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Diagenesis and reservoir quality of the Sherwood Sandstone (Triassic), Corrib

Field, Slyne Basin, west of Ireland

Article  in  Marine and Petroleum Geology · March 2004

DOI: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2003.11.015

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 Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315
www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Diagenesis and reservoir quality of the Sherwood Sandstone (Triassic),

Corrib Field, Slyne Basin, west of Ireland
S. Schmida,*, R.H. Wordena, Q.J. Fisherb
a
Department of Earth Sciences, Liverpool University, Liverpool L69 3GP, UK
b
Rock Deformation Research, School of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
Received 15 July 2003; received in revised form 24 November 2003; accepted 28 November 2003

Abstract
The Triassic Sherwood Sandstone in the Corrib Field, Slyne Basin west of Ireland on the European continental margin, is a dry gas
reservoir with a Mercia mudstone top-seal. Petrographic analysis combined with X-ray diffraction, stable isotope, fluid inclusion and core
analysis have been used to assess: timing of growth and origin of mineral cements, whether sandstone diagenesis involved mass flux, the
controls on reservoir quality and how reservoir quality is likely to vary in more deeply buried sections. Depositional and early diagenetic
characteristics of the Sherwood in Corrib are typical of a semi-arid fluvial environment, containing groundwater of meteoric origin. Early
diagenesis included the development of copious dolomite cement, in the form of dolocrete, as well as the formation of abundant clay while
less volumetrically important, grain-coating haematite and K-feldspar cement also grew. Burial diagenesis witnessed the initial growth of
minor chlorite and albite. Quartz overgrowths and ankerite followed and are the most important burial cements growing over a temperature
interval between 100 and 1165 8C. Albite commenced growth at about 90 8C, quartz cement at 100 8C and ankerite at 110 8C. These cements
reached the zenith of their development at 105– 110 8C for albite, 125– 130 8C for quartz and 135– 145 8C for ankerite. Siderite and anhydrite
are relatively minor, late-stage cements. The formation water has been consistently highly saline during burial and, in terms of mineral
cement-derived oxygen stable isotope values, is likely to be a diagenetically evolved version of the initial depositional water suggesting long-
term stagnation of the pore-fluids. The diagenetic reactions that formed burial cements all seem to be essentially isochemical including the
ankerite that has carbon isotope characteristics of the cannibalisation of dolocrete. Reservoir quality is mainly controlled by early diagenetic
dolomite and clay although grain size is also important because only sandstones with .200 mm grain size have . 50 md permeability. Both
shallower and deeper sections than Corrib may have similar porosity and permeability since temperature-dependent diagenetic controls on
reservoir quality, e.g. quartz and illite cement, are peripheral.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Sherwood Sandstone; Corrib Field; Diagenesis; Reservoir quality; Dolomite

1. Introduction encompasses a wide range of post-depositional modifi-

cations to sediments, ranging from early diagenesis in
Diagenesis comprises a broad spectrum of physical, subaerial environments and oxidation in the water column
chemical and biological post-depositional processes by and includes compaction and lithification of sediments
which original sedimentary assemblages and their inter- during burial.
stitial pore waters react towards textural and geochemical There are many aspects of sandstone diagenesis that
equilibrium with their environment (Burley, Kantorwicz, & remain controversial. Mass solute transfer is potentially an
Waugh, 1985; Curtis, 1977). These processes are active as extremely important process during burial. Solute migration
will tend to take place from evaporites, dense carbonates,
the ambient environment evolves in terms of temperature,
and organic mudstones, all rich in solutes and base metals,
pressure and chemistry during the deposition, burial and
to more porous units (sandstones and some carbonates)
uplift cycle of the basin history. As such, diagenesis
where cementation and mineralisation can result (Baines,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ44-151-794-5184; fax: þ 44-151-794- Burley, & Gize, 1991; Boles & Franks, 1979; Burley,
5196. Mullis, & Matter, 1989; Jackson & Beales, 1967). Arch
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Schmid). proponents of isochemical diagenesis claim that mass
0264-8172/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2003.11.015
300 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315

Fig. 1. Location map of the Corrib Field in the Slyne Basin, on the Atlantic margin of Ireland.

transfer is irrelevant (Bjørkum & Gjelsvik, 1988). On the reservoirs within this area. For example, understanding how
other hand, proponents of allochemical diagenesis advocate deep burial affects reservoir quality may place limits on the
that regional patterns of diagenesis and porosity/mineral depth to which production from the SSG will prove
anomalies can be explained by large-scale fluid (and economic. Also, once a working reservoir is discovered in
palaeofluid) circulation models (Caritat & Barker, 1992; a new basin, it is useful to know the likely permeability of
Gluyas & Coleman, 1992; Sullivan, Haszeldine, & Fallick, the reservoir at greater and lesser depths of burial to help
1990), especially where faults form part of the migration with economic forecasting of undrilled prospects. Finally,
system (Burley et al., 1989). Others have argued that a understanding the types and distribution of diagenetic clays
diagenetic system may be closed to some components (e.g. may influence the type of drilling fluids used as well as any
silica and aluminium), partially open to others (e.g. future well simulation strategy. A diagenetic analysis was
potassium) and substantially open to yet others (e.g. CO2; thus undertaken to provide data that increase understanding
Worden & Barclay, 2000). We will address the sources of of diagenesis and permeability of the SSG in the Corrib
cements in the Sherwood Sandstone Group (SSG) in the Field with a focus on the controls on permeability and the
Corrib gas field west of Ireland and establish whether mass origin and timing of formation of the permeability-
flux occurred. modifying cements.
The Triassic SSG is the main exploration target for
hydrocarbons to the west of Ireland. Indeed, the recently
discovered Corrib Field, in the Slyne Basin (Fig. 1), is likely 2. Geological setting
to become a significant source of future natural petroleum
gas for Ireland. Understanding the diagenesis of the SSG is Basin modelling suggests that the SSG in the Corrib
important for future exploration, appraisal and production of Field has been buried to a maximum depth of 3500 –4000 m
 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315 301

The diagenesis of the SSG has been described from several

locations throughout the UK, Irish Sea and the North Sea
(Burley, 1984; Greenwood & Habesch, 1997; Knox, Burgess,
Wilson, & Bath, 1984; Strong et al., 1994) based on samples
collected from core and outcrop. For the present study,
material from five wells, containing 390 m of cored SSG, was
available for investigations, resulting in new information
about the diagenesis of the SSG at its most western extent
(Fig. 1). Several hundred samples were examined by light
microscopy, cathodoluminescence (CL), scanning electron
microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD).

