Producing Gas from Its Source

Shale, the most abundant of sedimentary rocks, is finally getting its due. Shale has
long been regarded as a sealing rock that drillers passed through on their way to
striking pay in sandstone or carbonate formations. However, thanks to the right
combination of geology, economics and technology, organic-rich shales are prompt-
ing US operators to lease drilling rights to thousands of acres in a drive to discover
the next shale-gas province.

Charles Boyer Millions of oil or gas wells drilled over the past permeability.3 Furthermore, economic production
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA 150 years have penetrated substantial intervals of depends heavily on completion technology.
shale before reaching their target depths. With so Despite their apparent shortcomings, in the
John Kieschnick much shale exposure, is every dry hole actually a USA, certain shales are being targeted for
Roberto Suarez-Rivera potential shale-gas producer? Certainly not. Shale production—those with the right combination of
Salt Lake City, Utah, USA gas is produced only under certain conditions. shale type, organic content, maturity, perme-
Shale, an abundant sedimentary rock of ability, porosity, gas saturation and formation
Richard E. Lewis
extremely low permeability, is often considered a fracturing. When these formation conditions are
George Waters
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA natural barrier to the migration of oil and gas. In triggered by favorable economic conditions, an
gas shales, the gas is generated in place; the shale unconventional gas play becomes a boom.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Barbara acts as both the source rock and the reservoir. Today’s shale-gas plays are taking off, thanks
Anderson, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA; Walter Arias, Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil; Keith Greaves, Salt Lake City, Utah;
This gas can be stored interstitially within the largely to a growing demand for gas, and
Valerie Jochen, College Station, Texas; Barbara Marin and pore spaces between rock grains or fractures in equally important, to a growing range of
Mark Puckett, Houston, Texas; Camron Miller, Oklahoma City,
Oklahoma; and Jeron Williamson, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
the shale, or it can be adsorbed to the surface of advanced oilfield technologies. This trend is
AIT (Array Induction Imager Tool), ClearFRAC, ECLIPSE, organic components contained within the shale. expanding in the United States, where rising gas
ECS (Elemental Capture Spectroscopy sonde), ELANPlus, Contrast this to conventional gas reservoirs, in prices and consumption of nearly 23 Tcf
FiberFRAC, FMI (Fullbore Formation MicroImager),
geoVISION, Platform Express and SpectroLith are marks which gas migrates from its source rock into a [651,820 million m3] of gas per year are fueling
of Schlumberger. sandstone or carbonate formation where it an increase in onshore drilling. E&P companies
1. Other types of continuous gas resources listed by the accumulates in a structural or stratigraphic trap, are leasing drilling rights to hundreds of thousands
USGS are basin-centered gas, tight gas and coalbed gas.
2. Schenk CJ: “Geologic Definition of Conventional and
often underlain by a gas/water contact. It should of acres, while advanced drilling and completion
Continuous Accumulations in Select U.S. Basins—The come as no surprise, therefore, that gas shales are technologies are helping to extend the boundaries
2001 Approach,” Abstract for AAPG Hedberg Research
Conference on Understanding, Exploring and Developing
considered unconventional reservoirs. of known shale-gas basins. These plays are also
Tight Gas Sands, Vail, Colorado, USA, April 24–29, 2005. Shale gas is produced from continuous gas pushing the boundaries of science, prompting a
3. Matrix permeability refers to the capability of fluids to accumulations, according to the US Geological closer look at this common detrital rock, and
flow through a rock, primarily by way of interstices
between mineral grains that make up the rock, but does Survey (USGS).1 The USGS lists 16 traits, any or spurring development of new instruments and
not include flow through fractures in the rock. all of which may be present in continuous gas techniques to evaluate shale resources.
accumulations.2 Those traits that are particularly In this article, we discuss the conditions
characteristic of gas shale include regional required for shale to generate hydrocarbons,
extent, lack of an obvious seal and trap, absence the conditions required to create shale-gas
of a well-defined gas/water contact, natural reservoirs, and the technology required to exploit
fracturing, estimated ultimate recovery (EUR) and produce those reservoirs. We will also review
that is generally lower than that of a some of the practices used in the Barnett Shale
conventional accumulation and very low matrix of north-central Texas.

36 Oilfield Review
The Hydrocarbon Source they generate oil or gas, depends largely on have an effect on the type of hydrocarbons the
Shale comprises clay- and silt-sized particles that the amount and type of organic material they organic matter will eventually produce.
have been consolidated into rock layers of contain; the presence of trace elements that Most animal or plant material is consumed by
ultralow permeability. Clearly, this description might enhance chemogenesis; and the magnitude other animals, bacteria or decay, so preservation
offers little to commend shale as a target for and duration of heating to which they have usually requires quick burial in an anoxic
exploration and development. However, some been subjected. environment that will inhibit most biological or
shales are known to contain enough organic Organic matter, the remains of animals or chemical scavengers. This requirement is met in
matter—and it doesn’t take much—to generate plants, can be thermally altered to produce oil or lake or ocean settings that have restricted water
hydrocarbons. Whether these shales are actually gas. Before this transformation can take place, circulation, where biological demand for oxygen
capable of generating hydrocarbons, and whether however, those remains must first be preserved exceeds supply, which occurs in waters containing
to some degree. The degree of preservation will

Autumn 2006 37
 less than 0.5 milliliters of oxygen per liter of
Products given off water.4 Even in these settings, however,
from kerogen anaerobic microorganisms can feed off the
CO2, H2O buried organic matter, producing biogenic
Oil methane in the process.
Wet gas Further sedimentation increases the depth of
Dry gas burial over time. The organic matter slowly cooks
No hydrocarbon as pressure and temperature increase in concert
Type I potential
Increasing
with greater burial depths. With such heating,
maturation the organic matter—primarily lipids from
1.5
Hydrogen/carbon ratio

