WTP o M Manual PDF

Class I Water Treatment Plant Operator Program
Manual
prepared for:
Government of the Northwest Territories

Municipal and Community Affairs P.O.
Box 1320
Yellowknife, NT X1A 3S9
prepared by:
FSC Architects & Engineers

4910 53rd Street
P.O. Box 1777
Yellowknife, NT X1A 2P4
FSC Project Number: 2003-0070

CLASS I WATER TREATMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1-1

1.1 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES ................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 CONTACTS AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION ..................................................... 1-1
1.3 ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES .............................................................................. 1-3
1.4 MULTI-BARRIER APPROACH TO SAFEGUARDING RAW WATER ......................... 1-4
1.5 REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 1-5
2.0 MICROBIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS .................................... 2-1

2.1 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 BACTERIA.......................................................................................................... 2-1
2.3 VIRUSES ............................................................................................................ 2-8
2.4 WATER TREATMENT ......................................................................................... 2-9
2.5 REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 2-11
3.0 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS ......................... 3-1

3.1 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................ 3-2
3.3 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS........................................................................... 3-6
3.4 REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 3-6
4.0 PRE-TREATMENT ...................................................................... 4-1

4.1 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 PH ADJUSTMENT ............................................................................................... 4-1
4.3 WATER STABILIZATION ..................................................................................... 4-1
4.4 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE REMOVAL ...................................................................... 4-1
4.5 PRE-SEDIMENTATION ........................................................................................ 4-2
5.0 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION ........................................ 5-1

5.1 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 GENERAL........................................................................................................... 5-1
5.3 THE COAGULATION/FLOCCULATION PROCESSES .............................................. 5-2
5.4 COAGULATION .................................................................................................. 5-3
5.5 FLOCCULATION ................................................................................................. 5-6
5.6 PROCESS TROUBLESHOOTING.......................................................................... 5-10
5.7 FLASH MIXING ................................................................................................ 5-11
5.8 REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 5-12
6.0 JAR TESTS ................................................................................ 6-1

6.1 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 GENERAL........................................................................................................... 6-1
6.3 APPARATUS ....................................................................................................... 6-1
6.4 PROCEDURE....................................................................................................... 6-2
6.5 CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS ...................................................................................... 6-3
6.6 REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 6-3
7.0 SEDIMENTATION ....................................................................... 7-1

7.1 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 7-1
7.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION ...................................................................................... 7-1
7.3 FACTORS AFFECTION THE SEDIMENTATION PROCESS ....................................... 7-1
7.4 SEDIMENTATION BASIN ZONES ......................................................................... 7-3
7.5 SLUDGE HANDLING AND REMOVAL .................................................................. 7-6
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CLASS I
7.6 PROCESS CONTROL ........................................................................................... 7-7
7.7 REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 7-8
8.0 WATER FILTRATION ................................................................. 8-1

8.1 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2 PURPOSE OF FILTRATION ................................................................................... 8-1
8.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 8-2
8.4 FILTRATION PROCESS ........................................................................................ 8-2
8.5 THE SLOW SAND FILTER ................................................................................... 8-3
8.6 THE RAPID SAND FILTER ................................................................................... 8-3
8.7 DIRECT FILTRATION .......................................................................................... 8-4
8.8 CONSTRUCTION OF A SAND OR ANTHRACITE FILTER ........................................ 8-5
8.9 FILTER INSTRUMENTATION ............................................................................... 8-7
8.10 TURBIDITY ........................................................................................................ 8-7
8.11 LOSS OF HEAD ................................................................................................... 8-7
8.12 CONSTANT RATE AND DECLINING RATE FILTRATION ....................................... 8-8
8.13 FILTER OPERATION ........................................................................................... 8-8
8.14 OPERATING PROBLEMS OF A FILTER ............................................................... 8-11
8.15 INSTRUMENT CHECKING AND MAINTENANCE ................................................. 8-13
8.16 PRESSURE FILTERS .......................................................................................... 8-15
8.17 REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 8-16
9.0 IRON AND MANGANESE CONTROL............................................ 9-1

9.1 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2 THE NEED TO CONTROL IRON AND MANGANESE .............................................. 9-1
9.3 REGULATORY REQUIREMENT ............................................................................ 9-1
9.4 TREATMENT METHODS ..................................................................................... 9-2
9.5 OPERATION OF A MANGANESE GREENSAND FILTER ......................................... 9-5
9.6 REVIEW QUESTIONS .......................................................................................... 9-8
10.0 CHLORINATION....................................................................... 10-1

10.1 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................... 10-1
10.2 PURPOSE OF CHLORINATION ........................................................................... 10-1
10.3 SOURCES OF CHLORINE ................................................................................... 10-1
10.4 PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE ............................................................................... 10-2
10.5 REACTION OF CHLORINE ................................................................................. 10-8
10.6 OTHER USES OF CHLORINE ............................................................................. 10-9
10.7 REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 10-10
11.0 SAMPLING .............................................................................. 11-1

11.1 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................... 11-1
11.2 TYPES OF SAMPLES – REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES .......................................... 11-1
11.3 BACTERIOLOGICAL SAMPLING ........................................................................ 11-2
11.4 CHEMICAL SAMPLING ..................................................................................... 11-5
11.5 REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 11-5
12.0 RECORDS ................................................................................ 12-1

12.1 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................... 12-1
12.2 PURPOSE.......................................................................................................... 12-1
12.3 RECORD SYSTEMS ........................................................................................... 12-2
12.4 MAINTENANCE LOG BOOK .............................................................................. 12-3
12.5 DAILY LOG BOOK ........................................................................................... 12-4
13.0 SAFETY................................................................................... 13-1

13.1 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................... 13-1
13.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 13-1
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CLASS I
13.3 WORKERS COMPENSATION BOARD ................................................................. 13-1
13.4 CONFINED SPACES .......................................................................................... 13-2
13.5 HAZARDS ........................................................................................................ 13-2
13.6 BODY INFECTION ............................................................................................. 13-2
13.7 PHYSICAL INJURIES – FIRST AID ..................................................................... 13-3
13.8 THE PLANT SAFETY PROGRAM ........................................................................ 13-4
13.9 GENERAL PLANT SAFETY ................................................................................ 13-5
13.10 EQUIPMENT SERVICING ................................................................................... 13-9
13.11 PRECAUTIONS FOR ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE ........................................... 13-10
13.12 FIRE PROTECTION .......................................................................................... 13-11
13.13 CHEMICAL HANDLING AND STORAGE ........................................................... 13-13
13.14 LABORATORY ................................................................................................ 13-13
13.15 SAFETY PRACTICES IN WORK AREAS ............................................................ 13-14
13.16 HANDLING CHEMICALS ................................................................................. 13-16
13.17 REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 13-19
14.0 EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS.................................................. 14-1

14.1 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................... 14-1
14.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 14-1
14.3 NEED FOR EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS .......................................................... 14-1
14.4 ASSESSING THE SYSTEM .................................................................................. 14-2
14.5 PROTECTING THE SYSTEM ............................................................................... 14-5
ADDENDA
ADDENDUM A GLOSSARY
ADDENDUM B MATH TOPICS, DOSAGE EXAMPLES, CHEMISTRY AND SOLUTION

PREPARATION
TH
ADDENDUM C GUIDELINES FOR CANADIAN DRINKING WATER QUALITY (6
EDITION)
ADDENDUM D CWMS WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION SHEETS
ADDENDUM E ABC NEED-TO-KNOW CRITERIA
ADDENDUM F ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION
11/03/03 III
CLASS I WATER TREATMENT INTRODUCTION
1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

A water treatment plant operator has three main goals:
• Protect the public's health;
• Protect the environment; and
• Protect the public's purse.
The water treatment plant operator's job is one of the most important in the community.
Everyone depends on the operator to provide them with safe, clean water in sufficient quantities
so they have enough for drinking, cooking and cleaning.
The people trust their water treatment plant operator to make sure that the water is safe to drink
and that they will not get sick.
People depend on the operator to make clean, safe water 24 hours a day, 365 days a year and to
do all this without spending too much money. When the operator does his job well, no one
notices. When the operator does his job poorly, everyone notices.
Operating a water treatment plant is complex and requires knowledge of machinery,

electricity, chemistry, math and health sciences.
Do not try to memorize everything that you will hear and read
in this course. Instead try to understand how your treatment
plant operates and what you are trying to accomplish. Know
where to find information when it is needed.
1.2 CONTACTS AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The best water plant operators are not people who know everything but know where to look
for information and who to ask for help.
You should remember these three things:
 Look it up;
 Write it down; and
 Work in teams.
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1
If you are not sure about something, look it up in your course manual or water treatment plant O&M
manual. Never guess about how to do something as you or other people can get hurt.
The more you can read or ask questions about how your water treatment plant operates, the better
you will be able to do your job. Part of your job is to keep learning as much as you can about
water treatment.
Know who to ask for help. You should remember that you are not alone in carrying out your
duties. You are part of a team of engineers, scientists, technicians, inspectors and health care
professionals who are dedicated to trying to make sure that the people in your community get
safe, clean water. Each water treatment plant operator will work with different people depending
on where they live and how big their community is. You should know who these people are, how
to get in touch with them and what their responsibilities are. Some people who may be part of
your team are listed below.
Table 1-1: Contacts and Duties

Person/Department/Agency Duty
Environmental Health Officer (EHO) Enforces Public Health Act and Regulations,
Checks drinking water quality. Helps with water
sampling.
Department of Health & Social Services/ Protects public health, water sample analysis,
Regional Health Board approving modifications and new designs to
water supply and treatment systems.
Department of Public Works & Services Helps with training.
PW&S Area Maintenance Officer Helps to maintain PW&S owned/operated facility.
Town Engineer Helps solve operating problems. Helps
with training.
MACA Regional Office Funding for new capital projects and planning
of new infrastructure. Helps solve operating
problems. Helps with training. Provides policy.
Senior Administrative Officer/ Band Manager Hires and pays operators. Collects payments
for water. Helps with records
Community Residents Pay taxes, water bills and your salary. Help
to protect water supply.
Water Board Protect environment, issues water licence.
Indian & Northern Affairs Canada Help community to protect water source from
contamination.
INAC Water Resources Officer Enforces Water Licence.
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1
Make a list for your community and post the list, including phone numbers, in the water
treatment plant and municipal offices. Talk with your team members and get to know them and
make sure that they know you, your plant and community.
Good water treatment plant operators are hard to find. If you do your best to learn about water
treatment and do a good job running your plant, you will most likely have a good job for the rest
of your life. Even more important, the people in your community will have a better life because
of you and what you do.
1.3 ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES

The water treatment plant operator and others who are involved in the treatment and distribution
of water are responsible for making sure that water delivered is safe to drink.
A certified water treatment operator is a professional. In

many cases they are the only ones who know the proper
operation of their treatment plant. Therefore, you have a
professional responsibility to the public.
You must be aware that if you are negligent in your duties and someone gets sick or dies, you
may be charged with a criminal act such as criminal negligence and could go to jail or have to
pay a fine. An example of negligence is described as follows:
Friday afternoon Sam checks his water treatment plant and notice that the
chlorine solution tank is getting low and will probably not last until Monday.
Since it is Friday afternoon he decides not to make a new solution as he doesn’t
get paid for working late and he wants to go away for the weekend.
On Sunday, the chlorine runs out, unchlorinated water is delivered to house 105
and the Jones’ get sick because the water was contaminated.
The Jones’ complain to Council and threaten to sue. Sam is required to explain to
Council what happened. Sam is told he will be charged with a criminal act.
When an operator knows that his inaction could result in someone getting hurt, he is
negligent. If people get sick they can take your employer and you to civil court and sue
the people you work for and you and the people you work for, for damages. This is
exactly what happened in Sam’s case.
If you are not given enough time to do your duties, this is something you have to discuss with
your employer. It cannot be used as an excuse why unsafe water was delivered.
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1
1.4 MULTI-BARRIER APPROACH TO SAFEGUARDING RAW WATER
We have already talked about what harm different types of contamination, faecal coliforms for
example, could do to the community if they entered the water supply. How do we prevent
contamination from occurring? Health Canada has developed a multi barrier approach from
source to tap.
The multi-barrier approach is...
… an integrated system of procedures, processes and tools

that collectively prevents or reduces the contamination of
drinking water from source to tap in order to reduce risks to
public health.
Even though no approach will guarantee 100 per cent protection all of the time, it has been
demonstrated that the most effective way to manage drinking water systems is to implement a
multi-barrier approach. The goal of this approach is to reduce the risk of contamination of the
drinking water, and to increase the feasibility and effectiveness of remedial control or
preventative options.
As a safeguard, it is important for contingency plans to be in place to respond to incidents as

they arise, and for redundancies to be built into the system wherever feasible.
Figure 1-1 depicts a multi-barrier approach to safe drinking water that has three major elements.
These elements are source water protection, water treatment, and the drinking water
distribution system. These are addressed in an integrated manner by using a system of and
tools, such as:
 Water quality monitoring and management of water supplies from source to tap;
 Legislative and policy frameworks;
 Public involvement and awareness;
 Guidelines, standards and objectives;
 Research; and
 The development of science and technology solutions.
More information can be found at:
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/water/publications/source_to_tap/source_to_tap-toc.htm
11/03/03 1-4
1
Figure 1-1: The Multi-Barrier Approach
1.5 REVIEW
1. What is your role as an operator?
2. What do you do if you do not have sufficient time to complete

your duties?
11/03/03 1-5
CLASS I PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
2
2.0 MICROBIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
2.1 OBJECTIVES
The trainee will be able to do the following.
1. Understand the need for the production of the highest quality of water.
2. List the sources of bacteria in the water.
3. Understand the use of "indicator" bacteria.
4. Understand the use of the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water (GCDWQ).
5. Determine the minimum number of water samples required for testing the water supply.
6. Understand the importance of correct sampling procedures.
7. List three important criteria for effective destruction of bacteria.
8. List activities in operators’ community that may impact on the water quality.
This section should be read in conjunction with the

Canadian Drinking
Water Quality Guidelines found in
Appendix C.
2.2 BACTERIA
2.2.1 GENERAL
Bacteria are small, one-celled microorganisms, which cannot be seen with the naked eye.
Most bacteria are harmless and are even beneficial to humans. Bacteria are found naturally
everywhere, the kinds and numbers varying from place to place.
Since bacteria are everywhere there are many sources which can contaminate a water
supply, including; sewage, water from washing, animal droppings and dead animals.
The water that is supplied to the community must meet the limits for various bacteriological
parameters listed in the Public Health Act and Regulations, and in the Guidelines for
Canadian Drinking Water Quality, published by Health Canada, shown in Appendix C.
11/03/03 2-1
CLASS I
2.2.2 NATURE OF BACTERIA AND ALGAE

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
2
2.2.2.1 Size
Bacteria can only be seen with the aid of a microscope, and usually only after some kind of
staining procedure. A magnification of about one thousand times (1000 x) is required to
view them clearly, because their size is about a thousand of a millimetre (1/1000 mm). One
one- thousandth of a millimetre is given the name "micron" and the symbol µ which is the
Greek u.
Algae, in contrast, can be examined using a magnification of only one to two hundred times
and they are green-coloured because they contain chlorophyll. Algae are about 5 microns in
size or
5/1000 mm.
2.2.2.2 Shape
There are two basic shapes of bacterial cells;
1) Spherical forms called cocci,
2) Rod-shaped forms called bacilli,
There are variations in the two basic shapes, such as bean-shaped cocci or spiral forms.
Figure 2-1 A mixed culture of cocci and bacilli
2.2.2.3 Arrangement
Bacterial cells may either be found singly or may be attached to one another to form chains or
clumps of cells. These arrangements are very characteristic, and are useful in identifying the
various types of bacteria (Figure 2-1). For instance, streptococci are spherical bacteria
occurring in chains; staphylococci are spherical bacteria occurring in irregular clusters.
Some bacteria possess special structures called flagella, which enable them to move.
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CLASS I
2.2.3 METABOLISM
2
The metabolism of an organism is the process by which it uses food sources to grow
and generate energy.
Many bacteria can metabolize very simple food sources, such as simple sugars and mineral
salts. It doesn’t take much organic material, such as what may be present in treated drinking
water, to support the growth of many species of bacteria. This means that bacteria can live
even in drinking water that is very clean. Some types of bacteria, like Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, can grow even in distilled water.
The way in which certain bacteria use food can be used to identify the presence of those
particular bacteria. Coliforms can be identified by fermenting sugar under special
conditions. Coliforms will be discussed in much more detail in section 2.7.
2.2.4 REPRODUCTION
Bacteria can multiply, usually very rapidly, by one cell splitting into two. The speed of
multiplication depends upon environmental conditions. Most coliform bacteria multiply
faster in slightly higher temperatures and where abundant organic matter can be found. That
is why water samples should be kept cool, during collection and shipment for test results to
be accurate.
2.2.5 SOURCES OF BACTERIA IN WATER
There are many sources of bacteria present in any body of water as shown in Figure 2.2.
The bacteria from these sources contribute to the "normal flora" of the water, having been
washed off vegetation, soil, farmlands or from by sewage plant and storm water effluents.
In water
treatment, the bacteria that are of the most concern grow in, and are excreted from, the
intestinal tract of man and animals. Some of these bacteria are of concern as they can be the
source of disease and make people sick as discussed before. However there are also many
other sources
of bacteria as demonstrated in Figure 2.2
2.2.6 BACTERIA AND PATHOGENICITY
In the intestinal contents of man and animals, some bacteria are "normal flora". One group of
these is the coliform group, made up of total coliforms and faecal coliforms; other kinds are
the faecal streptococci and the Aeromonas group. All these kinds of bacteria are normally
non-pathogenic, but some of them do have pathogenic qualities and always present in the
intestinal contents. If the water is consumed untreated or the water treatment plant is not
operated correctly, an epidemic of waterborne disease could result.
11/03/03 2-3
Figure 2-2 Sources of Contamination of Water

2
Supplies
2.2.6.1 Heterotrophic plate count
Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) is a method used to indicate the microbial quality of
water. HPC is also known as Standard Plate Count.
The types and concentrations of species recovered using a HPC procedure vary depending on
many factors, including the physical and chemical characteristics of the water. Recovered
microorganisms can include those naturally found in the water environment and others from
many different pollutant sources. HPC tests recover a broad range of bacterial species, only
some of which may be pathogens.
Unlike other indicators, such as total coliform or E. coli, low concentrations of HPC
organisms will still be present after treatment. Some water utilities can achieve
HPC concentrations of less than 10 cfu/ml in finished water.
HPC are not a health concern in drinking water to the general public.
HPC is an indicator of microbial quality. HPC can change before changes occur in coliform
bacteria. Therefore, operators are wise to test routinely for HPC.
Once positive results are seen in the coliform groups, contamination has already occurred.
Operators aware of changing HPC concentrations may be able to prevent a microbial
intrusion.
Plant operators can use HPC concentrations in water during treatment and immediately upon
leaving the treatment plant in conjunction with other routine tests to monitor plant operation.
11/03/03 2-4
HPC does not replace these tests. Other tests include those for coliform bacteria, turbidity
2
and chlorine demand.
HPC can also be used as a measure of quality deterioration in wells, distribution lines and
reservoirs.
As an operational guideline HPC concentrations should

be relatively consistent and NOT exceed 500 cfu/mL.
Should elevated HPC not respond to increased chlorine,

operators should immediately contact their EHO.
Chlorine demand and turbidity should be part of diagnostic testing.
2.2.6.2 Coliforms
The type of bacteria that are regulated in water treatment are the coliform bacteria.
Coliform bacteria originate in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals and can be found
in their wastes. Coliform bacteria can also be found in soil and on vegetation. Coliform
bacteria are relatively simple to identify and are present in much larger numbers than more
dangerous pathogens. Coliform bacteria react to the natural environment and treatment
processes in a manner and degree similar to pathogens.
By monitoring coliform bacteria, the increase or decrease of many pathogenic bacteria can
be estimated. It has been proven that when coliforms are detected in water, particularly faecal
coliforms, pathogenic organisms are also present. Coliforms themselves are normally
non-pathogenic, but some of them do have pathogenic qualities.
2.2.6.3 Total Coliform
The total coliform test is a measure of all of the coliform bacteria in the water sample. It is
used as an indicator of contamination.
If you receive a positive result for total coliform, you must take action immediately to
ensure that your chlorination process is working properly.
Then you must sample again to make sure that the first sample was not somehow
contaminated by you.
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2
Figure 2-3 A petri dish of coliform bacteria
While you are waiting for those results you should assess your system to see if there are any
obvious sources of contamination.
If the test is positive a second time, you must report to your Environmental Health Officer
(EHO). Then you must undertake a rigorous sampling program to determine where the total
coliforms are coming from and take steps to remove the source of contamination.
The Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality state that:
1. There should be no more than 10 coliform organisms in any