3. Samples and methods

The work reported in this paper includes data from the

analysis of core material of five wells of the Corrib Field
with a present depth of 3500 –4000 m. Polished blocks, thin
sections stained for carbonates and stubs of broken surfaces
were examined using secondary electron (SE), CL and
backscattered electron (BSE) microscopy. Samples were
examined with a CAMSCAN CS44 SEM equipped with a
SE detector, a high-resolution solid-state four-quadrant
Fig. 2. Burial history curve showing related tectonic and diagenetic events back-scattered electron detector, a cathode luminescence
in the Corrib Field. detector and an EDAX energy dispersive X-ray spec-
(present-day burial depth) and has experienced temperatures trometry (EDS) system. The EDS detector had an ultra-thin
of up to 165 8C (Kenyon-Roberts, personal communication, window to allow the detection of low energy X-rays emitted
from light elements (B, C, N, O and F).
2001). A burial curve for the Triassic section in the Corrib
The , 2 mm clay fraction was separated using settling
Field is illustrated in Fig. 2. The reservoir contains dry CH4-
tubes and analysed by XRD to identify the main clays
dominated gas probably sourced from Carboniferous
present. Cold cathodoluminescence (CCL) analysis was
mudstones and coals with penetration of a proven
conducted to identify the different carbonate phases present,
Carboniferous source a few kilometres to the south of
using a Technosyn instrument operating at 10 kV and about
Corrib.
400 mA. Images were recorded using standard colour
Core description revealed the presence of three main
photographic film (800 ASA) with exposure times ranging
sedimentary facies within the SSG in the Corrib Field
from 40 to 400 s depending on the intensity of luminescence.
(Meadows, personal communication, 2002). Fluvial channel Bulk composition oxygen and carbon stable isotope
facies dominate the SSG, comprising 85% of cored Triassic analyses were performed on 120 dolomite-cemented
rocks. They consist mainly of well-sorted, fine-to-medium samples. Core plugs, previously characterized using core
grained, sandstones with local mudstone intraclasts. Low analysis, core description (for facies) and petrography, were
relief floodplain deposits form , 8% of the cored interval ground, dissolved in phosphoric acid with the evolved CO2
and are poorly sorted fine-grained sandstones and siltstones gas analysed in a SIRA10 mass spectrometer. Results are
that contain pedogenic fabrics and abundant dolomite analytically correct to within 0.1‰ PDB for carbon and
cement. These sediments are also typically associated with 0.2‰ PDB for oxygen. All results are reported relative to
playa lake and playa margin deposits (7% of the cored the Peedee Formation Belemnite.
interval) such as finely laminated argillaceous siltstones and Microthermometry was conducted on 18 double polished
claystones that locally contain desiccation cracks. Overall, detached wafers to determine the conditions of cementation
the sequence shows an upward increase in the scale of and evidence for formation water salinity. Fragments were
preserved bed forms and a general change from floodplain- cut from doubly polished rock wafers. A Linkam
dominated units to fluvial-dominated units (Fig. 3). THM600/TS90 heating – cooling stage connected to a
The SSG in Great Britain and Ireland represents the Nikon petrographic microscope was used to obtain
climax of the Pangean continent (Manspeizer, 1994). A wide, temperature data. Instrumental precision is ^ 0.1 8C, while
braided river system flowed in a northward direction and was accuracy, dependent on the manufacturer’s stated accuracy
divided into pre-existing small NE – SW trending non-marine for the calibration standards used (synthetic inclusions and
basins. Pangea started to break up slowly at the end of the pure organic compounds) is better than 1 8C over the range
Triassic (Manspeizer, 1994) to form the Northern Atlantic. of temperatures reported here.
302 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315

Fig. 3. Generalized stratigraphy of the Corrib Field and the Sherwood Sandstone Group.

Core analysis data (porosity, permeability and grain

density) collected using industry-standard methods were
provided by the field operators.

4. Results

4.1. Petrographic data

4.1.1. Detrital mineralogy

Most SSG samples classify as fine to medium grained,
moderately to poorly sorted, feldspathic to lithic arenites
(Fig. 4). Silty and sandy grains are rounded to sub-rounded
but typically non-equant and moderately to well sorted.
Point counting data show that the most common Fig. 4. Ternary diagram showing the various types of sand found in the SSG
detrital grains are quartz (mean 28% of the rock volume), in Corrib. The sands are arkoses due to the vast quantity of detrital K-
K-feldspar (mean 18%) and plagioclase (mean 15%). feldspar and plagioclase.
 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315 303