animal tissue and plant matter, or lignin from

Type II
plant cells—is transformed into kerogen.5
Depending on the type of kerogen produced,
further increases in temperature, pressure and
time may yield oil, wet gas or dry gas (left).
Kerogen, an insoluble material formed by
1.0 Type III degradation of organic matter, is the primary
ingredient in the generation of hydrocarbons.
Kerogen has been classified into four broad groups,
each of which has a distinct bearing on what type
of hydrocarbons, if any, will be produced.6
Type IV • Type I kerogen: generated predominantly from
0.5
lacustrine environments and, in some cases,
marine environments. It is derived from algal,
planktonic or other matter that has been
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 strongly reworked by bacteria and microorgan-
Oxygen/carbon ratio isms living in the sediment. Rich in hydrogen
> Evolution of kerogen. A modified Van Krevelen diagram and low in oxygen, it is prone to oil produc-
shows changes to kerogen brought on by increased heat tion, but can also produce gas, depending on
during burial. The general trend in the thermal transformation its stage of thermal evolution. Type I kerogens
of kerogen to hydrocarbon is characterized by generation of
nonhydrocarbon gases, and then progresses to oil, wet gas are not found widely, and are responsible for
and dry gas. During this progression, the kerogen loses only 2.7% of the world’s oil and gas reserves.7
oxygen primarily as it gives off CO2 and H2O; later, it begins to • Type II kerogen: typically generated in reduc-
lose more hydrogen as it evolves hydrocarbons. ing environments found in moderately deep
marine settings. This type is derived primarily
from the remains of plankton that have been
4. Demaison GJ and Moore GT: “Anoxic Environments and 10. Baskin DK: “Atomic H/C Ratio of Kerogen as an Estimate reworked by bacteria. It is rich in hydrogen
Oil Source Bed Genesis,” AAPG Bulletin 64, no. 8 of Thermal Maturity and Organic Matter Conversion,” and low in carbon. It can generate oil or gas
(August 1980): 1179–1209. AAPG Bulletin 81, no. 9 (September 1997): 1437–1450.
5. Kerogen, which literally means “producer of wax,” was 11. Bitumen, organic matter that is soluble in organic with progressive heating and maturation. Sul-
originally used to denote the insoluble organic material solvents, is a thermally degraded derivative of kerogen. fur is associated with this type of kerogen,
found in oil shales of Scotland. The term has been The exact relationship between kerogen, bitumen and
loosely used since its inception, and its meaning has the hydrocarbons that evolve during heating of organic either as pyrite and free sulfur, or in organic
devolved to encompass insoluble organic matter in matter is still being investigated. structures of kerogen.8
sedimentary rock that is the source of most petroleum. 12. Peters KE, Walters CC and Moldowan JM: The
For more on kerogen definitions: Hutton A, Bharati S • Type III kerogen: derived primarily from terres-
Biomarker Guide: Biomarkers and Isotopes in the
and Robl T: “Chemical and Petrographic Classifications Environment and Human History, 2nd Edition. Cambridge, trial plant debris that has been deposited in
of Kerogen/Macerals,” Energy & Fuels 8, no. 6 England: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
(November 1994): 1478–1488. shallow to deep marine or nonmarine environ-
13. Aizenshtat Z, Stoler A, Cohen Y and Nielsen H: “The
6. Tissot BP: “Recent Advances in Petroleum Geochemistry Geochemical Sulphur Enrichment of Recent Organic ments. Type III kerogen has lower hydrogen
Applied to Hydrocarbon Exploration,” AAPG Bulletin 68, Matter by Polysulfides in the Solar-Lake,” in Bjorøy M and higher oxygen content than Types I or II,
no. 5 (May 1984): 545–563. et al (eds): Advances in Organic Geochemistry.
Bordenave M-L: Applied Petroleum Geochemistry. Chichester, England: Wiley (1981): 279–288. and consequently generates mostly dry gas.
Paris: Editions Technip, 1993. 14. Peters et al, reference 12. • Type IV kerogen: typically derived from older
Demaison and Moore, reference 4. 15. Cracking is a process in which high temperature and sediments redeposited after erosion. Prior to
7. Klemme HD and Ulmishek GF: “Effective Petroleum pressure act upon large, heavy hydrocarbon molecules,
Source Rocks of the World: Stratigraphic Distribution causing them to split into smaller, lighter components. deposition, it may have been altered by sub-
and Controlling Depositional Factors,” AAPG Bulletin 75, Under such conditions, oil can be transformed into a gas. aerial weathering, combustion or biological
no. 12 (December 1991): 1809–1851. 16. Peters et al, reference 12. oxidation in swamps or soils. This type of kero-
8. Vandenbroucke M: “Kerogen: From Types to Models 17. Hood A, Gutjahr CCM and Heacock RL: “Organic
of Chemical Structure,” Oil & Gas Science and Metamorphism and the Generation of Petroleum,” gen consists of residual organic matter with
Technology—Revue de l’Institut Français du Pétrole 58, AAPG Bulletin 59, no. 6 (June 1975): 986–996. high carbon content and no hydrogen. It is
no. 2 (2003): 243–269.
18. Fresh cores are most preferred, while outcrop samples considered a form of “dead carbon,” with no
9. Tissot, reference 6. are less desirable, simply because outcrop samples tend
to be degraded through weathering. potential for generating hydrocarbons.9

38 Oilfield Review
 From this discussion, we can generalize that native sulfur, which can later recombine with

Diagenesis
marine or lacustrine kerogens (Types I and II) iron in clays to form pyrite [FeS2], or combine
Biogenic methane
tend to produce oils, while kerogens of terrestrial with the organic matter to form other

Immature zone
organosulfur compounds.13

Biomarkers
origin (Type III) produce gas. Intermediate
blends of kerogens, especially Types II and III, Catagenesis generally occurs as further
are most common to marine shale facies. burial causes more pressure, thereby increasing

Increasing depth and temperature

A theme prevailing within this kerogen heat in the range of approximately 50° to 150°C
classification pertains to hydrogen content. [122° to 302°F], causing chemical bonds to break

Catagenesis
Hydrogen-rich kerogens play a greater role in down within the shale and the kerogen.14

Oil window
generating oil. Conversely, kerogen with lower Hydrocarbons are generated during this process,
amounts of hydrogen will generate gas. After with oil produced by Type I kerogens, waxy oil Oil

hydrogen is depleted from the kerogen, produced by Type II kerogens, and gas produced
generation of hydrocarbons will cease naturally, by Type III kerogens. Further increases in Wet gas
regardless of the amount of available carbon.10 temperature and pressure cause secondary
cracking of the oil molecules, resulting in

