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atatwww.sciencedirect.com
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Procedia Manufacturing 13 (2017) 275–282
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Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017, MESIC 2017, 28-30 June
Manufacturing Engineering Society
2017, International Conference
Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain2017, MESIC 2017, 28-30 June
2017, Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain
Latest advances in the micro-milling of titanium alloys: a review
Latest advances
Manufacturing in the
Engineering micro-milling
Society of titanium
International Conference alloys:
2017, MESIC a 28-30
2017, review
June
2017, Vigo
c (Pontevedra), Spain
D. Carou , E.M. Rubio , J. Herrera , C.H. Lauro , J.P. Davim
a,b,* c b b
D. Caroua,b,*, E.M. Rubioc, J. Herrerac, C.H. Laurob, J.P. Davimb
CostingSchool models forandcapacity optimization in Industry 4.0: Trade-off
of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland
a

School
a b
of Mechanical
Department Materials
of Mechanical Engineering,
Engineering, University
University College
of Aveiro, Dublin,
Campus Belfield,
Santiago, Dublin,Aveiro,
3810-193 Dublin 4, Ireland
Portugal

between usedIndustrial
Department ofEngineering,
capacity
Mechanical Industrial
Rosal nº 12,and
Engineering, UniversitySchool,
operational
of Aveiro,
Nacional de efficiency
Campus Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal(UNED), C/ Juan
b
Department of Manufacturing
c
Engineering Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia
Department of Manufacturing
c
Engineering, del Engineering School, Universidad
E28040-Madrid, Spain Educación a Distancia (UNED), C/ Juan
del Rosal nº 12, E28040-Madrid, Spain

A. Santana , P. Afonsoa,*, A. Zaninb, R. Wernkeb

a

Abstract a
University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal
Abstract b
Unochapecó, 89809-000 Chapecó, SC, Brazil
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Keywords: cutting tools; micro-milling; modelling; size effects; titanium
model for cutting
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effects; titanium
developed and it was used to analyze idle capacity and to design strategies towards the maximization of organization’s
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1. Introduction
1. Introduction
optimization might hide operational inefficiency.
© 2017 The Authors.
Current industryPublished by Elsevier B.V.
needs technological solutions to manufacture parts of reduced size such as micro or nano of high
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quality with great accuracy. These requirements theparts reducedofsize
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Keywords: Costnew challenges
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and, thus, new challenges arise, for instance, the size effect [1]. Similar to conventional
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Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017.
2351-9789 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017.
10.1016/j.promfg.2017.09.071
276 D. Carou et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 13 (2017) 275–282
2 D. Carou/ Procedia Manufacturing00 (2017) 000–000

The miniaturization of components manufactured in titanium alloys has helped improve micro and nano-
manufacturing techniques, for instance, micro-machining [2,3]. Specially, micro-milling is an economic and
versatile machining operation for micro-parts for small and medium lot sizes [4].
The current use of titanium alloys in several areas, among others, in aeronautic, automotive and medical is well
known, being the Ti-6Al-4V alloy the most used [5]. This alloy belongs to the α+β group and its properties (low
density, low corrosion level, high mechanical strength, good thermal and chemical resistance) make it suitable for a
wide range of applications [6,7]. However, machining is difficult due to due to its hardness is similar to that of the
tools and its low thermal conductivity makes difficult the heat dissipation from the cutting area[6,7].
In the present paper, the main characteristics of micro-milling are presented. After that, as main objective, the
latest trends in the micro-milling of titanium alloys are reported. Particularly, studies are classified in topics such as
surface integrity, tools, cooling/lubrication systems, finite element method, process optimization and monitoring.