dioctahedral smectite (e.g. montmorillonite) and/or triocta-

hedral smectite (e.g. saponite; see also McKinley, Worden,
and Ruffell (2001) who reported saponite-cemented SSG
onshore in Ireland) were either co-deposited in the SSG in
Corrib or infiltrated the sand soon after deposition. The
grain coating clays (Fig. 5) were thus likely to have
originated in this manner and were likely to have been
smectite minerals at or soon after deposition. Kaolinite is
absent from the SSG reflecting either its initial absence
(typical of the SSG in general in NW Europe) or its
subsequent reaction with other detrital minerals (e.g.
feldspar).
Mica, metamorphic clasts, sedimentary clasts and
chlorite average , 1% of framework grains. There are no
apparent variations in sediment composition geographically
across the study area.
Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrograph (SE) from early clay minerals
covering detrital grains. 4.1.2. Diagenesis and authigenic mineralogy
The mineralogy and petrophysical properties of the SSG
Quartz-dominated rock fragments are also abundant (mean within the Corrib Field have undergone significant diage-
11%), most having an igneous origin. Detrital clays, found netic modification. Indeed, authigenic minerals occupy an
as discrete patches and layers, typically not resolvable using average of , 17% of the rock volume. The main diagenetic
optical microscopy, are abundant in the finer-grained processes that have affected the SSG include mechanical
sandstones, accounting for , 7% of the rocks volume on and chemical compaction, the precipitation of dolomite,
average. The fluvial channel facies tend to have the lowest ankerite, anhydrite, chlorite, quartz, albite and K-feldspar as
detrital clay content with a mean value of about 3%. The well as the dissolution of unstable grains such as feldspar.
predominance of this clay in the lowest energy facies The SSG in Corrib has also been cemented by minor
suggests that it is mainly depositional in origin. The higher siderite, illite and pyrite.
energy channel fill facies contain clay-rich intraclasts. The The red colour of the sandstone of the SSG reflects the
highest detrital clay contents (mean 15%) are found in playa presence of fine-grained haematite precipitated on the
and playa margin sediments. Intermediate contents of clay surface of detrital grains.
are found in the floodplain facies (mean 10%). The detrital The most easily discernable clays occur as detrital
clay cannot be resolved using a petrographic microscope intraclasts. Clay coats on framework grains (Fig. 5) were
although XRD analyses revealed that it is now dominated by also identified, which are locally concentrated as pendular
illite and chlorite in approximately equal proportions. A aggregates attached to the lower surface of grains. These
wide range of conditions (e.g. temperature, oxidation state, clays have a predominantly illitic composition.
water composition) in the detrital mineral assemblage can K-feldspar is a common authigenic phase occurring as
influence the type of clay minerals being supplied to the , 20 mm wide overgrowths on detrital K-feldspar (Fig. 6(a)
basin. From the general palaeo-environmental understand- and (b)). Authigenic K-feldspar occupies only , 1% of the
ing (Worden & Morad, 2003) it is presumed that rocks volume, although prior to extensive dissolution it was

Fig. 6. (a, b) Backscatter electron micrograph of authigenic K-feldspar overgrowth and their relationship to albite and chlorite.
304 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315

probably volumetrically slightly more abundant. The dolomite are present, both have an orange to yellow colour
thickness of K-feldspar overgrowths appears to be similar when viewed using cold CL. The first type, microcrystalline
in both coarse and fine-grained sandstones. dolomite (Fig. 7(b)), is composed of small (10 –30 mm)
Dolomite occurs in all samples that were examined, euhedral, pore-filling crystals. These locally form aggregates
occupying up to 25% of rock volume (mean 10%). The first concentrated near silt- and mud-rich strata. The second type,
generation of dolomite to precipitate has a non-ferroan coarse grained dolomite, is also typically euhedral but has a
composition and occurs as pore-occluding and pore-filling crystal size similar to framework grains (i.e. , 200 mm). It is
(Fig. 7(a) and (b)),, 10– 300 mm wide, rhombs, which appear pore-filling and locally poikilotopic (Fig. 7(c) and (d)) and
to be zoned when viewed using CL. Two types of non-ferroan commonly encloses the microcrystalline dolomite.

Fig. 7. Dolomite fabrics: (a) scanning electron micrograph showing euhedral microcrystalline dolomite (arrows) rhombs infilling the primary pores, (b) cold
CL image of bright luminescent microcrystalline dolomite surrounded by dull luminescent feldspars, (c) backscattered electron micrograph of different growth
zones in a non-ferroan dolomite, (d) SEM–CL micrograph of non-ferroan dolomite (with an ankerite rim) and (e) scanning electron micrograph showing
authigenic chlorite overgrowing dolomite cement.
 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315 305

The microcrystalline dolomite has a brighter orange appear- The thickness of albite overgrowths appears to be similar in
ance than the poikilotopic dolomite when viewed using CL. coarse and fine-grained sandstones. Albite cement is
Small (up to 300 mm wide) nodules were also identified locally engulfed by later quartz and ankerite cement
that are composed of dolomite rhombs mixed with concentric (Fig. 9(b) and (c)).
rings of clay, which was presumably introduced during their Chlorite was observed in approximately one quarter of
growth. BSEM, optical microscopy and CL analyses reveal the samples examined. Where present, it occupies , 2% of
that the dolomite occurs around detrital carbonate nuclei. The the rock volume and typically grows tangentially to the
morphology and abundance of dolomite appears to vary with surface of detrital grains forming ‘rosette’ type structures
depth within the SSG in Corrib. In particular, the top 25 m of (Fig. 10). Chlorite grew after non-ferroan poikilotopic
the SSG tends to contain , 5% dolomite (Fig. 8) and dolomite (Fig. 7(e)) but before quartz cement (Fig. 10).
predominantly has a microcrystalline morphology. Dolomite Feldspar and lithic fragments have been altered during
in the lower section (below 3565 m, Fig. 8) of the SSG tends diagenesis. Several dissolution textures can be identified,
to be more abundant (. 5%) and occurs mainly as the much including, (i) grain-contact dissolution (pressure dissol-
coarser, non-ferroan poikilotopic variety. Dolomite is ution) of plagioclase (Fig. 9(a)), (ii) replacement of feldspar
covered by authigenic albite (Fig. 6(a)), ankerite (Fig. 6(a)) by carbonates (Fig. 5(c)), (iii) the dissolution of K-feldspar
and chlorite (Fig. 7(e)). overgrowths (Fig. 13), and (iv) the partial to complete
Albite occurs mainly as 10– 60 mm wide overgrowths on dissolution of framework grains (Fig. 6(b)). Sutured
detrital plagioclase grains (Fig. 9(a)). It also partially intergranular quartz and feldspar contacts provide evidence
replaces (e.g. by albitization) and overgrows detrital of grain-contact quartz and feldspar dissolution. The timing
K-feldspar. In general, albite cement occupies , 1% of of both of these processes is difficult to establish based
the rock volume, although locally it can be more abundant. solely on petrographic evidence.

