energies

Article
A Cost-Effective Decentralized Control for
AC-Stacked Photovoltaic Inverters
Hua Han 1 , Chao Luo 1 , Xiaochao Hou 1 ID
, Mei Su 1 , Wenbin Yuan 1 , Zhangjie Liu 1, *
and Josep M. Guerrero 2 ID
1 School of Information Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China;
[email protected] (H.H.); [email protected] (C.L.); [email protected] (X.H.);
[email protected] (M.S.); [email protected] (W.Y.)
2 Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, DK-9220 Aalborg East, Denmark; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-158-0262-1074




Received: 26 July 2018; Accepted: 24 August 2018; Published: 28 August 2018


Abstract: For an AC-stacked photovoltaic (PV) inverter system with N cascaded inverters,
existing control methods require at least N communication links to acquire the grid synchronization
signal. In this paper, a novel decentralized control is proposed. For N inverters, only one inverter
nearest the point of common coupling (PCC) needs a communication link to acquire the grid
voltage phase and all other N − 1 inverters use only local measured information to achieved fully
decentralized local control. Specifically, one inverter with a communication link utilizes the grid
voltage phase and adopts current control mode to achieve a required power factor (PF). All other
inverters need only local information without communication links and adopt voltage control mode
to achieve maximum power point tracking (MPPT) and self-synchronization with grid voltage.
Compared with existing methods, the communication link and complexity is greatly reduced,
thus improved reliability and reduced communication costs are achieved. The effectiveness of
the proposed control is verified by simulation tests.

Keywords: AC-stacked PV inverters; PV generation; decentralized control; self-synchronization

1. Introduction
Renewable energy generation is drawing more and more attention in the past decades [1–5].
AC-stacked photovoltaic (PV) inverter architecture is now considered a promising PV generation
configuration [6–12]. It facilitates the integration of low voltage (LV) PV generators into medium/high
voltage (MV/HV) grid due to its AC-stacked characteristic. LV PV generation units can be connected
to the MV/HV grid directly by the AC-stacked PV inverters with no need for a step-up transformer,
which leads to improved energy conversion efficiency. Compared with the traditional multilevel
cascaded H-bridge topology, each AC-stacked PV inverter has an independent output LC filter,
which makes it much easier for coordinating all PV inverter units [6,7]. In this way, distributed control
methods or even fully decentralized control methods are much easier to implement, which means
the communication complexity is much lower and the system’s reliability is higher. In this way,
the AC-stacked PV inverter system has great potential for large-scale MV/HV grid-connected
distributed PV generation. So, to explore new decentralized control methods with min-communication
requirement for AC-stacked inverters makes a lot of sense. And the motivation of this paper is to
propose a min-communication decentralized control for AC-stacked PV inverters.
Recently, some low-bandwidth communication-based controls for AC-stacked PV inverters
have been investigated [8–12]. In Reference [8], a distributed autonomous control is first proposed
without a central controller. Grid voltage phase from a phase locked loop (PLL) is transmitted to

Energies 2018, 11, 2262; doi:10.3390/en11092262 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 2262 2 of 12

all inverters to realize synchronization and maximum power point tracking (MPPT) operation by
low-bandwidth communications. However, reactive power and power factor (PF) control are not
discussed. To realize flexible power control and satisfactory PF, distributed active power and reactive
power control methods are improved in Reference [9], where all AC-stacked inverters are controlled in
voltage mode. Furthermore, references [10,11] propose a hybrid current-voltage control scheme with
low-bandwidth communication. In References [5,6], one inverter in the AC-stacked PV inverter string
is controlled as a current source to serve as a reactive power compensation unit and other inverters
are controlled as voltage sources. A controllable PF is achieved by this hybrid control framework.
Different from References [8–11], each AC-stacked inverter string has a central controller to coordinate
all local controllers of inverters in Reference [12]. The voltage phase reference of each inverter is
generated by combining the common current phase and the transmitted power factor from central
controller. As the transmitted information is a slow DC component, a low-bandwidth communication
link is required for each inverter.
Although existing control methods achieve MPPT and PF regulation, they all require at least N
communication links for N inverters to acquire the synchronization signal from grid references [8–12].
As a result, system reliability is limited by high communication complexity. On the other hand,
increased communication cost is unavoidable. Similar to the need to explore distributed/decentralized
control approaches to solving the optimal power flow problem in power system references [13,14],
how to design a decentralized control algorithm for AC-stacked PV inverters is necessary.
In view of the overview above, this paper proposes a min-communication decentralized control
method to greatly improve system reliability and lower the communication cost. The contributions of
the proposed control method are listed as follows:

(1) It reduces the communication links to a great extent compared with existing control methods.
Only one communication link is needed. Thus, system reliability is greatly improved and
communication cost is reduced;
(2) It achieves voltage self-synchronization with grid voltage with no need for PLL;
(3) It can achieve a desirable unity PF or a required non-unity PF;
(4) It achieves MPPT of all cascaded inverters under symmetrical conditions and partial shading;
(5) It is available under grid voltage sag and grid frequency fluctuation.

The rest of this paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, the system configuration is described
and the mathematical model of the AC-stacked PV inverter system is derived. In Section 3, the proposed
control method is presented and analyzed in detail. In Section 4, simulation results under different
conditions are provided to verify the effectiveness of the proposed control. Conclusions are finally
drawn in Section 5. To make this paper clearer, variables and parameters used in this paper are listed
in the nomenclature below.