2. Characteristics of the micro-milling

Micro-milling is a process well studied. For instance, Biermann and Heilmann [8] identified the suitability of the
micro-milling for the manufacturing of complex shapes, addressing its great importance for medical applications in
small scale. Unlike in conventional milling, in micro-milling some factors have to be considered to obtain the
wished result [9]. The interaction between the workpiece and the tool requires new studies due to the miniaturization
of both parts [10]. When reducing the size, the material cannot be considered to be homogeneous and isotropic, and
its grain structure plays a critical role in the manufacturing process [11]. For instance, in a numeric study of the
micro-scale orthogonal cutting of AISI 1045 steel, Simoneau et al. [12] considered the material composed by two
different materials: one, similar to perlite-like behavior and, the other, similar to ferrite-like behavior.
Size effects are one of the main differences in micro-milling and related to the minimum chip thickness [9]. The
approximation of the feed rate and cutting edge radius values can cause an increase of the specific cutting energy
and poor quality in the micro-machined surface. Aramcharoen et al. [13] analyzed the size effects in micro-milling
of tool steel, finding critical the relation between tool nose radius and chip thickness. When the chip thickness is
lower than a critical value, an elastic recovery appears instead of the cutting of the material. In this manner, the
material is deformed instead of cut. Komatsu et al. [14] carried out a study to evaluate the influence of size effects in
micro-milling of nickel-chromium stainless steels, stating that size effects increased cutting forces and the size of
the burrs. Ducobu et al. [15] indicated that the chip morphology evolves. The cutting refusal is produced when chip
thickness is too low and the shape of the chips becomes discontinuous.
Li et al. [16] stated that the cutting force prediction in micro-milling is more difficult than in conventional
milling. For instance, size effects should be considered in the model to avoid excessive discrepancies with the
experimental results. Habrat et al. [17,18] identified higher cutting forces when micro-milling titanium made of
micro crystals than when titanium is made of nanocrystals. Combined with the high chemical reactivity of titanium
with almost all of the cutting tool materials at high temperature, the tool life is substantially reduced with increase in
cutting speed and, thus, it is recommended to carry out the machining using low cutting speeds and feed rates
[18,19]. Therefore, the machining of titanium alloys is a high-cost process due to long cycle times and tool costs.
Optimization of the machining parameters can reduce the overall costs without dramatic loss of tool life [19].
Most of the tools used tungsten carbide (WC) due to their hardness over a broad range of temperatures combined,
in some applications, with cobalt [2]. Due to the small dimensions of the tools, micro-milling requires machine tools
with high rotational speed and extreme positioning accuracy [20]. In machine tools that have positioning accuracy,
about 10 nm, the thermal deformations can change the accuracy position in the direction of the spindle axis around 1
μm to 10 μm, when working with spindle speeds of 80 to 100 krpm, respectively. Thus, the axial depth of cut is
critical, mainly for hard materials.
In a numerical analysis of micro-milling of AISI 316L stainless steel, Kajaria et al. [21] affirmed that the
combination of spindle speed and cutting force can deflect and break a WC tool. The damage of the tool can reach
34% of its diameter before breaking. The referencing of the tool requires special attention to reduce positioning
errors.
 D. Carou et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 13 (2017) 275–282 277
D. Carou / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000 3

Because the stiffness of the tool in the micro-milling is reduced due to the relation length/diameter, an excessive
increase of the cutting forces will deflect the tool, produce bad surface quality or even lead to the failure of the tool
if the length is not reduced [22]. This fact makes critical the prediction of the cutting forces in micro-milling.

3. Main research topics in the micro-milling of titanium alloys

3.1 Surface integrity

Micro-milling provides high quality machined surfaces, including low surface roughness or reduced waviness
[23]. When performing micro-milling of titanium and its alloys, the characteristics of the material, such as its low
thermal conductivity, should be addressed. This property provokes an increase in the temperature, accelerating tool
wear [24]. Hardness of titanium should be also considered because it affects cutting forces and surface finish [25].
Moreover, machining conditions play an important role in order to attain the expected surface finish. Baldo et al.
[26] studied the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy, identifying that the increase in cutting speed and the decrease of
feed rate was positive for diminishing surface roughness.
In the micro-milling of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy, Kuram and Ozcelik [27] identified how spindle speed was the factor
with the higher influence on surface roughness; obtaining much reduced values (from 0.06 and 0.16 μm).
In the micro-milling of NiTi alloys, the depth of cut and width of cut were found to be the most influential
machining parameters on burr formation [8]. According to Schueler et al. [28], in the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-7Nb
and Ti-6Al-4V alloys, burrs occur depending on application, manufacturing process, shape, formation mechanism
and material properties. They observed a large top burr formation due to side effect, on both down and up milling.
The high biaxial compressive stress pushes the material toward the free surface and generates large top burrs. For
the entrance and exit burrs on the slot bottom, the values of the entrance and the exit burrs are equal, while the exit
side burrs are significant bigger than the entrance side burrs. Aslantas et al. [29] analyzed also burr formation, being
the hybrid cooling-lubrication system (combining the minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) and cryogenic systems)
the one that provided the lowest values of burr formation. The lowest surface roughness was attained for dry
machining, while slightly higher values were recorded for the hybrid system. These results were identified to be
related to the modification of the tool geometry as result of the tool wear.
Built-up-edge (BUE) formation can be negative for surface quality in the micro-milling. BUE is a phenomenon in
which the material adheres to the cutting edge, changing the behaviour of the tool against wear, surface finish and
burr formation [30]. Oliaei and Karpat [31] studied several micro-milling operations on Ti-6Al-4V alloy, concluding
that BUE formation protects temporally the edge of the tool, but worsening the surface quality and increasing
cutting forces.