100mL test.
2. No two, consecutive tests should show the presence of coliform

bacteria.
3. No more than 10% of the tests should show the

presence of coliform bacteria.
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CLASS I
2.2.6.4 Faecal coliform

2
The faecal coliform test is a measure of faecal coliform bacteria in the water sample. It is
another indicator of contamination.
Faecal coliform is a sub-set of the coliform bacteria group. "Faecal" means that the organism
is associated with faeces; the excreted waste from animals.
Faecal coliforms are a specific class of bacteria, which only inhabit the intestines of warm-
blooded animals and hence, are found in faeces. Again, not all faecal coliforms are
pathogenic but the percentage is higher. A test for faecal coliforms can be done in 48 hours.
The Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality state

that no 100mL
test should show the presence of faecal
coliforms.
If you receive a positive result for faecal coliform, after you immediately check your
disinfection system, you must contact the EHO and follow instructions.
Usually, a second test will be taken to confirm the first, and again while you wait for the
results, you need to assess your system.
2.2.6.5 Escherichia coli (E. coli)
E. coli is a specific type of faecal coliform that is often used in place of the test for faecal
coliforms. E. coli tests can be conducted as a standard presence/absence test. It is preferred
to the faecal coliform count because it can be done in 24 hours, compared to 48.
It is important to note that not all E. coli are harmful. In fact there are over 25,000 strains,
but only 150 might make you a bit sick and only one strain, O157:H7, will make you truly ill.
The O157:H7 E. coli strain causes what is known as “Hamburger Disease” because it is more
often associated with improperly cooked meat.
If you have a positive result for E. coli, the actions are the same as for faecal coliform.
2.2.7 PROTOZOA
Protozoa are small microorganisms about 4 to 40 microns is size, that more similar to
animals than bacteria. They are larger than bacteria; their eggs have a hard shell, and are
resistant to chlorine. Two of the most common protozoa related to health problems from
drinking water are Cryptosporidium and Giardia. When people get ill from these organisms,
they do not build immunity as they would from a viral infection. Therefore, they can get ill
over and over again.
11/03/03 2-7
Giardia (gee-ar-dee-a) comes from warm-blooded mammals such as beaver, muskrat,

2
caribou, dogs, and man. Sometimes called "beaver fever", its symptoms are like the flu.
Figure 2-4 Giardia lamblia (scanning electron microscope photo)
Cryptosporidium is more serious than Giardia. The diarrhoea caused by this organism can be
compared to that caused by cholera and can cause death. Children, Elders, and people with
reduced immune systems are most susceptible.
Currently, there are no guidelines related to protozoa in the GCDWQ. However, it does
mention the need of “effective disinfection” of protozoa from the drinking water and
“suggests” than 99% of the organisms should be removed during disinfection.
2.3 VIRUSES
Viruses are small organisms (from 10 to 25 nanometers in diameter), composed of nucleic
acids with a protein coating. The most relevant viruses related to water are the enteric
viruses (which live in warm blooded animals intestines). The most serious of these viruses
include hepatitis A and the Norwalk type virus. Environmental factors such as high levels of
suspended solids increase the viability of viruses in the water supply, while high water
temperatures and sunlight will kill the viruses. There are no specific guidelines for viruses
in the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality (GCDWQ). An effective water
11/03/03 2-8
treatment system including filtration, disinfection and chlorination should remove viruses in
2
the water supply.
2.3.1 ALGAE
Algae are a group of microorganisms neither related to plants, nor bacteria, but in a kingdom
of their own, Protoctista. The "green algae" is the most diverse group of algae, with more
than 7000 species growing in a variety of habitats. The "green algae" contain two forms of
chlorophyll, which they use to capture light energy to fuel the manufacture of sugars, but
unlike plants they are primarily aquatic.
Individual algae can be similar in size to bacteria, but can form long, filamentous chains that
are visible to the naked eye. Algae, some which are shown in Figure 3-5, in small quantities
are relatively harmless and do not cause health problems, however they can, as stated before,
cause taste and odour problems as well as clog up pipes.
One variety of algae, the blue-green algae, excretes the toxin microcystin that is a health
concern in higher concentration. Blue-green algae are not commonly found in the NWT.
2.4 WATER TREATMENT

Since there are so many different ways that pathogenic organisms can get into our water,
water must always be treated to kill the pathogenic organisms before people drink it.
Treating water to kill pathogenic organisms is called disinfection.
Treatment of delivered began after it was recognized that disease could be spread through
untreated water. Chlorination was introduced in Canada in 1910 and is responsible for saving
millions of lives. In order to chlorinate water municipalities need to address other water
quality issues, which will be discussed later in the text.
Chlorine is also used in northern communities. It is important to understand suspended solids

or turbidity in the water can prevent chlorine from killing bacteria. Chlorination will only
work when it is added to clear water with low turbidity.
To reduce harmful microorganisms effectively, there are many important factors;
1) The amount of chlorine added,

2) The contact time allowed between the chlorine and the bacteria,
3) The amount of particulate matter or turbidity present in the water,
4) The temperature of the water,
5) The pH of the raw water, and
6) The overall chemical characteristics of the water.
11/03/03 2-9
2
Figure 2-5 Taste and Odour Algae
th
(from Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater – 17 Edition,
Clesceri et al, American Public Health Association, Washington, 1989)
11/03/03 2-10
2
A number of factors effect the quality of water coming into a treatment plant: Some of
them are:
 In the spring, melting snow carries soil from the land into rivers and lakes increases
the amount of suspended solids. Increased stream velocities re-suspend materials
from the streambed. Thus, turbidity increases.
 During the summer windstorms or rainstorms can increase the amount of

suspended solids, and turbidity.
2.5 REVIEW
1. Coliform bacteria have been found in your drinking
water sample. Why might this be a problem from a
public health point of view?
2. List the three factors that are important in destroying bacteria

effectively.
3. What are some possible causes of bacterial

contamination in raw water sources?
4. What is the difference between coliform bacteria and

faecal coliform bacteria? Why do we not want faecal
coliforms in our drinking water supply?
11/03/03 2-11
3
3.0 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
3.1 OBJECTIVES
1. Identify four physical characteristics of water.
2. Identify the causes of taste and odours in water.
3. Give the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality objectives for
acceptable levels of:
a. Turbidity
b. Colour
4. Define the terms:
a. Maximum Acceptable Concentration (MAC)
b. Interim Maximum Acceptable Concentration (IMAC)
c. Aesthetic Objective (AO)
5. Define the terms:
a. Alkalinity
b. Hardness
c. pH
6. Identify the problems associated with high levels of the following chemical constituents;
chlorides, iron, manganese, nitrates, and sulphates.
11/03/03 3-1
3
This section should be read in conjunction with the
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality (GCDWQ)
found in Appendix C. Parameters not discussed fully in this
section are discussed in detail in the above guidelines.
3.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Physical tests do not measure the safety of a water supply, but they do give an indication of
its acceptability to consumers. The physical qualities, which primarily concern waterworks
operators, include:
1) Turbidity;
2) Colour;
3) Taste and Odour; and
4) Temperature.
Substances producing turbidity are mostly inorganic while those causing taste, odour
and colour are generally organic compounds.
Inorganic matter refers to substances, which do not come from plants or animals. Examples
of inorganic matter are sand, metals and rocks.
Organic matter refers to substances, which come from plant or animal matter. Examples
of organic matter are plant leaves and topsoil.
Turbidity, colour and taste and odour requirements can be attained by properly designed
and operated treatment plants and distribution systems. Failure to meet the requirements
indicates either inadequate treatment facilities or improper operation of the system.
3.2.1 TURBIDITY
Turbidity in water is caused by the presence of inorganic suspended matter such as clay, silt,
colloidal (clay size) particles. Turbidity can serve as a source of food for microorganisms
and interfere with the tests to detect if harmful organisms are present in the water.
Suspended particles adsorb heavy metal ions and other contaminants in turbid waters.
Turbidity has also been related to trihalomethane formation in chlorinated water.
The most important health effect of turbidity is its interference with disinfection and with
the maintenance of chlorine residual. High turbidity can shield harmful organisms from
chlorine,
11/03/03 3-2
which results in an increased chlorine demand to treat the water. Outbreaks of disease from
3
water which is chlorinated have been traced to high turbidity in the water.
A maximum acceptable turbidity level of one turbidity unit (1 nephelometric turbidity

unit - NTU) or 1 Formazin turbidity unit – FTU) has been established as the highest
turbidity that is acceptable in a drinking water supply.
Table 3-1 illustrates the relative times required to settle various types of particles that cause
turbidity. Note that the smaller particles like bacteria and colloidal matter cannot be removed
by settling in the typical water treatment process due to their excessively high settling times.
Table 3-1 Particle Size and Settling Time for a 30 cm tall tank.
Diameter of Particle (microns) Order of Size Approx. Time Require to
Settle
100 Fine Sand 12.4 s
10 Silt 10.7 min
1 Bacteria 17.9 hr
0.1 Colloidal Particle 74.7 days
Note: 1000 microns = 1 mm
Figure 3-1 Drinking water with low turbidity and high turbidity
11/03/03 3-3
CLASS I
3.2.2 COLOUR
3
Colour in drinking water may be due to the presence of organic substances as well as
certain metallic ions such as those of iron, manganese and copper.
True colour is measured after the water sample has been filtered with a 0.45 micron filter
paper. Apparent colour is measured without filtering the water sample. The different type of
colour tests can tell us where the colour in the water comes from.
Inorganic materials such as heavy metals that are in particulate form tend to affect apparent
colour, but can be removed by filtration. Organic materials such as plant matter, may
contribute to true colour which is not removed by filtration. Colour becomes noticeable to
consumers at levels greater than the aesthetic objective of 5 true colour units (TCU -
platinum cobalt scale).
3.2.3 TASTE & ODOUR
Taste and odour are intimately related, and consumers frequently mistake odours for tastes. In
general, the sense of taste is most useful in detecting the ionic, inorganic constituents of
drinking water, whereas the sense of smell is most useful in detecting covalent, organic
constituents.
Taste and odour problems constitute the largest category of consumer complaints. Changes
in the taste of drinking water may indicate possible contamination of the raw water supply,
poor treatment, or contamination of the distribution system.
A numerical limit for taste has not been specified because there is no objective method for
the measurement of taste and because there is considerable variation among consumers as to
which tastes are acceptable. Water provided for public consumption should have an
inoffensive taste.
Although an odour can be attributed to a specific substance, it is usually impractical and

often impossible to isolate and identify the odour-producing chemical. Evaluation of this
parameter is therefore dependent on individual senses of smell but because odour cannot be
objectively measured, a numerical limit has not been specified. The odour of drinking water
should not be inoffensive.
Taste and odours in water supplies may result from any one or a combination of conditions.
They are usually caused by the presence of dissolved gases and organic substances. In some
cases, inorganic compounds such as those of mineral and metallic salts may impart tastes to
the water at very low concentrations. However, organic substances are likely to be
responsible for the presence of odours. Sources of material causing taste and odour problems
may be one or more of the following.
1) Dissolved gases i.e. hydrogen sulphide, chlorine.
2) Biological growths such as algae, and slimes.
3) By-products of decaying algae and vegetation.

11/03/03 3-4
CLASS I
4)
Contaminants from sewage effluents and surface runoffs.

3
5) Contaminants from industrial waste discharges.
6) Growths of nuisance organisms in the distribution system i.e. iron bacteria.
7) Dissolved minerals i.e. chlorides, manganese, sulphates.
The variation in odours caused by algae has a wide range. Examples include the following.
1) Aromatic Odour - these odours are very often described as a particular flower
or vegetable. Organisms in small numbers can produce these odours.
2) Fishy Odour - these odours are often produced by the same algae that produce
the aromatic odours. The organisms are usually present in much larger numbers.
3) Grassy Odours - this odour is very common when the green algae are present in
large numbers.
4) Musty and Earthy Odour - the musty odour in some waters is very often encountered
in the presence of certain blue-green algae.
The control and prevention of many tastes and odours caused by algae may be with the use of:
1) Chlorine (Cl2) and Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4),
2) Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) and Granular Activated Carbon (GAC), and
3) Microstraining.
3.2.4 TEMPERATURE
o
It is desirable that the temperature of drinking water be less than 15 C as colder water
tastes better.
o
Low water temperatures offer a number of other benefits. A temperature below 15 C will
tend to reduce the growth of nuisance organisms and hence minimize associated taste,
colour, odour and corrosion problems. Low temperature also helps maintain a free chlorine
residual by reducing the rates of reaction leading to hypochlorous acid removal.
Hypochlorous acid is a form of chlorine formed during oxidation in water.
Although low temperatures can decrease the efficiency of the water treatment processes,
this effect may be compensated for by increasing the amount of chemicals required for
treatment. Although low temperatures inhibit the production of acceptable water quality, it
can be easily accounted for by the operator.
o
Warm water does not taste as good as cold water. Temperatures above 27 C are unsuitable
o
and above 32 C render the water unfit for public use.
11/03/03 3-5
CLASS I
3.3 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

3
Chemical characteristics of water supply refer to substances such as heavy metals (iron, lead,
nickel) and synthetic organics (PCB’s, oil and grease).
Normally, laboratory analyses for chemical constituents are only needed twice a year. But if
the supply is suspected of containing undesirable materials, periodic determinations for the
suspected toxicant or material should be carried out more often (every month for example).
On the other hand, where experience, examination and results indicate that particular
substances are consistently absent from a water supply or are below levels of concern, then,
with the approval of the Environmental Health Officer, semi-annual examinations for these
substances may be omitted.
The various types of limit guidelines concerning the chemical constituents in water are
included in the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality (GCDWQ) included in
Appendix C. The guidelines include both the limits and reasoning for the limits and hence it
is essential that operators be well acquainted with this literature.
3.4 REVIEW
1. What is turbidity and why can it cause problems with drinking
water?
2. What’s the difference between Maximum Acceptable

Concentration
(MAC), Interim Maximum Acceptable Concentration(IMAC) and
Aesthetic
Objective(AO)?
3. What is the ideal range of pH for drinking water at the

treatment plant and why?
11/03/03 3-6
CLASS I PRE-TREATMENT
4
4.0 PRE-TREATMENT
4.1 OBJECTIVES
The trainee will be able to describe:
 pH adjustment;
 Water stabilization;
 Hydrogen sulphide removal; and
 Pre-sedimentation.
4.2 PH ADJUSTMENT
The pH of water may need to be adjusted to:
 Improve coagulation and flocculation; and/or
 Reduce corrosivity.
pH is usually adjusted with lime, or soda ash.
4.3 WATER STABILIZATION

Water stabilization is another term for pH adjustment. When alum is added for example, the
pH may drop out of the optimum range. In this case the water is considered to be unstable.
Lime or soda ash is added to increase the alkalinity of the water and thus, its “stability”.
4.4 HYDROGEN SULPHIDE REMOVAL

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) s not a constituent of surface water and is only found in ground
water that has not been exposed to the atmosphere. Where H2S is a problem, it can be
removed by:
 Aeration; or
 Oxidation with chlorine, permanganate, or another oxidizing agent.
11/03/03 4-1
CLASS I
4.5 PRE-SEDIMENTATION
PRE-TREATMENT
4
Pre-sedimentation is a step that is often required before coagulation and flocculation in order
to remove large particles from the raw water stream. These larger particles can reduce the
efficiency of the coagulation and flocculation process.
Settling of larger-sized particles occurs naturally when surface water is stored for a sufficient
period of time in a reservoir or a natural lake. Gravitational forces acting in the lake
accomplish the same purpose as sedimentation in the water treatment plants; larger particles
such as sand and heavy silts settle to the bottom.
Debris dams, grit basins or sand traps can also be used to remove some of the heavier
particles from source water. The facilities may be located upstream from the reservoir,
treatment plant intake or diversion facilities, and serve to protect the municipal intake
pipeline from siltation.
Grit basins may be located between the intake structure and the coagulation flocculation
facilities. Thus, pre-sedimentation facilities such as debris dams, impoundments and grit
basins reduce the solids removal load at the water treatment plant. At the same time, they
provide an equalizing basin, which evens out fluctuations in the concentration of suspended
solids in the source water. Water with more suspended solids is mixed with water with less
suspended solids.
Pre-sedimentation facilities are often installed in locations where the source water supply is
diverted directly from rivers or streams, which can be contaminated, by overland runoff and
point source waste discharges.
Ideally, surface waters should be stored in a reservoir and transported directly to the water
treatment plant in a pipeline. In a reservoir the heavier solids can settle out before they reach
the plant. However, geographical, physical and economic considerations often make this
alternative impractical.
11/03/03 4-2
CLASS I COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
5
5.0 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
5.1 OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the need for coagulation and flocculation.
2. Explain the coagulation and flocculation process.
3. Explain the need for pre-sedimentation in the coagulation and flocculation process
3. Identify the various methods of flash mixing.
4. Identify factors that affect the coagulation-flocculation process.
5. Describe the purpose of performing a jar test.
5.2 GENERAL
Particulate impurities in water result from land erosion, pickup of minerals, and the decay
of vegetation. Additional impurities are added by airborne contamination, industrial
discharges, and by animal wastes. Thus, surface water sources, polluted by man and
nature, are likely to contain suspended and dissolved organic and inorganic material, and
biological forms such as bacteria and plankton.
These particulates, commonly called suspended solids, cover a broad range of sizes.
Larger sized particles such as sand and heavy silts can be removed from water by slowing
down the flow to allow for simple gravity settling. These particles are often called
settleable solids. Settling of larger sized particles occurs naturally when surface water is
stored for a sufficient period of time in a reservoir or a lake. Smaller sized particles, such
as bacteria and fine clays and silts, do not readily settle and treatment is required to
produce larger particles that are settleable. These smaller particles are often called non-
settleable solids or colloidal matter.
The purpose of coagulation and flocculation is to remove particulate impurities, especially

non-settleable solids and colour from the water being treated. Non-settleable particles in
water are removed by the use of coagulating chemicals.
In the coagulation process, chemicals are added which will initially cause the particles to
become destabilized and clump together. These particles gather together to form larger
particles in the flocculation process.
With few exceptions, surface waters require treatment to remove particulate impurities
and colour before distribution of water to the consumer.
11/03/03 5-1
Figure 5-1 Flow Chart of Coagulation and Sedimentation

5
(a) Surface water source (b) Groundwater source
5.3 THE COAGULATION/FLOCCULATION PROCESSES

The coagulation and flocculation processes are required to precondition or prepare
non-settleable particles present in the raw water for removal by sedimentation and
filtration. Small particles, without proper coagulation and flocculation are too light to settle
out and will not be large enough to be trapped during filtration. In this regard it is
convenient to consider coagulation-flocculation as one treatment process.
Since the purpose of coagulation-flocculation is to promote particulate removal, the

effectiveness of the sedimentation and filtration processes, as well as overall plant
performance, depend upon successful coagulation-flocculation. Disinfection of the water can
also be affected by poor coagulation-flocculation performance. Bacteria and other disease-
causing organisms can be bound up in suspended particles and thereby shielded from
disinfection if the solids removal processes before final disinfection, especially filtration, are
ineffective. Effective
coagulation-flocculation promotes the removal of natural organic compounds. Removal of
these compounds will reduce the formation of trihalomethanes following the use of chlorine
for disinfection.
5.3.1 PROCESS CONTROL
In theory, the chemical reactions and the formation of floc associated with the
coagulation-flocculation process are rather complex. Yet from a practical viewpoint the
operator of a water treatment plant must be able to measure and control the performance of
these processes on a day-to-day basis.
11/03/03 5-2
The most important consideration in coagulation-flocculation process control is selection of the