Gas window
Kerogen Maturity production of additional gas molecules.15

Metagenesis
Geological processes for converting organic Metagenesis is the last stage, in which Dry gas
material to hydrocarbons require heat and time. additional heat and chemical changes result in
Graphite
Heat gradually increases over time as the organic almost total transformation of kerogen into
matter continues to be buried deeper under carbon. During this stage, late methane, or dry Hydrocarbons generated
increasing sediment load; time is measured over gas is evolved, along with nonhydrocarbon gases > Thermal transformation of kerogen. Generation
millions of years. Through increasing temper- such as CO2, N2 and H2S. In basins where these of hydrocarbons in source rocks is controlled
ature and pressure during burial, and possibly changes take place, temperatures generally primarily by temperature, as the kerogen content
evolves from reactive carbon to dead carbon.
accelerated by the presence of catalyzing range from about 150° to 200°C [302° to 392°F].16 Gas is given off during early diagenesis, primarily
minerals, organic materials give off oil and gas. Overall, this process of kerogen alteration, through biologic activity. Catagenesis takes
This process is complicated and not fully commonly known as “maturation,” produces a place with further burial, during which oil and
understood; however, the conceptual model is series of progressively smaller hydrocarbon gas are given off. With increasing depth and
temperature, any remaining oil is cracked, giving
fairly straightforward. Microbial activity converts molecules of increasing volatility and hydrogen off gas.
some of the organic material into biogenic content, eventually arriving at methane gas. And
methane gas. With burial and heating, the as the kerogen evolves through thermal maturity,
remaining organic materials are transformed its chemical composition progressively changes,
into kerogen. Further burial and heat transform transforming into a carbonaceous residue of Total Organic Content, Kerogen
the kerogen to yield bitumen, then liquid decreasing hydrogen content, eventually ending Weight % Quality
hydrocarbons, and finally thermogenic gas— as graphite.17
< 0.5 Very poor
starting with wet gas and ending at dry gas.11 The preservation and maturation of organic
The process of burial, conversion of organic matter are not unique to gas shales. The model 0.5 to 1 Poor
matter and generation of hydrocarbons can for generating oil and gas is actually the same for 1 to 2 Fair
generally be summed up in three broad steps conventional and unconventional resources. The 2 to 4 Good
(above right). difference, however, is location. In conventional
4 to 12 Very good
Diagenesis begins the process. It is often reservoirs, oil and gas migrate from the source
characterized by low-temperature alteration of rock to the sandstone or carbonate trap. In > 12 Excellent
organic matter, typically at temperatures below unconventional shale-gas reservoirs, hydrocarbons > Organic content of source rock. The minimum
about 50°C [122°F].12 During this stage, oxidation must be produced straight from the source rock. cutoff for shales is usually considered to be 0.5%
and other chemical processes begin to break total organic content (TOC). At the other extreme,
down the material. Biological processes will also Evaluating Source-Rock Potential some geoscientists assert that it is possible to
have too much organic matter. Excess kerogen
alter the amount and composition of organic Source-rock potential is primarily determined can fill pore spaces that might otherwise be
material before it is preserved. At this point, through geochemical analysis of shale samples, occupied by hydrocarbons.
bacterial decay may produce biogenic methane. often in conjunction with detailed evaluation of
With increasing temperatures and changes in pH, logs from previously drilled wells. Geochemical
the organic matter is gradually converted to testing is carried out on whole cores, sidewall better its source potential (above). A variety of
kerogen and lesser amounts of bitumen. cores, formation cuttings and outcrop samples.18 sophisticated geochemical techniques have been
During the early phases of diagenesis, sulfur The primary aim of testing is to determine developed to assess the total organic content
may be incorporated into the organic matter. whether the samples are organic-rich and (TOC) and maturity of samples.
Sulfates in seawater provide the oxidant source whether they are capable of generating TOC values can be obtained from 1-gram
for biodegradation of organic matter by sulfate- hydrocarbons. In general, the higher the [0.0022-lbm] samples of pulverized rock that are
reducing bacterial colonies. These bacteria concentration of organic matter in a rock, the treated to remove contaminants, then com-
release polysulfides, hydrogen sulfide [H2S] and busted at 1,200°C [2,192°F]. Carbon contained

Autumn 2006 39
 • Production index (PI) The temperature at which the maximum
S1 /(S1 + S2) release of hydrocarbons is detected corresponds
Indicator of
thermal maturity to the tip of the S2 peak, and is called Tmax. The
Tmax thermal maturation of a sample can be tied to
• Hydrogen index (HI) the value of Tmax.
S2 /(S1 + S2)
Gas volume

Indicator of unoxidized Vitrinite reflectance is another diagnostic

hydrogen in the system tool for assessing maturation. A key component
of kerogen, vitrinite is a shiny substance formed
• Oxygen index (OI)
S3 /(S1 + S2) through thermal alteration of lignin and
Indicator of gas richness cellulose in plant cell walls. With increasing
temperature, vitrinite undergoes complex,
• Tmax
Temperature of maximum irreversible aromatization reactions, resulting in
hydrocarbon generation increased reflectance.23 Vitrinite reflectance was
300°C 550°C
S1 S2 S3
first used to diagnose the rank, or thermal
> Gas peaks versus temperature. Rock samples are heated in two stages. The S1
maturity, of coals. This technique was later
peak represents milligrams of free hydrocarbons that can be thermally distilled carried over to evaluate thermal maturity of
from one gram of rock during the first stage of heating to about 300°C. The S2 kerogens. Because reflectance increases with
peak records hydrocarbons generated by thermal cracking of kerogen during the temperature, it can be correlated to temperature
second stage of heating up to about 550°C. This curve represents the residual ranges for hydrocarbon generation. These ranges
petroleum potential of the rock, or the quantity of hydrocarbons that the rock
could still produce if burial and maturation continue. The S3 peak charts can be further divided into oil or gas windows.
milligrams of CO2 produced by the kerogen as it is heated. Tmax values give an Reflectivity (R) is measured through a
approximate indication of source-rock maturity. microscope equipped with an oil-immersion
objective lens and photometer.24 Vitrinite-
reflectance measurements are carefully
in the kerogen is converted to CO2 or CO. The stage of heating to 300°C [572°F], free calibrated against glass- or mineral-reflectance
evolved carbon fractions are measured in an hydrocarbons in the rock are released from the standards, and reflectance measurements
infrared cell, and converted to TOC, recorded matrix.20 As heat increases during the second represent the percentage of light reflected in oil
as mass weight percent of rock. If this initial stage to 550°C [1,022°F], volatile hydrocarbons (Ro). When a mean value of vitrinite reflectivity
screening test detects samples of sufficient formed by thermal cracking are released. In is determined from multiple samples, it is
organic richness, they will be subjected to addition to hydrocarbons, the kerogen gives off designated as Rm.
additional testing. CO2 as temperatures climb from 300°C to 390°C As an indicator of thermal maturity, Ro values
To further characterize organic richness, [572°F to 734°F].21 Organic compounds released vary from one organic type to another. This
many geochemical laboratories use a through heating are measured by a flame- means that the onset of hydrocarbon generation
programmed pyrolysis technique developed by ionization detector. in Type I organic matter may be different than in
the Institut Français du Pétrole.19 This method, These measurements, along with temperature, Type II organics. And because the temperature
which has become an industry standard for are recorded on a chart and show three distinct range of the gas window extends beyond that of
geochemical testing of source rock, requires only peaks (above). These peaks give geochemists oil, Ro values for gas will show a corresponding
50 to 100 mg [0.00011 to 0.00022 lbm] of insight into the relative abundance of hydrogen, increase over those of oil. Thus, high maturation
pulverized rock, and can be carried out in about carbon and oxygen in the kerogen.22 With this values (Ro>1.5%) generally indicate the
20 minutes. Each sample is heated in controlled information, geochemists can determine kerogen presence of predominantly dry gas; intermediate
stages through a pyrolysis test. During the first type and potential for oil and gas generation. maturation values (1.1%<Ro<1.5%) indicate gas
with an increasing tendency toward oil
19. Espitalie J, Madec M, Tissot B, Mennig JJ and Leplat P: However, reflectivity is a measure of reflectance. generation at the lower end of the range. Wet gas
“Source Rock Characterization Method for Petroleum Reflectance is a ratio of the light reflected from a
Exploration,” paper OTC 2935, presented at the 9th surface to the light directed onto that surface—the ratio can be found still lower in the range
Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, of reflected radiation to incident radiation. This value (0.8%<Ro<1.1%). Lower values (0.6%<Ro<0.8%)
May 2–5, 1977. can change, up to a point, depending on the thickness,
20. Other variations on this method use slightly different and hence, opacity, of a surface. If that surface is thick indicate predominantly oil, while Ro<0.6% points
temperature ranges. enough to prevent light from being transmitted through to immature kerogen.
the surface, then reflectance reaches a maximum. This
21. Alixant J-L, Frewin N, Nederlof P and Al Ruwehy N: By themselves, Ro values can sometimes be
is the reflectivity of a surface.
“Characterization of the Athel Silicilyte Source
Rock/Reservoir: Petrophysics Meet Geochemistry,” 25. For well over a century, tiny, cone-shaped fossils known misleading, and should be weighed along with
Transactions of the SPWLA 39th Annual Logging as conodonts were a mystery for paleontologists. Found
in Late Cambrian and Triassic formations, conodonts other measurements. Other common indicators
Symposium, Keystone, Colorado, May 26–29, 1998,
paper LL. were long suspected of being teeth. In the early 1990s, of maturity involve the thermal alteration index
this supposition was verified through the aid of electron
22. Peters KE: “Guidelines for Evaluating Petroleum Source (TAI), based on microscopic examination of
microscopy. For more on conodont research: Zimmer C:
Rock Using Programmed Pyrolysis,” AAPG Bulletin 70,
“In the Beginning Was the Tooth,” Discover 14, no. 1 spore color; pyrolysis temperature evaluation;
no. 3 (March 1986): 318–329.
(January 1993): 67–68.
23. Peters KE and Cassa MR: “Applied Source Rock and, to a lesser extent, conodont alteration index
26. For more on SpectroLith technology: Barson D,
Geochemistry,” in Magoon LB and Dow WG (eds): (CAI), based on examination of tiny fossilized
Christensen R, Decoster E, Grau J, Herron M, Herron S,
The Petroleum System—From Source to Trap:
Guru UK, Jordán M, Maher TM, Rylander E and White J:
AAPG Memoir 60. Tulsa: AAPG (1994): 93–120.
“Spectroscopy: The Key to Rapid, Reliable Petrophysical
24. The terms reflectance and reflectivity tend to be used Answers,” Oilfield Review 17, no. 2 (Summer 2005): 14–33.
interchangeably, with the former being more common.

