OPTICAL MINERALOGY CONCEPTS

http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/plymouth/programs/light.html
L.R. Drees

THE NATURE OF LIGHT

We observe light and color, yet the theories used to explain the nature of light are not always clear;
different theories are used to explain different optical phenomenon. Light photons have both wave
and particle properties peacefully co-existing. Some experiments reveal the particle behavior of
photons, others the wave behavior. The peaceful co-existence is often referred to as "wave-particle
duality".

Particle (photon) Theory--light consists of "particles" of energy of zero rest mass, traveling at the
speed of light. A photon is a dimensionless and massless "particle".

Wave Theory--the propagation of light is associated with electromagnetic energy moving in wave.
The crest and trough of waves (vibration direction) are randomly perpendicular to propagation
direction (direction of light movement).

v=f
where v= velocity of propagation
f=frequency (hz) of light wave
=wavelength of light wave

In the interaction of light with crystalline materials, we are concerned with refraction, interference,
and ploarizaiton, phenomenon explained by wave theory. Thus, we shall consider light to consist
of tranverse waves transmitted by atomic vibration.

LIGHT AND CRYSTAL SYMMETRY

L.R. Drees

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There is a close relationship between optical properties of crystals and crystal structure. A crystal
is a solid composed of atoms arranged in an orderly repetitive array. Each atom in a crystal is
where it is due to the balance of attractive and repulsive forces that each atom in the array exert on
each other. The outward morphology and symmetry (crystal structure) are a reflection of the inner
ordered arrangement of atoms, the nature of their bonding, and their relaitonship to each other.
Opticla properties are therefore closely related to a mineral's crystallographic symmetry.

The optical properties of a mineral are determined by the kinds and proportions of atoms present
(chemical composition) and the arrangement and density of these atoms with respect to each other
(crystal structure and bonding). It is the interaction of the electric vectors of light waves with the
electrical character of the atoms and the chemical bonds in minerals that affects the behavior of
light in minerals. In all optically anisotropic minerals, light finds a different electronic environment
depending on direction of propagation, and the elctron cloud about each atom will vibrate at
different resonant frequencies in different crystallographic directions. Thus, light traveling in any
direction except along the optic axis may be divided into two mutually perpendicular rays traveling
at different rates and along different paths. If the two rays travel at different velocities within the
crystal, one gradually gets ahead of the other. The amount one ray is ahead or behind the other will
depend on their difference in velocities and the distance they have traveled with these velocities.

Amorphous and isometric minerals are isotropic; tetragonal, hexagonal and rhombohedral
(trigonal) minerals are uniaxial; orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic minerals are biaxial. As
the symmetry of minerals decrease, the minerals optically become more complex, and are
characterized by an increasing number of measurable optical properties (see following table).

CRYSTAL and OPTICAL SYSTEMS

Crystal System Axis Lengths and Angles Optical System
Three equal axes at right angles
Cubic Isometric
a=b=c;
Three axes at right angles, two equal
Tetragonal Uniaxial
a=b
Orthorhombic Three unequal axes at right angles Biaxial

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Rhombohedral
Three unequal axes, equally inclines Uniaxial
(Triginal)
Hexagonal Two equal coplanar axes at 120° third axis at right angles Uniaxial
Monoclinic Three unequal axes, one pair not at right angles Biaxial
Triclinic Three unequal axes, unequally inclined and none at right angles Biaxial

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT
L.R. Drees

According to the wave theory of light, ordinary light is composed of electromagnetic waves
vibrating in all possible planes through the line of propagation. Plane polarized light vibrates in a
single plane called the plane of polarization. Most of the optical properties of minerals observed
in thin-section depend on a light source that is plane polarized.

POLARIZED LIGHT and CRYSTALS

A light wave is an oscillating electric field (having both electrical and magnetic properties),
possessing alternating + and - charges. Electrons in crystals, especially valence electrons, will
respond to the changing electric field associated with light waves. In crystals acted upon by a
changing electric field (light waves), the density of its orbiting electrons is greatest in the direction
of greatest electrical attrating and the atom is said to be polarized. The degree of polarization
depends on the degree that the outer electrons are bound to one another an dhow free they are to
vibrate due to external forces.