5
proper type and amount of coagulant chemical(s) to be added to the water being treated. This
determination is commonly made in the laboratory with the aid of a jar testing apparatus.
When selecting a particular type of coagulant chemical, consideration must be given to the
quantity and the solids content of the sludge created and the means of ultimate disposal. The
frequency of jar tests should be determined by the results of daily tests of fluoride, colour,
chorine, pH and a variety of other chemical and physical factors.
5.4 COAGULATION
Coagulation is a physical and chemical reaction occurring between the alkalinity of the water
and the coagulant added to the water, which results in the formation of insoluble flocs.
Polymers are also generally added with the coagulants to stimulate or improve the formation
of insoluble flocs. These polymers are called coagulant aids and will be discussed further in
section 5.3.2.
Figure 5-2 Coagulation
The most common coagulant used in water treatment is aluminum sulphate; otherwise know
as alum. We will be focusing on this coagulant for the remainder of the manual.
For aluminum sulphate, the pH of the water determines which hydrolysis chemical
compounds predominate. Lower pH values tend to favour positively charged compounds
which are desirable for reacting with negatively charged colloids and particulates, forming
insoluble flocs and removing impurities from the water. Higher pH values favour negatively
charged colloids and particulates.
The best pH for coagulation usually falls in the range of pH 5 to 7. The proper pH range must
be maintained for the coagulants to form flocs. Residual alkalinity in the water serves to
buffer a pH change in the system and aids in the complete precipitation of the coagulant
chemicals. The amount of alkalinity in the raw water is generally not a problem unless the
alkalinity is very low. Alkalinity may be increased by adding lime or soda ash.
Generally, the operator has no control over the pH and alkalinity of the raw water. Hence,
evaluation of these water quality indicators help to select the type of chemical coagulants to
be
11/03/03 5-3
used at a particular water treatment plant or to change the type of coagulant normally used if
5
significant changes in pH and alkalinity occur in the raw water.
Overdosing as well as under dosing of coagulants may lead to reduced solids removal
efficiency. This condition can be corrected by carefully performing jar tests and
verifying process performance after making any changes in the operation of the
coagulation process.
5.4.1 COAGULANTS
In practice, chemical coagulants are referred to either as primary coagulants or as coagulant

aids. Primary coagulants are used to cause the particles to become destabilized and begin to
clump together, while the purpose of coagulant aids is to add density to slow-settling flocs
and add toughness so the floc will not break up in the following processes. In view of this
definition, coagulant aids could also be called flocculation or sedimentation aids.
Metallic salts are commonly used as coagulants chemicals, such as aluminum sulphate
(commonly called alum), ferric sulphate, ferrous sulphate and synthetic organic polymers
(cationic, anionic, non-ionic). They are used as coagulation chemicals in water treatment
because they are effective, relatively low cost, available, and easy to handle, store and
apply. Alum is the most commonly used coagulant in the NWT.
When metallic salts such as aluminum sulphate or ferric sulphate are added to water, a series
of reactions occur with the water and with other ions in the water. Sufficient chemical
quantities must be added to the water to exceed the solubility limit of the metal hydroxide,
resulting in the formation of a precipitate floc. The resulting floc formed will then adsorb on
particles of turbidity in the water. In other words, enough metal hydroxide has to be added to
the water so that the solution passes the point where it can hold dissolved metal hydroxide
and the floc precipitates out.
5.4.2 COAGULANT AIDS
Polymers (also known as polyelectrolytes) are the most commonly used coagulant aids in the
NWT. They are synthetic, high molecular weight organic compounds. They are used to
make flocs:
 Bigger;
 Stronger; and
 More settable under difficult treatment conditions.
Polymers act similarly coagulants in that they bind to the particles in water through a
difference in electrical charge between the particle and the polymer. This is how polymers
are classified into three different groups, by their different charges:
 Anionic: having a negative charge

 Cationic: having a positive charge
 Nonionic: having no charge
11/03/03 5-4
The only way to determine the best polymer for your water treatment plant is by jar testing. Jar
5
testing will be covered in Chapter 6.
While alum is perhaps the most commonly used coagulant chemical, cationic polymers are
used in the water treatment field as both a primary coagulant, in place of metallic salts, and as
a coagulant aid used in conjunction with metallic salts. Anionic and nonionic polymers have
also proven to be effective in certain applications as coagulant aids and filter aids. A list of
coagulants and coagulant aids are shown in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1 List of Coagulants and Coagulant

Aids
Chemical Name Chemical Primary Coagulant Aid
Coagulant
Aluminum Sulphate Al2(SO4)3.14H2O X
Anionic Polymer Various X
Bentonite Clay X
Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 X
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 X* X
Calcium Oxide CaO X* X
Cationic Polymer Various X X
Ferric Chloride FeCl3.6H2O X
Ferric Sulphate Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O X
Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4.7H2O X
Hydoofluorosalicic Acid H2SiF6
Nonionic Polymer Various X
Polyaluminum Chloride Al2ClH5O5 or X
Al2(OH)5Cl·2H2O or
[Al(OH)2Cl]x or
Al6(OH)15Cl3; [Al2(OH)5Cl]x
Sodium Aluminate Na2Al2O4 X* X

Sodium Silicate Na2SiO3 X
*Used as primary coagulants only in water-softening processes
11/03/03 5-5
5
For your safety:
Always consult the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) before working with
any chemical you are unfamiliar with. Some may have extreme reactions to
human health and to other chemicals.
5.4.3 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS FOR CHEMICALS
All chemicals and materials used in water treatment must be approved by the Department of
Health and Social Services. Generally, meeting applicable NSF, UL or CSA Standards is
acceptable. Contact your Environmental Health Officer for details.
5.5 FLOCCULATION
Flocculation is the slow stirring process that causes the gathering together of small,
coagulated particles into larger, settle able particles. Once gathered together into floc, the
floc is easily removed by sedimentation and filtration. The collision between particles, or
the gathering of particles, occurs because of gentle stirring by a mechanical or hydraulic
means of mixing.
Floc formation is controlled by the rate at which collisions occur between particles and by
the effectiveness of these collisions in promoting attachment between particles. The
purpose of flocculation is to create a floc of a good size, density, and toughness for later
removal in the sedimentation and filtration processes. The best floc size ranges from 0.1
mm to about 3 mm, depending on the type of removal processes used. If algae are present
in large numbers in the water, the floc will have a stringy appearance. A picture showing
floc formation is shown in Figure 5-3.
Figure 5-3 Close-up of floc formation
11/03/03 5-6
Although the floc formed contains most of the suspended matter in the water, it is still made up
5
of approximately 96% water. Because of this, it is very fragile and must be treated gently.
This means that high-speed flocculation must be avoided.
An efficient flocculation process involves the selection of the right stirring time (detention
time), the proper stirring intensity, a properly shaped basin for uniform mixing, and
mechanical equipment or other means of creating the stirring action.
Detention time is required for the necessary chemical reactions to take place. Detention time
is usually not a critical factor in the coagulation or flash-mixing process, if the chemical
coagulants are well dispersed into the water being treated and mixed for at least several seconds.
In the NWT, since we have different types of packaged treatment plants, the retention time
varies from one plant to the next. The minimum detention time recommended for
flocculation ranges from about 5 to 20 minutes for direct filtration systems and up to 30
minutes for conventional filtration. The size and shape of the flocculation facility also
influences the detention time needed for optimum floc development. Some operators have
been able to reduce coagulant dosages by increasing the amount of detention time between
the point of addition of the coagulant and the flocculation basins.
5.5.1 FLOCCULATORS
Two types of mechanical flocculators are commonly installed:
1. Horizontal paddle wheel types; and
2. Vertical flocculators.
Both types can provide satisfactory performance; however, the vertical flocculators
usually require less maintenance, since they eliminate submerged bearings and packings.
Vertical flocculators can be of the propeller, paddle, or turbine types.
The best flocculation is usually achieved in more than one compartmentalized basin rather
than one equivalent-sized basin. The compartments are separated by baffles to prevent
short-circuiting of the water being treated, and to reduce the level of turbulence in each
succeeding compartment by reducing the speed of the stirrers, or reducing the area of
the paddles. This is called "tapered-energy mixing".
The reason for reducing the speed of the stirrers is to prevent breaking apart the large floc
particles that have already been formed. Breaking up the floc will not accomplish anything,
reduces the efficiency of the settling, and will overload the filters because not as many flocs
will be settled out in sedimentation.
11/03/03 5-7
CLASS I
5.5.2 JAR TESTING

COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
5
The jar test attempts to duplicate in the laboratory what is occurring in the plant in
relationship to detention times, mixing and settling conditions. By watching the jar test floc
form and settle, the operator can get a good idea of what should happen in the plant for that
chemical dose. The jar test should be used as an indication of what to expect in the water
treatment plant. By closely watching the floc form in the flocculators and settle out in the
sedimentation basin of the plant, the operator can also get a good indication of whether the
best coagulant dosage has been chosen. It should be realized that it is almost impossible to
duplicate in the jar test exactly the flow conditions that are occurring in the treatment plant.
Also by observing the performance of the filters and by looking at the laboratory test results,
the operator will gain additional information that will help make the necessary adjustments to
the actual chemical feed rates.
For a step-by-step procedure on how to perform a jar test go to Chapter 6.
5.5.2.1 Jar Test Evaluation
Several factors are important in evaluating jar test results. These include:
1) Rate of floc formation;
2) Type of floc particles;
3) Clarity of water between floc particles;
4) Size of floc;
5) Amount of floc formed;
6) Floc settling rate;
7) Clarity of water above the settled floc, and;
8) Physical water quality factors such as pH, temperature and turbidity.
Visible floc formation should begin shortly after the flash mix portion of the jar test.
During flocculation mixing, a number of small particles will gradually clump together to
form larger particles. Floc particles that are discrete and fairly dense in appearance are
usually better than floc particles that have a light, fluffy appearance. Large floc is
impressive but it is neither necessary nor always desirable. Large, light floc does not settle
as well as smaller, denser floc and it is more subject to breaking up by paddles and water
turbulence.
The quantity of floc formed is not as critical as floc quality or clarity of the settled water
produced. The water between the floc particles should be clear and not hazy nor milky in
appearance. The best chemical dosage will produce finished water that meets the Guidelines
for Canadian Drinking Water Quality at the lowest cost. Another important consideration is
the
11/03/03 5-8
amount of sludge produced. Smaller amounts of sludge are desirable to reduce sludge handling
5
and disposal requirements. Most of the sludge volume consists of precipitates of the
added chemicals rather than suspended solids.
After mixing has stopped, the rate at which the floc settles is another important
consideration. The floc should start to settle as soon as the mixer is turned off, and should
be almost completely (80 to 90 percent) settled after about 15 minutes.
Floc that remains suspended longer than 15 to 20 minutes in the jar test, is not likely to settle
out in the sedimentation basin, and will increase the load on the filter.
If the floc starts to settle before mixing is completed, or more than 80 percent of the floc has
settled within one or two minutes after mixing has stopped, the floc is too heavy. In your
water treatment plant, this can result in the floc settling out in the flocculation basins rather
than in the sedimentation basins. This is a rather rare occurrence and indicates that too much
chemical has been added.
There is no substitute for experience in evaluating jar test data. Therefore, it is recommended
that jar tests be performed regularly during periods of high raw water turbidity, even if the
plant is producing good quality finished water at the time. This will provide a basis for
comparing coagulation-flocculation effectiveness under different conditions and allow "fine-
tuning" of the chemical treatment to achieve the best efficiency.
Jar tests of flash-mixer water samples should be performed regularly at the start of every
shift and more frequently during periods of high turbidity in the raw water. The results of
these tests may give an early warning, impending treatment process problems.
Always verify the effectiveness of a change in treatment based upon jar test results. To verify
jar test results with treatment plant performance, obtain a water sample just downstream from
the flash mixer. Collect the sample after sufficient time has passed for the treatment change to
take effect. This sample should haven been mixed by the jar test apparatus under the same
conditions that the original raw water sample was mixed. Ideally, the test should mimic the
conditions of the plant’s water treatment process as accurately as possible.
Jar tests are an effective tool for predicting the results of chemical treatment
alternatives. However, jar test results are useless unless applied and verified in your
treatment plant.
5.5.2.2 Applying Jar Test Data
After evaluation of the jar test results, apply the dosage used in the best jar test to your
water treatment plant operation. One of the best ways to evaluate the performance of your
coagulation-flocculation process is to observe the actual process. When you walk through
the treatment plant, take some clear beakers. Dip some water out of each stage of the
treatment process. Hold the sample up to a light and look at the clarity of the water between
the floc and study the shape and size of the floc. Study the development of the floc from one
flocculation chamber to the next and into the sedimentation basin. The following is a short
list of what you should look for in your plant.
11/03/03 5-9
CLASS I
1)
Observe the floc as it enters the flocculation basins. The floc should be small and
5
well-dispersed throughout the flow. If not, the flash mixer may not be
providing effective mixing or the chemical dose or feed rate may be too low.
2) Tiny alum floc may be an indication that the chemical coagulant dose is too low. A
"popcorn flake" is a desirable floc appearance. If the water has a milky appearance or
a bluish tint, the alum dose is probably too high.
3) What does the floc look like as it moves through the flocculation basins? The size of
the floc should be increasing. If the floc size increases and then later starts to break
up, the mixing intensity of the downstream flocculators may be too high. Try
reducing the
speed of these flocculators, or increasing the polymer dosage.
4) Does the floc settle out in the sedimentation basin? If a lot of floc is observed flowing
over the weirs, the floc is too light for the detention time produced by that flow rate.
Increasing the chemical coagulant dose or adding a coagulant aid such as a polymer
may produce a heavier larger floc. The appearance of fine floc particles washing over
the effluent weirs could be an indication of too much alum and the dose should be
reduced.
In summary, use the procedures that will be improve quality of the floc by changing only
one operational variable at a time and wait to analyse the results before changing another
variable. Keep good records. Evaluate the performance of your plant and adjust your
procedures as necessary.
5.6 PROCESS TROUBLESHOOTING

Changes in source water turbidity levels, either increases or decreases, generally require that
the operator verify the effectiveness of the coagulant chemicals and dosages being applied at
the flash mixer. This is best accomplished by performing a series of jar tests as discussed
previously. You must realize that decreasing raw water turbidity levels can be just as
upsetting to the process as increasing levels.
Visual observations of flash-mixing intensity as well as the condition of the floc in the
flocculation basins may also indicate the need for process changes, such as adjustment to
mixer speed or coagulant dosage.
Alkalinity, pH and temperature changes in the source water quality may have an impact on
the clumping together of floc during the coagulation-flocculation process. In addition, water
temperature changes may require an adjustment in the level of mixing intensity in flash
mixers or flocculators. Temperature changes are usually gradual over time, thus large
process adjustments are seldom necessary.
Sudden increases in filtered water turbidity could be caused by poor filter performance.
However, poor coagulation-flocculation performance is usually the culprit, and the
operator must take immediate action to correct the problem, remembering that several
hours may pass before changes in the operation of the coagulation-flocculation process are
seen in the filter
11/03/03 5-10
effluent. One quick remedy may be to feed a filter-aid chemical such as a non-ionic polymer
5
directly to the filter influent. While this may solve the short-term problem, only changes in
the coagulation-flocculation process will enhance long-term plant performance. Again, the
results of laboratory jar tests should be used as the basis for making process changes.
5.7 FLASH MIXING

Flash mixing is the first step in coagulation. The coagulant is added to the flash mixer and
dispersed throughout the water. It is desirable to complete the coagulation reaction in as short
a time as possible. The following is a list of flash mixing examples:
 Hydraulic mixing using flow energy in the system,
 Mechanical mixing,
 Diffusers and grid systems,
 Pumped blenders,
 Static mixer.
Hydraulic mixing with baffles or throttling valves works well in systems, which have
sufficient water velocity to cause turbulence in the water being treated. The turbulence in the
flowing water mixes the chemicals with the water.
Mechanical mixers (paddles, turbines and propellers) are frequently used in coagulation
facilities. Mechanical mixers are versatile and reliable; however, they generally use the
greatest amount of electrical energy for mixing the coagulant with the water being treated.
Diffusers and grid systems consisting of perforated tubes or nozzles can be used to disperse
the coagulant into the water being treated. These systems can provide uniform distribution of
the coagulant over the entire coagulation basin. However, they are generally sensitive to
flow changes and may require frequent adjustments to produce the proper amount of mixing.
Pumped blenders have also been used for mixing in coagulation facilities. The coagulant is
added directly to the water being treated through a diffuser in a pipe. This can provide rapid
dispersion of the coagulant and does not create any significant head loss in the system.
Electrical energy consumption is considerably less than that of a comparable mechanical
mixer.
11/03/03 5-11
CLASS I
5.8 REVIEW
5
1. What is a floc?
2. Why is alkalinity important in the coagulation/flocculation

process?
3. Why is coagulation/flocculation important in the

water treatment process?
4. What are some of the chemicals involved in coagulation

and flocculation and what is their purpose?
11/03/03 5-12
CLASS I JAR TESTS
6
6.0 JAR TESTS
6.1 OBJECTIVES
The trainee will be able to:
 Perform a jar test.
6.2 GENERAL
As stated before, jar tests are used by operators to determine the correct dosage of coagulants
and coagulant aids. They are also designed to show the effectiveness of chemical treatment
and water stabilization requirements such as pH adjustment in a water treatment facility.
Many of the chemicals that are added to water can be evaluated on a small laboratory scale
by the use of a jar test. The most important of these chemicals are those used for coagulation
such as alum and polymers.
Using the jar test, the operator can approximate the correct coagulant dosage for plant use
when varying amounts of turbidity, colour or other factors indicate raw water quality
changes. The jar test is also a very useful tool in evaluating new coagulants or polymers being
considered for use on a plant scale.
6.3 APPARATUS
1) Stirring machine with variable speeds from 0-100 rpm.
2) An illuminated base (preferred but not necessary).
3) 6, 2L square containers.
4) 1 graduated cylinder 1000 mL.
5) 1 Pipet 10 mL, graduated.
6) 10mL and 1mL syringes.
7) Stock coagulant solution prepared from actual coagulant used in the

treatment process.
8) Clock or timer.
11/03/03 6-1
CLASS I
6.4 PROCEDURE
JAR TESTS
6
1) Collect 8 litres of sample of the water to be tested.
2) Immediately measure six 1500 mL quantities and place into each of six 2000 mL
containers.
3) Place all six containers on stirring apparatus.
4) With stirring paddles lowered into the containers, start stirring apparatus
and operate it for one minute at a speed of 100 rpm. Speeds and times
should be similar to conditions in the plant.
4) With a measuring pipet, add increasing dosages of coagulant solution to

the containers as rapidly as possible. Select a series of dosages so that the
first beaker will represent an under-dose and the last an over-dose. Do not
add chemicals to one beaker and use it as a “control”.
5) Reduce the stirring speed for the next 30 minutes to 20 rpm*.
6) Observe and evaluate each container as to that specific dosage's floc quality.
Sample the containers for pH turbidity, colour and other parameters as
required by treatment goals. Record results.
Figure 6-1 A flocculating and a non-flocculating jar test
7) Stop the stirring apparatus and allow samples in beakers to settle for 30 minutes
*. Observe the floc settling characteristics. A hazy sample indicates
poor coagulation. Properly coagulated water contains floc particles that
are
well-formed and dense, with clear liquid between the particles. Describe
the results as poor, fair, good or excellent.
The jar test is easy to perform but it is useless unless the operator records the data and
observations he has obtained. Figure 9-3 shows a typical data sheet used to record jar test
data.
11/03/03 6-2
CLASS I JAR TESTS
6
6.5 CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS
Stock solutions of coagulants, coagulant aids and other chemicals should be prepared
at concentrations such that quantities suitable for use in coagulation tests can be
measured accurately and conveniently.
Figure 6-2 Chemical Doses for Jar Tests
Approx. Dosage Grams/Litre to 1 mg/L Added to 1 Stock Solution Conc.,

Required mg/L Prepare Litre Sample Equals mg/L(%)
1-10 mg/L 1 g/L 1 mg/L 1,000 mg/L (0.1%)
10-100 mg/L 10 g/L 10 mg/L 10,000 mg/L (1.0%)
100-500 mg/L 100 g/L 100 mg/L 100,000 mg/L (10.0%)
6.6 REVIEW
1. Describe briefly how to do a jar test.
2. When is a jar test used?
11/03/03 6-3
CLASS I WATER FILTRATION
7
7.0 SEDIMENTATION
7.1 OBJECTIVES
1. List the purposes of sedimentation.
2. Describe the various types of sedimentation basins and how they work.
3. Identify factors affecting the sedimentation process.
7.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The purpose of the sedimentation process is to remove suspended solids that are denser
than water and to reduce the load on the filters. The suspended solids may be in their
natural state, such as bacteria, clays, silts or they may be pre-conditioned by prior
treatment in the coagulation-flocculation process to form floc or may be precipitated
impurities (hardness and iron precipitates formed by the addition of chemicals).
Sedimentation is accomplished by decreasing the velocity of the water being treated below
the point where settleable suspended material can be transported. This allows gravity to
remove particles held in suspension. When water is almost still in sedimentation basins,
settleable solids will move towards the bottom of the basin.
7.3 FACTORS AFFECTION THE SEDIMENTATION PROCESS