40 Oilfield Review
 AIT Induction Resistivity 90*
* Depth of investigation, inches
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
AIT Induction Resistivity 10
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
Gamma Ray
AIT Induction Resistivity 20 Photoelectric Effect
Caliper
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 0 20
6 in. 16
AIT Induction Resistivity 30 Density Porosity
Bit Size Acquisition cartridge
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 0.4 ft3/ft3 –0.1
6.3 in. 16.3
AIT Induction Resistivity 60 Neutron Porosity
Washout
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 0.4 ft3/ft3 –0.1

Organic-rich
gas shale Americium-beryllium
source

Bismuth-germanium-oxide
crystal and photomultiplier tube

Electronics

Heat sink

> ECS Elemental Capture Spectroscopy tool. The

ECS sonde records and analyzes the gamma ray
spectra induced by neutron interactions with the
Typical
shale formation. From these measurements, accurate
estimations of formation components, including
clay, carbonate, anhydrite, quartz, feldspar and
mica, can be obtained.

> Gas shale log. Gas shales are characterized by high gamma ray activity,
high resistivity, low bulk density and low photoelectric effect compared
with normal shales.

teeth.25 Owing to the popularity of vitrinite Well logs are also used to ascertain the advanced interpretation techniques to calculate
reflectance, these other indicators are often complex mineralogy of a shale and to quantify gas saturations and gas in place, and to
correlated to Ro values. the amount of free gas in the pores of the source characterize lithology. The ECS sonde uses
Other shale properties can be estimated rock. Using a combination of conventional triple- neutron-induced, capture gamma ray spectro-
from well logs, which in some cases, produce combo and geochemical logs, Schlumberger scopy to measure elemental concentrations of
distinctive signatures (above). High gamma ray petrophysicists can determine the organic silicon, calcium, sulfur, iron, titanium, gadolinium,
activity is thought to be a function of kerogen in carbon content of the shale and calculate for chlorine, barium and hydrogen (above).
the shale. Kerogen generally creates a reductive adsorbed gas. Geochemical logs also enable These data are used with interpretation
environment that drives the precipitation of petrophysicists to differentiate types of clays and techniques such as SpectroLith lithology
uranium, which influences the gamma ray their respective volumes, information critical for processing of spectra from neutron-induced
curve. Resistivity may be high because of high calculating producibility and for determining gamma ray spectroscopy tools. The SpectroLith
gas saturations, but varies with fluid content which fluid to use during subsequent hydraulic technique generates a log that displays the clay,
and clay type. Bulk densities are often low fracturing treatments. quartz-feldspar-mica, carbonate, and pyrite or
because of clay content and the presence of In the Barnett Shale and beyond to other anhydrite fractions of the formation.26 The
kerogen, which has a low specific gravity of 0.95 basins, the ECS Elemental Capture Spectroscopy elements used in SpectroLith processing do not
to 1.05 g/cm3. sonde and Platform Express integrated wireline occur in kerogen; hence, the lithology is
logging tool are being used in conjunction with

