O'Brien Et Al, 2002 APPEA - HRDZ PDF
O'Brien Et Al, 2002 APPEA - HRDZ PDF
O'Brien Et Al, 2002 APPEA - HRDZ PDF
principal factor controlling leakage, whereas hydrocarbon probably similar to that presently seen between the
seepage in the northern Browse Basin, particularly on Exmouth Plateau and the inboard Carnarvon Basin in the
the Yampi Shelf (O’Brien et al, 1998a, 2000), is mostly southern North-West Shelf. The collision in the Bonaparte
associated with progressive top seal failure towards the Basin characteristically resulted in rapid Pliocene
basin margin. subsidence and deposition at both localised and regional
Previous investigations have focussed on the petroleum scales. Pliocene depocentres formed at this time include
exploration implications of leakage and seepage in the the Cartier and Nancar Troughs.
region. In contrast, in this study, several types of The formation of the Timor Trough (Figs 1 and 3)
hydrocarbon seepage and supporting data have been focussed the location of what would become the
used to investigate possible relationships between the Indonesian Through Flow (ITF), an important
distribution and type of seeps, the regional geology and oceanographic feature which now brings hot, saline water
geological history, and the formation of tropical carbonate from the Indonesian Archipelago southwards. From a
banks and reefs in this area. biological view-point, the entry of the hot waters of the
Five distinct areas have been studied (Fig. 1). These ITF, the tropical setting of the Bonaparte Basin and the
are: rapid Pliocene subsidence all combined to provide an
1. The Yampi Shelf, near the Cornea and Londonderry extremely favourable suite of environments for the growth
exploration wells. This is an area of intense gas and of carbonate bank and reef communities. The presence
oil seepage (O’Brien et al, 2000). of abundant hydrocarbon seepage, which in other areas
2. The Heywood Shoals, on which the Heywood–1 has been linked to carbonate formation (Hovland et al,
exploration well was drilled. This is an area of 1987, 1984; Roberts et al, 1987, 1989a,b,c), provides
significant oil seepage. another factor to consider in relation to bank and reef
3. The Sahul Shoals, an area with modest oil seepage. development in this region.
4. The Karmt Shoals, an area of intense oil seepage, and The deep-water channel that now constitutes the Timor
5. The Buller Bank: The Buller Bank lies over the Buffalo Trough was probably particularly critical during times of
oil field. low sea level, when most of the Bonaparte Basin would
This study used Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data have been sub-aerially exposed. This can be seen on
which were acquired and interpreted over the entire Figures 4a, b, c and d, which show the approximate
region to map oil slicks (Fig. 2). SAR coverage over the geomorphology of the region for times when sea-level
region was typically two-fold, though in some areas ranged from present day (Fig. 4a), to 55, 100 and 120 m
coverage was five-fold (O’Brien et al, 2001) These SAR below present day sea-level. These images were generated
data were complemented by regional and 3D seismic by computer in ER-Mapper using AGSO’s digital terrain
data, as well as side-scan sonar and water column model for the region. The -120 m image (Fig. 4d) roughly
geochemical sniffer survey data in some areas. corresponds to how the region would have looked at the
These data have been used to test the premise that the time of maximum lowering of sea level, approximately
formation of carbonate reefs and banks in this area is 18,000 years ago. Clearly, many of the important carbonate
causally related to hydrocarbon seepage. reefs and banks in this area, such as Ashmore Reef,
Cartier Reef and Hibernia Reef, were all either sub-
Regional geology and oceanography aerially exposed, or located very close to the coastline, at
this time. A comparison between Figure 4a (present day)
The large-scale structural architecture, geomorphology and Figure 4d emphasises just how much the
and Neogene fault reactivation history of the Bonaparte geomorphology of this region has been affected by sea-
Basin have all been closely controlled by the collision of level change in the Quaternary.