Fig. 8. Depth plot of the petrographically defined (point count data) amount of dolomite cement in Corrib in comparison to the core analysis-defined porosity
and permeability. The top of the section generally has the least dolomite cement and the highest porosity and permeability.
306 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315

Fig. 9. Albite and quartz cement fabrics. (a) Backscatter electron micrograph of a stylolite formed between two plagioclase grains. (b, c) Pair of backscatter
electron and CL micrographs from the same area highlighting the prevalence of albite cementation before quartz cementation.

Authigenic quartz occurs as up to 80 mm wide over- The anhydrite precipitated after the quartz and ankerite
growths on detrital quartz grains (Fig. 9(b) and (c)) (Fig. 13).
occupying between , 1 –5% of the rocks volume (with an Authigenic siderite is relatively common but not
average of 2.4%). Authigenic quartz also occurs as up to abundant (, 1% rock volume). In places, siderite over-
20 mm-long outgrowths, especially on chlorite coated grows quartz and locally grew as rims to zoned ankerite
quartz grains. The thickness of quartz overgrowths appears crystals. No clear evidence of the relationship between
to be similar in both coarse and fine-grained sandstones. anhydrite and siderite could be discerned although
Quartz locally covers, and hence post-dates, albite (Fig. 9(b)
and (c)).
Ankerite cement occurs in most samples. It predomi-
nantly occurs as zoned overgrowths on non-ferroan
dolomite (Fig. 11(a) and (b)). Ankerite cement was
observed covering (Fig. 6(a)) and being covered by both
authigenic quartz and albite (Fig. 11(c)) suggesting that
their growth at least partly overlapped in time. The average
quantity of ankerite is . 1%.
Authigenic hair-like illite occurs in some samples
although its abundance rarely exceeds 1% of the rock
volume. Illite grows into pore space engulfing dolomite and
quartz (Fig. 12).
Authigenic anhydrite occurs within samples many
reaching up to 16% bulk volume (average , 1%).
Anhydrite typically occurs as up to 100 mm poikilotopic Fig. 10. Scanning electron micrograph shows authigenic ‘rosette’ type
rhombs infilling pores but also as vein-filling cement. chlorite overgrown by authigenic quartz.
 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315 307

Fig. 11. Quartz–ankerite cements relationships: (a, b) Pair of backscatter electron and CL micrographs from the same area highlighting the prevalence of quartz
cementation before ankerite cementation. (c) Backscatter electron micrograph showing a rare case of albite cement that seems to have grown after ankerite.

petrographic evidence shows precipitation of siderite quartz cement precipitated at temperatures between 100 and
occurred late in the diagenetic history of the SSG. 150 8C from water with salinities of 19– 24 wt% NaCl. The
Th distribution of the aqueous inclusions measured is
4.2. Fluid inclusion and formation water data unimodal with the mode at 125– 130 8C. No oil inclusions
were observed in quartz.
Fluid inclusion microthermometric data for quartz, albite All measurable aqueous inclusions in dolomite cements
and dolomite cements have been measured in 18 samples of contained two phases (liquid and vapour) and displayed
the Corrib Field sandstones. The measurements show that homogenisation temperatures of 110 to . 165 8C, from
water with salinities of 21– 25 wt% NaCl. The Th of

Fig. 12. Scanning electron micrograph showing rare hairy illite filling pore Fig. 13. Backscattered electron micrograph of dolomite overgrown by
spaces and overgrowing ankerite and quartz cements. ankerite. Anhydrite grew after ankerite.
308 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315

discern the relative timing of the growth of the various

porosity-modifying cements. There are abundant early and
burial diagenetic cements so that the cements resulting from
these two regimes will be dealt with in turn.