Autumn 2006 41
accurately represented but does not include the formation brittleness, thereby improving as outcrop sections, geological field maps of
organic matter. By contrast, the logs measured fracture initiation in horizontal wells. organic-rich shales and data from earlier wells
with a Platform Express tool are affected by These analyses form the basis for maps can be instrumental in developing preliminary
kerogen. For example, the gamma ray activity for showing stratigraphy, kerogen maturity, and estimates of shale gas in place. In particular, mud
kerogen is generally quite high because of the temperature versus depth. When complemented logs from earlier wells point to gas shows
presence of uranium in a reductive environment, by mud-log evaluation and petrophysical analysis, encountered at depth and record chromato-
as described previously. Relying only on the this information helps geoscientists characterize graphic analysis and flame ionization detector
gamma ray log to quantify clay would result in an variability in kerogen maturity and explore for readings of the gas, in addition to lithology.
overestimation of clay content. However, using locations where commercial gas accumulations Formation cuttings, which are customarily sieved,
the combination of ECS and Platform Express may exist. After drilling begins, newly acquired washed and dried before being collected in
inputs will limit the potential for lithologic errors drill cuttings or cores are tested to evaluate shale sample envelopes, are often retained for future
and allow for quantification of kerogen and mineralogy and organic content. analysis. When available, these cuttings can be
porosity through differences between ECS and sent for laboratory analysis of organic content
Platform Express measurements (below). Evaluating Gas in Place and maturity.
The Barnett Shale montage shows the Long-term shale-gas production at economic During the early stages of a gas shale drilling
integration of logging data, lithology and rates depends primarily on the volume of gas in campaign, coring will play a significant role in a
mineralogy interpretations and fluid evaluations. place, completion quality and matrix perme- formation-evaluation program. Shale cores
This montage of ECS and Platform Express ability. Gas in place is often the critical factor for provide direct measurements that geoscientists
measurements helps the operator to quantify gas evaluating the economics of a play, and can take use to determine gas in place.
in place and determine where to place precedence over matrix permeability and Gas is contained within pore spaces and
perforations based on mineralogy and perme- completion quality. fractures, or attached to active surface sites on
ability. The interpreted mineralogy and porosity Extensively developed basins, in which shale the organic matter contained within a shale (next
are also helpful in planning where to land lateral gas represents the current endgame in produc- page). Together, this combination of interstitial
wellbores. In some areas, operators use the tion, usually offer a plethora of data from field gas and adsorbed gas make up the total gas
mineralogy curve to identify quartz, calcite or studies and previously drilled wells. Therefore, content of a shale. By ascertaining proportions of
dolomite in the shale. These minerals increase prior to drilling new wells, historical records such interstitial and adsorbed gas under reservoir
conditions, geoscientists can calculate gas in
place using a variety of techniques.
Starting at the wellsite, freshly cut core is
prepared for shipment to a core-analysis
laboratory. Segments of this core may be sealed
in canisters and sent to specially equipped
laboratories for canister desorption tests. These
tests measure the volume and composition of gas
released from the core as a function of time.
Canister desorption measures total gas, but does
not measure proportions of adsorbed and
interstitial components, or assess their pressure
dependence. Therefore, other measurements
must be brought into play.
Laboratory personnel place finely crushed
shale into a sample chamber, then pressurize it.
Holding the sample chamber at constant
reservoir temperature, analysts can develop
adsorption isotherms that establish realistic PVT
relationships for the shale gas (see “The
Kerogen
Langmuir Isotherm,” page 44).
Another specialized technique for analyzing
low-permeability, low-porosity formation samples
was developed by TerraTek, a Schlumberger
company.27 The proprietary pyrolysis technique,

> Scanning electron microscope photograph of kerogen in shale. The presence of organic matter 27. The TerraTek facility in Salt Lake City, Utah, has been
established as the Schlumberger Geomechanics
contributes to the accumulation of hydrocarbons in shales in the form of adsorbed gas on surface- Laboratory Center of Excellence.
active sites within the porous organic matter. The kerogen also creates mixed-wettability conditions of
the shale matrix, whereby shale regions close to kerogen sites are predominantly oil wet, and regions
away from kerogen sites are water wet. (Photograph courtesy of Barbara Marin, TerraTek.)

42 Oilfield Review
 Moved Water
Moved Hydrocarbon
Water Bound Water
Gas 0.2 ft3/ft3 0
Dolomite Bound Water Adsorbed
Calcite Gas in Place
Water
Carbonate 0 Bcf 150
Kerogen 0.2 ft3/ft3 0
Gamma Ray Gas in Place
Pyrite
Effective Porosity
Quartz Bcf/mi2 150
150 gAPI 300 Shale Permeability 0
Washout Bound Water 0.2 ft3/ft3 0 Free Gas
Montmorillonite Free Water 1 mD 1e-05
Gamma Ray Resistivity Deep Neutron Porosity Total Gas
Illite Water Total Organic
0 gAPI 150 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 0.4 ft3/ft3 -0.1 Chlorite Hydrocarbon Carbon (TOC) 0 scf/tonUS 400
Caliper Resistivity Shallow Density Porosity ELANPlus Volumes Total Porosity Water Saturation ELANPlus TOC Adsorbed Gas
4 in. 14 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 0.4 ft3/ft3 -0.1 1 vol/vol 0 0.2 ft3/ft3 0 1 ft3/ft3 0 0 g/g 0.25 0 scf/tonUS 400

> Montage of Barnett Shale log data derived from Platform Express and ECS logs. The first three tracks present measurements from the Platform
Express tool. Track 4 presents results of a generalized gas shale petrophysical model based on Platform Express and ECS data that have been
processed through ELANPlus advanced multimineral log analysis. This program helps to quantify mineralogy, kerogen and gas-filled and water-
filled porosity. The remaining tracks quantify total and effective porosity, water saturation, TOC content, matrix permeability, gas in place and
cumulative gas. Gas in place and cumulative gas values are calculated for both free and adsorbed gas. Track 4, in particular, illustrates some of
the factors that underlie the success of this shale-gas play. In addition to kerogen content and gas-filled porosity, the Barnett Shale contains
significant amounts of quartz and carbonates, which make the formation more brittle, and thus easier to fracture. Clay mineralogy is also
dominated by illite, which tends to be relatively nonreactive to stimulation fluids.

Autumn 2006 43
known as Tight Rock Analysis (TRA), provides capacity of gas by organic matter, as a function of measurements, adsorption isotherms and TRA
comprehensive evaluation of gas shale samples reservoir pressure.28 TRA gas-filled porosity gas-filled porosity provide a complete description
(next page, top). measurements provide a direct measurement of of gas in place. This information provides critical
Adsorption isotherm measurements allow a interstitial gas as a function of reservoir pressure. inputs for reservoir modeling, and indicates the
direct evaluation of the maximum adsorption When combined with canister desorption relative contributions of interstitial and adsorbed
gas to the induced-fracture system, as a function
of drawdown and depletion.
Experience gained through core analysis has
shown that mature, thermogenic shales are
predominantly saturated by interstitial gas, with
The Langmuir Isotherm a fraction of adsorbed gas that varies from 50% to
10%. By contrast, immature, biogenic shales are
predominantly saturated by adsorbed gas with
smaller amounts of interstitial gas. Also, various
100
proportions of water, gas and mobile-oil
90 saturations occupy the pore spaces of shales.
Langmuir volume
80 Gas volume at infinite pressure The best reservoir-quality shales typically
contain reduced oil and water saturations, high
Adsorbed gas, scf/tonUS

70 rm
sothe interstitial gas saturation and thus higher
muir i
g Vl p
Lan relative permeability to gas. Correspondingly,
60
Gs =
(p + Pl ) these shales have moderate to high organic
50
Gs = gas-storage capacity (scf/ton) content, a high degree of organic maturation,
40
p = reservoir pressure (psia) and texture that reflects a preservation of
Vl = Langmuir volume (scf/ton)
30
Pl = Langmuir pressure (psia)
porosity and permeability during burial. Thus, to
20
Langmuir evaluate gas in place, laboratory measurements
pressure
must provide direct evaluation of gas and liquid
10 Gas-storage capacity = 1/ 2 Langmuir volume
saturations, porosity, matrix permeability,
0 organic content and maturation, as well as the
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000
capacity of the organic matter to adsorb gas at a
Pressure, psia
constant reservoir temperature as a function of
> Adsorbed gas storage. The Langmuir isotherm (blue) shows the quantity reservoir pressure.
of adsorbed gas that a saturated sample will contain at a given pressure. Finally, log analyses, particularly when
Decreasing pressure will cause the methane to desorb in accordance with
behavior prescribed by the blue line. Gas desorption increases in a calibrated to actual measurements of reservoir
nonlinear manner as the pressure declines. Thus, in this example, a sample properties supplied through core analysis,
at 3,500-psi [24.2-MPa] pressure will have about 74 scf/ton adsorbed provide the basis for reliable predictions of gas in
methane. As pressure first decreases from this point, the amount of gas
place through porosity and gas-saturation
desorbed is relatively small. Once the pressure has declined to 500 psi
[3.4 MPa], one-half of the total gas that this shale could adsorb will have calculations. Log-based models can also be used
been desorbed. The remaining volume will desorb over the final 500 psi. to predict properties in adjacent wells across
regions of limited lateral extent, thus facilitating
the evaluation of basin-scale heterogeneity.