The pattern of polarization depends on the nature of the electron's closest neighbor where a dipole
can be developed. The pattern of polarization is thus strongly tied to the crystal structure of
minerals. the polarizaiton of atoms in a isotropic medium is either statistically random (amorphous
substances) or directionally uniform (isometric crystals), and the atoms are not consistently
polarized by their atomic neighbors. In anisotropic minerals (tetragonal, hexagonal,
orthorhormbic, monoclinic, and triclinic crystal systems), atoms experience non-uniform electrical

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attraction from dissimilar neighboring atoms to become polarized in the direction of strongest
attraction. The plane of maximum polarization is usually the plane of maximum atom density, and
the plane of minimum polarization is perpendicular to it. The atoms of chain (Inosilicates) or sheet
(Phyllosilicates) mineral structures are most strongly polarized in the plane of the sheet or direction
of the chain.

Polarization strongly effects the velocity of light waves. The stronger the polarization, the slower
the velocity of light and the greater the refractive index. Depending on th edegree of polarization
in the crystal, each light wave will be transmitted with a different velocity, and will have a different
refractive index.

As example, in the structure of calcite (CaCO3) the carbonate ions are arranged perpendicular to
one cube diagonal, which becomes the unique or c- crystallographic axis. The ions are held tightly
together by strong, largely covalent bonds that are much stronger than any external bond and are
highly polarized in the plane of the atom. Light waves transmitted parallel to the c-crystallographic
axis vibrate parallel to the planes of the carbonate ions, increasing polarization already present.
Calcite therefore shows a relatively high index of refraction and a corresponding low velocity for
waves advancing parallel to c, regardless of their vibrational direction normal to the axis. Light
waves transmitted through the calcite crystal perpendicular to the c- crystallographic axis advance
with different velocities depending upon their vibrational direction. Waves vibrating perpendicular
to c also vibrate in the plane of the carbonate ions, increasing polarization and advancing with the
same velocity as waves transmitted parallel to c. However, wave vibrating parallel to c vibrate at
right angles to the plane of the carbonate ions, thus reducing polarization and advancing with
greater velocity (index of refraction is lower).

Polarized light is obtained with a prism in which ordinary light (vibrating in all possible directions
perpendicular to the propagation direction) is plane polarized, i.e., light vibrating in only one
direction is transmitted.

Nicol prism-a polarizing prism made of calcite cut at a specific angle. Nicol prisms are extremely
precise, but very expensive. Most petrographic microscopes are now equipped with the cheaper
(but highly efficient) polarized sheets.

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Polarizer-a polarizing prism located beneath the microscope stage (between the light source and
the object of study). this restricts transmission of light to that vibrating in only one (N-S/or E-W)
direction. In effect, it plane polarizes the incident light beam.

Analyzer-a polarizing prism located above the microscope stage, between the section and the
eyepiece. This restricts the transmission of light vibrating perpendicular to the polarizer. The
analyzer can be slipped in or out of the light path. Light passing through the polarizer will not pass
through the analyzer unless the vibration direction of the light is changed between the two prisms.
Anisotropic minerals can perform this deed.

BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT IN MINERALS

L.R. Drees

REFRACTION

As light passes from one substance or medium to another it is refracted, that is, the transmission
direction is changed. The velocity of light is a function of the medium through which is passes,
being slower in a more dense medium. Since the frequency of vibration of light remains constant,
the wave length must change as light enters a different medium to accommodate the change in
velocity. The change in wavelength upon entering a different medium gives rise to refraction, or
the bending of light. The refractive index of a mineral is determined by the relation of the velocity
of light in air as compared to the velocity of light in the mineral:

Index of refraction: n=V(air)/V(mineral).