The size, shape and weight of the particles to be settled out, as well as physical and
environmental conditions in the sedimentation tank, have a significant impact on the type
of
pre-treatment needed and the sedimentation process efficiency. Factors affecting particle
settling include:
1. Particle size and distribution;
2. Shape of particles;
3. Density of particles;
4. Temperature (viscosity and density) of the water;
5. Electrical charges on particles;
6. Dissolved substances in water;
11/03/03 7-1
CLASS I
7. Flocculation characteristics of the suspended material;

WATER FILTRATION
7
8. Environmental conditions (such as wind, if the unit process is outdoors); and
9. Sedimentation basin hydraulic and design characteristics (such as inlet conditions

and shape of basin).
7.3.1 PARTICLE SIZE, DISTRIBUTION AND SHAPE
Because of their size and density, sand and silt particles greater than 10 microns in diameter
(1 micron = 0.001 mm) can be removed from water by sedimentation. Finer particles do not
readily settle and treatment is required to produce larger, denser particles (floc) that are
settleable as shown in Table 7-1.
Figure 7-1 Settling of different particles sizes in a typical settling

tank
Table 7-1 Typical Sizes of Particles in Surface

Water
Source Diameter (microns)

Coarse Turbidity 11 - 1000
Algae 3 - 1000
Silt 10
Bacteria 0.3-10
Fine Turbidity 0.1 - 1
Viruses 0.02 - 0.26
Colloids 0.001 - 1
11/03/03 7-2
The shape of the particles influences particle settling as well. Smooth circular particles will
7
settle quicker than irregular shaped particles with ragged edges.
Most particles have a very slight electrical charge. If all of the particles have a negative
charge, they will tend to repel each other and not settle. Since alum consists of aluminum
with a positive charge, the negatively charged particles are attracted to the positively
charged aluminum ions. This causes the clumping together which helps the particles to settle
out.
7.3.2 TEMPERATURE
Another consideration in sedimentation is the effect of water temperature changes. The

settling velocity of a particle becomes much slower as the temperature drops. The colder the
water temperature becomes, the longer the particles take to settle out. This means that longer
time periods are required for effective settling at colder water temperatures, or that chemical
dosages must be adjusted for the slower settling velocities.
7.3.3 CURRENTS
Several types of currents are found in the typical sedimentation basin:
1. Surface currents caused by winds;
2. Density currents caused by differences in suspended solids concentrations

and temperature differences, and
3. Eddy currents produced by the flow of the water entering and exiting the basin.
Currents in the sedimentation basin are beneficial to the extent that they promote
flocculation.
Collectively, however, these currents distribute the suspended particles unevenly throughout
the basin, thereby reducing the expected performance of the sedimentation basin.
Some of these currents can be substantially reduced in the design of a treatment plant by
providing baffled inlets and other hydraulic control features. Wind-induced currents can only
be eliminated by providing covers or suitable windbreaks for the sedimentation basins. In
most instances, basin covers are not economically feasible nor necessarily desirable from an
operations and maintenance standpoint.
7.4 SEDIMENTATION BASIN ZONES

For convenience in discussing sedimentation basins, a typical sedimentation basin can be
divided into four zones:
1. Inlet zone;
2. Settling zone;
11/03/03 7-3
CLASS I
3. Sludge zone; and

WATER FILTRATION
7
4. Outlet zone.
The inlet to the sedimentation basin should provide a smooth transition from the flocculation
basin and should distribute the flocculated water uniformly over the entire cross-section of the
basin. A properly designed inlet such as a perforated baffle wall will significantly reduce
short circuiting of water in the basin, and will minimize the effects of the water wanting to
flow at the inlet velocity straight through the basin.
The settling zone is the largest portion of the sedimentation basin. This zone provides
calm, undistributed storage of the flocculated water for a sufficient time period to permit
effective settling of the suspended particles in the water being treated.
The sludge zone is located at the bottom of the sedimentation basin and is a temporary
storage place for the settled particles. In addition, the sludge zone is used to allow for
compression settling of the sludge.
Basin inlet structures should be designed to minimize high flow velocities near the bottom of
the sedimentation basin, which could distribute or scour settled particles in the sludge zone,
causing them to become resuspended.
Sludge is removed from the sludge zone by scraper and vacuum devices, which move along
the bottom of the sedimentation basin as necessary or on a regularly scheduled basis. Some
plants require that the basin be drained and flushed to remove the sludge if the removal
devices do not operate the entire length of the basin.
The basin outlet should provide a smooth transition from the sedimentation basin to the
settled water conduit or channel. The outlet can also control the water level in the basin.
Skimming or effluent troughs commonly referred to as launders are frequently used to

uniformly collect the settled or clarified water. Adjustable V-notch weirs are generally attached
11/03/03 7-4
to the launders to enable a uniform draw-off of basin water by controlling the flow. If the water
7
leaving a sedimentation basin flows out unevenly over the weirs or at too high a velocity,
floc can be carried over to the filters.
Rectangular sedimentation basins are commonly found in many large-scale water

treatment plants. Rectangular basins are popular for the following reasons:
1. High tolerance to shock loading (water quality changes);
2. Predictable performance;
3. Cost effectiveness;
4. Low maintenance; and
5. Minimal short-circuiting.
High-rate or tube settlers were developed to increase the settling efficiency of conventional
rectangular sedimentation basins. They have also been installed in sedimentation basins with
successful results. Water enters the inclined settler tubes and is directed upward through the
tubes. Each tube functions as a shallow settling basin. Together they provide a high ratio of
effective settling surface area, per unit volume of water. The settled particles can collect on
the inside surfaces of the tubes or settle to the bottom of the sedimentation basin.
Parallel plate or tilted plate settlers can also be used to increase the efficiency of
rectangular sedimentation basins, and these function in a manner similar to tube settlers.
High-rate settlers are particularly useful for water treatment applications where site area
is limited, in packaged-type water treatment units, and to increase the capacity of existing
sedimentation basins. In existing rectangular and circular sedimentation basins, high-rate
settler modules can be conveniently installed between the launders.
The solids-contact process, also referred to as "up-flow solids-contact clarification" and

"up-flow sludge-blanket clarification", was developed to improve the overall solids removal
process under certain design conditions. These units combine the coagulation, flocculation
and sedimentation processes into a single basin, which may be either rectangular or circular
in shape. Flow is generally in an upward direction through a sludge blanket or slurry of
flocculated, suspended solids.
Solids-contact units generally have provisions to control removal of solids so that

the concentration of solids retained in the basin can be maintained at some desired
level.
Solids-contact units are popular for smaller packaged-type water treatment plants and also in
cold climates where the units have to be inside a building. However, care must be exercised
in the operation of these units to assure that a uniform sludge blanket is formed, and is
subsequently maintained throughout the solids removal process. The sludge blanket is
sensitive to changes in water temperature. Temperature density currents tend to upset the
sludge blanket.
11/03/03 7-5
Loss of the sludge blanket will affect the performance of the filters. Other important operational
7
factors include control of chemical dosage, mixing of chemicals and control of the
sludge blanket.
Under ideal conditions, solids-contact units provide better performance for both turbidity
removal and softening processes requiring the precipitation of hardness. With softening
processes, chemical requirements are usually lower also. In the case of turbidity removal,
coagulant requirements are often higher. In either case, solids-contact units are very sensitive
to changes in influent flow or temperature. In these facilities, changes in the rate of flow
should be made infrequently, slowly and with great care.
7.5 SLUDGE HANDLING AND REMOVAL

Water treatment plant sludges are typically alum sludges, with solids concentrations varying
from 0.25 to 10 percent when removed from the basin. In gravity flow sludge removal
systems, the solids concentration should be limited to about 3 percent. If the sludge is to be
pumped, solids concentrations as high as 10 percent can be readily transported.
In horizontal-flow sedimentation basins preceded by coagulation and flocculation, over 50

percent of the flow will settle out in the first third of the basin length. Operationally, this must
be considered when establishing the frequency of operation of sludge removal equipment.
Also
you must consider the volume or amount of sludge to be removed and the sludge
storage volume available in the basin.
Sludge, which accumulates on the bottom of sedimentation basins, must be

periodically removed for the following reasons:
1) To prevent interference with the settling, process such as resuspension of solids due
to scouring;
2) To prevent the sludge from becoming septic or providing an environment for the
growth or microorganisms that can create taste and odour problems, and
3) To prevent excessive reduction of detention time.
In large-scale plants, sludge is normally removed on an intermittent basis with the aid to
mechanical sludge removal equipment. However, in smaller plants with low solids
loading, manual sludge removal may prove to be the most cost effective.
In manually cleaned basins, the sludge is allowed to accumulate until it reduces settled water
quality. High levels of sludge reduce the detention time and floc carries over the filters. The
basin is then dewatered; most of the sludge having been removed by stationary or portable
pumps, and the remaining sludge is removed with squeegies and hoses. Basin floors are
usually sloped towards a drain to help sludge removal. The frequency of shutdown for
cleaning will vary from several months to a year or more, depending on amount of suspended
solids in the raw water.
11/03/03 7-6
In larger plants, a variety of mechanical devices can be used to remove sludge including:
7
1) Mechanical rakes;
2) Drag-chain and flights; and
3) Travelling bridges.
Circular or square basins are usually equipped with rotating sludge rakes. Basin floors are
sloped towards the center, and the sludge rakes progressively push the sludge towards a
center outlet.
In rectangular basins, the simplest sludge removal mechanism is the chain and flight system.
An endless chain outfitted with wooden flights pushes the sludge into a sump. The
disadvantage of this system and of the rotating rakes previously described is high operation
and maintenance costs. Most of the moving parts are submerged so the basin has to be
dewatered to perform major maintenance.
In an attempt to reduce operation and maintenance costs and to improve sludge removal
equipment maintainability, the travelling bridge was developed. This bridge looks like an
old highway bridge except it has no deck for cars. The travelling bridge spans the width of
the sedimentation basin and travels along the length of the basin walls. Moveable sludge
sweeps, which are hung from the bridge structure, remove the sludge from the basin floor
with suction pumps or by siphon action. There are few submerged parts in this system and
these can normally be removed for maintenance without dewatering the basin. Traveling
bridge sludge removal systems will operate effectively on the simplest of basin designs.
7.6 PROCESS CONTROL

The actual performance of sedimentation basins depends on the settling characteristics of
the suspended particles and the flow rate through the sedimentation basins. To control the
settling characteristics of the suspended particles, adjust the chemical coagulant dose and
the coagulation-flocculation process. The flow rate through the sedimentation basin controls
the efficiency of the process in removing suspended particles. The higher the flow rate, the
lower the efficiency (the fewer suspended particles are removed). Once the actual flow rate
becomes
greater than the design flow rate, you can expect an increase in suspended particles flowing
over the V-notch weirs.
If adequate detention time and basin surface area are provided in the sedimentation basins,
solids removal efficiencies greater than 95 per cent can be achieved. However, high
sedimentation basin removal efficiencies may not always to be the most cost-effective way
to remove suspended solids.
In low turbidity source waters (less than 10 NTU), effective coagulation, flocculation and
filtration may produce satisfactory filtered water without the need for sedimentation. In
this case, the coagulation-flocculation process is operated to produce a highly filterable
pinpoint
11/03/03 7-7
floc, which does not readily settle due to its small size. Instead, the pin-point floc is removed by
7
the filters.
However, there is a practical limitation in applying this concept to higher turbidity

conditions. If the filters become overloaded with suspended solids, they will quickly clog and
need frequent backwashing. This can limit plant production and cause a degradation in
filtered water quality.
From a practical standpoint, you will want to operate sedimentation basins near design flows.
However, to achieve the intended removal of suspended particles once design flows are
exceeded, suspended particles leaving the sedimentation basin may overload the filters with
solids and require additional filter backwashing. Study the settling characteristics of the
particles by using laboratory jar tests. Then verify your test results and make adjustments
based on actual performance of the water treatment plant.
During periods of low flow the use of all sedimentation basins may not be necessary. Since
the cost to operate a basin is very low, it is recommended that all basins be kept in service
except during periods of draining for maintenance and repairs.
7.7 REVIEW
1. How does particle size affect sedimentation?
2. Why is it important to remove sludge periodically from

the sedimentation tank?
3. What is a clarifier?
4. When is sedimentation not required in a water treatment

process?
11/03/03 7-8
8
8.0 WATER FILTRATION
8.1 OBJECTIVES
1. Learn the purpose of filtration;
2. Describe the filtration process;
3. In a rapid sand filter describe the purpose of different "layers";
4. Determine efficiency by monitoring:
a) Loss of head;
b) Turbidity; and
c) Rate of flow;
5. Understand:
a) Filtration rates;
b) Backwashing;
c) Air wash systems; and
d) Air/water scour;
6. Define and describe the operating problems of a filter; and
7. Describe the differences between:
a) A pressure filter; and
b) A rapid sand filter.
8.2 PURPOSE OF FILTRATION

The primary purpose of filtration is to remove suspended materials such as small particles
and microorganisms from the raw water stream.
11/03/03 8-1
CLASS I
8.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

WATER FILTRATION
8
A prerequisite to filtration is proper pre-treatment. This may be accomplished by:
1. Treating the "raw" water entering the plant with various chemicals,
2. Mechanically agitating it for proper mixing and coagulation of the suspended matter
to produce the desired floc, and
3. Allowing enough retention time in the plant to settle out most of the suspended matter
(in most plants).
The next and most important phase through which it passes is - FILTRATION.
Filtration is the process of removing turbidity (suspended particulate matter) from water by
passing it through some porous filter media such as sand, anthracite or a combination of both.
8.4 FILTRATION PROCESS

Many years of laboratory research and in-situ operational observations have shown that the
filtration process removes up to 95% of turbidity from the water presented to the filter.
This is accomplished by:
 Mechanical Straining;
 Impingement;
 Electrolytic Action; and
 Chemical Reactions.
8.4.1 MECHANICAL STRAINING
The largest particles remain on top of the filter because their size will not allow them to
pass through the small spaces between the individual grains of media.
8.4.2 IMPINGEMENT
Did you ever wonder why it is that when you drive your car through mud in pouring rain,
that the mud is splashed onto your car instead of being washed off with the rain? For the
same reason, when turbid water passes down through the sand grains in a filter it sticks to
them. This is because a natural attraction causes the particles to move to the surface of the
media (your car, sand grains) and stick to it.
11/03/03 8-2
CLASS I
8.4.3 ELECTROLYTIC
WATER FILTRATION
8
Both sand and anthracite grains carry an electrical charge as do the particles of turbidity that
are suspended in the water. The forces generated by the electrical charges cause the
suspended particles to cling together.
8.4.4 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
There are many organisms in the top layer of the filter media. These organisms will
promote chemical reactions with incoming turbidity and with other organisms, affecting
the filtering action.
8.5 THE SLOW SAND FILTER

Filtration as we know it today began in about 1830 when the first slow sand filter was built in
London, England. These units operated at about 4 lpm per sq. m (1/10 gpm per sq. foot). The
slow sand filter is fast disappearing mainly because of the high cost of labour and the amount
of land required to operate these units.
The slow sand filter consisted of an underground drain system with a gravel bed over it. On
top of this was spread the filter sand. The water flowed in, on top of the sand and filtered
down through it, depositing the turbidity particles in the upper layers of the sand. During its
passage through the sand layer the bacteria already present in the filter attacked and in most
cases, destroyed any harmful bacteria present. This was the only method of disinfection
practiced at that time. Once the rate of flow through the filter became too slow for any further
operation, the water was shut off, the unit drained and the top layer of sand was removed and
replaced by hand.
8.6 THE RAPID SAND FILTER

The Rapid Sand Filter evolved from the concept of the slow sand filter. There are two types
of rapid sand filters, gravity filter or pressure filter. In either case, water passes through the
bed of sand at flow rates from 80 to 610 lpm per sq. m (2 to 15 gpm per sq. foot). The higher
rates are generally used in deep bed anthracite filters. The water is usually pre-treated by
coagulation and settling to remove the majority of the suspended matter before the actual
filtration process. Because very little bacterial purification occurs, chlorination is practiced
after filtration to achieve disinfection.
The rapid sand filter can be cleaned of accumulated turbidity by reversing the direction of
the flow of water. This process is called backwashing. In backwashing, the flow of water
expands the sand, scours the bed and carries the accumulated solids to the sewer or waste
treatment facility.
11/03/03 8-3
The media used in the rapid filter include sand, crushed anthracite coal and in some cases, a
8
combination of these called, dual media if there are two different types and mixed media if
there are more than two types.
8.7 DIRECT FILTRATION

Although we have been discussing filters that operate in water treatment together with
coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation, in some installations sedimentation is neither
necessary, nor practical. In many locations, the turbidity of the raw water is low enough that
the filters do not require sedimentation of the floc. This method of water treatment is
generally limited to raw waters with a maximum turbidity of equal or less than 40 NTU and
whose average turbidity are in the range of 5 to 12 NTU.
Direct filtration begins like conventional filtration; alum is applied to the water through a
mixer, followed by flocculation. All the turbidity particles and floc are applied directly to the
filter.
The filter media used is usually mixed media because if has enough room to store the
large amounts of solids applied to the filter and still prevent rapid overloading and
frequent backwashing. Either gravity or pressure filters can be used for direct filtration.
Figure 8-1 Typical Sand Filter
11/03/03 8-4
CLASS I
8.8 CONSTRUCTION OF A SAND OR ANTHRACITE FILTER

WATER FILTRATION
8
A gravity filter is essentially a metal, fibreglass or concrete box. Its length, width and depth
are determined to suit the desired rate of flow. The depth of the box is determined by the
amount of head or pressure required and also by the type of underdrain.
The principal parts, which make up a gravity filter are shown in and include:
 The underdrain system;
 The gravel subfill;
 The filter media; and
 The surface washer, wash troughs and air scour system.
8.8.1 UNDERDRAIN SYSTEM
The underdrain system collects the filtered water that passes through the media. The most
common type of underdrain is the vitrified clay "LEOPOLD" drain tile. Holes on the upper
side of the drain tile are properly sized to handle the water flows required for adequate water
distribution during filtration and backwash operation. The backwash flow rate of the average
filter is 490 - 610 lpm per sq. m (12 to 15 gpm per sq. ft.) and the operating rate only about
163 lpm per sq. m (4 gpm per sq. ft.) The only head available during the filtration process is
the depth of water in the filter. Consequently the holes are sized to handle the filter flow.
Adequate distribution of water is ensured at the higher flows encountered in backwashing due
to the diffusing effect achieved by the flow and resultant loss of head through the underdrain
systems.
8.8.2 GRAVEL SUBFILL
The subfill performs two primary functions:
1. It supports the upper layers of sand and anthracite and separates them from
the underdrain system, and
2. It distributes evenly the flow of water through the filter in both directions. (The depth
of gravel required in design of filters is directly related to the distance between the
holes and their size in the underdrain system).
Different layers, or size, of gravel make up the required depth. Progressively finer grades of
gravel are spread on top of the coarse gravel. The minimum depth of a layer is 2". The final
layer of gravel, or "torpedo sand" as it is sometimes called, will support the actual filter
media.
All our NWT systems use gravel support. Ft. Providence tried to go gravel-less but we
couldn’t retrofit the existing Waterboy and the cost is too high.
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CLASS I
8.8.3 FILTER MEDIA

WATER FILTRATION
8
The actual filter media is on top of the gravel bed and varies in depth depending on plant
design. Typical filter bed depths in the NWT are around 35 – 45cm (4 to 5ft). Today, with the
advent of multi-media systems, garnet and other types of sand are used. These materials
incorporate in the grain structure such things as carbon, which greatly reduce their weight.
Anthracite, hard coal that has been crushed (screened) for size and graded to have a uniform
density is the most widely used filter media. Crushed anthracite coal has a lower specific
gravity (1.75) than sand (2.65); consequently, a lower velocity is required when backwashing
the filter compared to that required to wash a sand filter of equal depth.
Crushed anthracite coal is lighter in weight – 880 kg per cu. m. (55 lbs. per cu. ft.) than sand –
1600 kg per cu. m (100 lbs. per cu. ft.); therefore, in order to benefit from both of these media,
they are generally used together. They can be readily backwashed together and should always
remain separated due to the difference in their specific gravities. The coarse anthracite on top
gives the filter a larger capacity for turbidity removal, while the finer sand layer is below the
anthracite supporter by a gravel support layer. The combination of the two provides a media
that will give longer filter runs with a resulting better quality of water. Recent designs utilize
entire bed depths of anthracite for removal and storage of suspended matter.
8.8.4 WASH WATER TROUGHS
The wash water troughs are located above the surface wash equipment. They are installed,
half the bed depth above the bed to provide a free space between the underside of the trough
and the top of the bed. This space is normally provided for when the filter is backwashed to
allow for the filter media to expand when cleaning without losing filter media.
The depth of the wash troughs varies with the amount they can hold so the distance from the
top of the wash trough to the top of the bed will vary widely.
8.8.5 OTHER NECESSARY ACCESSORIES
Other necessary components include:
 The influent wash water valve;
 The effluent wash water valve;
 A valve to control the flow of water to the surface wash equipment; and
 Pumps.
All of these valves are controlled from a console, usually located in front of and facing the
filter. Built into the control console are gauges showing loss of head, rate of flow through the
filter, backwash rate of flow, and effluent turbidity.
11/03/03 8-6
In some older plants, especially the smaller ones, individual hand valves are still used. The
8
larger, newer plants often have automated systems that backwash the filter and then return
to service.
8.9 FILTER INSTRUMENTATION