Methane adsorbed to the surface of kerogen is sample is subsequently placed in a sealed vessel Evaluating Reservoir Potential
in equilibrium with free methane in the shale. and subjected to increasing pressure in a Evaluating the reservoir potential of a gas shale
The Langmuir isotherm was developed to methane atmosphere at a constant tempera- involves weighing positive or negative contribu-
describe this equilibrium at a specific, con- ture. The quantity of gas sorbed at constant tions from a variety of factors, including shale
stant temperature. Two parameters describe temperature and increasing pressures is mea- mineralogy and texture, clay maturity, kerogen
this relationship: Langmuir volume, which sured and used to create the isotherm by fitting type and maturity, fluid saturation, adsorbed and
describes the gas volume at infinite pressure; the results to the Langmuir formula (above). interstitial storage mechanisms, burial depth,
and Langmuir pressure, which is the pressure In shales that follow a similar curve, temperature and pore pressure. In particular,
at which gas content equals one-half the adsorption is a very efficient mechanism for porosity, fluid saturation, permeability and
Langmuir volume. storing gas at low pressures (less than 100 psi); organic content are important for determining
Langmuir parameters are measured through by contrast, it is not efficient at high pres-
28. Measurements can be conducted with a single gas,
core analysis, using a sample of crushed shale sures, as sorbed gas approaches its asymptote usually methane, or with a gas mixture that is
that is heated to drive out adsorbed gases. The at greater than 2,000 psi [13.8 MPa]. representative of the mixture obtained by analysis
of the produced gas.
29. Schenk, reference 2.

44 Oilfield Review
 Bound
Sample Bulk Grain Dry Grain Water Gas Mobile Oil Gas-Filled Hydrocarbon Bound
Number Density Density Density Porosity Saturation Saturation Saturation Porosity Saturation Clay Water Permeability TOC
% of bulk % of pore % of pore % of pore % of bulk % of bulk % of bulk
g/cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3 volume volume volume volume volume volume volume nD wt %
1 2.48 2.622 2.645 6.65 15.16 81.4 3.43 5.42 0.5 6.21 270 3.77
2 2.436 2.559 2.584 6.26 18.5 76.44 5.05 4.79 1.29 7.03 230 6.75
3 2.48 2.633 2.652 6.87 15.43 83.9 0.66 5.77 0.5 6.8 270 3.36
4 2.327 2.487 2.509 7.74 13.09 83.02 3.87 6.43 0.73 6.67 347 7.41
5 2.373 2.539 2.558 7.58 11.17 85.92 2.9 6.52 0.34 2.63 359 5.95
6 2.461 2.605 2.63 6.87 16.26 80.42 3.32 5.53 0.99 7.19 298 5.04

> TerraTek Tight Rock Analysis technique. Specialized core measurements characterize grain density, porosity, fluid saturations, permeability and TOC of
gas shales. In this particular dataset, gas saturation, porosity and permeability measurements indicate good reservoir potential.

whether a shale shows potential for further a function of depth. These data form the basis for
Parameter Minimum Value
development (right). estimating the potential for economic production,
Reservoir evaluation is complicated by the identifying reservoir units to be targeted for Porosity > 4%
fact that shale gas is produced from formations completion, and developing cost-benefit assess- Water saturation <45%
that are notoriously heterogeneous. Shale ments of lateral and vertical completions.
Oil saturation < 5%
qualities can vary abruptly in vertical and lateral The greatest limit to gas production from
directions, with intervals of high reservoir shale may lie in the pore throats of the rock. Permeability >100 nanodarcies
potential juxtaposed to sections of poorer quality. TerraTek researchers have compared well Total organic content > 2%
And reservoir-quality shales may expand or pinch productivity to matrix-permeability values over a
> Critical reservoir parameters. Experience in
out laterally, within relatively short distances, variety of shale types and basins. Empirical
multiple US shale-gas basins has shown that
while gross shale thickness remains unchanged. evidence from these studies suggests that shale-gas reservoirs must meet or exceed these
Characterizing reservoir quality and under- permeabilities below 100 nanodarcies define a parameters to be commercially viable.
standing the underlying depositional and lower limit to economic production of shale-gas
environmental causes of local heterogeneity thus plays. This limit appears to be independent of
pose fundamental challenges to the exploration completion quality and gas content. the rock matrix can be compensated somewhat
and production of shale-gas reservoirs. Ultimately, the key to finding gas shale through permeability caused by fractures in the
Geologists evaluate heterogeneity at a reservoirs lies in pinpointing the concurrence of source rock. Operators who target shales for
wellbore scale by analyzing cores and well logs. favorable geologic parameters such as thermal production must therefore consider system
Shale typing by petrological analysis of drill history, gas content, reservoir thickness, matrix permeability; that is, the combined permeability
cuttings, complemented by TOC measurements rock properties and fractures.29 of a shale’s matrix and its natural fractures.
and log analysis from multiple wells, allows To expose more wellbore to the reservoir and
preliminary evaluation of reservoir potential Developing the Reservoir take advantage of natural fractures in a field,
within a basin. Through analysis of these To produce gas to surface, rock must contain operators are turning increasingly to horizontal
measured data, geoscientists can determine gas pathways sufficient to promote migration of the drilling (below). This technique, though not
in place, reservoir potential, and its variability as gas into a wellbore. In shales, low permeability of new to the industry, has been instrumental in

Bedding plane Bedded pyrite nodules

Bedded pyrite nodules

Natural fractures traversing

the complete borehole

Transversely oriented
drilling-induced fractures
Bedding plane
> Drilling through fractures. The FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager log shows fractures and bedding features encountered by a horizontal well. Drilling-
induced fractures appear along the top and bottom of the well path, but stop along the sides of this wellbore, where stress is highest. Preexisting natural
fractures penetrated by the wellbore appear as vertical lines that cut across the top, bottom and sides of the wellbore. Darker pyrite nodules are quite
distinctive, and are seen running parallel to bedding planes.

Autumn 2006 45
expanding the success of shale-gas
developments. The role of horizontal drilling is
clearly demonstrated by the growth of
development in the Barnett Shale in the Fort
Worth basin of north central Texas. Starting with
a vertical well drilled by Mitchell Energy in 1981,
it took 15 years to surpass 300 wells in this play. 4,000

In 2002, Devon Energy, after acquiring Mitchell,

began drilling horizontal wells. By 2005, more 3,500

than 2,000 horizontal wells had been drilled.