2. System Modeling
The configuration of the AC-stacked PV inverter system studied in this paper is shown in
Figure 1. The whole system consists of n series-connected PV inverter units, where each inverter has an
independent output LC filter. These AC-stacked inverters are then connected to the utility grid directly
without a step-up transformer. In each PV inverter unit, local PV panels are directly tied to the input
port of an inverter. This type of system architecture aims to integrate LV distributed PV generators
into the power grid directly with high energy conversion efficiency. Moreover, this topology makes it
possible for distributed or decentralized control to be realized since output of each inverter is at AC
line frequency.
Energies 2018, 11, 2262 3 of 12
Energies 2018, 11, x 3 of 12

P1 + jQ1 Z line
iPV 1 L1
H-Bridge
+
udc1 C1 u1 = V1∠δ1
− V p ∠δ p

PV inverter#1 ig
Vg ∠δ g

... ...
Utility
Grid

iPVn Ln
H-Bridge

udcn+ Cn un = Vn ∠δ n
−

PV inverter#N Pn + jQn

Figure 1. Configuration of AC-stacked photovoltaic (PV) inverter system.

Figure 1. Configuration of AC-stacked photovoltaic (PV) inverter system.

In Figure 1, V1~Vn and δ1~δn are amplitudes and phase angles of the inverters’ output voltages.
Vg andIn Figure 1, V 1 ~V
δg represent n and δ1 ~δ
amplitude n are
and amplitudes
phase angle ofand phase
the grid angles respectively.
voltage, of the inverters’ output
Vp and voltages.
δp are voltage
Vamplitude
g and δ g represent amplitude and phase angle of the grid voltage, respectively. V
and phase at the PCC. Lline is the line inductance, its amplitude and angle are denoted asp and δ p are voltage
amplitude
|Lline| andand θline.phase
iPV1~iPVnat and udc1~uLdcn
the PCC. is the linethe
linerepresent inductance,
PV outputits amplitude
currents and and angle are
PV output denoted
voltages. L1as
~Ln
|L
and | and θ
line C1~Cn are . i
linethePV1 ~i PVn
parameters and u dc1 ~u
of output dcn represent the PV output currents and PV output voltages.
LC filters. From Figure 1, the output active power and reactive
Lpower
1 ~Ln and C1 ~C
of i-th (in=are1, 2,the
…,parameters
n) inverter,ofwhich
outputareLCdenoted
filters. From Figure
as Pi and Qi, 1,
canthe
beoutput active
calculated aspower and
reactive power of i-th (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) inverter, which are denoted as Pi and Qi , can be calculated as
( V e jδi  ∗)
*
  Vp ejδjδ p − Vg ejδjδ g !
P = ReV e ijδi Vp e p − Vg e g  
Pi =i Re i 2  Lline ejθjθline  
(1)
(1)
2
line

  | Lline |e  
!∗ )
i e jδijδi Vp e jδjδpp − Vg e jjδδ gg * 
(
V V e − V e
Qi = Im Vi e
Qi = Im  2  p| Lline |e jθgline   (2)
(2)
 2  Lline e   jθline

There is a factor 1/2 in Equations (1) and (2) because Vi , Vpand Vg are all amplitude values,
instead of RMS
There (Root Mean
is a factor Square) values.
1/2 in Equations For
(1) and (2)this AC-stacked
because PVVinverter
Vi, Vp and architecture, the voltage
g are all amplitude values, instead
atofthe PCC is the sum of
RMS (Root Mean Square) u 1 ~u :
nvalues. For this AC-stacked PV inverter architecture, the voltage at the
n
PCC is the sum of u1~un: Vp e jδp = ∑ Vj e jδj (3)
j =1
n
 Vand
jδ jδ
V p e p =(1)
By substitution of Equation (3) into Equations j e (2), Pi and Qi are derived as
j
(3)
j =1
n Vi Vj Vi Vg
Pi =of∑
By substitution Equation (3)
cosinto Equations
+ δi − δj (1)
− and (2), cos Pi and Qi+are derived as



δline δline δi − δg (4)
j =1
2 | Zline | 2 | Zline |
n ViV j ViVg
n
Pi = 2 Z (
cos δ line + δ i − δ j −

2 ZVline
) (
cos δ line + δ i − δ g ) (4)
VijV=1j line
i Vg
∑


Qi = sin δline + δi − δj − sin δline + δi − δg (5)
j =1
2| Zline
n
| 2| Zline |
ViV j ViVg
j =1
Qi = 2 Z line
(
sin δ line + δ i − δ j − ) 2 Z line
(
sin δ line + δ i − δ g ) (5)
3. Proposed Decentralized Control

3.1. Schematic Overview of the Proposed Decentralized Control

3. Proposed Decentralized Control
The overall schematic overview of the proposed decentralized control is presented in Figure 2.
It3.1.
is Schematic
noted thatOverview of the
only one Proposed Decentralized
communication link is Control
needed to transmit the grid voltage phase to
inverter#1. Inverter#1 is controlled as a current source to carry out PF regulation and track its
The overall schematic overview of the proposed decentralized control is presented in Figure 2.
maximum power point (MPP). Inverter#1 can achieve a desired PF according to practical requirements.
It is noted that only one communication link is needed to transmit the grid voltage phase to inverter#1.
Inverter#1 is controlled as a current source to carry out PF regulation and track its maximum power
point (MPP). Inverter#1 can achieve a desired PF according to practical requirements. All other
Energies 2018, 11, 2262 4 of 12
Energies 2018, 11, x 4 of 12

inverters
All are controlled
other inverters as voltage
are controlled sourcessources
as voltage locallylocally
and independently to achieve
and independently MPPT
to achieve and and
MPPT self-
synchronization. They
self-synchronization. need
They only
need local
only information
local andand
information they need
they no no
need grid synchronization
grid signal.
synchronization signal.

PV Inverter#1 udc1 θg
Current control PLL
iPV 1
mode ug
ig
PWM
iPV 1 L1 Lline
H-Bridge
+
udc1 C1
− PCC

MPPT & PF Control

ig
PV Inverter#2 udc2 ig
Local Voltage
Control mode
iPV2 u2
PWM

iPV2 L2 Vg ∠δ g
H-Bridge
+
udc2 C2 Utility
−
Grid

MPPT & Self-synchronization

...