To operate a filter at its full capacity and highest efficiency, the status of the filter is checked
continuously and the turbidity (before and after filtration), loss of head, and the rate of flow,
are recorded.
8.10 TURBIDITY
The prime function of a filter is to remove suspended matter and thereby removing
pathogenic organisms from the water.
Most of these organisms are bound up in the coagulated floc particles entering the filter. The
turbidity remaining in the filter effluent is the best indicator of filter performance. Turbidity
can be measured in the laboratory by such instruments as the Hellige or Hach turbidimeter,
and can be monitored on the filters with indicating and or recording type instruments such as
those producing by Keen and by Hach manufacturers.
Public Health Act and GCDWQ call for maximum turbidity in

the effluent of 1.0 NTU.
8.11 LOSS OF HEAD

A filter was earlier described as a box with an underdrain, gravel subfill and filter medium;
the box, of course, is filled with water. In most large filters, the distance from the surface of
the water to the centre of the underdrain system is approximately 3m (10 ft.) This is the total
head
or pressure available to push water through the filter. When the filter has just been
backwashed, it is in its cleanest state and offers the least resistance to flow through it. This
resistance or loss of head is the difference between the total depth and the initial loss, leaving
an available head in most filters of about 2.4m (8 ft.).
When in operation, the filter removes the turbidity from the water. As the turbidity
accumulates in the bed, the resistance to the flow of water increases; in other words, the
available head through the filter decreases. Therefore, the reading of the loss-of-head gauge is
an indication of the "cleanliness" or the "dirtiness" of the filter. The loss-of-head gauge
indicates when the filter needs backwashing. A simple loss-of-head gauge can be constructed
by connecting a clear piece of plastic tubing to the underdrain header and running the tubing
up to the side of the filter box so that the open end of the tubing is above the surface of the
water in the filter. Mark the level of
11/03/03 8-7
the surface water in the filter on the wall next to the tubing. Then, at any time, the distance from
8
this point down to the liquid level in the tube can be measured - this distance is the head
loss. This is also a good method of cross checking loss-of-head instruments. Most modern
loss
of-head instruments operate on this principle and simply transmit the measurement (or distance)
to the instrument located on the control panel.
8.12 CONSTANT RATE AND DECLINING RATE FILTRATION
8.12.1 CONSTANT RATE
Constant rate filtration describes flow through a filter, which is maintained by the filter rate
control valve independent of head loss. In other words, the operator sets the required flow.
The rate control valve then senses a decrease in flow, which results from plugging of the
filter bed (and increased head loss) and opens slightly to maintain the desired flow rate.
8.12.2 DECLINING RATE
Declining rate filtration controls the filter operating head by raising or lowering the pressure
in the filter discharge header. This action allows a clean filter to operate initially at a higher
rate of flow per sq. m and then as head loss increases through the filter, a lower rate of flow is
achieved per sq. m of filtering area.
This system has been shown to reduce terminal breakthroughs while increasing production.
No significant difference was found in the quality of water produced by either control method.
8.13 FILTER OPERATION
8.13.1 PRE-TREATMENT
The most important thing to remember about the water arriving at the filter(s) is to condition
and pre-treat it thoroughly before it gets there. Without this pre-treatment, or if the pre-
treatment is inefficient the operating efficiency of the filter(s) is going to be drastically
reduced. Filter runs will be cut short, resulting in a considerable increase in backwashing and
the amount of wash water used. Consequently, plant output will be reduced because filters
have to be washed with filtered water that could have been delivered to the customer. The
filter beds will become overloaded with algae and particulate matter, and mud balls will very
likely develop.
As already discussed, the type of conditioning applied to the raw water depends on the quality
of the raw water entering the plant. The demand on water treatment plants, however, is
continually increasing. If a given chemical treatment produces a good floc, coagulates well,
and results in a water passing over the filter with, for example, turbidity of one (1) unit, at a
flow rate of 25 MGD, an increase in flow rate to 40 MGD may not produce the same quality
water over
11/03/03 8-8
the filters even if the chemical dosage is increased in proportion to the increase in flow. This is
8
because increasing the flow rate by 60% will allow less time for the floc to settle out.
This results in a greater carry-over to the filters, causing shorter filter runs.
8.13.2 FILTRATION RATES
Until a few years ago, the normal design filter rate for a rapid sand filter producing potable
water, was 80 – 160 lpm per sq. m (2 - 4 gpm per sq. ft.) of filter bed-area. Since then
investigations of filter aids have been carried out, using dual and multi-media filters. As a
result, operating filter rates are notably increased. It is common today to find filters operating
at rates
of 245 – 325 lpm (6 - 8 gpm per sq. ft.) of filter bed area.
It is sometimes possible to increase the flow rate through the filter. Filters are normally
designed for specific rates of flow, and such things as the inlet flumes, the underdrain system,
rate of flow controllers, and the discharge piping are all sized for this flow plus a factor of
safety. Therefore, to double the rate of flow, the total head available in the filter may be
sufficient to maintain this flow rate for short periods of time.
New filters use a media in which the particle size is greatest at the top. By using various types
of filter media, the particle size gets progressively finer, down through the bed to the bottom.
Since the voids (or spaces) between the particles will be larger where the particle size is
greatest, the voids in the upper portion of the bed are largest. These provide a greater storage
area for
turbidity particles. As the water proceeds through the bed, the size of these voids
becomes progressively smaller due to the accumulation of turbidity particles. At the
same time, the storage for the turbidity is becoming less, but the degree of filtration is
becoming better.
It is common today to have up to five different layers of material in a filter bed. In other types
of media, two layers are used, generally sand and crushed anthracite: two-layer filters are
commonly known as dual media filters. The type of filter to be used is determined after a
thorough study of the treatment process and raw water conditions.
The conventional rapid sand filter uses one grade of sand (0.45 - 0.55 mm and a S.G. of 2.65)
approximately 75 cm (30 inches) thick underlaid by graded layers of gravel as supporting
media. Normally under these conditions, the actual entrapment of suspended matter is
restricted to the top several centimetres of the sand bed. The remaining sand acts as insurance
against a serious turbidity breakthrough, which means the turbidity on the filter has increased
to the point where it is being carried through by the water being filtered.
The storing capacity for suspended matter in the conventional rapid sand filter is considerably
less than in a dual-media filter where the top 45 cm (18 inches) of the sand bed have been
replaced with a coarser and lighter media, such as a graded crushed anthracite (0.8 - l.2 mm
and a S.G. 1.75). Under ideal conditions, the entire 45 cm depth of anthracite plus 3 - 5
centimetres
of sand is available for the storage of suspended matter. This means that the head loss, instead
of being concentrated in the top 5 cm in the conventional sand bed, is distributed through a
depth
of 45 cm to 50 cm (18 - 20 inches) in the dual-media bed. This makes it possible to use
higher filter rates for longer filter runs.
11/03/03 8-9
CLASS I
8.13.3 BACKWASHING
WATER FILTRATION
8
Backwashing a filter is the exact opposite to filtration. When backwashing, the water rises up
through the filter rather than passing down through it. The backwashing process removes the
accumulated turbidity from the filter. Municipal filtration plants always utilize treated water
for backwashing. The water is delivered to the filter either from an elevated tower or via a
backwash pump (from the clearwell). Either method provides the necessary pressure and
volume for carrying out the backwash process.
A normal rate of flow during the backwash cycle for conventional filters is 610 lpm per sq. m
(15 gpm per sq. ft.) of filter bed area. These figures will vary depending on the temperature of
the water used to backwash. As the temperature increases, the backwash rate is increased to
give the same amount of expansion to the filter bed. The backwash water enters through the
underdrain. Rising up through the gravel bed, it enters the filter media. The gravel bed further
distributes the water uniformly throughout the entire filter.
It is extremely important to note that in the operation of any filter, all valves have to be
opened or closed slowly. As the backwash valve is opened, the amount of water rising up
through the filter media gradually increases and as more and more water is forced up through
the sand bed, the pressure on the underside of the individual grains of filter media becomes
greater. This pressure eventually overcomes the weight of the particle of filter media and the
point at which this occurs is known as the point of fluidity. Once the flow reaches this point,
the article will rise and the filter bed will start expanding.
The normal expansion of the filter bed is 30 to 50 per cent during the backwash period.
Backwash space must be provided in the filter to permit this expansion during the washing
period. This is why the wash trough must be at a fixed height above the filter bed. The
particles of media roll around in the bed, continuously rising and falling. In the process, they
rub against each other. The combined action of the water moving past the particle of media
and the scrubbing action of the particles rubbing against each other removes the accumulated
turbidity from the filter media grains.
It was found from experience that this does not always remove all of the turbidity from the
filter media, and that over the years turbidity will accumulate on the media grains, limiting
their effectiveness as a filter media. Superior backwashing may be achieved in the winter due
to the denser water, however, a savings may be realized by reducing the backwash time
because the bed is cleared faster.
Adequate backwashing in every filter operation is extremely important. The backwash flow
rate should be as high as possible without losing filter media. The backwash should be carried
on until the filter media is substantially cleaned. No media will ever be absolutely clean,
regardless of the extent of the backwash.
11/03/03 8-10
CLASS I
8.13.4 SURFACE WASH SYSTEM

WATER FILTRATION
8
Auxiliary scour better describes the function of this device as it aids in cleaning much more
than the filter surface. The purpose of the surface wash is to aid in cleaning the filter surface
and prevent mudball formation by applying a jet of water to the encrusted surface before and
during wash cycles.
The most common surface washers are rotary surface washers; the washer is mounted just
above the filter bed and begins to rotate when water jets out of the nozzles. As the filter bed
starts to expand during backwashing the washer not only cleans the top of the filter bed but
becomes immersed in the filter media. Fixed jets are sometimes used as well instead of
rotating washers.
Initially the filter media is backwashed at about 245 lpm per sq. m (6 gpm/sq. ft.). This is
the point at which the particles of media are in effect "weightless" in the filter bed. The
agitator is then turned on and allowed to run for a period of 5 to 7 minutes. The force of the
jets of water from the agitator cleans the grains of the filter media and moves them so that
the entire bed is gradually turned over and exposed to the jet action.
Following this, the backwash rate is gradually increased and the agitator turned off. The filter
is backwashed at its normal backwash rate for as long as economically necessary to remove
all accumulated turbidity. The water is then slowly turned off and the media allowed to settle
before returning the filter back to operation.
8.13.5 AIR SCOUR WASH
Another method used to assist in cleaning the filter is accomplished by introducing

compressed air into the backwash stream before it reaches the filter. Underdrain systems used
for air scour usually have smaller holes, thereby creating a much diffused air-water mixture.
This mixture causes extensive agitation of the media as it passes through the bed. Many feel
that the method is more efficient at cleaning the filter bed than is possible by standard
backwashing.
Air scour systems blast the filter media with jets of air from the bottom of the filter. The air
scour systems are activated prior to backwashing and remains on until the wash water
troughs begins to fill with wash water. A common problem with air scour systems is that
they inadvertently remove filter media into the wash trough damaging the filter. This can
usually be remedied by reducing the backwash velocity, by properly guarding the filter
media and by ensuring the air scour is turned off before the backwash reaches the wash water
troughs.
8.14 OPERATING PROBLEMS OF A FILTER

The operating problems of a filter can be divided into two categories:
1. Failure of the filter bed due to improper pre-treatment or operating procedures; and
11/03/03 8-11
CLASS I
2. Mechanical failure of controls and equipment.

WATER FILTRATION
8
8.14.1 FILTER BED FAILURE
When seeking the causes of filter bed failure, look for the following.
1. Clogging the filter media by turbidity accumulation. This is caused by

incomplete removal during the backwash operation or inadequate pre-treatment.
2. "Cracking" or contraction of the bed. This results from too long a filter run or
poor backwash techniques.
3. Mudballs. Tiny balls of accumulated turbidity bind together with particles of filter
media. As these mud balls increase in size, they become heavier than the filter
media and will gradually sink down to collect on the top layer of gravel.
4. The shifting and intermixing, sometimes called mounding, of the gravel layers.
This problem occurs primarily in the fine gravels located in the top of the support
bed. It is caused by uneven backwashing rapid change in flow rate, a clog or break
in the underdrain system.
5. Negative Head and Air Binding. Some filtration plants have only 1.2 – 1.5m (4 to 5
ft.) of water above the media surface and air binding problems may occur
occasionally in the filter media. Air dissolves in water at or near the saturation point.
When the pressure is reduced to less than atmospheric pressure below the surface of
the media, the dissolved air comes out of solution, and air bubbles accumulate within
the media. This may result in a marked increase in the headloss. If the operator is not
aware of this problem, media may be lost in the early part of the filter backwash due
to the violent agitation of the air being released from the filter media. In most plants
troubled by air binding, the problem occurs in the spring season when the surface
water is in the stage
of "warming up" and is supersaturated with air. To prevent loss of media, care should
be taken at the beginning of the backwash to partially drain the filter below the
overflow troughs prior to starting the backwash water pumps.
Checking the Filter:
1. Filter Peeker. It is possible to look at gravel inside a filter to check for gravel
mounding and also to check underdrains and to determine whether or not mudballs
are present. This can be achieved with the use of a filter peeker.
A filter peeker consists of a hollow copper tube with a periscope type hood and handle
at one end to look through and a rectangular shaped conical hood at the other end with
a glass plate and small lights inside. Flashlight batteries at the end with the handles
poweres a light source. This practical gadget can be constructed by most water works
operators.
The filter peeker is inserted into the filter during a backwash and moved by hand.
11/03/03 8-12
CLASS I
2.
WATER FILTRATION
The maintenance of the filter bed itself involves a periodic probe check of the media to
8
determine the contours of the pea gravel layer. This should be done twice a year.
To do a probe check, sketch an outline of the filter area. Drain the water from the filter
to be checked. Walk along with wash troughs and thrust a 2-metre length of steel rod
down through the filter media until you feel the bottom of the rod come into contact
with the pea gravel. Check a marker near the top of the rod against the lip of the wash
trough to determine the depth of the gravel at that point. Enter the reading obtained by
the probe at the appropriate point on the sketch of the filter area. Repeat over the
whole bed to obtain an accurate picture of the gravel contour. If undue humping of
gravel is found in any part of the filter, the sand anthracite must be removed from the
area and the pea gravel re-graded and levelled.
3. Bacterial Growth within the Filter Bed - If prechlorination is not practiced, trouble
may be experienced with filter clogging due to bacteria growth within the bed. One
effective method of cleaning up such a bed is by heavy chlorination, using one of the
following methods:
a) Dosing the filter bed directly with a 12% hypochlorite solution;
b) Hooking up the plant chlorination facility to the backwash pump;
and c) Hooking up a hypochlorinator to the backwash pump.
8.14.2 MECHANICAL FAILURE OF FILTER CONTROLS AND EQUIPMENT
A good preventive maintenance program is essential to prevent mechanical failure of filter

controls and equipment. This includes hydraulically or pneumatically operated gate valves,
butterfly valves, sluice gates, rate of flow controllers, surface wash equipment, instruments
for filter operation such as loss of head and rate of flow gauges, as well as the gauges used
for indicating and recording the wash rates.
If you have a full and complete record of past troubles and breakdowns, including the
required repairs, a periodic review of such records will alert you to possible future trouble
spots. Also, keep enough spare parts on hand to limit any downtime resulting from a
breakdown of equipment and have the proper facilities and tools for repairs.
The filter console gauges for loss of head and rate of flow will provide continuous accurate
readings only if they are given periodic calibration checks and maintained in good condition.
No matter how sophisticated the instrumentation, the following checks should be made to
determine their accuracy.
8.15 INSTRUMENT CHECKING AND MAINTENANCE

1. To check the actual loss of head through any filter, obtain a length of polyethylene
tubing, l/4" or 3/8" diameter, pass one end down to the pipe gallery floor from the
filter
11/03/03 8-13
console above, connect the tubing to a centre tap on the filter effluent line and open the
8
top allowing water to rise in tubing. The distance from the level of the water in the
filter to the level of the water in the tube is the actual loss of head across the filter at
that particular moment. If the indication on the filter gauge console does not agree
with this valve (plus or minus the allowable tolerance) the gauge reading is incorrect.
Maintenance is required to correct the situation.
2. To check the actual rate of flow through the filter, use a "Hook Gauge". It is very
accurate. A "Hook Gauge" consists mainly of a supporting member (l/8" x l" scrap
iron or similar) about 48" long to which are fastened two small brackets. On each
bracket is positioned a l/4" x l-l/2" brass machine screw which has been ground to a
needlepoint at one end. The pointed ends of the brass screws are held in the vertical
position by the small brackets and lock nuts. These two "points" on the hook gauge
can be positioned so that the distance between points is exactly 15 cm or 30cm (six
inches or l foot), whichever is preferred.
A stopwatch is used with the hook gauge. In use, the top end of the scrap iron is bent
at right angles and the gauge is lowered into the filter, between any two wash
troughs. To check the actual filter rate, close the filter influent valve leaving the
effluent valve open. Watch the water dropping in the filter and when the water just
"breaks" the top point of your gauge, start the stopwatch.
Stop the watch exactly at the point where the dropping water just "breaks" the bottom
"point" of the gauge. The time taken for the filter to pass either 15 cm or 30cm of
water in a given period is determined accurately. Knowing the filter area, the rate can
be calculated in millions of litres per day (MLD), which is indicated on the console
instrument. A very accurate check is obtained on another aspect of the filter, because a
given volume of water passing through the filter in a given time is measured and
determined. Allowances must be made for the space occupied within the filter by such
accessories as wash water troughs and gully walls, and whether the time is checked
with the water level above the troughs or below them.
3. The operating cylinders on the various valves (influent, effluent, wash and waste)
need periodic checking to replace the gland packing and occasionally to replace the
cup leathers on the piston.
4. The surface wash equipment requires little maintenance except for occasional
cleaning of the jets on the agitator arms. If the filter media is anthracite some fine
grains may become lodged in the jets but it is a simple matter to unscrew these for
cleaning. Even though this is a minor maintenance chore, it should be done
periodically, because the agitator arms will not perform effectively if a number of
jets become clogged. The ball bearings on which the agitator arm rotates give very
little trouble, but should be part of the regular P.M. programs.
11/03/03 8-14
CLASS I
8.16 PRESSURE FILTERS

WATER FILTRATION
8
There is relatively little difference in the design of gravity and pressure filters as far as the
internal components are concerned. There is one very large difference in its operation. A
gravity filter only has a pressure of approximately 2.4m (8 feet) of water on it; the pressure
across the bed of a normal pressure filter can be as high as 415– 480 kpa (60-70 psi.) It is
therefore
possible to drive or push the water through these filters.
Since it is generally not feasible to provide large vessels equivalent to the capacity of the
flocculation and sedimentation chambers of a conventional plant, it therefore becomes quite
difficult to provide both adequate settling and transfer of water from the effluent of the
settling basin to the filters. This transfer, in the case of a pressure filter, requires more
vigorous pumping rates at a higher pressure than on a rapid sand filter.
The pumping process would cause a break up of the floc particles resulting in a much
deeper penetration of the filter and less filter efficiency. The in-line application of
coagulant such as alum is generally not satisfactory, and lends itself to only a very limited
number of water
sources to be treated. Coagulant aids (polyelectrolytes) are a great help when applied to
pressure filters, as they can be used for in-line application. Application is achieved by use of
an in-line flash mixing device and a subsequent rapid floc formation results.
Since the sand bed cannot be seen during the backwash period (and this is one of the main
disadvantages of such a unit from the operator's viewpoint) the best procedure is to
provide a sample stream which can be examined continuously during the backwash and
ensure that the rate of flow will not backwash the filter media out of the unit.
From time to time, however, it is necessary to increase the backwash rate to a point where a
small amount of media is being lost. This determines that the unit is being backwashed at the
maximum possible rate. All these difficulties can be overcome through the installation of
proper controls, so pressure filters of either the vertical or the horizontal type can be used to
good advantage in small installations where gravity filters are too costly.
11/03/03 8-15
CLASS I
8.17 REVIEW
WATER FILTRATION
8
1. List some of the types of common filters with a brief description
of each.
2. What is meant by backwashing and why is it done?
3. Describe the effect of temperature on the filtration process?
4. How can you as an operator determine the head loss across a

filter?
5. Why and when would a facility use pre-treatment

before the filtration process?
11/03/03 8-16
CLASS I IRON AND MANGANESE CONTROL
9
9.0 IRON AND MANGANESE CONTROL
9.1 OBJECTIVES
1. Know why it is important to control iron and manganese;
2. Know three ways to control iron and manganese;
3. Understand how a manganese greensand filter works; and
4. Understand how to operate a manganese greensand filter.
9.2 THE NEED TO CONTROL IRON AND MANGANESE