Furthermore, experience in the Barnett Shale 3,000
has shown that horizontal wells in this play
attain approximately three times the EUR of
2,500
vertical wells, for only about twice the cost.30

Gas pressure, psia

Other technologies have been vital to
developing the play. Using 3D seismic 2,000

interpretation, operators are better able to plan

horizontal wellbore trajectories. This technology 1,500
has helped operators expand the Barnett Shale
play into areas previously thought unproductive 1,000
due to a water-bearing, karsted Ellenburger
dolomite that underlies the shale in many areas.
500
Operators generally seek to open up more of
the shale surface area to production by drilling
perpendicular to the direction of maximum 0

horizontal stress, thereby increasing the

likelihood of crossing fractures. However,
conventional directional drilling techniques can
be hampered by torque and drag, which are
generated by sliding and rotating as drillers build
> ECLIPSE reservoir simulation. The modeled shale horizon is color-coded to show pressure-depletion
inclination and azimuth in their wellbores. In
trends after 15 years of production from nine vertical gas wells. Hydraulically induced and naturally
more ambitious well trajectories, torque and occurring fractures produce a web of interconnected pathways through which gas is produced from
drag can limit lateral reach and make it difficult the formation to the wells.
to log the well. Rotary steerable systems have
been used to circumvent these problems while
producing straighter, less tortuous wellbores.31 In
some cases, inclination varies by less than 0.5° For infill-drilling applications, borehole pore spaces within a tight shale matrix, the gas
from heel to toe.32 images are helpful in identifying hydraulic adsorbed on organics within a shale, and the free
To address the problem of logging in horizontal fractures from offset wells. This allows operators gas contained in natural fractures within the
wells, LWD assemblies, such as the geoVISION to focus stimulation treatments on parts of the shale formation.
imaging-while-drilling service, have been reservoir that have not been fractured previously.
employed in some wells. This tool produces The presence and orientation of drilling-induced 30. Waters G, Heinze J, Jackson R, Ketter A, Daniels J
and Bentley D: “Use of Horizontal Well Image Tools
resistivity images and wellbore formation-dip fractures, or the absence of such fractures, can to Optimize Shale Reservoir Exploitation,” paper
analysis along the length of the wellbore. Imaging prove useful in ascertaining variability in stress SPE 103202, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas,
logs can provide structural, stratigraphic and and mechanical properties along the length of September 24–27, 2006.
mechanical-property information for optimizing the lateral wellbore. This information has helped 31. For more on rotary steerable systems: Williams M:
“Better Turns for Rotary Steerable Drilling,” Oilfield
subsequent well completions. For example, reduce completion difficulties and associated Review 16, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 4–9.
imaging enables comparison of natural formation costs in the Barnett Shale.34 32. In a directional well, the heel is found between the
fractures to drilling-induced fractures, helping the vertical and horizontal sections of the well, while the
toe lies at the other end of the horizontal section.
operator determine optimal targets for perforating Shale Reservoir Simulation 33. Waters et al, reference 30.
and stimulating the well. In the Barnett Shale play, Most reservoir simulators model conventional 34. Waters et al, reference 30.
images from these logs are used to identify gas reservoirs, where gas is stored in a single- 35. Slickwater treatments use a low-viscosity, water-base fluid
to transport proppant into hydraulically created fractures.
subseismic faults and associated swarms of porosity system. Gas shales require a different
36. Waters et al, reference 30.
natural fractures known to produce water from approach. Finite-difference simulators, such as
the underlying karsted Ellenburger dolomite.33 the Shale Gas module in ECLIPSE reservoir
simulation software, consider the gas stored in

46 Oilfield Review
 These reservoir simulators allow operators to Reservoir simulation is particularly impor- shales, typically found at depths between 5,000
incorporate everything they know about the rock tant for its capacity to perform various types of to 10,000 ft [1,524 to 3,048 m].35 In shallower
as they build single-well and full-field models of sensitivity analyses. These analyses include shales or those with low reservoir pressures,
their reservoirs. Reservoir characteristics such optimal well design, weighing horizontal versus nitrogen-foamed fracturing fluids are commonly
as net-pay thickness, reservoir pressure, vertical trajectories; optimal stimulation design, pumped. The fluid, pumped under high pressure,
temperature, gas content, water saturation, regarding number and size of treatments; and fractures the shale. These fractures can extend
natural fracture geometries, matrix porosity, TOC optimal drilling patterns, based on different through the shale for a thousand or more feet
and methane adsorption isotherm functions can spacing scenarios. These analyses provide beyond the wellbore. In theory, the grains of
be easily factored into the models. With this operators with the opportunity to make future proppant wedge into the fractures, holding them
information, operators can estimate gas in place development decisions on the basis of science, open once pumping has stopped.
for their reservoirs. engineering and economics. In the Barnett Shale, stimulation treatments
Matrix permeability measurements and have evolved throughout the life of this play,
hydraulic-fracture geometries resulting from Shale Stimulation starting with small CO2 or N2 foam treatments
post-stimulation modeling and microseismic Natural fractures, while beneficial, usually do not performed on the lower Barnett until the mid-
interpretation can also be incorporated into the provide permeability pathways sufficient to 1980s.36 Operators then began employing
model. Bulk system permeability can be support commercial production in gas shales. massive hydraulic fracturing treatments (below).
estimated by utilizing the model to calibrate to Most gas shales require hydraulic fracturing. These treatments averaged 600,000 galUS
observed gas and water production. By building a Fracturing exposes more shale to the [2,270 m3] of crosslinked gel and 1,400,000 lbm
model that accurately matches actual well pressure drop provided by a wellbore. With [635,000 kg] of sand proppant. Despite boosting
production performance, the operator can closely spaced hydraulic fractures in the shale EUR, high completion costs and low gas prices
predict estimated ultimate recovery for an area along a horizontal lateral wellbore, gas can be resulted in marginal economics for the play.
(previous page). produced even faster. Operators continued to perform massive fracs
Operators frequently pump low-viscosity, until 1997, when Mitchell Energy began
water-base slickwater fluid and proppant
treatments in moderately deep, high-pressure

> Barnett Shale massive frac job. In this single-stage stimulation treatment, more than 100 frac tanks full of water have been trucked in and arranged
along the perimeter of the wellsite. Pumping units, manifolds and monitoring equipment are placed around the wellhead near the center of the site. As
completion processes evolve, fewer resources are now required. The wellbore is now divided into small intervals and stimulated in multiple stages. The
newer approach has improved well performance and reduced completion costs.