PV inverter#n udcn ig
Local Voltage
Control mode
iPVn un
PWM

iPVn H-Bridge
Ln
+
udcn Cn
−

MPPT & Self-synchronization

Figure 2. Overall control framework of the proposed method.

Figure 2. Overall control framework of the proposed method.

3.2. Proposed Decentralized Control

3.2. Proposed Decentralized Control
The control diagram of inverter#1 is shown in Figure 3. Inverter#1 is controlled as a current
The control diagram of inverter#1 is shown in Figure 3. Inverter#1 is controlled as a current
source to serve as a current regulation unit for the AC-stacked PV inverter string while tracking its
source to serve as a current regulation unit for therefAC-stacked PV inverter string while tracking its
u
MPP.The
MPP. Thefront-end
front-endDC-link
DC-linkvoltage reference uredcf 1isisprovided
voltagereference providedby
bythe
theMPPT
MPPTcontroller.
controller.In Inorder
ordertoto
dc1
realizethe
realize thedesired
desiredPF,PF,the
theline
linecurrent
currentphase
phasereference
referenceisisdetermined
determinedby bythe
thegrid
gridvoltage
voltagephasephaseθθg g
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
i∗ ∗I ∗ ∗
from
fromaaPLL.
PLL. Then
Then the output current
the output reference i gg isissynthesized
current reference synthesizedbybyIg ,gθ, θandand
θ g . θθ g. isθ theissystem PF
the system
angle, which is set according to the practical PF requirement. Thus, the proposed
PF angle, which is set according to the practical PF requirement. Thus, the proposed method canmethod can achieve
different PFs by setting different values of θ ∗ . Finally, the∗line current is regulated to its reference value
achieve
by different (PR)
a proportional by setting different values of θ . Finally, the line current is regulated to its
PFs controller.
reference value by a proportional (PR) controller.
Energies 2018, 11, x 5 of 12

Energies 2018,11,
Energies2018, 11,2262
x 55ofof12
12
iPV1 L1
H-Bridge
+
udc1 C1
iPV1− L1
H-Bridge
+
u C1 ig
Controller − dc1
of PV PWM
Inverter #1
Controller ig ig
PWM * θg
+ ig
of PV −
Inverter #1 PLL ug
PR −
ig
iPV1 udc1 * I * θ ∗θ g
+i
− g g
PLL ug
PR −
udc1 +
iPV1 MPPT
− PI Ig* θ ∗
ref
udc1 Ig*
+
MPPT & PF ControlMPPT − PI
ref
u dc1 Ig*
MPPT & PF Control
Figure 3. Control diagram of inverter#1.

For inverter#i (i = 2, 3, …, n), the detailed

Figure
Figure 3.3.Control
Control control
diagram
diagram diagram is presented in Figure 4. Inverter#i is
ofofinverter#1.
inverter#1.
responsible for building up the voltage at the PCC while outputting its maximum power available.
The For Forinverter#i
inverter#i
proposed (i(i==2,2,
control 3,3,. inverter#i
for …,
. . , n), the detailed
n), the detailed
aims tocontrol control
achieve diagram is presented
presentedin
self-synchronization
diagram is inFigure
Figure
and 4.4.Inverter#i
MPPT Inverter#i
without isis
responsible
communication for building
links. As up
shown the voltage
in Figure at4, thethe PCC
core while
of outputting
proposed
responsible for building up the voltage at the PCC while outputting its maximum power available. control its maximum
is designed power
as available.
The proposed
The proposed controlcontrol for for inverter#i
inverter#i aims aims toto achieve achieve self-synchronization
self-synchronization and and MPPT
MPPT without
without
 Vg  K 
communicationlinks.
communication links.As Asshown
shown in Figure
Vi = in+Figure
 n 
K Pi + 4,4,Iithetheucore
s 
(
dci − of
ref
coreuofproposed
dci
proposedcontrol )
controlisisdesigned
designedasas
 Vg Vg    (i = 2,3,..., n)
 Vi =
(6)
K IiKIi 
(( ))