3.2 Cutting tools

The adequate selection of a cutting tool is especially important when machining and micro-machining of titanium
alloys because of the high wear of the tools. The selection of the tool material, adequate coatings and suitable tool
geometry can enlarge tool life and improve the results of the process. Moreover, it should be given attention to the
preparation of the tools. Zhao et al. [32] have identified as main sources for tool failure micro-cracks and the
existence of residual stresses in the surface layer as result of the fabrication process. According to Berestovskyi et
al. [33], the appropriate combination of cooling/lubrication system, machining parameters, and tool (material and
coating) is of great importance avoiding, or at least diminishing, problems such as BUE.
Schueler et al. [28] made micro-end mills with diameter of 48 μm using micro-grain tungsten carbide with
diameters between 7 and 100 μm. The micro-tools were uncoated to keep the cutting edge as sharp as possible.
Because of the high chemical wear during the machining of titanium, diamond tools are not suitable. The micro-
grinding process, that allows fabricating micro-tools down to 7 μm in diameter with high aspect ratios, was used to
obtain end mills with only a single flute to get a positive wedge angle and a clearance angle of 6°. High sharpness of
the cutting edge with a radius below 0.1 μm and accurate corner are reached.
278 D. Carou et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 13 (2017) 275–282
4 D. Carou/ Procedia Manufacturing00 (2017) 000–000

Comparing the tool wear in the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy and Inconel 718, Kuram and Ozcelik [27] did
not observe adhesions on the cutting tool and the tool wear was located at the corners. In high-speed machining, the
tool wear of the edge was higher for the titanium alloy. In other study [34], when analyzing the wear mechanisms in
the micro-milling with high speed machining of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy, using feed rate of 75 mm/min and spindle
speed of 12,000 rpm, it was observed the coating delamination, rounding of the cutting edges, abrasive wear,
chipping, and fracture. For the feed rate of 150 mm/min and spindle speed of 28,000 rpm, it was observed the
coating delamination, wear on flank face, adhesion, rounding of corner, and fracture.
Several studies have addressed the use of different tool materials and coatings. Özel et al. [35] studied the
influence of coatings in the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy using uncoated and cubic boron nitride (cBN) coated
tools under dry condition. Analyzing the influence of the cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut on the surface
roughness and burr formation, the authors observed that cBN tools presented the lowest tool wear.
The influence of the coating in the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy was studied by Aslantas et al. [36]. The
authors analyzed tool wear, cutting force, surface roughness and burr size in uncoated and nanocrystal diamond
coating (NCD), TiN, and AlCrN coated tools. The tests were carried out using spindle speed of 20,000 rpm, depth of
cut of 0.1 mm and dry condition. The cutting forces, tool wear, and reduction in the diameter for the uncoated and
NCD tools were higher than that of the TiN and AlCrN coated tools. The TiN and AlCrN coatings provided lower
burr thickness.
To reduce the cutting forces in the micro-milling of the titanium alloys, tool geometries are modified. Obikawa
and Kani [37] manufactured tools with microgrooves, modifying the rake face by means of focused iron beam (FIB)
irradiation. These modified tools reduced the cutting forces during the micro-milling up to 27%.