Ground water, such as that found in Wha Ti, Fort Liard and Nahanni Butte, often contains
iron and manganese. Although usually referenced together, they can be found separately.
Typical concentrations for iron and manganese are 10 ppm and 2 ppm, respectively.
Neither element has any direct adverse health effects for humans. Both are found in
multivitamins; however, iron and manganese in normal drinking water have no nutrient
value. For the water to contain beneficial amounts, the taste of the water would be rather
unpleasant.
Clothes laundered in water containing iron or manganese above certain concentrations often
come out stained. They can also lead to stains on plumbing fixtures such as sinks and toilets.
The biggest problem, however, is that they promote the growth of a group of organisms
called autotrophic bacteria. These bacteria use non-carbon sources such as iron and
manganese for their food. They form thick slime layers inside pipes and storage tanks.
These slime layers can cause their own problems when they become loose and create dirty
water and customer complaints. But the slime layers also consume chlorine and can harbour
pathogenic organisms.
9.3 REGULATORY REQUIREMENT

There is no regulatory requirement for iron and manganese. The Guidelines state an
aesthetic objective of 0.3 mg/l for iron, and 0.05 mg/l for manganese.
11/03/03 9-1
CLASS I
9.4 TREATMENT METHODS

IRON AND MANGANESE CONTROL
9
9.4.1 OXIDATION BY AERATION
Metallic iron, found in water, can be oxidized by aeration to form insoluble ferric hydroxide.
The reaction rate depends on the pH of water. The higher the pH, the shorter the treatment
time. Often, small quantities of lime, sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide are added to
increase the pH.
There are several methods to provide aeration. Either the water being treated is dispersed
into the air, or the air is bubbled through the water. Most commonly, aeration is achieved by
using compressed air, which passes through diffusers in the water creating small bubbles
capable of oxidizing the iron in the water. There are also waterfall or cascade aerators that
are a series of small waterfalls that provide an opportunity for air to contact the water. Spray
aerators are also used, which uses jets of fine spray that provide contact between the air and
water.
Following aeration, the water is passed to a reaction basin. The basin is a usually cylindrical
shaped basin similar to a clarifier. It is present to allow sufficient time for the oxidization
process to occur. Usually, reactions take around 30 to 60 minutes. The basin must be
cleaned regularly to avoid sludge build up that could clog the filters. The basins must be
covered at all times and all vents must be properly screened. An air gap must be present to
avoid contamination resulting from backflow.
After the ferric hydroxide forms in the settling tank, it is removed either by sedimentation or
filtration, where the rest of the water continues throughout the water treatment process.
ADVANTAGES
 No chemicals are usually required, unless pH adjustment is required.
DISADVANTAGES
 Small changes in surface water pH will have a drastic effect on iron removal
efficiency;
 Manganese oxidization efficiency is very low and hence, this treatment method is not
valid where manganese concentrations are high;
 Humidity issues may occur is open aeration is used; and
 Higher costs.
11/03/03 9-2
CLASS I
9.4.2 CHLORINATION
9
Chlorine will oxidize both iron and manganese to their insoluble forms. The higher the
chlorine residual in the water, the faster the reaction is. For typical iron and manganese
removal needs, water is often treated to an initial chlorine residual of 5 to 10 mg/L, then the
insoluble iron and manganese formed is filtered and then finally the water is dechlorinated to
an acceptable residual for domestic use.
Doses beyond 10 mg/L can causes excess concentrations of total trihalomethanes (TTHMs),
which can cause adverse health conditions.
Filtration of the insoluble iron and manganese can be done in the same method as outlined in
the “oxidization by aeration” treatment method. The dechlorination uses a reducing agent
such as sodium bisulphate to remove the excess chlorine.
Usually a reaction basin is added after the dechlorination process in a similar matter done by
the “oxidization by aeration” treatment process to allow for sufficient time for the oxidization
to occur.
ADVANTAGES
 Removes both iron and manganese from the water.
Disadvantages
 Requires additional chemicals with exact dosages; and
 Requires an additional dechlorination step to the water treatment process.
9.4.3 MANGANESE GREENSAND FILTER
A manganese greensand filter is capable of removing both iron and manganese from the
water. A greensand filter is very similar to a regular sand filter except that the granular
material has been treated with potassium permanganate.
The filter can be operated in three modes:
1. Continuous Regeneration,
2. Intermittent Regeneration, and
3. Catalytic Regeneration.
9.4.3.1 Continuous Regeneration
In the continuous regeneration process, chlorine is first added, oxidizing most of the metallic
iron and manganese present in the raw water. Then a slight excess of potassium
permanganate is added to remove the rest of iron and manganese. Finally, the water is
11/03/03 9-3
passed through the Greensand filter where two things occur: (1) the insoluble iron and
9
manganese oxides are filtered and (2) the excess permanganate is reduced to manganese
oxides, regenerating the greensand. Once the head loss is too high through the filter, the
filter is then backwashed.
ADVANTAGES
 Can remove moderate concentrations of manganese and iron in the water.
DISADVANTAGES
 Requires the addition of chlorine and if required, a dechlorination step; and
 Manganese oxidization efficiency is very low and hence, this treatment method is not
valid where manganese concentrations are high.
9.4.3.2 Intermittent Regeneration (IR)
The intermittent regeneration process is suitable where mostly manganese is present, having
very little iron in the raw water. Oxidation occurs directly on the greensand as raw water
flows over it. In this process small amounts of iron are also removed. Lastly, the filter is
backwashed when the head loss becomes too large.
ADVANTAGES
 Suitable for situations where manganese removal is the main treatment requirement;
and
 Does not require chlorine or dechlorination.
DISADVANTAGES
 Cannot effectively treat water with significant iron concentrations; and
 Filter must be backwashed frequently.
9.4.3.3 Catalytic Regeneration
Catalytic Regeneration is suitable where iron and manganese concentrations are small, less
than 1.0mg/L and where the pH is greater than 7.0. Sufficient chlorine is added to the raw
water before the filter to maintain a chlorine residual of 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L. As the water passes
though a special grade of greensand, the chlorine regenerates the greensand and the
manganese is oxidized right on the filter.
11/03/03 9-4
CLASS I
ADVANTAGES
9
 Suitable for situations where iron and manganese concentrations are relatively low
and the pH is above 7.0;
 Longer filter run lengths are observed in comparison with the previous two methods;
 Low chemical operating costs; and
 Low suspended solids in backwash wastes.
DISADVANTAGES
 Cannot treat water with high iron and manganese concentration; and
 Requires a specially refined greensand, often Pyrolox.
9.5 OPERATION OF A MANGANESE GREENSAND FILTER

Most plants use a continuous regeneration greensand filter for iron and manganese removal.
This section will look into the operation of this specific type of greensand filter. Since iron
and manganese removal can often be a fairly expensive process, it is important for the
operator to understand the treatment process as well as how to identify when something goes
wrong or when concentrations are exceeded.
9.5.1 EQUIPMENT
The filter usually consists of 3 different types of layers. One layer on top consists of 45 cm
(18 inches) of anthracite coal, followed by 45 cm of manganese greensand, with 30 cm (12
inches) of graded gravel on the bottom. The greensand filter is different from a conventional
sand filter as the greensand contains much finer sand, having a slower filtering and backwash
rate.
The greensand filters can remove 95% of the iron and manganese in the water if iron
concentrations are below 10 mg/L and manganese concentrations are below 5 mg/L.
However, when these concentrations are exceeded, the efficiency of filtration is reduced and
the frequency of backwashing is increased resulting in an overall decrease in plant
efficiency. In these situations, pre-treatment is often required.
11/03/03 9-5
Figure 9-1 Greensand gravity-feed filter

9
diagram
9.5.2 PROCESS CONTROL
Raw water enters the system and is neutralized, if required, so that the pH remains between
6.2 and 6.8 by adding sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide to the water. Next the water is
injected with chlorine, flash mixed and flocculated for a period of ten minutes in order to
oxidize most of the iron. The amount of chlorine required can be determined by:
Cl2 Required, mg/L = 1 x [Fe] Conc., mg/L
After chlorination, potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is added to complete the oxidation of

any remaining iron and soluble manganese.
KMnO4 Required, mg/L = (0.2 x [Fe] Conc., mg/L) + (2 x [Mn] Conc., mg/L)
If the influent flow to the greensand filter was properly treated, the influent should have a
slight pink colour. As the pretreated water flows through the greensand filter, the
permanganate will be reduced to manganese oxide and regenerate the filter while
removing most of the remaining iron and manganese in the water.
9.5.2.1 pH Control For Manganese
Manganese is often more difficult to remove when compared to iron and H2S. During
commissioning of the Nahanni plant a bench study showed that raw water pH had to be
increased from about 8 to over pH 9 to see some reduction of manganese.
11/03/03 9-6
CLASS I
For your safety

9
Do not allow Potassium Permanganate to come with alcohols, powdered metals
or sulphuric powders. Keep away from open flames and areas of high
heat. Wear gloves, goggles and a surgical mask when working with the
chemical.
9.5.2.2 Backwashing
Backwashing should occur when the head loss reaches about 69 kpa (10 psi.) and the
duration of the backwash should be around 10 to 15 minutes allowing the system to unclog
the settled insoluble iron and manganese oxides trapped in the filter. Filter cracking can
occur which will affect apparent head loss. Filters should be backwashed everyday, but no
less than every 2 days to prevent cracking.
It is very important not to underfeed the amount of permanganate added to the pre-treatment
process or else the greensand filter will lose its oxidative properties. However, if the
potassium permanganate charge is somehow lost in the filter, the operator can regenerate
the greensand manually. The filter must be first shut down. Then, a saturated solution of
potassium permanganate (around 5%) is poured into the filters and left to sit for 24 hours.
After 24 hours, the system is backwashed and restarted. Another way the system can be
recharged without shutting down is by increasing the potassium permanganate dosage until
pink water flows out of the bottom of the greensand filter. When the pink water flows out of
the filter, the filter is recharged and regular doses of potassium permanganate can continue.
The operator should perform iron, manganese, pH and chlorine residual tests on a daily basis
in order to determine if there are any problems in the system.
Remember, the above is only meant as a guide. Specific backwash requirement are site and
equipment specific. Refer to manufacturer specification and procedures as they relate to your
plant.
For your safety
When mixing chemicals, always add chemicals to water
Never add water to chemicals.
11/03/03 9-7
9
9.6 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of a reaction basin following the aeration
process?
2. After chlorine has been added to treat for iron and

manganese, how is the water dechlorinated?
3. How can an operator tell whether enough potassium

permanganate is being fed in a CR greensand
filtration process?
4. How can an operator regenerate the potassium

permanganate in the greensand filter that has lost
its oxidizing ability?
11/03/03 9-8
CLASS I CHLORINATION
10
10.0 CHLORINATION
10.1 OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the purposes and properties of chlorination;
2. Describe chlorine reactions;
3. Calculate the chlorine dose based on demand, residual and break point.
4. Describe other uses for chlorine.
For more information on the basics of chlorination, refer to your Small Systems manual.
10.2 PURPOSE OF CHLORINATION

As stated in Chapter 2, bacteria are found in all raw water sources. Therefore, disinfection is
required to destroy some of the harmful bacteria than can work its way into community
water supplied. The most common and widespread method of disinfection is the addition
chlorine in the treatment process.
The amount of chlorine necessary to obtain a satisfactory reduction of bacteria will vary
greatly with the composition of the raw water and/or the degree of treatment the plant
provides. The selection of the appropriate disinfection procedures is based on the results of
bacteriological tests and other evaluations of the total system.
10.3 SOURCES OF CHLORINE

There are three common sources of chlorine:
 Calcium Hypochlorite;
 Sodium Hypochlorite, also known as liquid bleach; and
 Chlorine gas.
11/03/03 10-1
CLASS I
10.4 PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE

CHLORINATION
10
Table 10-1 Properties of the 3 types of chlorine used in water treatment
Calcium Hypchlorite Sodium Hypochlorite Chlorine Gas

(Powdered HTH) (Liquid Bleach)
Properties HTH is a white powder Sodium hypochlorite or Chlorine gas is greenish-
that is reactive with liquid bleach is a clear or yellow gas with a
powdered metals, acids, yellow liquid that usually sickening odour.
organics (such as skin), comes in 4.5% (Javex) and Stored as a compressed
nitrogenous substances, 12.5% concentrations. gas, it is extremely toxic
alcohols and other Reactive with powdered and corrosive when in
reducing agents. metals, acids, organics, contact with moisture.
HTH is not combustible nitrogenous substances, Highly reactive with
on its own, but can alcohols and soaps. powdered metals, acids,
readily cause fires and Corrosive, especially the hydrocarbons and
explosions as a result of 12.5% bleach. nitrogenous substances.
chemical mixing. Degrades when exposed to Non-combustible on its
Corrosive when exposed temperatures above 21 C.
o own.
to moisture. Non-combustible on its
own.
Method of Added to water to form a Added directly to treatment Injected as a gas and
injection disinfecting solution that stream. dissolved into the treatment
is added to the treatment stream.
stream.
General Wear gloves, goggles, Wear gloves, goggles, Full self-contained NIOSH
Safety apron and particulate apron and mask. approved breathing
mask. apparatus, gloves, goggles
Always add powder to and apron required.
water and never water to Never change gas tanks
the powder. when you are alone.
Never operate a gas
chlorination system unless
properly trained.
Shelf Life 1 year 3 months Indefinite
11/03/03 10-2
CLASS I
10.4.1 CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE

CHLORINATION
10
Calcium Hypochlorite is also known as HTH (High Test Hypochlorite). It is manufactured
in a tablet, liquid, powder or granular form. Over time, HTH will lose its strength. It can lose
up to 10% of its strength in a year.
Should it get wet, it will lose its strength much more rapidly. As it deteriorates it gives off
heat. If it comes in contact with an oily rag or cardboard, a fire could result. HTH must be
kept dry and separate from other materials.
FOR YOUR OWN SAFETY
Water should be first placed in the mixing barrel and then the HTH should be
added. HTH should never be placed in the mixing barrel first and the water
added, to avoid dangerous spraying or spilling of chemicals.
FOR YOUR OWN SAFETY
You must avoid contact with the HTH dust because it turns into an acid when
it gets wet and it will burn your skin and your eyes. If you breathe it in, it will
burn your nasal passages and your lungs. You must wear rubber gloves, a
rubber apron, and nose and eye protection when you are working with the dry
chemical or the mixed solution. There must also be a proper eyewash facility
nearby.
To mix the dry powder for a 1% solution, it is placed into a separate mixing barrel.
The solution should be allowed to sit in the mixing barrel until a white coloured layer forms
on the bottom of the barrel. This is a binding agent used to hold the chlorine in the powder
form. Once the chlorine is in solution, the liquid above the sediment layer is slowly siphoned
into the feed barrel. The sediment left in the mixing barrel should be thrown out because it
will clog the chemical feed pump and the small tubing.
11/03/03 10-3
CLASS I
10.4.2 SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE

CHLORINATION
10
Sodium Hypochlorite is also known as liquid bleach. Two types are available: a high strength
12%; or regular strength 4.5% bleach (Javex or Purex are two trade names) available in any
grocery store. Unlike HTH, bleach can be mixed directly into the mixing barrel without fear
of clogging the pump or the tubing. Sodium hypochlorite deteriorates very rapidly (60 to 90
days), especially when exposed to light, and so it should be stored in a cool, dry, dark area.
FOR YOUR OWN SAFETY
You must wear rubber gloves, a rubber apron, and nose and eye protection
when you are working with sodium hypochlorite.
10.4.3 CHLORINE GAS
Chlorine gas a greenish-yellow with a penetrating and characteristic odour. It is 2½ times

heavier than air. One volume of liquid chlorine, which has an amber colour, equals 450
o
volumes of chlorine gas. At -35 C it has zero vapour pressure. However, as the
o
temperature rises so does the vapour pressure and at 20 C it is 565 kpa (82 psi) gauge
pressure. This characteristic has to be considered when:
 Feeding chlorine gas from a cylinder, or Chlorine gas molecule
 Dealing with a leaking cylinder.
Chlorine has a high coefficient of expansion. For example, a

o o o
temperature rise of 25 C (from -5 C to 20 C) will increase the volume
by approximately 85 per cent. Such an expansion could easily rupture a
cylinder or line if it is full of liquid chlorine. This is the reason for the
regulation that all chlorine containers must not be filled to more than
85% of their volume.
Chlorine by itself is non-flammable and non-explosive, but it will support combustion.
Figure 10-1 Properties of Chlorine
Greenish Yellow Colour

Heavier than Air High Rate
of Expansion Moderately
Soluble in Water
Non-Flammable and Non-Explosive
Supports Combustion at High Temperature
11/03/03 10-4
10
10.4.4 MIXING A 1% SOLUTION OF HYPOCHLORITE
A 1% chlorine solution is made by mixing hypochlorite with water as follows:
Hypochlorite Stock Available Chlorine Amount Stock + water
Bleach (Javex) 4.5% 25 litres + 100 litres
Sodium Hypochlorite 12% 10 litres + 120 litres
Calcium Hypochlorite 74% 2 litres + 130 litres

(or 8 cups in 30 gallons)
Now assuming the demand plus the residual equals 2.0 mg/l, the 1% hypochlorite solution is
injected into the water as the truck is being loaded at the rate of 900 ml per 4540 litres and
then either increased or decreased to produce the correct residual
Why do you want to use a 1% solution for injection? There are four reasons:
1. You do not want water moving too slowly through the tubing or else the tubing will
become clogged and you will have to do additional maintenance;
2. If the hypochlorite solution is too strong, you may have difficulty in controlling the
residual as a very small amount of solution can make a big change in the residual;
3. You want to operate the pump within its operating range; if the hypochlorite solution
is too weak, you will have to pump a lot of solution; this means that you may not be
able to put enough in the truck during the fill cycle to get the residual you want; and
4. You will have to make up solution much more often, which will take you away from
other duties.
From experience, a 1% solution seems to solve all these problems most of the time.
What if you have to add the hypochlorite directly from the bottle to the truck?
If hypochlorite is added directly from the bottle to each truck (make sure you add the
hypochlorite before the truck is filled to ensure good mixing) and further assuming that the
chlorine demand is 1.5 mg/l and you hope to achieve a 0.5 mg/l chlorine residual:
then either increase or decrease amount to produce the correct residual.
11/03/03 10-5
CLASS I
10.4.5 CALCULATING THE CHLORINE DOSE

CHLORINATION
10
Here is the mathematical equation so you can calculate the chlorine dose yourself. This
general equation is the fundamental relationship of the conservation of mass, which means
mass cannot be made or destroyed.
V 1 x C 1 = V 2 x C2
Where: V1 is the volume of liquid chlorine (litres)
C1 is the chlorine concentration of the hypochlorite solution (mg/L)
V2 is the volume of the final solution (for example 4500 litres)
C2 is the chlorine concentration of the final solution (mg/L)
Example 1:
How much HTH powder do you have add to the mixing barrel to make a 1% stock solution?
Answer:
V1 is what amount of HTH you are trying to determine.
C1 is the concentration HTH - 74%.
V2 is the volume of the mixing barrel - 130 litres
C2 is the chlorine concentration of the final solution - 1%
Now you have a value for all but one of the factors in the equation.
Substituting in the general equation we get:
V1 x 74% = 130 litres x 1%
Note that your units are correct on both sides of the equation.
130 Lx1%
V1 =
74%
V1 = 1.75 litres, say 2 litres for ease of measurement
Therefore, mix 2 litres of HTH powder in 130 litres of water to make a 1% chlorine solution.
11/03/03 10-6
CLASS I
10.4.6 CALCULATING THE CHLORINE DEMAND