the Australian and Eurasian Plates. At a regional scale,
this collision induced rapid Pliocene down-warping and RESULTS
flexing of the crust within the outer Bonaparte Basin. The
flexural stresses in turn drove much of the extensional Ages of reefs in the Bonaparte Basin
fault reactivation which resulted in partial to complete
trap breach, and attendant seepage, in the area (O’Brien A significant unknown within the Bonaparte Basin is the
et al, 1996, 1999). Ultimately, the collision resulted in the age of the carbonate banks and reefs in the region, and how
formation the Timor Trough, which is a major foreland the timing of the initiation of bank and reef development
basin system. This trough was produced in the Pliocene relate to tectonism and trap breach during the Neogene.
by the uplift of a major marginal plateau system which The best indications on the ages of carbonate banks and
was then located along the extreme north-eastern flank reefs in the region comes from 3D seismic data (Figs 5a, b
of the Bonaparte Basin (and the attendant down-warping and c). In this paper, we have used interpretations derived
of the thinned crust located between the marginal plateau from the Buller 3D Survey in the northern Bonaparte Basin.
and the inboard Bonaparte Basin). This palaeo-marginal These images effectively represent slices through the 3D
plateau system comprised a significant part of what is seismic data volume, and correspond broadly to surfaces at
now the island of Timor. The relationship of this palaeo- the present day (Fig. 5a), the mid-Pliocene (Fig. 5b) and the
marginal plateau to the inboard Bonaparte Basin was Miocene (Fig. 5c) horizons.
or Sunrise
Tim
Troubadour
Evans Shoals
Sahul
Laminaria
Platform
k
B an
Karmt Shoals Elang
ller
11∞ Bu Bayu
Sahul
Shoals Oliver
Jabiru
Challis
Vu Talbot
Skua
Montara
13∞
Heywood
Shoals
Londonderry
Cornea
lf
S he
m pi
Ya
0 200 km
15∞
10∞
Corallina 1
Laminaria 1
12∞
Elm 1
Skua 1
Woodbine 1
Crux 1
Londonderry 1
Cornea 1
14∞
Scott Reef 1
Gwydion 1
Adele Island 1
16∞
0 200 km
14/OA/1355
These slices suggest that the banks and reefs in the Hydrocarbon seepage and carbonate reef and
Bonaparte Basin were essentially absent in the Miocene
bank formation
(Fig. 5c), but developed in the Pliocene (Fig. 5b), and are
still growing strongly at the present day. These data
indicate that the timing of the onset of reef growth YAMPI SHELF, BROWSE BASIN
broadly coincided with both the timing of Pliocene
The northern Yampi Shelf is an area of significant oil
subsidence and trap breach in this region.
d
relan
e Fo
g en
Neo
sic
ras
Ju cean
O sin
Ba
14/OA/1356
Figure 3. Oblique view (looking northeast) of the bathymetry of the Timor Sea.
and gas seepage (O’Brien et al, 1998a, 2000, 2001). There liquid hydrocarbons prolifically. In contrast, slicks occur
is strong spatial compartmentalisation of the oil and the at only low densities further away from the shoals—the
gas seepage (Figs 6 and 7). This may be due to the Heywood Shoals are effectively a bulls-eye with respect
combined effects of separate oil (Early Cretaceous or to the presence of oil slicks. This observation is supported
Jurassic) and gas (Palaeozoic?) sources, the progressive by recent fluid inclusion investigations of the Heywood–1
failure of the top-seal margin-wards and differences in exploration well (Mark Brincat, CSIRO Petroleum, pers.
the relative permeability of oil and gas (O’Brien et al, comm. 2002) which demonstrate that this structure
2000). previously contained a hydrocarbon column which later
The gas leaks prolifically inboard from the Cornea leaked. Seismic data through the shoals (Fig. 10) show
wells, whereas the oil seepage, defined by the SAR slicks, that the shoals are located directly over a major basin-
is focussed at the basin margin, along the approximate margin fault system.