5.1.1. Early diagenesis

Early diagenesis includes all processes that occur at or
near the surface of the sediments where the chemistry of the
interstitial waters is controlled mainly by the depositional
environment (Choquette & Pray, 1970). Strictly speaking,
this is the regime where the influence of the original
depositional pore water dominates, and so includes soil
development in continental depositional settings.
Red staining between K-feldspar overgrowths and
framework grains indicates that haematite was one of the
first minerals to form. It is likely that much formed from the
oxidation of ferrous iron released by dissolution of unstable
Fig. 14. Oxygen versus carbon stable isotopes for the various types of ferromagnesian minerals during early burial. Indeed, early
dolomitic cements in the Sherwood Sandstone Group in Corrib, open haematite precipitation is characteristic of recent sediments
circle ¼ very early microcrystalline dolomite, filled circles ¼ poikilotopic in hot, arid or semi-arid environments (Burley et al., 1985;
early dolomite.
Walker, Waugh, & Crone, 1978).
aqueous inclusions is unimodal with values between 135 The petrographic evidence seems to indicate that K-
and 145 8C. No oil inclusions were found in dolomite. feldspar precipitated at a similar time to the non-ferroan
Fluid inclusions within the albite overgrowths have dolomite cements. The origin of early diagenetic K-feldspar
salinities of 23 – 24 wt% NaCl and homogenisation tem- has been much debated over the years (Morad, Marfil, & de
peratures of between 90 and 120 8C. The homogenisation la Pena, 1989) since it is a common, minor, early cement in
temperature distribution of the aqueous inclusions is aeolian and ephemeral river sandstones. K-feldspar precipi-
unimodal with a mode at 105– 110 8C. tation requires high silica activities and high Kþ/Hþ ratios
Formation water in Corrib has very high salinity of 27% (Morad, Ketzer, & De Ros, 2000). Rossi, Kälin, Arribas, and
NaCl equivalent by mass. It also has high potassium and Tortosa (2002) discussed the supply of Kþ by residual
calcium concentrations and is broadly similar to formation brines associated with halite evaporites and came to the
water from Southern North Sea gas fields, where the salinity conclusion that the Kþ content can be significant but the
has been derived from dissolution of Zechstein evaporites aluminium and silica content is to low for precipitation. As a
(Warren & Smalley, 1994). consequence, it is more likely that aluminium and silica
were internally sourced by the alteration of detrital silicates,
particularly feldspars. Other internal source such as
4.3. Stable isotope geochemistry
compaction and pressure solution can be ignored because
K-feldspar predates significant burial.
The d 18O values of the carbonate cement in the Corrib
Non-ferroan dolomite is volumetrically the most abun-
sandstones range from 2 14 to 2 4‰ PDB, with the most
dant cement within the SSG in the Corrib Field. The
extremely enriched and depleted values only present in the
dolomite cement fabrics within the SSG are typical of
stratigraphic middle and upper parts of the SSG (Fig. 14;
dolocretes (Morad, Al-Aasm, Ramseyer, Marfil, & Aldahan,
Schmid, Worden, & Fisher, 2003). The d 13C values of the
1990; Spötl & Wright, 1992), consistent with dolomite
carbonate cement range from 2 3.8 to þ 2.1‰ PDB, with
forming in very near-surface environments. The absence of
the most positive values only in the middle part of the
iron in these cements is broadly indicative of deposition in
sequence and values between 2 2 and 2 3.8‰ PDB in the
O2-rich water. Moreover, samples that are pervasively
upper part of the investigated interval (Schmid et al., 2003).
cemented with non-ferroan dolomite have intergranular
volume (IGV) values of approximately 40% suggesting that
growth occurred before compaction (i.e. before significant
5. Discussion and interpretation burial). Dolocrete can be either pedogenic or phreatic in
origin (Khadkikar, Merh, Malik, & Chamyal, 1998). The
5.1. Timing of diagenetic processes and source investigated samples do not appear to show pedogenic
of cements textures (root traces, cemented root casts, etc.), either
because they were not preserved or were never developed. A
In this section, the petrographic observations will be phreatic groundwater origin for these dolomites is indicated
integrated with the fluid inclusion and isotope data to help by very bright CL luminescence (brightness is used as an
 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315 309

indicator for the absence of iron; Machel, 1985),

abundant dolomite filling non-compacted pore space and
the preservation of original detrital grain shapes. The well-
developed euhedral fabric of the poikilotopic non-ferroan
dolomite crystals implies broadly constant physicochemical
conditions, characteristic of phreatic zone growth. Phreatic
dolocretes are typically formed by three major processes
(Wright & Tucker, 1991): CO2 degassing; evaporation and
evapotranspiration of mobile, shallow groundwater; and the
common-ion effect (dissolution of quartz, feldspar and
clays; Khalaf, 1990). It is not clear which of these processes
was responsible for dolomite growth in Corrib. Elevated
Ca2þ and Mg2þ are probably the result of the meteoric-
derived ground and surface water undergoing evaporation
and water – rock interaction with the host sediment.
Dolomite will have precipitated from solution where
saturation was reached, e.g. by advanced evaporation Fig. 15. The relationship between temperature and water–oxygen isotopic
(McQueen, Hill, & Foster, 1999). composition; Light grey box represents equilibrium of microcrystalline
dolomite cement, Grey box represents poikilotopic dolomite cement and
CL studies show that the patchy microcrystalline dolomite
Dark grey box represents ankerite cement.
has been overgrown, and thus post-dated by
the diagenetically later poikilotopic dolomite. Microcrystal- d18O values of 2 5.5 to 2 3.5‰ (SMOW) (Fig. 15). It is
line dolomite crystals display evidence of partial dissolution. difficult to differentiate the two types dolomite in terms of
A similar phenomenon of early dissolution and recrystallisa- their interpreted groundwater d 18O values. The d 18O values
tion of very early, finely crystalline dolomite has been probably represent meteoric water (Emery & Robinson,
described previously (Colson & Cojan, 1996; Khalaf, 1990). 1993) for these mid-latitude (Torsvik, Van der Voo, Meert,
The stable isotope data from non-ferroan dolomite can be Mosar, & Walderhaug, 2001) continental sediments and are
used to constrain the type of water responsible for representative of other Permo-Triassic groundwater (Morad
cementation. Since the microcrystalline dolomite has all et al., 1990). The relative uniformity of the derived water
the textural characteristics of vadose or phreatic cement, it d 18O values between the microcrystalline and poikilotopic
can be assumed that it grew at very near surface conditions forms suggest that diagenesis continued in the presence of a
implying a temperature between about 15 and 25 8C. There consistent type of water (meteoric) and it certainly precludes
is textural evidence suggesting that the poikilotopic a marine influence or the influx of deep basinal (highly
dolomite replaced microcrystalline dolomite so it can be evolved) waters (Morad, Worden, & Ketzer, 2003).
assumed that the poikilotopic dolomite growth temperature The carbonate cements have d 13C values that are
was somewhat higher than the microcrystalline form. surprisingly unaffected by diagenesis. There are smooth,
The temperature cannot have been too high since geographically consistent patterns of evolution of d 13C
the poikilotopic dolomite cement is non-ferroan implying through the stratigraphy that can only be the result of the
growth in oxidised (and thus near surface) water. preservation of primary sedimentary environment-related
The oxygen isotope data from dolomite (Fig. 14) have signals (Schmid et al., 2003).
been used in conjunction with the dolomite – water fraction In summary, the early diagenesis of the SSG in Corrib
equation (Friedman & O’Neil, 1977) to establish the d 18O was characterized by, in order of growth: grain-coating
(SMOW) of the water present during eodiagenesis. Isotopic haematite, K-feldspar overgrowths, microcrystalline non-
equilibrium has been assumed. The integrity of the ferroan dolomite and poikilotopic non-ferroan dolomite
eodiagenetic cement isotope values has also been assumed (Fig. 16). The dolomite cements grew in a meteoric water
predicated upon the assumption of the prohibitively slow medium. This cement paragenesis is broadly typical of
solid –fluid isotopic exchange (Morad et al., 1990). The two diagenesis in relatively semi-arid fluvial sediments (Colson
types of non-ferroan dolomite cement have a range of d 18O & Cojan, 1996).
(PDB) values and are assumed to have grown over a range of
temperatures so that inevitably there is a range of derived 5.1.2. Burial diagenesis
water d 18O (SMOW) values for both cements (Fig. 15). The Burial diagenesis can be defined as that which occurs in
d 18O value of the water during growth of both forms of isolation from surface waters (i.e. reduced waters)
dolomite was distinctly negative and ranged from 2 8 to 0‰ with chemical, physical and biological processes not
SMOW. The mean d18O value for microcrystalline dolomite influenced by the depositional environment (Schmidt &
is 2 8.7‰ (PDB) which is equivalent to water d18O values of MacDonald, 1979).
2 6 to 2 5‰ (SMOW). The mean d18O value for poikilotopic Chlorite cement, a relatively minor phase, occurs as
dolomite is 2 9.5‰ (PDB) which is equivalent to water relatively well-developed rosettes that are perpendicular to
310 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315