CHLORINATION
10
Is it important to know the chlorine demand of your water? Yes. A high chlorine demand,
say greater than 5 mg/L is an indication there may be some additional chlorine consuming
material in the water which may lead to either a taste or some other problem. If this is the
case, the Regional Environmental Health Officer should be notified.
The chlorine demand can be determined from the conservation of mass equation.
V1 x C 1 = V2 x C 2
Example: We add 250 millilitres of 4.5% bleach to each 4500 litre water truck. The chlorine
residual is 0.5 mg/L. What is the chlorine demand?
Answer:
V1 is 250 ml which is 0.25 litres
C1 is the 4.5% bleach - recall this is 45,000 mg/L
V2 is the volume of the truck - 4500 litres
C2 is the chlorine demand plus the chlorine residual.
Therefore, C2 is ? mg/L + 0.5 mg/L
Let's put brackets around this value so we don't confuse the + sign with an x sign.
(? mg/L + 0.5 mg/L)
Now substituting in the equation we get:
0.25 litres x 45,000 mg/L = 4500 litres x (? mg/L + 0.5 mg/L)
All the units are correct so we can rearrange the equation to solve for?
0.25L ×
(? mg / L + 0.5mg / L ) =
45,000mg / L
4500L
0.25L × 45,000mg
? mg / L =
/L
4500L
? mg / L = 2.0 mg / L
Therefore, the chlorine demand for our example water is 2.0 mg/L.
11/03/03 10-7
CLASS I
10.5 REACTION OF CHLORINE

CHLORINATION
10
Chlorine is a compound that will react with many other compounds to produce many
different products. These products complicate the process of chlorination because they use
up some of the chlorine and thus reduce the chlorine available for the disinfection process.
Because the number and amount of compounds that complicate the disinfection process
varies from place to place and from time to time, the amount of chlorine that must to be
added is always changing. In addition, it takes a certain amount of time for a complete
reaction of the chlorine with these compounds. The reactions generally proceed as follows:
1. Chlorine first reacts with compounds such as hydrogen sulphide and iron. No
disinfection occurs. This is the Chemical Demand on the figure;
2. As more chlorine enters the solution, it reacts with organic compounds to form
chloro-organic compounds, which have a slight disinfecting action;
Chlorine used in this way, in steps 1) and 2), is called the chlorine demand.
3. Adding more chlorine will react with ammonia and other compounds containing
nitrogen to produce chloramine, which have a disinfecting action which is slow
and requires a long contact time;
Chlorine used by this step, 3), is known as the combined chlorine residual.
4. Adding chlorine, to a certain amount, will destroy the chloramine.
This is called break-point chlorination.
Any excess chlorine added after that is known as free residual chlorine. A graph of these
reactions is shown in Figure 10-2. Chlorine is measured as milligrams per litre (mg/L). To
determine the needed dose of chlorine, the chlorine residual needs to be tested.
To treat water from a source that has been proven to be free of pathogenic organisms, the
minimum free available residual is 0.2 mg/L. It is recommended as a best practice that the
treated water be tested after a contact time of at least 2 hours (although 20 minutes is the
legal requirement.)
For water supplies where it is uncertain whether pathogenic organisms are present of not, the
minimum free available residual should be 0.5 mg/litre following a contact time of at least 20
minutes, however a contact time of a least 2 hours is again suggested as a best practice.
Chlorine residuals in excess of 0.5 mg/L do little to improve disinfection and can cause
unpleasant taste and odour to the water.
In the N.W.T. we use residual chlorine to determine disinfection.
11/03/03 10-8
10
Figure 10-2 Breakpoint Chlorination
Total Residual Chlorine = Combined Residual + Free Available

Residual.
Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand + Total Residual Chlorine.
10.6 OTHER USES OF CHLORINE

While the principal purpose for chlorinating water supplies is disinfection, it serves
other purposes:
 Control of taste and odour problems when free or combined residual chlorination is
practiced. If too little chlorine is added, the taste and odour problems may become
severe; and
 Oxidation of manganese, iron, nitrites, and ammonia; the destruction of phenols; and
the removal of algae and slime growth.
11/03/03 10-9
Nitrogen containing organic impurities normally found in swimming pools, body oils, suntan
10
lotions, perspiration, etc is removed by the oxidative properties chlorine. Paradoxically, it is
this very action that has given rise to a misconception that has caused many people to believe
that
the use of chlorine to sanitize swimming pools and drinking water invariably results in a
strong "chlorine" odour. When such odours are present, they believe "too much" chlorine has
been used.
In fact, the odour is not inevitable and its presence indicates that too little chlorine has been
used rather than too much. This is because the odour is actually due to the incomplete
oxidation of
the nitrogen containing impurities. All of these substances contain proteins that combine to
form chlororganics and chloramines. It is these compounds that cause objectionable odours
and, in
the case of swimming pools, eye irritation. Remaining chlororganics can be removed by
adding chlorine past the breakpoint.
10.7 REVIEW
1. What is a free residual?
2. What is meant by breakpoint chlorination?
3. Besides disinfection, what are some of the other roles of

chlorination?
4. What are some of the concerns of adding too much chlorine?

11/03/03 10-10
CLASS I SAMPLING
11
11.0 SAMPLING
11.1 OBJECTIVES
1. Know how to do bacteriological sampling;
2. Know how to do chemical sampling; and
3. Know why sampling is important.
11.2 TYPES OF SAMPLES – REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES

Errors in sampling can lead to costly and potentially dangerous decisions. Sample volumes
are minute in comparison to the volume of water they are taken to represent. The goal of
representative sampling is to have the one litre sample removed from the 1,000,000 litre
sample site be identical to the 999,999 litres that remain. In practice, the sample may not be a
perfect representation, but its results can be used to make competent, cost effective decisions.
There are two types of samples:
 Grab samples – discrete, depth integrated; and
 Composite samples – time dependent, flow proportional.
There are several factors to consider when taking a representative sample:
 Is the water at the site homogeneous?
 How fast do the conditions change?
 Are there daily or seasonal fluctuations?
11/03/03 11-1
CLASS I SAMPLING
11
Many sites can be sampled according to the following categories:
Table 11-1 Representative Samples
Sample Site Representative Sample Frequency
Deep well Discrete grab Once a year
Shallow well Discrete grab Summer, winter, spring –

more frequently if
influenced by surface water,
Deep lake Depth integrated grab Summer, winter, spring
Shallow lake Discrete grab Summer, winter, spring
Flowing river Discrete grab Monthly, more frequently

during freshet
Treated Drinking Water for Discrete grab As required by the EHO

Compliance
Treated Drinking Water for Discrete grab As required by conditions

Due Diligence and your confidence in and
knowledge of the system.
11.3 BACTERIOLOGICAL SAMPLING

Bacteriological Sampling is done to make sure drinking water is free of harmful bacteria. If
the water is contaminated the Environmental Health Officer (EHO) will issue a “Boil Water”
order to all community residents.
The Environmental Health Officer will help to make sure that your community water supply
is safe. You should discuss your water supply system and sampling program with this key
member of your team as often as you can. He or she sets the number of times that the water
samples
must be collected. For most small communities in the Northwest Territories, the water supply
is sampled and analysed every week. There is also a sampling program for chemical
parameters.
You are responsible as a professional for making sure the sampling is done at your plant. You
may be able to ask someone else, such as the public health nurse to take the water samples
but it is you who is responsible.
For communities with less than 5,000 people water samples should be collected as least
once a week at the following locations:
11/03/03 11-2
CLASS I
Trucked System
SAMPLING
11
 Raw water supply
 Treated water at plant
 Water truck
 Individual holding tank
Piped System
 Raw water supply
 Treated water at plant
 Distribution system as specified by the Environmental Health Officer
In order to get reliable results when taking water samples you must use proper techniques
and be very careful. You do not want the sample to include something other than the water
itself. If it does, it’s possible that the tests will show the water as contaminated, thus you
must wash and dry your hands before touching the bottle. Even though you have washed
your hands, there still may be bacteria present. Once you have removed the bottle cap do
not
touch the mouth or inside edges of the bottle and do not let the surface of the bottle cap touch
anything. If it touches something, this small amount of contamination could cause an error in
the test.
If contamination is found in the water you should contact the Environmental Health Officer,
(even if error is suspected). The Environmental Health Officer will issue a “Boil Water
Order” until new samples can be taken to prove the water is safe. A Boil Water Order is a
very serious event that can cause a lot of embarrassment for the community if issued as a
result of an error.
There are seven important parts to the process of sampling.
1. Wash your hands. You could, without even knowing, contaminate the water sample.
2. Put on a new pair of disposable latex surgical gloves. Make sure they are the
powderless kind.
3. Take the sample at the time called for. For example, chlorine residual must be taken
after at least 20 minutes has passed to ensure a minimum contact time. If you take the
sample too soon, you will get an incorrect result, and you could end up putting too
much chlorine into the water.
4. Use the correct sample bottle. The bottles must be sterile. The bottle you should use
should contain a solution of sodium thiosulphate which will neutralize the effects of
11/03/03 11-3
CLASS I SAMPLING
the chlorine. If chlorine remains in the solution, it will continue to kill bacteria and
11
the sample will give a false reading. DO NOT rinse the bottle.
5. If the samples are from a tap, the tap should be run for at least two minutes before
the sample is taken to flush water that may have been standing for a long time from
the pipes. The bottle cap is removed just before the sample is taken and replaced
immediately after. The bottle is held under the tap and slowly filled until the level
almost reaches the top. Do not over fill the bottle; maintain a small air space.
A sample can be taken from one of two different sources and the sampling procedure
is different for each one: if the sample is from a lake, a river, or a reservoir, the bottle
is held below the surface until it is almost full. The cap is replaced to leave a small air
space. Do not hold the bottle under the water with your hand. The bottle should be
attached to a stiff copper wire. When taking bacteriological samples the wire can be
heated with a flame to ensure that it is sterile.
6. Complete a sampling record form for each sample bottle and make sure that the bottle
and the form are cross-referenced or even tied together. It is important to know where
each and every sample came from.
Contact your Environmental Health Officer for details on

sample points and sampling information for your
community.
7. Ship the sample to the laboratory in the approved container with ice packs to ensure a
constant, cool temperature. It must arrive at the lab and the test started within 24
hours for the results to be meaningful. Sometimes samples are simply returned to the
nursing station. Each community is different so make sure you know what to do with
the sample before it is collected.
Specific procedures for sampling should be confirmed with

your local Environmental Health Officer. The above
procedures are meant as a guide and are not meant to
supersede any present or future changes in sampling
procedures.
For your safety
Wash your hands before and after doing any bacteriological testing. Gloves
should be worn at all times with doing the test. Ensure that you don’t touch
any part of your face while doing the tests.
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CLASS I
11.4 CHEMICAL SAMPLING

SAMPLING
11
Chemical samples are supposed to be taken annually until there are three consistent years of
data with no exceedances, at which point sampling can be done once every two years and
confirmed with your EHO. Water samples are normally taken of the untreated water, and the
treated water.
The treated water is taken because the chemicals used in the treatment process can form with
compounds in the water to make undesirable chemicals. Or, water treatment chemicals can
leave residuals (such as too much aluminum) in the finished water above desirable levels.
Samples are taken in much the same way as for bacteriological samples except the 24 hour
limit is not required for most parameters. Because this type of sampling is not done
routinely, detailed sampling instructions usually come with the sample bottles. Do not
take any samples until you have read the instructions.
11.4.1 LABORATORY REQUIREMENTS
Not all laboratories use identical analytical methods. Therefore, each laboratory will issue
instructions on how which type of sample bottle to use, how to preserve the sample if
required, and how to store and ship the sample. Before taking any sample, call the lab you
intend to use for instructions.
Many samples must be kept cold. The laboratory should provide ice packs with their coolers.
11.5 REVIEW
1. Why do you wash your hands before taking a water sample?
2. What differences are there between sampling from a

tap and sampling from a river?
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CLASS I RECORDS
12
12.0 RECORDS
12.1 OBJECTIVES
The trainee will be able to recall the following.
1. The main reasons for maintaining plant records.
2. The required entries that should be recorded on the daily operating sheets.
3. The information recorded in the maintenance log book.
4. Information, which can be obtained by an analysis of:
a) Daily operating sheets;
and b) Maintenance Log Book.
12.2 PURPOSE
Obtaining and recording information is not an end in itself. Process control test results,
together with such data as flow rates, power consumption, quantity of chemicals used, hours
of pump operation, recorded in an understandable (and easy to use) form must be analysed so
that the present and future operating requirements can be met.
Records provide the means of ensuring proper maintenance schedules are adhered to.
They provide a basis for justifying plant expansions and provide the information by
which design changes can be instituted.
Notwithstanding the overall importance of records, only those that can be useful should be
maintained. Records for records sake means a waste of time and labour to the detriment of
some more important task.
The main purposes for the establishment and maintenance of a system of records are as follows.
1. Assist the operator in solving plant problems.

2. Provide evidence that the plant is meeting the water quality objectives (due diligence).
3. Provide the basis for handling complaints.
4. Determine equipment, plant and unit process performance standards.
5. Plan equipment replacement schedules, design changes and plant expansions.
6. Establish a cost base.
11/03/03 12-1
CLASS I
12.3 RECORD SYSTEMS

RECORDS
12
Record systems must be set up with two objectives in mind. Firstly, it must be as simple as
possible, the form and extent of records being carefully planned. Secondly, a procedure must
be established to ensure continuity of the desired records.
Records should be permanent, with entries made in ink or indelible pencil. Ordinary lead
pencil notations smudge easily or can be altered. Once a record has been made, it should be
filed in such a manner that it can be easily retrieved.
12.3.1 PLANT OPERATIONAL RECORDS
The data which is recorded at an installation will be determined by the type of treatment
plant, the volume of water treated and the kind of installations tied in with the treatment
plant.
Appropriate record sheets can often be found in O&M Manuals and GNWT’s Maintenance
Management Operation System that should be provided at your
plant. Records of treatment plant operation may include information
on:
 Filter runs;
 Wash water used;
 Pumps in operation;
 Chemical dosage including chlorination rates;
 Condition of raw and treated water;
 Flows;
 Power consumption;
 Results of laboratory tests; and
 Amount of chemicals used.
12.3.2 SOURCE RECORDS
Records should also be maintained for the water source(s). If it is a surface source,
information on the following items should be maintained:
 Raw water temperature;
 Raw water quality (turbidity, colour, taste & odour);

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CLASS I
 Raw water quantity used; and

RECORDS
12
 Level of water in river, stream or lake.
If the source is groundwater, information recorded should include:
 Raw water temperature;
 Raw water quality;
 Well logs;
 Pumping intervals;
 Static levels;
 Drawdown levels;
 Rate of replenishment; and
 Quantity of water used.
12.3.3 ACCOUNTING RECORDS
All accounting records may not come under the jurisdiction of the plant operator, but
information that includes inventory control, costs of maintenance and time or payroll data
does. The payroll records are highly important to the operator. If they are not accurate, and
are not submitted to central accounting on time, he will receive complaints.
With the development of computer accounting, many of the major accounting records are
maintained electronically. Later, they can be used for billing procedures and collection
data.
12.4 MAINTENANCE LOG BOOK

Records should be kept in a ring binder logbook. Each piece of equipment has a separate page
in this book, with the following information recorded.
1. Work done.
2. Time spent.
3. Costs for any piece of equipment.
The accuracy, usefulness and reliability of the maintenance system depend upon
the conscientious completion of this log book.
Information which can be obtained by analyses of records in a log book:
11/03/03 12-3
CLASS I
 Comparison of existing equipment;

RECORDS
12
 Major equipment faults and problems;
 Evaluation of the maintenance system;
 Evaluation of maintenance and reliability of equipment as a basis for selection

of future equipment;
 Evaluation and comparison of maintenance costs for equipment;
 Measures of performance and effectiveness of equipment and maintenance; and
 Information for discussions with suppliers and the provision of "feedback".
Any preventive maintenance system is only a part of the overall maintenance function; its
application must be reviewed with this in mind. An evaluation of the success or deficiencies
of the preventive maintenance scheme can be obtained only if total maintenance data is
recorded.
The costs of preventive maintenance and breakdown maintenance must somehow be

minimized. To achieve this, complete maintenance data must be available.
There is no magical mathematical formula to establish how much maintenance should be

done. Whenever treatment is incomplete, the question to be asked is "has enough
maintenance been done to prevent equipment failure?"
Not only does poor service annoy the consumer, but all water treatment operators and
maintenance personnel have a moral responsibility to ensure that the total environment,
water quality and service are not impaired.
12.5 DAILY LOG BOOK

Another useful record is the diary or daily log book. Many miscellaneous incidents in plant
operation do not fit into the regular records, but they should be kept in some type of
permanent form and might include:
 Numerical data and measurements;
 Maintenance items, replacement and repairs;
 Start-ups;
 Trouble, and various methods tried for correction, in start-ups or treatment;
 Complaints from customers;
 Visits by officials and their comments;
11/03/03 12-4
CLASS I

RECORDS
Reports from other agencies (such as the Department of Health and Social Services)
12
on inspections and tests; and
 Similar facts that an operator always appreciates having on hand.
This information may be quickly referred to if the daily summary sheet of operation contains
a cross-reference. Knowledge of the date of an occurrence, even without further detail, is
often helpful.
The records you keep will depend on the type of plant you operate, the amount and category
of information you need to answer enquiries, and any information that will help you to
operate the plant efficiently and economically.
Remember that the most important concepts in record

keeping are accuracy and continuity. Plant records and log
books are your proof of the work that you do. The more
accurate information you record in them, the better you will
be able to diagnose and deal with problems arising at your
plant. Not only that, but your records and logs are legal
documents and are your proof that you are doing your job
properly.
The following three examples (Figures 12-1, 12-2 and 12-3) are of typical log sheets that
where extracted from a typical plant O&M manual. The first example is a typical log sheet
for use in chemical mixing and dosing. The second example is a chemical quality sample log
sheet used to monitor product water quality. Your logs sheets will most likely be similar, but
different nonetheless.
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CLASS I RECORDS
12
11/03/03 12-6
CLASS I RECORDS
12
11/03/03 12-7
CLASS I RECORDS
12
11/03/03 12-8
CLASS I RECORDS
12
12.6 REVIEW
1. What are the main reasons for maintaining plant records?
2. What are the required entries on daily operating sheets?
3. What information is recorded in a maintenance log book?
11/03/03 12-9
CLASS I SAFETY
13
13.0 SAFETY
13.1 OBJECTIVES
1. Name three personal hazards common to treatment plants;
2. Recall the safety measures to follow when working in or around:
a) Wet Wells;
b) Chlorine Buildings;
c) The Laboratory; and
d) Plant and equipment during servicing.
13.2 INTRODUCTION
The dangers associated with plant operations emphasize the need for safety practices.
Physical injuries and body infections are a continuous threat and occur with regularity.
Explosions and asphyxiation from gases or oxygen deficiency do occur. Although rare in
the North,
country-wide such accidents happen daily.
Water treatment plant occupational hazards may be largely avoided by following safe
practices and the use of safety equipment. The dangers are many and carelessness happens
all too frequently until an accident happens. Then it is too late.
It is the responsibility of supervisors to get to know the hazards associated with plant
maintenance and operation and to take steps to avoid them. Accident prevention is the result
of thoughtfulness and the application of a few basic principles and knowledge of the hazards
involved.
It has been said that the ABC of accident prevention is "Always Be Careful". One must
learn how to be careful and what to avoid.
13.3 WORKERS COMPENSATION BOARD

With safety, the ultimate requirements and regulations come from the Workers
Compensation Board (WCB) of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Know the
regulations as applicable to your job and employ them in your everyday work. The WCB
maintains a vast library of Operational Health and Safety manuals, which are at your
disposal. The information on how to retrieve these manuals can be found on their website
which is included in Addendum F.
11/03/03 13-1
CLASS I
13.4 CONFINED SPACES