BIREFINGENCE

The difference in refractive index of the two rays (refractive index of slow ray minus refractive
index of fast ray) is defined as birefringence. By definition, birefringence is a numeric value, not
a visible property. Interference color is the visual manifestation of birefringence using
polychromatic light. Although the interference color may change, the birefringence of a mineral
remains constant.
Birefringence is dependent on several factors:

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  Mineral species (quartez=0.009 calcite=0.2).
 Wavelength of incident light (minimal effect).

INTERFERENCE COLOR

Interference color results from the unequal transmission by the analyzer of the components of
white (polychromatic) light. Interference colors are produced only in anisotropic minerals under
cross-polarized light. When the grain is not at extinction, the mineral will divide the plane-
polarized light into rays vibrating at right angles to each other. These two rays, whe resolved along
the vibration direction of the analyzer will interfere. The interference is due to the fact that the two
rays travel trough the mineral with different velocities and wavelengths. When they emerge from
the mineral the two waves recombine with their original velocity and wavelength. But in the
process there is a phase difference in the waves. If the phase difference equals n wavelength
(n=1,2,3--), the two rays when resolved will interfere (cancel) and no light is transmitted through
the analyzer. Since white light is polychromatic (many wavelengths), only certain wavelengths
will be eliminated in this way. At the same time, wavelengths whose phase difference equals 1/2
n will be reinforced, resulting in maximum brightness for that color. The combination of
elimination of some wavelengths and the accentuation of others results in the interference colors
observed in minerals under cross-polarized light. This is an optical phenomena and not an inherent
characteristic of the mineral.

Interference color is a function of:

 Mineral thickness (distance light waves travel through the crystal)

 Birefringence (difference between the two indices of refraction)
 Crystal orientation with reference to the plane of polarization

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

by Richard Drees

Isotropic minerals--those which exert no control over vibration direction of light passing through
them. Minerals of the isometric (cubic) system, or non-crystalline materials fit into this category.

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Isometric crystals are highly symmetric and display the same chemical bonding and crystal
structure in all directions. Garnets, fluorite, spinels, and lucite are examples. These minerals appear
black in the field of a microscope when both polarizer and analyzer are in the light path. The will
appear transparent or colored when the analyzer is removed from the light path.

Anisotropic minerals--those which exert some control over vibration direction o flight as it passes
through the mineral.

Uniaxial--minerals in the hexagonal, tetragonal, and rhombohedral (trigonal) crystal systems

containing one optic axis (c crystallographic axis). They have a high degree of symmetry about
the c crystallographic axis. There is uniform chemical bonding in all directions within the (001) or
(0001) plane, which is at right angles to the c axis. Light passing through the mineral (other than
along the optic axis) is broken into two mutually perpendicular rays vibrating parallel and normal
to the c axis. These rays travel with different velocities yielding two indices of refraction. The fact
that light vibrates intwo directions is called double refraction. The degree to which these two
vibration directions differ is expressed as birefringence. Quartz, carbonates, apatite, and zircon are
examples.

Biaxial--minerals in the orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic crystal systems. They are less
symmetric than the uniaxial minerals, and vary in crystal structure and chemical bonding in all
directions. Light passing through these minerals vibrates in two directions, both of which are
different from that of the incident light. In addition, there are two axes (optic axes) along which
light may be propagated with the vibration direction unchanged from that of the incident light. The
acute angle between these axes is the 2V of the mineral. Uniaxial minerals have a 2V = O° and the
optic axes coincide, i.e., there is in effect only one optic axes. Gypsum, feldspars, pyroxenes
(augite-enstitite), amphiboles (hornblende), olivine and clay minerals are examples of biaxial
minerals.

Opaque minerals--those through which light does not pass. Many Fe, Mn and Ti minerals fit into
such a category. These appear dark when observed under the microscope, whether the analyzer is
in or out. Reflected light from Ti minerals often produce a shiny, silvery mineral surface to the

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eye. Pyrite is brassy with a metallic luster. Impinge light on opaque minerals from above the stage
to differentiate between iron and titanium minerals.