3.3 Cooling/lubrication systems

The use of cooling/lubrication alternatives to cutting fluids is a big trend in machining because of the drawbacks
of cutting fluids such as cost, negative environmental impact and problems associated to the safety and health of the
workers [38]. Some of these alternatives are being also tested in the micro-milling of titanium alloys. However, the
effectiveness of the cooling/lubrication can be limited because, when using high spindle speeds, the centrifugal force
is higher than adhesion force between solid/lubricant and the tool, and the micro-droplets do not adhered adequately
to the tool [21].
Due to the hardness, low thermal conductivity and reduced resistance to high temperatures, the main wear
mechanisms that can be found during the micro-milling of titanium alloys are adhesion and abrasion [39]. Aslantas
et al. [29] analyzed different cooling/lubrication systems: dry, chilled air, MQL system and a hybrid system (MQL
with CO2) in the micro-milling of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The conditions of the systems were the same in terms of
pressure (3 bar) and air flow rate (25 l/h), while the temperature was different: -30±2 °C (chilled air), MQL (20±2
°C) and hybrid (-10±2 °C). The wear mechanisms after cutting 385 mm varied depending on the cooling system. In
particular, BUE was observed when using chilled air but not when using the hybrid system.
Dry and MQL conditions were used also by Ziberov et al. [40] in the micro-milling of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The
authors used a flow rate of 40.7 ml/h and air pressure of 0.23 MPa, observing great quality of the machined surface
and absence of BUE when using the MQL system. Moreover, the wear mechanism was different for dry and MQL
conditions; the wear appeared mainly on the secondary clearance face (MQL) and on the tool edge radius (dry
machining).
The use of the MQL system (vegetable oil at flow rate of 10 ml/h) was also studied by Zheng et al. [41]. The
authors analyzed the influence of the nozzle position and air pressure (0.15 to 0.45 MPa). The best results were
obtained with the nozzle positioned on the feed direction. Better surface roughness was obtained using air pressures
of 0.15 MPa and 0.35 MPa, while the highest air pressure increased the burr formation. The tool wear is mainly
caused by material adhesion specially in dry machining.
Kim et al. [42] studied the use of diamond nanoparticles mixed with vegetable oils carried by a cold flow of CO2
at -25 °C. These nanoparticles are of spherical shape, with hardness of 8,000 HK (±63 HRC), and thermal
conductivity of 2,000 W/mK. Their use in the micro-milling showed how the combination of the MQL nanofluid
and the cooled CO2 gas reduced the cutting forces, the friction coefficient, tool wear and surface roughness. The
results depend on the concentration of the nanoparticles.
 D. Carou et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 13 (2017) 275–282 279
D. Carou / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000 5

Overheat in the cutting zone accelerates tool wear, generates burrs and creates a rough surface; encouraging the
use of refrigeration systems such as MQL or cutting fluids [40].

3.4 Monitoring

Monitoring in machining processes is of great importance. Main techniques used in machining processes [43] can
be used also for micro-machining to develop robust and reliable processes. Some authors have used monitoring
techniques in micro-milling of titanium alloys. For instance, Mian et al. [44] used acoustic emissions to monitor the
minimum chip thickness for several materials, among them, Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The authors found that the minimum
chip thickness occurred at 19–27.5% of the tool edge radius. Thepsonthi and Özel [45] also analyzed the use of
acoustic emission signal to monitor and optimize surface generation in micro-end milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The
authors stated that acoustic emissions sensors can be an adequate method to monitor or predict surface generation
and burr formation.
Tool wear is also an interesting parameter to be monitored. For instance, Malekian et al. [46] compared the use of
several sensors for monitoring tool wear: accelerometers, acoustic emission and force sensors. The authors identified
how the fusion of various signals with different bandwidths is useful to monitor the tool wear of micro-end mills.

3.5 Finite Element Method (FEM)

Finite Element Method (FEM) has been widely used to model machining processes. As result, knowledge of the
processes is gained without the need of performing experiments. FEM has also been used in the micro-milling. For
instance, to model burr formation, temperature distribution in the cutting zone or tool wear.
Thepsonthi et al. [47] used FEM to analyze the behavior of uncoated and cBN coated tools. Lagrangian (Deform-
2D) software was used to carry out a thermo-mechanical analysis in the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy to predict
chip formation, cutting forces, temperature and wear rates. Among the main conclusions of the study, cutting forces
were found to be mainly influenced by edge radius and feed per tooth. Additionally, the use of cBN coated tools
generated lower cutting temperatures, higher cutting forces and lower tool wear when compared to uncoated WC/Co
tools.
Pratap et al. [10] used the Johnson-Cook equation to predict the cutting forces, stress generation and temperature
distribution in the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The simulation showed how lower Von Mises stresses were
found in the machined surface, increasing at the edge of the tool due to the higher cutting forces needed to generate
the chips. Additionally, the maximum temperature reached was 845.3 °C, similar to the one calculated for
conventional milling. The simulation was performed for undeformed chip thickness of 1 µm, depth of cut of 30 µm
and cutting speed of 31.415 m/min.
For the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy, Mamedov and Lazoglu [48] used the FEM to study the temperature in
the tool and the workpiece. Using the analytically estimated shearing and frictional heat inputs, the authors
developed a hybrid model for faster predictions. The maximum deviation of the model was 12% when compared to
that measured with a thermocouple.
Özel et al. [35] used FEM to evaluate tool wear and its impact on cutting forces, cutting temperature, chip flow
and burr formation, for both 2D and 3D. In the simulation of the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy, the workpiece
was considered as a viscoelastic material and the tool as a rigid material. The uncoated tool had a 508 µm diameter
and helix angle of 30°. Three different types of process were analysed: full-immersion slot micro-end milling, half-
immersion down micro-end milling and half-immersion up micro-end milling. As main results, it was stated that
tool wear increases the negative inclination angle, reducing the cutting angle and increasing the cutting zone.
Because of this, BUE, cutting forces and cutting temperature increased.
280 D. Carou et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 13 (2017) 275–282
6 D. Carou/ Procedia Manufacturing00 (2017) 000–000