edge of the regional seal (Fig. 6). The seismic and SAR data, when combined with the
A side-scan sonar investigation (using RV Franklin) of observation that numerous hydrocarbon shows were
the zone of most intense oil seepage on the far inboard encountered in the Heywood–1 exploration well, and the
part of AGSO seismic line 165-09 (Fig. 7) revealed the fact that a palaeo-oil column was present in the structure,
presence of metres-high build-ups on the seafloor (Fig. suggest that the presence of these shoals at this specific
8). These features were concentrated closely around the location may be related to hydrocarbon seepage.
region of high oil slicks density, but were absent
elsewhere. Whilst these build-ups have not yet been SAHUL SHOALS, ASHMORE PLATFORM
sampled successfully, the most plausible explanation is
that they represent biological communities living on the Numerous SAR slicks were detected around the carbonate
seeping hydrocarbons. banks which constitute the Sahul Shoals (Fig. 11). In
particular, these slicks were present around the edges of
HEYWOOD SHOALS, BROWSE BASIN the banks, perhaps suggesting that the cores of the banks
are impermeable to hydrocarbons migrating from depth.
The SAR data acquired over the Heywood Shoals (Fig. No commercial hydrocarbon accumulations have yet
9) suggests that the shoals are an area which is leaking been discovered around the Sahul Shoals, and in general,
a b
c d
14/OA/1357
Figure 4. Pseudo-bathymetry of the Timor Sea for varying sea-levels. 4a. Present day. 4b. Minus 55 m. 4c Minus 100 m. 4d. Minus 120 m.
the number of hydrocarbon shows detected in exploration evidence for seepage in the region. Bishop and O’Brien
wells in this area has also been sparse. These observations also reported the presence of widely distributed
suggest that the amount of hydrocarbons seeping to the thermogenic hydrocarbons within the off-bank sediments
seafloor around the Sahul Shoals is probably quite small. in this area. More recent work on sediment samples
Nevertheless, a close spatial relationship seems to exist around the Karmt Shoals (Edwards and Hulskamp, 1998)
between the seeps and the carbonate build-ups. has also revealed the presence of liquid hydrocarbons,
which they noted were broadly similar to the oil found in
KARMT SHOALS, NANCAR TROUGH the Corallina field to the north.
O’Brien et al (2001) proposed that the numerous SAR
Numerous, dense clusters of SAR slicks were detected slicks present in and around the Karmt Shoals were due
around the edges of the carbonate banks which constitute to a combination of low fault seal capacity in the Nancar
the Karmt Shoals (Figs 12a and b). As with the Sahul Trough, and vigorous secondary and tertiary hydrocarbon
Shoals, these slicks were present around the edges of the migration processes. These workers proposed that
banks, but were absent over the banks themselves. significant Pliocene subsidence within the Nancar Trough
The SAR observations are consistent with the had probably re-invigorated the petroleum system in the
interpretations of Bishop and O’Brien (1998), who region.
presented seismic and Airborne Laser Fluorosensor
a b Reefs present
c 14/OA/1358
Figure 5. Slices through the Buller 3D Survey seismic data. 5a. Present day seafloor. 5b. Approximately Mid-Pliocene. 5c. Approximately
Late Miocene.
Heywood
Li
ne
Shoals
16
5-
09
Londonderry
Major gas seep
Cornea
SAR anomalies
Sniffer survey
14/OA/1367
Figure 6. Oil (via SAR) and gas (bottom water methane via sniffer) seepage on the Yampi Shelf, overlain on bathymetry. Position of AGSO
seismic line YST 165-09 indicated.
300
200
ppm
Methane in
bottom waters
100
SAR oil slicks at
0
NW SE
3694 2694 1694 694 SP
0
0.5
ertiary
Base T
1.0
G.W. O’Brien, K. Glenn, G. Lawrence, A.K. Williams, M. Webster, S. Burns and R. Cowley
Basement
tian
e Ap
Lat 14/OA/1368
Figure 7. AGSO seismic line 165-09, showing offset of gas (bottom water methane) and oil (via SAR) seepage. Oil seeps are located principally at edge of seal.