silica, chemical compaction cannot usually occur until

, 90 8C. The samples examined during the present study
showed evidence of both grain-contact quartz and plagio-
clase dissolution. The dissolution of Ca-rich plagioclase and
the precipitation of albite can consume dissolved silica and
may provide a mechanism to allow grain-contact quartz
dissolution to occur at temperatures lower than 90 8C. As
with the clays, we cannot uniquely define the origin of the
albite cement although the abundance of detrital plagioclase
and the occurrence of irregular, microstylolite contacts
(Fig. 9(a)) between plagioclase grains strongly suggest that
the albite is locally sourced.
Textural relationships seem to suggest that quartz cement
grew over a similar temperature range to ankerite cement.
However, ankerite is more commonly observed growing
over quartz than vice versa. Fluid inclusion data indicate
that quartz precipitated over a temperature range of 100–
Fig. 16. Paragenetic sequence of the diagenetic minerals in the Sherwood 150 8C with the zenith of cementation occurring at
Sandstone Group in the Corrib Field. Length of the solid bars indicates
125– 130 8C. Quartz cement can have a large number of
relative time of diagenetic events. The temperatures for albite, quartz and
ankerite cements were the result of fluid inclusion analysis. sources (Worden & Morad, 2000) although the arguments
distil down to whether they are externally or internally
detrital grain surface. Chlorite can have a number of origins sourced. External sources may include neighbouring
but typically develops at temperatures greater than about 60– mudstones or fault-controlled fluid flow. There is no
70 8C (Worden & Morad, 2003). Chlorite cement has been relationship between quartz cement content and proximity
engulfed by authigenic quartz. Illite cement is not particu- to mudrock contacts (Sullivan & McBride, 1991) and there
larly abundant but covers quartz and ankerite cement and so it is no relationship between quartz cement content and the
must have started growth at temperatures somewhat greater development of faults in Corrib suggesting that external
than about 110 8C. Illite and chlorite are probably locally sources may be unimportant. Internal sources of silica can
sourced and may be accounted for in a number of ways. It is include intergranular pressure dissolution, kaolinite illitiza-
possible that they represent the mesodiagenetic alteration tion or smectite illitization. SSG rocks throughout NW-
products of detrital (or early diagenetic) smectite with the Europe are peculiarly free of kaolinite so that a K-feldspar–
dioctahedral smectite being replaced by illite and the kaolinite reaction is also an unlikely source of silica.
trioctahedral smectite being replaced by chlorite (Worden Smectite is not found in Corrib samples since they are
& Morad, 2003). There were seemingly few Fe– Mg-rich beyond the temperature of smectite-replacement reactions
rock fragments that could have sourced the chlorite although (McKinley, Worden, & Ruffell, 2003) although smectite is
trioctahedral smectite is known as cement in SSG samples in not uncommon in low temperature SSG rocks in NW
onshore SSG in the north of Ireland (McKinley et al., 2001). Europe. However, there are numerous long intergranular
Illite may have been sourced from decomposed K-feldspar contacts between quartz grains and there are distinct
grains (Fig. 11(b)) and cements as well as from putative microstylolites (although large-scale stylolites are not
depositional or infiltrated dioctahedral smectite (Worden & well-developed). It seems as if quartz cement does not
Morad, 2003). demand external sources of material since in situ pressure
The fluid inclusion data for albite suggest growth dissolution can account for the bulk of the cement.
occurred between 90 and 120 8C placing it securely within Ankerite cement has a slightly higher temperature range
the burial diagenesis realm. Albite cement is covered and and mode from fluid inclusion homogenisation data than
hence post-dated by both quartz and ankerite cement. High quartz: 110 –165 8C range and mode at 135– 145 8C. The
temperature, grain coating albite cement has been relatively range and mode are thus slightly higher than quartz cement
little reported in the literature although the occurrence of the corresponding to the slight predominance of fabrics
high temperature albitization of detrital K-feldspar and suggesting that ankerite post-dated quartz cement. The
plagioclase has been well documented (Ramseyer, Dia- minor evidence for a phase of albite growth after quartz and
mond, & Boles, 1993). Albite cement is relatively common ankerite accords with the presence of fluid inclusions within
in Corrib SSG rocks and it is plausible that it is the result of albite higher than the minimum temperatures of quartz and
pressure dissolution between mutually contacting detrital ankerite cementation. The dolomite –water oxygen isotope
plagioclase grains (Fig. 9(a)). It has been suggested that in fractionation equation (Friedman & O’Neil, 1977) has been
siliciclastic reservoirs most chemical compaction occurs at used to calculate the d 18O of formation water using the
micaceous clay – quartz intergranular contacts (Bjørkum, range of ankerite growth temperatures derived from fluid
1996). As quartz cementation is the main sink of dissolved inclusion analysis (110 – 165 8C). The formation water
 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315 311