3.6 Process optimization

Different models have been developed in order to optimize the machining parameters in micro-milling of Ti-6Al-
4V alloys. These machining parameters include the material of the tools and its geometry, spindle speed, feed rate or
depth of cut [10,49].
The influence of different microstructures, namely mill annealed, fully equiaxed, fully lamellar and bimodal, on
the flat end micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy was analyzed by Attanasio et al. [50]. They found how a fully lamellar
structure guarantees a better tool status and machining conditions, reducing cutting forces and tool wear. Moreover,
a coarse lamellar structure makes the material brittle decreasing its adhesion.
Kuram and Ozcelik [34] analyzed the influence of the tool-path and machining conditions on tool wear, surface
roughness and cutting forces in the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. A tool of 400 µm diameter, two cutting edges
and 20° helix angle was used. Besides, spindle speed and feed per tooth were varied, analyzing three tool-paths:
ascending, descending and zigzag. The best results were obtained using high spindle speeds and low feeds per tooth
for both ascending and zigzag tool-paths, and high spindle speeds and feed per tooth for descending tool-path.
Kuram and Ozcelik [27] used Taguchi designs to analyze the influence of the spindle speed, feed and depth of cut
on tool wear, surface roughness and cutting forces in the micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V alloy and Inconel 718 alloys.
Using a mill of 800 µm diameter, the optimum machining conditions, for both tool wear and surface roughness,
included: spindle speed of 12,000 rpm, feed rate of 50 mm/min and depth of cut of 50 µm,. Depth of cut was the
parameter with the highest influence on tool wear. Regarding cutting forces, the best results were obtained for
spindle speed of 10,000 rpm, feed rate of 50 mm/min and depth of cut of 50 µm and 100 µm for Fx and Fy,
respectively.
Bandapalli et al. [51] carried out a similar study using a 500 µm diameter tool and higher spindle speed in the
micro-milling of titanium (grade 2). The optimum conditions included: high spindle speed, low depth of cut, and
low feed rate, ensuring good surface quality and low cutting forces. Thepsonthi et al. [52] used Taguchi designs to
model the burr formation and surface roughness. The authors performed micro-milling tests using the Ti-6Al-4V
alloy with a tool of 635 µm diameter, two cutting edges and helix angle of 30°. Different machining conditions,
including spindle speed, feed per tooth and depth of cut, were varied. A predictive model was developed using
response surface methodology (RSM) and optimized using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). Findings included
the recognition of the axial depth of cut as the most important factor for burr formation and feed per tooth as the
major parameter affecting surface roughness. Specially, it was identified how higher feed per tooth provided better
surface roughness.

4. Conclusions

The present paper deals with a topic of great importance for industry and research community. Micro-
manufacturing operations are increasing their importance because high demanding markets for micro-products.
Because of the special characteristics of the process, it should be conveniently evaluated in order to obtain adequate
surface integrity and high productivity.
The first part of the study dealt with the main characteristics of the micro-milling process. The main
characteristics of micro-milling were identified, focusing on the differences to the conventional milling process. In
particular, size-effects, accuracy of machines and tools, and cutting forces were reviewed.
The second part of the study presented a wide range of studies on the micro-milling of titanium alloys.
Specifically, it should be noted that most of the research was carried out for Ti-6Al-4V alloys, which is the most
used alloy in industry. These studies were classified under the following topics: surface integrity, tools,
cooling/lubrication systems, finite element method, process optimization and monitoring. Several issues were
covered when reviewing these studies such as the influence of the machining conditions (among them, cutting
speed, depth of cut and feed rate; cooling/lubrication system; and, tool material and geometry) on the main results of
the micro-milling. For instance, the evolution of cutting forces, tool wear mechanisms and quality of the surface,
and methods for predicting, optimizing or monitoring the main outputs of the micro-milling of titanium alloys were
presented.
 D. Carou et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 13 (2017) 275–282 281
D. Carou / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000 7

Acknowledgements

The present study was carried out thanks to the funding of Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (Project
DPI2014-58007-R) and of the Industrial Engineering School-UNED (Project REF2017-ICF05).The authors would
like to thank the Ministry of Education’s for the Improvement of the Higher Education Personnel (CAPES-Brazil).

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