MINERALS THROUGH THE PETROGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE

by Richard Drees

PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT (polarizer in; analyzer out).

Relief--conspicuousness of a mineral, how the mineral "stands out" in its surrounding medium.
Relief is determined by the amount of difference between the refractive index of the mineral and
its surroundings. Minerals that stand out strongly have high relief. If the mineral does not appear
to stand out from the surrounding medium, its relief is low. Relief is a subjective value, not easily
quantified.

Habit--shape of the mineral grain. Shape is not always a diagnostic characteristic of minerals in
soils. Physical and chemical weathering and different modes of diagenesis may often alter the
original morphology of many minerals. Minerals may appear euhedral (well defined crystal faces)
or anhedral (without crystal faces). Other descriptive terms include prismatic, acicular (needle-
like), fibrous, tabular, bladed, equant, lath- like, or platy.

Cleavage--The tendency of certain minerals to cleave (fracture) along specific, smooth

crystallographic planes of weakness. these cleavage planes are usually parallel, but may intersect
other cleavage planes at an angle. Crystals may have cleavage in one direction (mica), two
directions (pyroxenes and amphiboles), rhombohedral cleavage in three direction (calcite), or even
four (fluorite) or six (garnet) directions. Many minerals (quartez) have no cleavage.

Color--Minerals exhibit a wide range of colors in plane light, ranging form colorless (e.g. quartez,
feldspars, gypsum), highly colored (biotite, hornblend), to opaque (Fe-Mn nodules, some heavey
minerals). Since the light used in microscopy is polychromatic, selective absorption of certain
wavelengths may take place which results in a colored mineral. The color is based on the

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wavelengths transmitted by the mineral. Ionic substitutions within the structure may cause
variations in color.

Pleochrosim--expression of degree to which light is bent or refracted as it enters a mineral grain

from air. An isotropic mineral has only one characteristic index regardless of orientation of the
mineral in the light source. Depending on mineral orientation, one may obtain minimum and
maximum indexes for uniaxial minerals and minimum, maximum, and intermediate indexes
(corresponding to beam transmitted alo9ng the two optic axes) for biaxial minerals. In other words,
an isotropic mineral has one characteristic index, a uniaxial mineral has two characteristic indices,
and a biaxial mineral has three characteristic indices.

Becke line--a white border that appears when the mineral grain is just out of focus. If the line
moves inward over the mineral grain as the barrel of the microscope is raised (or stage lowered),
the mineral has a higher index than the liquid oil or mounting medium. Conversely, if the line
moves outward, the oil has higher index than the mineral. The Becke line is used to determine
refractive index.

TRANSMITTED LIGHT (PLANE-POLARIZED)

by Richard Drees

Color and Pleochroism. Color and any change in color intensity on rotation of the stage. Color is
related to chemical composition. Pleochroism is often diagnostic.

Habit, Shape or Outline. Habit can be diagnostic for euhedral grains. The shape of weathered or
worn grains may also provide information on their nature, source, mode of transport, or type of
weathering regime.

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Size. Size seldom gives information on the nature of the mineral, but may be important for
interpretations of origin, mode of transport, or changes in lithology.

Cleavage. Principle and subordinate directions as well as patterns. Cleavage is a diagnostic

characteristic of many minerals: micas (parallel), pyroxenes (cleavage planes intersecting at about
90°), amphiboles (two sets intersecting at about 120°). Due to physical and chemical weathering,
cleavage planes may be observed.

Fracture. Types of fracture (curved or uneven) and their position in the mineral. Olivine are
characterized by an irregular cracking pattern, often showing alteration or weathering products.

Refractive Index and Relief. Absolute determination is difficult to impossible in thin-section,

unless the grain orientation is known and the grain is surrounded by embedding media of known
refractive index.

Inclusions, Intergrowths and Alterations. Inclusions are characteristic in some minerals (especially
quartz) and may be useful in certain studies. However, they are of little pedogenic importance.
Intergrowths and alteration products may indicate mineral weathering.

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