional diagram of a hybrid circuit

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