during ankerite growth had a d 18O of about þ 2‰ SMOW 5.2. Controls on reservoir quality
(range 0 to þ 6‰) (Fig. 15). Such water is unlikely to have a
pristine meteoric (recharge water) source and is more likely Reservoir quality, defined here as the amounts of
to present water evolved due to advanced water – rock porosity and permeability, can be a function of many
interaction. Also the ankerite cement d 13C values follow the controls in sandstones (Cade, Evans, & Bryant, 1994)
stratigraphic variations (Schmid et al., 2003) suggesting including the depositional controls of grain size and sorting
strongly that the ankerite is merely a product of the and the diagenetic controls of cementation and compaction.
recrystallisation in iron-rich formation water of non-ferroan Secondary porosity is seldom a real benefit to reservoirs
dolomite. The carbonate cements thus seem to be locally since most of it is redistributional porosity whereby the
derived and do not require mass flux to explain their material from dissolved minerals is merely reprecipitated as
occurrence. cement elsewhere (Bjørlykke, 1984; Giles & de Boer,
Anhydrite and siderite are both late diagenetic cements. 1990).
Siderite grew after the most iron-rich ankerite formed. The main controls on reservoir quality in Corrib are
Anhydrite occurs as pore filling cement that sits on top of dolomite cement and total clay contents (Fig. 17(a) – (d)).
quartz and ankerite cement. There is no evidence that Grain size and dolomite cement show no simple
anhydrite grew over the same time interval as quartz or correlation. However, dolomite cement content is limited
ankerite. The relationship between anhydrite and siderite by grain size. Fig. 18(a) shows that samples with 15%
cannot be determined since they have not been found in dolomite are only found in samples with a grain size of
mutual contact so have been assumed to have grown over , 150 mm. Dolomite cement, especially the non-ferroan
the same (late) time interval. The sulphate for anhydrite poikilotopic type and ankerite, tend to sit in pores,
precipitation could have been derived dissolution and blocking pore throats and so reduce permeability more
reprecipitation of early gypsum cementation as gypcrete, than grain coating cements (such as quartz). In Corrib,
since it is highly soluble and remobilisation of anhydrite is only samples with low dolomite cement contents have
common during diagenesis (Holliday, 1970; Mossop & very high permeability values (Fig. 17(c)). However,
Shearman, 1973). There is no direct evidence of early there is not a simple inverse correlation between
anhydrite or gypsum in the SSG rocks in Corrib. Studies of dolomite and permeability. One possible reason for this
modern and ancient calcrete – dolocrete system (Colson & is that the microcrystalline dolomite locally occurs in
Cojan, 1996; Reinhardt & Ricken, 2000) refer to anhydrite discrete patches, and possibly as dolocrete intraclast
and gypsum precipitation in the basin depocentre of semi- grains, and these will have less of an effect on
arid, fluvial basins. Sullivan et al. (1990) suggested that permeability than widely dispersed, pore-throat blocking
sulphate for anhydrite precipitation may be supplied by dolomite crystals. Thus dolomite may have different
fluids expelled from evaporitic sequences. The SSG in impacts on reservoir quality depending upon cement
Corrib is beneath the Permian Zechstein and the Mercia morphology. Clay, whether having a diagenetic or
Halite and could have provided sulphate. detrital origin, tends to sit between grains blocking
The diagenetic history of the Sherwood Sandstone pore throats. Fig. 17(d) demonstrates that only sandstones
established during this study is presented in Fig. 16. with , 10% clay have permeability values greater than
The salinity of the formation water in the Corrib Field is 10 mD. There is a modest negative correlation ðR2 ¼
currently 27.0% NaCl equivalent by mass (32.7% by 0:35Þ between clay and permeability since some sand-
volume). Aqueous fluid inclusions in feldspar, quartz and stone samples have little clay yet have low permeability.
ankerite cements have high salinities with the highest Although, grain size is not correlated with permeability,
temperature inclusions having the highest salinity values of only sandstones with . 200 mm grain size have . 50 mD
24.6% NaCl equivalent by weight (29.6% by mass). These permeability. This suggests that there must be another
are effectively identical to the salinity of the present-day control on reservoir quality, such as dolomite content.
formation water. The formation water salinity and carbon- Significantly, the sum of total dolomite and total clay has
ate-cement water d 18O data suggest that the formation a relatively good inverse correlation ðR2 ¼ 0:42Þ with
water has not been flushed for a very long period of time. In permeability. This at least indicates that these two controls
summary, the ankerite cement has carbon isotope data that are jointly the main ones of concern for reservoir quality
strongly suggests that it is the result of local dissolution and prediction. The scatter in the cross plot of permeability
reprecipitation of early diagenetic dolomite. Quartz and versus the sum of total dolomite and total clay (Fig. 17(b)) is
albite cement are most likely sourced by pressure dissol- probably due to variable grain size (Fig. 18(a) and (b)).
ution and there is no explicit need to involve exotic sources Quartz and albite cement occur in moderate amounts
of these cements. The minor clay cements illite and chlorite (mean of 2.4 and , 1%, respectively) but have negligible
are also most likely sourced internally to the sandstones. All correlations with porosity and permeability due to the
the data thus suggest that the rock –water system has not dominating effects of the dolomite and clay cements
undergone an influx of material for a very long time. discussed above.
312 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315

Fig. 17. Reservoir quality data from the Sherwood Sandstone Group from Corrib. (a) Core analysis porosity vs. core analysis permeability. (b) Core analysis
permeability vs. the petrographically defined quantity of dolomite cement plus clay. Permeability must be a function of both clay and dolomite since the sum of
these has a much better correlation with permeability than either dolomite or clay separately. (c) Core analysis permeability vs. the petrographically defined
quantity of dolomite cement. (d) Core analysis permeability vs. the petrographically defined quantity of clay.