Influence of hydrocarbon migration and seepage on benthic communities in the Timor Sea, Australia
14/OA/1360
N
Build-ups over
seeps
Side-Scan Sonar Seafloor
build-ups over oil seeps
(line 165-09)
als
ho
dS
oo
yw
He
gh
ou
thr
ine
ic l
ism
Se
14/OA/1359
A MODEL FOR CARBONATE seeps. Where seeps are absent, so (generally) is the evidence
BANK AND REEF DEVELOPMENT for significant contemporary carbonate bank formation.
From our observations, the following simple, three-
The data presented in this paper suggest that a strong stage model is proposed. This model proposes that the
spatial, and probably causal, relationship exists between reefs and the build-ups in the region formed by a relatively
the location of hydrocarbon seeps in the Timor Sea and the simple, sequential process. It grossly understates what in
presence (or absence) of carbonate banks and reefs. The reality would undoubtedly be very complex systems. The
key linking feature between a wide range of features, from model is as follows.
small, seafloor build-ups, to isolated carbonate shoals such Firstly, an active petroleum system was established
as Heywood Shoals, to large clusters of banks such the involving the formation of charged traps (Fig. 14a) and
Karmt Shoals, is that they are all associated with modern active migration fairways.
3
Two-way time (s)
Figure 10. AGSO seismic line showing that Heywood Shoals are located over major, basin margin fault system. Significant SAR slicks present
around Heywood Shoals.
Subsequently, in the Neogene, collision-related collision-related subsidence (Fig. 14c). The ability of the
faulting induced hydrocarbon seepage above charged localised banks to keep pace with the rapid Pliocene
hydrocarbon accumulations (Fig. 14b) or migration subsidence resulted in the development of apparently
fairways. As a result, small, localised seafloor (chemo- isolated banks (Fig. 14c) which were surrounded by
lithotrophic) biological carbonate communities much deeper water (in some cases up to 400 m).
developed, and used the hydrocarbons as a food source. The observations presented in this paper indicate that
These communities eventually formed significant, an intimate association exists between the evolution of
topographically positive features. These higher relief the petroleum systems in the Timor Sea and the
features were subsequently preferentially colonised by development of key biological systems, and biological
an assortment of reef- and bank-building biota. diversity, in the region. The fact that the genetically-rich
It is probable that initial reef colonisation occurred carbonate communities in this area are probably causally
preferentially during periods of relatively low sea level, related to natural hydrocarbon seepage, and to the
when the areas around the reefs were located at much attendant processes which drove that seepage, will
shallower water depths (perhaps less than 40 m) than present a series of almost unique exploration and
today, and the seafloor was well within the photic zone. development (especially engineering) and conservation
Rapid growth of the bank systems was facilitated by challenges in this important region.
rising sea level, which was in turn driven principally by
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BISHOP, D.J., AND O’BRIEN, G.W., 1998—A multi-
disciplinary approach to definition and characterisation
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Sea, APPEA Journal, 38 (1), 93–114.
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WEBSTER. M., LEE, J., COWLEY, R., AND BURNS, S. AHARON, P., 1989a—13C depleted authigenic carbonate
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Geochemical Study. AGSO Record and GIS.
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AHARON, P., 1989b—Carbonate buildups on the
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NNE SSW
3rd rank SAR slick Karmt Shoals - Intense slick development 3rd rank SAR slick
0
b
1
Two-way time (s)
3
4
Figure 12 a and 12 b. 12a. SAR slicks (blue) around Karmt Shoals.12b. Seismic line ( AGSO VTT 163-35) through Karmt Shoals.
0.5
Two-way time (s)
1.0
Top Oliver
1.5
Figure 13. Carbonate bank (Buller Bank) located over Buffalo oil field.
Sea Floor
Post-rift sediments
sediment
Hydrocarbon
column
colum
Re
e
oir
dim
Post-rift sed s
R s
Residual e
column oir
Carbonate t
build-ups
over oil seep
e n w e ge
Pl i o Rese
rvoir
i ments
ed
t-r ift s
Pos Oil
Gas 14/OA/1365
Figure 14. Three stage schematic model for seepage-related carbonate bank and reef formation in the Timor Sea.
THE AUTHORS
THE AUTHORS