V
ωi i == + +K K + k
+ u u −− u
re
reff
∗
n ω + 
kPi Pi+ s Ii 
sin θ ∗
dci − sin
dci dciθ
 ∗ n  Pi k sIi s  ∗
dci i (i = 2, 3, . . . , n) (6)
 ωi =  ω + k Pi + s (sin θ − sin θi ) (i = 2,3,..., n) (6)
ω = ω∗ +  k + k Ii  sin θ ∗ − sin θ
where Vi and ωi represent the  i outputvoltage Pi 
s amplitude
( i
reference )
and angular frequency reference
where Vi and ω i represent the output voltage amplitude reference and angular frequency reference
of inverter#i respectively. Vg and ω* are the rated grid voltage amplitude and rated grid angular
of inverter#i
where Vi and respectively. Vthe
g and ω* are the rated grid voltage ref amplitude and frequency
rated grid reference
angular
frequency. udci isωthe
i represent
front-end output
DC-link voltage
voltage ofamplitude
inverter#ireferenceand udcire f and is theangular
DC-link voltage reference
frequency. udcirespectively.
of inverter#i is the front-end V andDC-linkω* arevoltage of inverter#i
the rated grid voltage and udci is the DC-link
amplitude voltage
and rated reference
grid angular
provided by MPPT controller.g KPi and KIi are the proportional and integral (PI) coefficients of the DC-
provided
frequency. by MPPT controller. K Pi and K Ii are the proportional and ref integral (PI) coefficients of the
udci isand
link dci is the front-end
voltageucontroller. θi and DC-link voltage ofPF
θ* are real-time inverter#i
angle ofand inverter#i the DC-link voltage
its reference. θ*reference
can be
DC-link voltage controller. θ i and θ* are real-time PF angle of inverter#i and its reference. θ* can be
provided
flexibly setby MPPT controller.
according to the system KPi and PFKIirequirement.
are the proportional KPi and and KIi areintegral (PI) coefficients
the proportional andofintegral
the DC-
flexibly set according to the system PF requirement. KPi and KIi are the proportional and integral
link voltage
coefficients of controller.
the frequency θi and θ* are The
controller. real-time
designed PF angle
frequency of inverter#i
controllerand canits reference.
realize θ* can
frequency be
self-
coefficients of the frequency controller. The designed frequency controller can realize frequency
flexibly set according to the
synchronization with the grid frequency. system PF requirement. K Pi and K Ii are the proportional and integral
self-synchronization with the grid frequency.
coefficients of the frequency controller. The designed frequency controller can realize frequency self-
synchronization with the grid frequency.
iPVi Li
H-Bridge
+
udci Ci
iPVi − Li
H-Bridge
+
Controller udci Ci ui ig
−
of PV PWM
Power
Inverter#i ii Calculation
Controller Inner Loops Piui Qi ig
of PV ui
PWM
Power
Vi ∠δi
Inverter#i ii (
/ Pi 2 + Qi 2
Qi Calculation )
Inner Loops Pi Qi
ui ω
*
sin θi
Vi δii∠δi1 ωi ++ −2 2
iPVi udci
V
s
PI Qi / ( Pi ++ Qi
sin θ ∗
)
ω* sin θi
Vi δi 1 ωi + + −
Vi +
iPVi udciMPPT s−
+ PI
sin θ ∗
PI
ref +
udci +
+ Vg∗ Vi
−
MPPT PI
+n
u ref
MPPT & Self-synchronization
dci +
Vg∗
Figure 4. Control diagram of inverter#i (i = 2,n3, …, n).
MPPT
Figure 4. & Self-synchronization
Control diagram of inverter#i (i = 2, 3, . . . , n).

Figure 4. Control diagram of inverter#i (i = 2, 3, …, n).

Energies 2018, 11, 2262 6 of 12

As the DC-link voltage controller is a PI regulator, Vi can be regulated autonomously to form the
voltage at the PCC and match the grid voltage. In this way, the proposed method is adaptable even
when grid voltage sag happens. Additionally, Equation (7) must hold in steady state:

re f
udci = udci (7)

Equation (7) reveals that MPPT operation is ensured in steady state. On the other hand,
Equation (8) must hold in steady-state:
ωi = ω ∗ (8)

In other words, Equation (9) must hold to reach a steady state:

 
k Ii
k Pi + (sin θ ∗ − sin θi ) = 0 (9)
s

Since frequency controller is a PI controller, Equation (10) must hold in steady state.

sin θ ∗ = sin θi (10)

This indicates that the frequency of each inverter will be synchronous with grid frequency in a
steady state and the output voltage of each inverter will be in phase with grid voltage in a steady
state. Moreover, From Equations (6)–(10) and Figure 4, MPPT of inverter#i is achieved by regulating
its output voltage amplitude and self-synchronization with grid voltage is achieved by adjusting the
output angular frequency according to its own PF angle. No communication links are involved and
PLL is not needed.

3.3. Steady-State Analysis and Self-Synchronization Mechanism

According to the description in Section 3.2, the proposed method is adaptable under grid voltage
sag and grid frequency fluctuation. On the other hand, it can also meet different PF requirements.
In practical PV grid-connected applications, unity PF is often required. So, we take the unity PF
condition as an example to analyze the control mechanism. Similar analysis can also be adapted in
other non-unity PF conditions.
With the proposed control for PV inverter#1, the line current is regulated and becomes in phase
with the grid voltage in steady state to satisfy the unity PF requirement. As the line current is a
common signal for all the AC-stacked PV inverters, inverter#i (i = 2, 3, ..., n) can thus self-synchronize
its output voltage with the grid voltage indirectly by synchronizing its output voltage with the line
current locally. So, we set sinθ* = 0 in Equation (6) for inverter#i to synchronize with grid voltage
under unity PF operation requirement.
The detailed self-synchronization mechanism in Equation (6) can be illustrated by Figure 5.

• Initially, the system is operating in steady-state. The steady-state phasor diagram is shown in
Figure 5a. Output voltages of inverter#2~inverter#n, line current and the grid voltage are all
in phase in a steady state. Small amount of reactive power consumed by the line impedance is
compensated by inverter#1 and unity PF of this grid-connected system is ensured;
• When disturbances occur, power angle of inverter#i will change. For example, θ i > 0 as shown in
Figure 5b. According to Equation (6), the angular frequency reference ωi = (ω ∗ − k i sin θi ) < ω ∗ .
And thus the relative angular frequency between ui and ug is: ∆ωi = (ωi − ω ∗ ) = −k i sin θi < 0;
• As a result, θ i will decrease until θ i = 0 and self-synchronization of inverter#i is achieved;
• Similar analysis can be applied to the condition where θ i < 0 occurs as shown in Figure 5c.
From the analysis above, self-synchronization of ui with the grid voltage ug is achieved with the
proposed control.
Energies 2018, 11,
Energies 2018, 11, 2262
x 77 of
of 12
12

Ig U1
ULine
U2 U3 … Un-1 Un Ug
(a)

Δωi < 0 Ig
Ui
θi > 0 θi < 0 Ug
Ig Ug Ui Δωi > 0
(b) (c)

Figure 5.
Figure 5. (a)
(a) Steady-state
Steady-state phasor
phasor diagram;
diagram; (b)
(b) Self-synchronization
Self-synchronization process
process of
of inverter#i
inverter#i when
when θθi >
> 0;
0;
i
(c) Self-synchronization process of inverter#i when θ i < 0.
(c) Self-synchronization process of inverter#i when θ i < 0.