5.3. Implications for hydrocarbon exploration in the west of dolocrete) cementation has been reported by Burley (1984),
Ireland basins Greenwood and Habesch (1997), Strong (1993), and Strong
and Milodowski (1987). However, the vast amount of non-
The paragenetic sequence and the facies description of ferroan dolomite cement and the positive carbon isotopes
the Corrib sandstones are broadly comparable with SSG have thus far not been previously reported in the Sherwood
sediments in other basins in and around the British Isles (e.g. Sandstones. The occurrence of burial diagenetic quartz and
the Wessex basin, North Sea basin, East Irish Sea basin, ankerite has been reported from SSG examples that have
Strangford basin). The fluvial, broadly arid, depositional been buried to depths sufficient to lead to temperatures in
environment and intensive early carbonate (calcrete or excess of 100 8C (e.g. East Irish Sea; Greenwood &
 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315 313

Fig. 18. Reservoir quality data from the Sherwood Sandstone Group from Corrib. (a) Petrographically defined grain size vs. quantity of dolomite cement.
(b) Core analysis permeability vs. petrographically defined grain size.

Habesch, 1997). Feldspar cements have been commonly anticipated since it is kinetically controlled. The fluid
reported from the SSG although the prevalence of albite inclusion data show that at 120 8C, quartz cementation will
overgrowths in Corrib has not been highlighted previously. have just kicked off so the 2.4% mean found in Corrib may
Late diagenetic anhydrite is a common phenomenon in the be cut by 50– 70%. There will be less illite although this
SSG, possibly related to the stratigraphy common to the seems to have only a minor impact on permeability and
SSG bringing the anhydritic Mercia mudstone directly on minimal impact on porosity. There would be less ankerite in
top the SSG. less deeply buried sections although since this is seemingly
The west of Ireland represents a novel region for redistributed non-ferroan dolomite, the total quantity of
exploration on the European Margin. It is thus worthy to dolomite likely remains approximately constant. Decreasing
briefly speculate on what the SSG would look like in terms of the depth of section by several hundred to a thousand metres
diagenesis and reservoir properties in sections both less and may have relatively little affect on average porosity and
more deeply buried than in Corrib. The main controls on permeability (since they are largely controlled by early
reservoir properties are the quantities of dolomite cements diagenetic and depositional factors) although the reduced
and the amount of clay. Reservoir properties are less sensitive volume of quartz cement would allow the cleanest
to burial depth since they are the combined product of early sandstone horizons to have higher permeability values
diagenesis (dolomite growth) and depositional environment than those found in Corrib.
(clay content). In more deeply buried hotter sections, more
quartz cement might be anticipated since it is kinetically
controlled although the relatively small volume found in 6. Conclusions
Corrib suggests that even increasing the quartz by 50%
relative would only lead to 3.6% quartz. There might also be a † Dry-gas bearing fluvial SSG rocks in the Corrib Field,
minor increase in illite content although this is a minor west of Ireland, have experienced significant early and
control on permeability. There may be more ankerite in more burial diagenetic processes that have reduced reservoir
deeply buried sections although since this seemingly is quality although the initial quantity of clay in the
redistributed non-ferroan dolomite, the total quantity of sandstone is also an important reservoir quality control.
carbonate would likely remain approximately constant. † Early diagenetic processes included the growth of
Increasing depth of section by several hundred to a thousand dolomite and K-feldspar cements. The non-ferroan
metres may have relatively little affect on porosity and dolomite cement probably formed as phreatic cement
permeability although the cumulative affect of increasing and occurs in microcrystalline and poikilotopic forms.
quartz cement, most important in the cleanest sandstones, Oxygen isotopes values of 2 4.7‰ (mean value 2
would begin to impose a significant affect in samples buried SMOW) are typical Permo-Triassic meteoric water
much more than 1000 m than Corrib’s present day depth. values.
In less deeply buried SSG sections, for example in ones † Deep burial diagenetic processes included the precipi-
buried to 100 – 120 8C, less quartz cement might be tation of (in order of onset of growth) chlorite, albite,
314 S. Schmid et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 299–315

quartz, illite, ankerite, siderite and anhydrite, as well Burley, S. D. (1984). Patterns of diagenesis in the Sherwood Sandstone
intergranular quartz and plagioclase dissolution. Group (Triassic), United Kingdom. Clay Minerals, 19, 403–440.
Burley, S. D., Kantorwicz, J. D., & Waugh, B. (1985). Clastic diagenesis. In
† The formation water was continuously highly saline as a
P. J. Brenchley, & B. P. J. Williams (Eds.), Sedimentology: Recent
result of the presence of Upper Triassic and Permian developments and applied aspects (pp. 198–226). Geological Society
halite (24 wt% NaCl) and demonstrates signs from the Special Publication 18.
interpreted oxygen isotope evolution that the water was Burley, S. D., Mullis, J., & Matter, A. (1989). Timing diagenesis in the
stagnant at least during carbonate cementation. Tartan Reservoir (UK North Sea): Constraints from combined
cathodoluminescence microscopy and fluid inclusion studies. Marine
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quartz and albite from grain-contact dissolution, ankerite Cade, C. A., Evans, I. J., & Bryant, S. L. (1994). Analysis of permeability
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