Autumn 2006 47
 50

45

40 Small crosslinked or foam fracs: vertical wells

(before 1/1/1991)
Gas rate, MMcf/month

35 Large crosslinked fracs: vertical wells

(between 1/1/1991 and 1/1/1998)
Slickwater fracs: vertical wells
30 (after 1/1/1998)
Water fracs: horizontal wells
25 (after 6/1/2003)

20

15

10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000
Time, days
> Improved performance with evolving technology. As drilling and fracturing technology evolved over the
years, operators in the Barnett Shale saw dramatic improvements over previously employed techniques.

evaluating slickwater stimulation treatments. Although water and sand are commonly used technology to keep the proppants suspended for
These treatments establish long and wide in frac jobs in the Barnett Shale, some operators extended periods of time. ClearFRAC fluids are
fracture fairways using roughly twice the volume in other plays find that not enough proppant has used to transport proppant deep into fractures.
of the massive crosslinked fluid fracs, while been transported into their induced fractures. Except for the proppant itself, the ClearFRAC
pumping less than 10% of the proppant volume. During such fracturing jobs, the fluid might not fluid is free of solids that might reduce fracture
Though well performance was slightly better create fractures wide enough to accommodate permeability, and has been shown to be
than that of massive frac treatments, the the grains of proppant. In other cases, grains compatible with organic-rich shales.37 Fibers
stimulation costs were reduced by about 65%. pumped into a fracture quickly settle out of contained in the FiberFRAC fluid keep proppant
These treatments have become the norm in the suspension from the fluid that transported them. grains in suspension until the fracture closes
Barnett Shale (above). Furthermore, the In either case, the result is a smaller fracture onto the grains, locking them in place. The fibers
reduction in stimulation costs allowed operators that provides less permeability than intended. eventually dissolve, increasing flow through the
to complete the Upper Barnett intervals where To overcome these problems, some operators fracture. Both fluids keep proppant in the
present, thus improving EURs by roughly 20% employ ClearFRAC polymer-free frac fluid fractures as they slowly close down. Thus
or more. or FiberFRAC fiber-based fracturing fluid fractures stay open once the well is placed
on production.
37. Fredd CN, Olsen TN, Brenize G, Quintero BW, Bui T, Measurements?," Transactions of the SPWLA 47th In the late 1990s, Mitchell began to
Glenn S and Boney CL: “Polymer-Free Fracturing Fluid Annual Logging Symposium, Veracruz, Mexico,
Exhibits Improved Cleanup for Unconventional Natural June 4–7, 2006, paper OOO. experiment with additional stimulation treat-
Gas Well Applications,” paper SPE 91433, presented at 40. Permittivity is the degree to which a medium resists the ments. Refracturing has been most successful in
the SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Charleston, West flow of electric charge.
Virginia, USA, September 15–17, 2004. wells that were originally completed with gelled
41. Faraj B, Williams H, Addison G, McKinstry B,
38. For more on fractures and microseismic technology for Donaleshen R, Sloan G, Lee J, Anderson T, Leal R, fluids. Microseismic monitoring indicates that
monitoring fracture propagation: Bennet L, Le Calvez J, Anderson C, Lafleur C and Ahlstrom J: “Gas Shale
Sarver DR, Tanner K, Birk WS, Waters G, Drew J, these treatments are activating natural fractures
Potential of Selected Upper Cretaceous, Jurassic,
Michaud G, Primiero P, Eisner L, Jones R, Leslie D, Triassic and Devonian Shale Formations, in the WCSB of normal to maximum horizontal stress.38 This
Williams MJ, Govenlock J, Klem RC and Tezuka K: Western Canada: Implications For Shale Gas
“The Source for Hydraulic Fracture Characterization,” activation does not occur as often with viscous
Production,” Gas Research Institute Report GRI-02/0233,
Oilfield Review 17, no. 4 (Winter 2005/2006): 42–57. December 2002. fluids, and refracturing in wells initially
39. Anderson BI, Barber TD, Lüling MG and Sen PN: 42. Curtis JB: “Fractured Shale-Gas Systems,” AAPG completed with slickwater treatments is
“Observations of Large Dielectric Effects on Induction Bulletin 86, no. 11 (November 2002): 1921–1938.
Logs, or, Can Source Rocks be Detected with Induction generally less successful.

48 Oilfield Review
 Gammon
Excello/Mulky
Bakken
Antrim
Niobrara
New Albany
Devonian/Ohio
& Marcellus

Green River

Monterey

McClure
Neal/Floyd &
Cane Creek Conasauga

Lewis & Mancos

Barnett & Woodford Fayetteville

Penn Caney & Woodford

Barnett Woodford

> Organic-rich source-rock basins. This map shows major shale-gas basins in the United States with total resource
potential of 500 to 1,000 Tcf [14.16 to 28.32 trillion m3].

In addition to rising gas prices and improved quadrature signals, typical of conductivity Arkansas. Other organic-rich shales are scattered
horizontal drilling techniques, the development measurements in the area. around the USA, and are being developed in the
of economic and efficient stimulation practices Testing and modeling of several possible mature Illinois, Michigan and Appalachian
was key to the commercial success of gas contributors to quadrature-signal anomalies basins, to name a few (above). As shale-gas
shale wells. revealed that abnormally high dielectric production increases in the USA, operators in
permittivity was the only effect that could other countries will find analog basins that pave
Migration to Future Basins duplicate the large negative quadrature signals the way for increasing shale-gas reserves.
New technologies, or new applications of proven seen in those shales.40 Outside the USA, basin studies are being
technologies, will undoubtedly migrate from one Certain shale formations, known to be source conducted to look for similar potential. In
basin to the next as word of their success rocks in Texas, Oklahoma and Utah, exhibit high western Canada, geologists are taking a closer
spreads. One such application under study dielectric permittivities, and are surrounded by look at the shale-gas potential of the Upper
involves analysis of induction signals to find nonsource-rock shales with low permittivities. Cretaceous Wilrich, Jurassic Nordegg/Fernie and
source rock. The size of the clay platelets, in combination Triassic Doig/Doig Phosphate/Montney forma-
Schlumberger researchers are currently with the presence of pyrite, causes anomalously tions of Alberta and British Columbia.
investigating voltage measurements of induction large dielectric permittivities and provides Geochemical studies of these formations show
logging tools.39 One component of the intergranular space for hydrocarbon generation. potential for future development.41 Currently, the
conductivity signal, called the quadrature, or out- Schlumberger researchers are investigating scarcity of shale-gas plays outside of the USA may
of-phase portion of the signal, is usually quite the extent to which these electrical character- be due to uneconomical flow rates and extended
small. However, certain rock formations cause istics vary between source and nonsource shales. well payouts rather than to an actual absence of
significant changes to this quadrature signal. With further testing and refinements, insights productive shale-gas basins.42 However, the
Examining raw data from AIT Array Induction from ordinary induction logs may prove useful experience gained in US basins will inevitably
Imager Tools, Schlumberger researchers in correlating the quadrature signals of help operators around the world exploit shale
observed large negative quadrature signals shale formations to their hydrocarbon- resources as production from conventional
beyond the range normally expected from shale generating capacity. resources reaches maturity. –MV
zones in the area. By contrast, adjacent Beyond the Fort Worth basin, other shale
sandstones and shales exhibit small, positive plays are found nearby in the Woodford and Caney
shales in Oklahoma and the Fayetteville shale in

Autumn 2006 49