4. Simulation Results
4. Simulation Results
To verify the correctness and effectiveness of the proposed control method, four simulation tests
To verify the correctness and effectiveness of the proposed control method, four simulation tests
in different operation conditions are conducted. The simulation model consists of three AC-stacked
in different operation conditions are conducted. The simulation model consists of three AC-stacked
PV inverters. Simulation parameters are listed in Table 1.
PV inverters. Simulation parameters are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Simulation Parameters.
Table 1. Simulation Parameters.
Symbol Value Symbol Value
Symbol
Vg Value
311 V KSymbol
P2 = KP3
Value
1.8
Vg
ω* 2π ×311
50 Vrad/s KKP2I2 =
=K KP3
I3 1.8
6
ω*
sinθ* 2π0×&50 rad/s
0.392 K I2 =
kP2 = kP3KI3 67
sinθ* 0 & 0.392 kP2 = kP3 7
LLline 300 μH
300 µH kkI2
I2 = kI3
= kI3 0.2
0.2
line
C = C DC2 ==C
CDC1 = CDC2
DC1 CDC3
DC3
4000 μF
4000 µF -- --

4.1. Symmetrical
4.1. Symmetrical Condition
Condition and
and Partial
Partial Shading
Shading
Toevaluate
To evaluatethethe steady-state
steady-state and dynamic
and dynamic performances
performances of the control,
of the proposed proposed bothcontrol,
symmetricalboth
symmetrical condition and partial shading condition are simulated.
condition and partial shading condition are simulated. Before t = 2s, the symmetrical operation Before t = 2s, the symmetrical
operation is
condition condition
simulated. is simulated.
At t = 2s, At t = 2s, different
different partial shadings
partial shadings are imposed are imposed on PV inverter#2
on PV inverter#2 and PV
and PV inverter#3 simultaneously. Simulation
inverter#3 simultaneously. Simulation results are shown in Figure 6. results are shown in Figure 6.
Before tt == 2s, 2s,the
theoutput
outputactive
activepower of of
thetheinverters P1, PP2, and P3 are equal in Figure 6a, since
Before power inverters 1 P2 and P3 are equal in Figure 6a,
the system
since operates
the system underunder
operates symmetrical
symmetrical conditions. In Figure
conditions. 6c, steady-state
In Figure DC-link
6c, steady-state voltages
DC-link of all
voltages
the inverters are the same, which indicates all PV inverter units operates
of all the inverters are the same, which indicates all PV inverter units operates at MPP. In Figure 6b, at MPP. In Figure 6b, output
voltages
output of inverter#2
voltages and inverter#3
of inverter#2 and inverter#3 are identical,
are identical, while whileoutput
output voltage
voltage ofofinverter#1
inverter#1isis aa little
little
different to compensate the line reactive power. After t = 2s, P 2 drops from 1500 W to 1400 W and P3
different to compensate the line reactive power. After t = 2s, P2 drops from 1500 W to 1400 W and
Pdrops to 1200 W while P1 stays unchanged in Figure 6a, because different shadings are imposed on
3 drops to 1200 W while P1 stays unchanged in Figure 6a, because different shadings are imposed
inverter#2
on inverter#2 andand inverter#3
inverter#3 simultaneously.
simultaneously. The DC-link
The DC-link voltages udc2 and
voltages udc2udc3
anddropudc3todrop
different steady-
to different
state values accordingly, shown in Figure 6c, still operating at the
steady-state values accordingly, shown in Figure 6c, still operating at the MPP. In Figure 6b, u2 and MPP. In Figure 6b, u 2 and u3 are

ustill in phase while their amplitudes are different, owing to their different maximum power outputs.
3 are still in phase while their amplitudes are different, owing to their different maximum power
In addition,
outputs. amplitude
In addition, of u1 isof the
amplitude u1 ishighest,
the highest,because
because it generates
it generates thethehighest
highestactive
active power and
power and
compensates the line reactive power to regulate system PF. Figure
compensates the line reactive power to regulate system PF. Figure 6d shows that the line current and 6d shows that the line current and
grid voltage
grid voltage are are always
always in in phase
phase in in different
different steady
steady states.
states. So,So, unity
unity PFPF ofof the
the system
system is is achieved
achieved in in
both symmetrical and partial shading conditions. Moreover, the
both symmetrical and partial shading conditions. Moreover, the steady-state line current amplitude steady-state line current amplitude
after tt == 2s
after 2s isissmaller
smallerthan thanthethecurrent
currentamplitude
amplitudebefore before t =t 2s,
= 2s,since
sincetotal active
total power
active power injected to the
injected to
grid is smaller when partial shading happens. Output voltages in
the grid is smaller when partial shading happens. Output voltages in transient states are shown in transient states are shown in Figure
6e, the6e,
Figure output voltages
the output of theofinverters
voltages the invertersresponse
responseimmediately
immediately according
accordingto the control
to the control algorithm
algorithm in
Equation (6). Grid voltage and line current in transient states are presented
in Equation (6). Grid voltage and line current in transient states are presented in Figure 6f. It is clear in Figure 6f. It is clear that
the amplitude
that the amplitude of theoftransient line current
the transient transient
line current is not too
transient is nothigh
tooandhightheand
phasetheangle
phaseofangle line current
of line
is also in phase with the grid voltage. So, required unity PF is ensured
current is also in phase with the grid voltage. So, required unity PF is ensured in the transient state. in the transient state.
Energies 2018, 11, 2262 8 of 12
Energies 2018, 11, x 8 of 12

2.5 u1 u2 u3 u1
Active Power (kW) 100 u2

Output voltage (V)

2 P1 u3
P2 50
1.5
0
1
P3 -50
0.5 Symmetrical Operation Partial shading -100 Symmetrical Operation Partial shading
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 1.31 1.33 1.35 3.39 3.41 3.43
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
300 ug
ug
DC-link Voltage (V)

180 200
udc1 udc2 udc3 ig ig

ug (V), ig (A)
160 100
140 0
-100
120
Symmetrical Operation Partial shading -200
100 -300 Symmetrical Operation Partial shading
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 1.29 1.31 1.33 1.35 1.37 3.37 3.39 3.41 3.43 3.45
Time (s) Time (s)
(c) (d)
u3 u1 u2 300 ug
100
Output voltage (V)

200
ig

ug (V), ig (A)
50 100
0 0
-100
-50
Partial shading -200 Partial shading
-100 -300
1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7
Time (s) Time (s)
(e) (f)

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Simulation
Simulation results
results under
under symmetrical
symmetrical condition
condition and
and partial
partial shading
shading condition.
condition. (a)
(a) Active
Active
power; (b) Steady-state output voltages; (c) DC-link voltages; (d) Grid voltage and line current
power; (b) Steady-state output voltages; (c) DC-link voltages; (d) Grid voltage and line current in in
steady state; (e) Output voltages in transient state; (f) Grid voltage and line current in transient state.
steady state; (e) Output voltages in transient state; (f) Grid voltage and line current in transient state.

4.2. Grid Voltage Sag Condition

4.2. Grid Voltage Sag Condition
To demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed method under grid faults, a simulation test under
To demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed method under grid faults, a simulation test under
10% grid voltage sag is carried out. Before t = 1s, the system operates under rated grid voltage
10% grid voltage sag is carried out. Before t = 1s, the system operates under rated grid voltage
condition. At t = 1s, 10% grid voltage sag is simulated. Simulation results are shown in Figure 7.
condition.
Energies 2018,At 11, tx = 1s, 10% grid voltage sag is simulated. Simulation results are shown in Figure 7.9 of 12
From Figure 7a,c P1~P3 are identical and DC-link voltages udc1~udc3 reach the same steady-state
value2.5 during t = 0~1s, which indicates that the system operates under symmetrical u u u
conditions and
100 1 2 3
Active Power (kW)

Output voltage (V)

achieves
2 MPPT. In FigureP 7b, output P voltages of inverter#2 50 and 2inverter#3 1 are identical before t = 1s,
1.5
while1 output voltage of inverter#1 is a little different to0compensate for the line reactive power. Figure
P -50
7d shows
0.5 that grid voltage and line current are inphase and a satisfactory unity PF is achieved, where
3

Rated Grid Voltage 10% Grid Voltage Sag -100 Rated Grid Voltage 10% Grid Voltage Sag
the grid
0
0 voltage
0.2 0.4 is0.6
at its0.8 rated 1 value.
1.2 1.4At t1.6= 1s,
1.810% 2 grid voltage 0.8 sag0.9is implemented
1 1.1 which 1.2 can be1.3 seen
Time (s)
in Figure 7d. During thisTime (a)
(s)
process, output voltage of inverter#1 reacts immediately (b) to compensate for
the180grid voltage sag as shown in Figure 7b. Meanwhile, 300 inverter#2 and inverter#3 u i reduce their output g
DC-link Voltage (V)

g
u 200 dc1
ug (V), ig (A)

160
voltage amplitudes gradually according to Equation100(6). Eventually, u1~u3 reach new steady-state
140 0
values to match the sagged u gridu voltage. In Figure 7d, -100 the amplitude of line current increases to a
dc2 dc3
120
-200
higher
100 Ratedsteady-state
Grid Voltage value after t =Voltage
10% Grid 1s toSagmaintain the maximum active power output
-300 Rated Grid Voltage
of allSagPV inverters
10% Grid Voltage
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
and line current is still inphase Time (s) with the grid voltage to satisfy unity PF requirement. Time (s) From 1.3Figure
(c) (d)
7a,c the steady-state values of P1~P3 and DC-link voltages udc1~udc3 stay unchanged after t = 1s despite
10% Figuregrid 7.
Figure voltage
7. Simulation sag.results
Simulation results
So, MPPT under 10%
under
operation
10% grid voltage
grid voltageof sag
all condition.
sag PV inverters
condition. (a)
(a) Active
arepower;
still ensured
Active power; (b) and self-
(b) Steady-state
Steady-state
synchronization
output voltages; of inverter#2
(c) DC-link and inverter#3
voltages; (d) Grid are realized.
voltage and
output voltages; (c) DC-link voltages; (d) Grid voltage and line current in steady state. Thus,
line the
current proposed
in steady method
state. is immune to
the grid voltage fault.
4.3. Grid Frequency Fluctuation Condition
From Figure 7a,c P1 ~P3 are identical and DC-link voltages udc1 ~udc3 reach the same steady-state
valueTo verifytthe
during feasibility
= 0~1s, whichofindicates the proposed that the method
system under
operatesgrid frequency
under symmetricalfluctuation, a simulation
conditions and
test with random grid frequency variation is performed.
achieves MPPT. In Figure 7b, output voltages of inverter#2 and inverter#3 are identical before Initially, the system operates under trated
= 1s,
grid frequency
while output voltage condition. Then random
of inverter#1 frequency
is a little fluctuation
different to compensate is simulated.for the Simulation
line reactive results
power.are
shown in Figure 8.
Figure 7d shows that grid voltage and line current are inphase and a satisfactory unity PF is achieved,
where Fromthe gridFigure 8a,c Pis
voltage 1~P at3 are identical
its rated value. andAt DC-link
t = 1s, voltages
10% griduvoltage dc1~udc3 reach
sag isthe same steady-state
implemented which
can be seen in Figure 7d. During this process, output voltage of inverter#1 reacts immediately In
value, which indicates that the system operates under symmetrical condition and achieves MPPT. to
Figure 8d, output
compensate for the voltages
grid voltage of inverter#2
sag as shown andininverter#3
Figure 7b.are identical, inverter#2
Meanwhile, while output and voltage
inverter#3 of
inverter#1 is a little different to compensate the line reactive power. Figure 8b shows that grid voltage
and line current are inphase and a desired unity PF is achieved. The frequencies of the system are
shown in Figure 8e. In the beginning, grid frequency is the rated value. f2–f3 are 50 Hz tracking the
rated grid frequency. Then, grid frequency varies randomly. Accordingly, f2–f3 follow to change and
track the real-time grid frequency tightly. Thus, the proposed control method is adaptable to the grid
frequency fluctuation and can self-synchronize the inverters’ frequencies with the grid frequency. So,
 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Time (s) Time (s)
(c) (d)

Figure 7. Simulation results under 10% grid voltage sag condition. (a) Active power; (b) Steady-state
output voltages; (c) DC-link voltages; (d) Grid voltage and line current in steady state.
Energies 2018, 11, 2262 9 of 12
4.3. Grid Frequency Fluctuation Condition
To verify the feasibility of the proposed method under grid frequency fluctuation, a simulation
reduce their output voltage amplitudes gradually according to Equation (6). Eventually, u1 ~u3 reach
test with random grid frequency variation is performed. Initially, the system operates under rated
new steady-state values to match the sagged grid voltage. In Figure 7d, the amplitude of line current
grid frequency condition. Then random frequency fluctuation is simulated. Simulation results are
increases to a higher steady-state value after t = 1s to maintain the maximum active power output of
shown in Figure 8.
all PV inverters and line current is still inphase with the grid voltage to satisfy unity PF requirement.
From Figure 8a,c P1~P3 are identical and DC-link voltages udc1~udc3 reach the same steady-state
From Figure 7a,c the steady-state values of P1 ~P3 and DC-link voltages udc1 ~udc3 stay unchanged
value, which indicates that the system operates under symmetrical condition and achieves MPPT. In
after t = 1s despite 10% grid voltage sag. So, MPPT operation of all PV inverters are still ensured and
Figure 8d, output voltages of inverter#2 and inverter#3 are identical, while output voltage of
self-synchronization of inverter#2 and inverter#3 are realized. Thus, the proposed method is immune
inverter#1 is a little different to compensate the line reactive power. Figure 8b shows that grid voltage
to the grid voltage fault.
and line current are inphase and a desired unity PF is achieved. The frequencies of the system are
shown
4.3. GridinFrequency
Figure 8e. In the beginning,
Fluctuation Conditiongrid frequency is the rated value. f2–f3 are 50 Hz tracking the
rated grid frequency. Then, grid frequency varies randomly. Accordingly, f2–f3 follow to change and
trackTotheverify the feasibility
real-time of thetightly.
grid frequency proposed method
Thus, under grid
the proposed frequency
control methodfluctuation,
is adaptablea to
simulation
the grid
test with random
frequency grid and
fluctuation frequency variation is performed.
can self-synchronize Initially,
the inverters’ the system
frequencies operates
with the gridunder rated grid
frequency. So,
frequency condition. Then random frequency fluctuation is simulated. Simulation
the proposed control method can maintain the stability of the system even when grid frequencyresults are shown
in Figure 8. occurs.
fluctuation

2.5 300 ug ug ig
ig
Active Power (kW)

2 P1 200
ug (V), ig (A)

1.5 100
P3 0
1 P2 -100
0.5 Grid Frequency Fluctuation -200
-300 Grid Frequency Fluctuation Grid Frequency Fluctuation
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 2.35 2.4 2.45 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)

100 u2 u3 u1 u2 u3 u1
180 udc1
DC-link Voltage (V)

Output voltage (V)

160 50
140 0
udc2 udc3
120 -50
Grid Frequency Fluctuation
100 -100 Grid Frequency Fluctuation Grid Frequency Fluctuation
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 2.35 2.4 2.45 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65
Time (s) Time (s)
(c) (d)

50.15 fg
Frequency (Hz)

50.1
50.05
50
49.95
f3
49.9
f2
49.85
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)
(e)

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Simulation
Simulation results
results under
under grid
grid frequency
frequency fluctuation.
fluctuation. (a)
(a)Active
Activepower;
power;(b)
(b)Grid
Gridvoltage
voltageand
and
line current; (c) DC-link voltages; (d) Output voltages; (e) Frequencies.
line current; (c) DC-link voltages; (d) Output voltages; (e) Frequencies.

From Figure 8a,c P1 ~P3 are identical and DC-link voltages udc1 ~udc3 reach the same steady-state
value, which indicates that the system operates under symmetrical condition and achieves MPPT.
In Figure 8d, output voltages of inverter#2 and inverter#3 are identical, while output voltage of
inverter#1 is a little different to compensate the line reactive power. Figure 8b shows that grid voltage
and line current are inphase and a desired unity PF is achieved. The frequencies of the system are
shown in Figure 8e. In the beginning, grid frequency is the rated value. f 2 –f 3 are 50 Hz tracking
the rated grid frequency. Then, grid frequency varies randomly. Accordingly, f 2 –f 3 follow to change
and track the real-time grid frequency tightly. Thus, the proposed control method is adaptable to the
grid frequency fluctuation and can self-synchronize the inverters’ frequencies with the grid frequency.
So, the proposed control method can maintain the stability of the system even when grid frequency
fluctuation occurs.
4.4. No-Unity PF Operation
In most gird-connected PV generation applications, unity PF is required. However, no-unity PF
and Volt/Var capability of the inverters are required. To verify the PF controllability of the proposed
Energies 2018,
method, 11, 2262
a simulation test with a required PF = 0.92 is performed. To achieve PF = 0.92, we just10need of 12

to set θ* = 0.4027 in Equation (6). Simulation results are shown in Figure 9.

From Figure 9a,b P1~P3 are identical and DC-link voltages udc1~udc3 reach the same steady-state
4.4. No-Unity PF Operation
value, which indicates that the system operates under symmetrical condition and achieves MPPT. In
FigureIn most gird-connected
9d, output voltages PV of generation
inverter#2 applications,
and inverter#3 unity
arePFidentical,
is required. However,
while outputno-unity
voltage PF
of
and Volt/Var capability of the inverters are required. To verify the PF controllability of the
inverter#1 is a little different to compensate the line reactive power. Figure 9c shows that grid voltage proposed
method,
and line acurrent
simulation testinphase
are not with a required PF = 0.92
and a no-unity PFisisperformed.
achieved. ToTheachieve
systemPFPF= is
0.92, we just
shown need9e.
Figure to
set θ* = 0.4027
Obviously, the in Equation
required PF(6). Simulation
= 0.92 results are shown in Figure 9.
is achieved.

2.5
180 udc1

DC-link Voltage (V)

Active Power (kW)

2 P1
160
1.5
140
1 P3 udc2 udc3
P2
120
0.5
100
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)

300 ug 100 u1 u2 u3
ig

Output voltage (V)

200
ug (V), ig (A)

50
100
0 0
-100
-50
-200
-300 -100
0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15
Time (s) Time (s)
(c) (d)

1
0.8
Power Factor

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time (s)
(e)

Figure 9. Simulation results under grid frequency fluctuation. (a) Active power; (b) DC-link voltages;
Figure 9. Simulation results under grid frequency fluctuation. (a) Active power; (b) DC-link voltages;
(c) Grid voltage and line current; (d) Output voltages; (e) Power factor (PF).
(c) Grid voltage and line current; (d) Output voltages; (e) Power factor (PF).

From the simulation results and analysis above, we can see the advantages and performances of
From Figure
the proposed control P1 ~P3 are
9a,b method identical
clearly. Forand DC-link voltages
an AC-stacked udc1 ~udc3
PV inverter reach with
system the same steady-state
N inverters, the
value, which indicates that the system operates under symmetrical condition and
main advantages and performances of the proposed control method in comparison with the existing achieves MPPT.
In Figure
control 9d, output
methods voltages of in
are summarized inverter#2
Table 2. and inverter#3 are identical, while output voltage of
inverter#1 is a little different to compensate the line reactive power. Figure 9c shows that grid voltage
and line current are not inphaseTable 2.and a no-unity
Comparison withPF is achieved.
Existing Control The system PF is shown Figure 9e.
Methods
Obviously, the required PF = 0.92 is achieved.
Items Proposed Decentralized Control Existing Control Methods
From the simulation results and analysis above, we can see the advantages and performances of
Number of Communication Links 1 N
the proposedCommunication
control method
Cost clearly. For an AC-stacked PV inverter system with N inverters,
Low High the main
advantages and performances
Communication of the proposed control method
Complexity Low in comparison with the existing control
High
Reliability
methods areinsummarized
Case of Communication
in TableFaults
2. High Low
Synchronization Method By Self-synchronization Mechanism By Centralized Communication
Global MPPT Operation Yes Control Methods.
Table 2. Comparison with Existing Yes
Operation Under Grid Voltage Sag Yes Yes
Operation Under Grid Frequency Fluctuation Yes Yes
Items Proposed Decentralized Control Existing Control Methods
Number of Communication Links
1 N
5. Conclusions
Communication Cost Low High
Communication Complexity Low High
This paper
Reliability in Case proposes a one-communication-link
of Communication Faults Highdecentralized control for LowAC-stacked PV
Synchronization Method By Self-synchronization
inverter system. It achieves the following objectives: Mechanism By Centralized Communication
Global MPPT Operation Yes Yes
Operation Under Grid Voltage Sag Yes Yes
Operation Under Grid Frequency Fluctuation Yes Yes
Energies 2018, 11, 2262 11 of 12

5. Conclusions
This paper proposes a one-communication-link decentralized control for AC-stacked PV inverter
system. It achieves the following objectives:

(1) It reduces the communication complexity to a great extent compared with existing control
methods. Specifically, it reduces N − 1 communication links for a system with N inverters.
Thus system reliability is greatly improved and communication cost is reduced;
(2) It achieves voltage self-synchronization with grid voltage;
(3) It can achieve a desirable unity PF or a required non-unity PF;
(4) It achieves MPPT of all cascaded inverters under symmetrical conditions and partial shading;
(5) It is available under grid voltage sag and grid frequency fluctuation.

Simulation tests under symmetrical/partial-shading condition, grid voltage sag condition,

grid frequency fluctuation condition and non-unity PF requirement condition have verified the
effectiveness of the proposed control method. Beyond this study, the possibilities of new ideas
will be inspired in future cascaded-type distributed generation systems.
For better operation of the AC-stacked PV inverter system in practical application situation,
seeking for optimal configuration of the energy storage system in this architecture and corresponding
control methods with high reliability are very important and meaningful. This aspect will be explored
in our future work.

Author Contributions: C.L. conceived the main idea and wrote the manuscript with guidance from X.H.
and H.H.; W.Y. and Z.L. performed the simulations; M.S. and J.M.G. reviewed the work and gave helpful
improvement suggestions.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant 61573384
and Grant 51677195, and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of Central South University
under Grant 2018zzts531.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
udci DC-link voltage of i-th inverter
iPVi PV current of i-th inverter
Lline Line inductance
CDCi Capacitor in DC side
ig Line current
Vg ∠δg Grid voltage
i∗g Line current reference
re f
udc DC-Link voltage reference
θi Power angle of i-th inverter
Vg∗ Rated grid voltage amplitude
ω* Rated grid frequency
Vi Output voltage amplitude reference of i-th inverter
ωi Angular frequency of i-th inverter
ui Output voltage amplitude of i-th inverter
KPi , KIi Proportional and integral coefficients of DC voltage controller
kPi , kIi Proportional and integral coefficients of frequency controller

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