SAFETY
13
A space is strictly defined by the NWT’s Safety Act as a “bin, pipeline, pit, sewer, silo, tank,
tunnel, utilities vault, vat, vessel or other enclosed or partially enclosed space having
restricted access and egress and which, owing to its design, construction, location,
atmosphere, the materials or substances in it or other conditions, is or may become
immediately dangerous to the life of health of a worker required to enter it”.
Confined spaces can be very dangerous areas in which to work and therefore, special training
and certification is required that is separate to this course. You cannot work in a confined
space unless the oxygen content is more than 18% under normal atmospheric pressure and
the area is free of respiratory contaminants, unless some sort of WCB approved respiratory
device is provided. Atmospheric tests must be done in advance to entering the space. In
addition, proper rescuer equipment must be available as well as another person in order to
assist you if required.
For more information on working in confined spaces as applicable to water treatment, consult
with the WCB and the NWT’s Safety Act.
You cannot work in a confined space unless you are

properly trained to do so and have assured the
necessary safety measures to work safety.
13.5 HAZARDS
The overall dangers of accidents are much the same whether in manholes, pumping stations
or treatment plants. These result from:
1. Body infections;
2. Physical injuries; and
3. Dangerous noxious gases or vapours, oxygen deficiencies and hazardous chemicals.
13.6 BODY INFECTION

Workers in treatment plants are exposed to the hazards of water-borne diseases, including
typhoid fever, amoebic dysentery, infectious jaundice and other intestinal infections.
Tetanus and skin infections must also be guarded against. Typhoid and tetanus
inoculations are recommended. These may be obtained free of charge from local Health
Officers.
A majority of infections reach the body by way of the mouth, nose, eyes and ears. Therefore,
washing your hands is a must before eating or smoking. Wear protection gloves where
possible.
11/03/03 13-2
CLASS I SAFETY
This hazard to plant personnel, although very real and ever present can be largely reduced by the
13
operator himself by following a few basic rules of personal hygiene. A few of these self
applied rules are as follows.
1. Never eat your lunch or put anything into your mouth without first washing your hands.
2. Refrain from smoking while working in open tanks, on pumps, or cleaning out grit
channels, etc. Remember you inhale or ingest the filth that collects on the cigarette
from dirty hands. Save your smoking time for lunch hours or at home.
3. A good policy is "never put your hands above your collar when working on
plant equipment".
4. Rubber or rubberized cotton gloves, rubber boots and coveralls are designed for
body protection against dampness and contact with dirt. Wear them at all times
when working in tanks, etc.
5. Rubberized or rain suits can be worn in very wet or dirty places and can be washed
off with a hose and brush, the same as rubber boots.
6. Always wear your rubber boots when working in tanks, washing down etc., don't
wear your street shoes.
7. Don't wear your rubber boots or coveralls in your car or at home. You could bring
more home with you than you think.
8. Always wear rubber or plastic coated gloves when cleaning out pumps, handling
hoses, etc.
9. Don't just wash your hands before going home, wash your face too, there is as much of
your face to carry germs as there is of your hands. Soaps that don’t need to be rinsed
off are also available, if you find they are more convenient.
10. Wear a hat when working around sludge tanks, cleaning out grit and other
channels, don't go home with your head resembling a mop that just wiped up the
floor around a cleaned out pump.
11. Keep your fingernails cut short and clean, they are excellent carrying places for dirt
and germs.
13.7 PHYSICAL INJURIES – FIRST AID

Except for minor injuries, wounds should be treated by a doctor and reported for possible
Workers’ Compensation. Service trucks and plants must have first aid kits. It is
recommended that all plant personnel should receive accredited first aid instruction.
11/03/03 13-3
CLASS I SAFETY
It is a WCB regulation that any plant having five (5) or more people working as a group on any
13
shift, one of them is required to be certified in first aid. Remember, no cut or scratch is
too minor to receive attention.
13.8 THE PLANT SAFETY PROGRAM

Before starting a safety program, the full co-operation and active support of management is
needed. One person in the utility organization must be responsible for the program. In a
small water works system, that person may be the superintendent, while in a larger
organization, another person who can devote part or full time to the job can be appointed.
The next step in setting up the program is to provide for:
1. Keeping injury records;
2. Identification and location of the hazards;
3. Making equipment, plant arrangements and working methods safe;
4. Getting employees interested in safety; and
5. Controlling work habits
13.8.1 INJURY RECORDS
The keeping of injury records is basic to a safety program. With complete records, the
program is given direction and is sure of success. The records should be kept brief but must
contain all pertinent data. The forms should cover such items as:
 Accident report;
 Description of accident;
 Physician's statement;
 Corrective action taken;
 Accident analysis chart; and
 The names of all the people involved in the accident and who performed first aid.
13.8.2 LOCATING THE HAZARDS
The person responsible for the safety program should be constantly on the alert for hazards
which may cause an injury to an employee. One of the best methods of attacking this problem
is
11/03/03 13-4
CLASS I SAFETY
to search the records for the conditions and situations that have produced injuries. Records like
13
this show the need for a corrective program.
Many other sources of information on hazardous conditions are available. These include
safety manuals, insurance company brochures, etc. They should be used freely and
frequently.
13.8.3 EQUIPMENT, PLANT ARRANGEMENTS, WORKING METHODS
Nothing prevents an accident as effectively as the elimination of the cause. To preach safety
while permitting unsafe conditions will discourage the cooperation required from
employees. Only when safety is integrated with the job are workers convinced accidents will
be prevented.
13.8.4 PROTECTIVE SAFETY EQUIPMENT
The need for protective safety equipment in an accident prevention program has proven its
value many times; the program cannot be successful if any phase of accident prevention is
overlooked.
Use safety equipment as was it meant to be used. This should be compulsory during
the performance of hazardous jobs.
Protect eyes and face when there is any possibility of injuries from hand tools, power
tools, welding equipment, etc.
Protect feet with safety shoes to safeguard against injuries while breaking pavements,
tamping trenches, handling materials, etc.
Protect head (with hard hats) to prevent serious injuries in construction, excavation or
electrical work.
Protect hands (with gloves) to prevent injuries from occurring when handling materials,
sharp objects, chemicals or electrical equipment.
Use air packs when hazards such as chlorine, painting or dusty areas
exist. Prevent accidents due to falls by using safety belts, scaffolds, etc.
Be aware of and follow the WCB Safety Regulations as they apply to protective equipment.
13.9 GENERAL PLANT SAFETY

When working at the plant, observe the following common sense rules.
 Keep walkways clear of loose objects such as pails, shovels, loose rope, etc.
 Wipe up grease and oil immediately; salt or sand icy walks.

11/03/03 13-5
CLASS I
 Pick up all tools, clean them and return them to their storage area.
SAFETY
13
 When it is necessary to use tools in an empty tank or manhole, etc., lower them in a
pail on a rope and remove them in the same way brooms and shovels can also be
transported by rope. Do not attempt to climb up and down ladders with your hands
full of tools. Regulations for confined spaces should be followed as applicable.
 Do not overload yourself when using stairways. Keep your load small enough to be
able to see over it. Always keep one hand free to use the hand-rail.
 Do not try to climb up or down a ladder or over a railing when handling a hose
under pressure.
 Always wear hip wader rubber boots with good treaded soles when washing down
the floor of any tank. Do not wear rubber boots with worn soles and heels. Again,
regulations for confined spaces should be followed as applicable.
 Always wear the rubber clothing provided when working in a narrow or

confined passage where grit or sludge accumulates.
 Always wear rubber or plastic coated, waterproof gloves when cleaning

pumps, handling hoses, removing grit or sludge, etc.
 When it is necessary to use an extension ladder to enter any empty tank, use the
collector arms in the clarifiers to backstop the ladder legs. In an aeration tank, lash
the ladder. Enter the tank from a walkway (not from a narrow dividing wall) and
always lash the ladder to a hand-rail.
 Always wear hard hats when working below ground level (in tanks, manholes, etc.)
or under scaffolding. Again, regulations for confined spaces should be followed as
applicable.
 Maintain signs identifying particularly hazardous areas and the location of first
aid supplies.
 Do not hang clothes on electrical disconnect handles, light switches or control

panel knobs.
 Replace all manhole covers and trap doors to wells. Close after using. If it is
necessary to leave them open, protect them with guard-rails.
 Use the proper tool when removing or replacing manhole covers. Do not attempt
to move or close a manhole cover with your hands.
 Do not pull up grit-filled pails by hands only when removing from tanks or wet wells.
Use rope with an "A" frame and pulley or some other type of support with a pulley.
Be sure the support and pulley are fastened firmly to prevent them from toppling
over during use.
11/03/03 13-6
CLASS I

SAFETY
Always wear a safety belt with a short rope and a safety snap when leaning out through
13
the railings over any tank (or cleaning out spray nozzles, etc.)
 Be very careful during repair work on fuel systems of gasoline engines. Close the
shutoff valve from the tank and be sure there is adequate ventilation while draining
the fuel system.
 Check the ventilation of any enclosed or underground areas when gasoline

operated pumps are to be used.
 Do not refill a gas engine when in operation or while still hot. Lock out engine
before cleaning out pump unit.
13.9.1 BUILDING MAINTENANCE
Periodic inspections are necessary to eliminate hazards (fire safeguards, etc.). Suggested
repairs for safety should receive immediate attention. Floors, hallways, and stairways should
always be well lit, clean, orderly and free from oil, dirt and debris. Immediate repairs of
hazardous electrical outlets and fixtures should be routine. Adequate sanitary facilities for
employees must be provided. Hand-rails on steps and stairways should always be provided
and used. Good housekeeping must be maintained.
13.9.2 HAND TOOLS
Hand tools are the cause of many accidents and injuries when improperly used and in
unsafe condition. Therefore, use the right tool for the right job in the right way.
Use protective safety equipment where there is a job hazard. Keep the work area clear of
hazards, with plenty of working space for solid footing. Tools should be in good condition
and used for the purpose for which they were intended.
13.9.3 PORTABLE AND POWER TOOLS
All equipment should be grounded. Check wiring and equipment regularly for defects. Be
very careful when using equipment in wet areas. Use protective safety equipment when
operating grinders, buffers, or other tools when there is danger of flying material.
13.9.4 TOOLS AND MACHINES
Use protective equipment when operating power equipment if there is any chance of flying
objects or other injuries. Inspect all tools and equipment for safe operation. Necessary repairs
or replacements should be made immediately. Repair power tools and machinery only when
the equipment is turned off.
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CLASS I
13.9.5 WELDING
SAFETY
13
Use the proper protective equipment at all times. Check for fire hazards before cutting or
welding in areas of inflammable or explosive mixtures. Only authorized personnel should
operate welding equipment. Occupational Health & Safety regulations require a 2 3/4 lb.
fire extinguisher be fastened to the welding truck.
13.9.6 INSPECTIONS OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Periodic inspections should be made of tools and equipment so that those that are broken or
worn out may be replaced. Report worn or broken equipment and be sure they are replaced
or repaired as soon as possible.
13.9.7 LADDERS
Ladders should be inspected periodically and maintained in good order. Use safety belts
when awkward positions are necessary for the work. Do not use metal ladders for electrical
work.
13.9.8 LIFTING
Always lift with the leg muscles instead of the back and be sure your footing is secure. Bend
your knees and keep your back straight. Don't turn or twist your body when lifting. Get help
if load is too heavy or awkward to handle. Use a mechanical device for lifting wherever
possible.
13.9.9 SANITATION
Washrooms, toilets, locker rooms, drinking fountains and showers that are clean, ventilated
and adequately built are good for employee morale. Clean drinking water and paper cups
should be available at each plant, especially if the employees are exposed to skin irritant
materials.
13.9.10 STOREROOMS
Good housekeeping must be maintained at all times. Space should be well arranged to
permit proper storage, handling and movement of materials. Inspections should be made
regularly for fire hazards. Fire extinguishers should be in good order and easily accessible.
13.9.11 WORKING AREA
A safe working area must be provided for efficient work. In the field, traffic should be
controlled by the use of traffic cones, barricades, flags, etc., to protect the workmen as well
as the public. In the material yard and storerooms, good housekeeping and properly planned
storage and work areas must be provided for safe working practices. Shops, plants and
offices should be planned for the most efficient production.
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CLASS I
13.9.12 TRUCKS AND EQUIPMENT

SAFETY
13
Routine inspections of trucks and equipment should be made. Any need for repairs should
be reported and acted on as soon as possible. Only qualified and licensed operators should
be permitted to use and operate vehicles and equipment. Never permit riders on trucks or
other mobile equipment. Check electrical and any other hazards constantly when moving
heavy equipment. All trucks should be equipped with first aid kits, fire extinguishers, and
flares.
13.9.13 BARRICADES AND TRAFFIC CONTROL
An adequate and safe work area must be protected. Sufficient traffic cones and
barricades should always be carried by crews assigned to construction or maintenance
work in streets.
Paint barricades bright, visible colours and keep them in good condition. Be sure warning
signs, flags, flares are adequate and in positions where they can be easily seen.
13.10 EQUIPMENT SERVICING

When servicing plant and equipment:
1. DO NOT grease or oil or attempt to service any machinery while it is in operation.

Pumps on automatic control must be locked out and key carried by the operator
during servicing.
2. DO NOT make any adjustments to operating machinery while alone. If it is necessary

to run the unit to adjust it, a second person must be present and be beside the stop and
go switch.
3. DO NOT work around electrical panels, disconnects or switches alone.
4. DO NOT enter any crawl space under flooring for any purpose until the area has
been ventilated. A second person should be present. Regulations for confined
spaces apply here.
5. DO NOT service pumps and shafts in the dry wells of pumping stations, and in
plants where the pumps and shafts are less than three feet apart, without shutting off
all pumps and locking them out.
6. DO NOT under any circumstances, attempt to grease or service pump shafting while
standing on beams, piping, loose planks, guard rails, or by leaning out; over or
through guard rails. If a ladder must be used, then a second person must be present to
hold the ladder steady and to provide any other assistance.
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CLASS I
13.11 PRECAUTIONS FOR ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE

SAFETY
13
1. Plan safety into each job. Orderliness and good housekeeping are essential for
your safety and the safety of others.
2. Each employee shall be qualified both in experience and general knowledge to

perform the particular electrical work, which he is assigned. Outside contractor may
have to be called in if not qualified.
3. Study the job carefully to determine all of the hazards present and to see that all
necessary safeguards and safety devices are provided for safe working
conditions.
4. Examine all safety devices before they are used to ensure that they are in
good condition.
5. In all cases where work is being performed on or close to live conductors or

equipment, at least two men shall work together. When it is necessary for one to
leave, the other workman shall not continue the work until the first man returns.
6. Consider the results of each action. There is no reason for you to take chances that
will endanger yourself and others.
7. Satisfy yourself that you are working under safe conditions. The care exercised by
others can not be relied upon.
8. Wear close fitting clothing, keep sleeves rolled down, avoid wearing
unnecessary articles while working on or close to live circuits or apparatus.
9. Use only approved types of rubber or leather gloves.
10. Protect yourself by placing an insulated medium between you and ground or
grounded apparatus to keep any part of your body from providing a path for
electrical current when working on conductors or apparatus that may be energized.
11. Use rubber mats when working on any electrical control panel or switch and
disconnect boxes.
12. Open and close switches completely with a firm positive motion. Switches in a
partly open position may arc or cause a flash-over with damaging results to the
switch and possible injuries to the operator.
13. Open switches fully before removing fuses. To remove a fuse from a circuit carrying
a current without opening the switch is particularly hazardous. Use an approved
low-voltage fuse puller to remove fuses on a circuit of less than 500 volts (where no
switch is provided) whether a disconnect is provided or not. Remove fuses by
breaking contact with the hot side of the circuit first. Use the reverse procedure when
replacing fuses. Insert the fuse in the cold terminal first.
11/03/03 13-10
CLASS I
14.
SAFETY
Do not stand directly in front of panel to remove fuses or shut off disconnects.
13
15. Shut off the power when examining or making repairs or alterations on light and
power circuits. When this is impractical Head Office must be contacted for further
instructions before proceeding with the work.
16. Consider all electrical circuits to be dangerous. Treat dead circuits as though they
were alive. This may prevent an accident as the circuit may be closed through an
error of some other person.
17. Exercise extreme care when required to locate troubles on a series lamp circuit,
before repairs are made make sure the power is cut off.
18. Lock or block open the control devices, open disconnect switches or remove fuses
before examining, repairing or working on power circuits. After these precautions
have been taken, attach tie-up tags worded "WORKERS ARE WORKING ON
LINE." The tag shall bear the name of the workman. Tie-up tags shall remain on the
opened devices until removed by the workman whose name appears on the tag. If the
workman leaves without removing his tag, it may be removed only on authorization
of Head Office.
19. Before working on line circuits at a point remote from the control switch, which
has been tagged, it is recommended that the conductors be grounded at a point on
the line between the switch and the work station.
20. Make a complete check of the circuit before applying power for the first time. This is
to be done by a qualified man in charge of the-repairs, all other workmen to stand off
at a safe distance.
13.12 FIRE PROTECTION

Good housekeeping is the basis for fire prevention. Inspections should be made periodically
and correction of fire hazards should be made as soon as possible. Consult local fire
departments for recommendations. Operators should know the fire suppression methods
needed to treat the
three types of fires.
Each operator should have first hand knowledge of fire extinguisher, its ABC rating point
of contact and time of operation.
A CO2 fire extinguisher can only be used in an open area where the chance of using up the
local oxygen is minimal. Never grab the horn of the extinguisher to direct the CO2. The gas
being expelled will freeze your hand to the horn causing serious injury. There is a handle
provided.
Do not direct the CO2 at anyone. To fight the fire you must approach the fire from upwind,
pull the pin and aim directly on the burning area.
11/03/03 13-11
CLASS I
Table 13-1 Types of Fires and Method of Extinguishment

SAFETY
13
Type of fire Symbol Types of extinguishers to use
Class A: ABC Fire Extinguisher
Ordinary combustible materials, Water
such as wood, cloth, paper, etc.
Class B: ABC Fire Extinguisher

Flammable liquids, such as oil, BC dry chemical
gasoline, kerosene, etc. Carbon dioxide
Class C: ABC Fire Extinguisher

Presence of energized electrical BC dry chemical
circuits (e.g., electronic motors, Carbon dioxide
electrical wiring, etc.)
Class D: Special Class D fire extinguisher

Fires resulting from combustible containing sodium chloride or
metals such as magnesium, copper, also referred to as a Metal-X
sodium and potassium. extinguisher.
Note: Never use a Class D fire

extinguisher of an A, B or C fire.
Table 13-2 Application Times for CO2 Fire Extinguishers

2
Type Application Time Max Area (ft ) Type of Fire
2½ lb. 10s ± 2s 2 B, C
5 lb. 14s ± 2s 4 B, C
10 lb. 14s ± 3s 6 B, C
15 lb. 25s ± 4s 8 B, C
20 lb. 30s ± 4s 8 B, C
Note: B, C indicates electrical, gas, oil type fires. Weight indicated refers
to contents only.
11/03/03 13-12
CLASS I SAFETY
A Dry Chemical extinguisher can be used in any area. Approach from upwind and pull the pin,
13
you do not have to stand as close to the fire as with CO2. Dry Chemical will put a blanket
of chemical over the fire, smothering it.
Note:
1. All extinguishers must be refilled after using no matter what amount has been used.
2. All extinguishers must be hydrostatically tested every five years.
13.13 CHEMICAL HANDLING AND STORAGE

The Occupational Health and Safety Act states that the employer is responsible for
providing the necessary protective equipment and clothing for handling dangerous
materials. It is the responsibility of the employee, both to his employer and to himself, to
use and maintain them.
Eyewash fountains and deluge showers must be located within 4.6m (15ft) of the entrance
to any chemical handling area. Plenty of water should be available for washing up after
handling chemicals. Protective clothing should be washed after use.
All areas where solvents or other compounds are used and stored must be well ventilated.
The working area must be designed and constructed for the safety and convenience of the
worker and for his efficient production. The ventilation should be by mechanical means
with the air intake drawing air from the outside. In rooms where lime and other dry types of
chemicals are used, install dust accumulators in the air discharge pipe.
Operate exhaust fans when handling any chemical whether liquid or dry.
Wear rubber boots, apron, gloves and eye shield or goggles when handling liquids. Wear
nose and mouth filter masks and goggles when handling dry chemicals.
13.14 LABORATORY
1. A thorough knowledge of first aid for dealing with lab accidents is essential. Know
the relevant sections of the antidote chart.
2. Wear protective clothing.
3. Practice good housekeeping. Keep all unnecessary equipment out of working areas.
Use a separate marked container for broken glass.
4. Areas around sinks and taps should be kept clear so that chemicals spilled on
one's hands or person can be washed off quickly.
5. Wipe up all spills immediately.
11/03/03 13-13
CLASS I
6.
SAFETY
All reagent bottles must be clearly labelled so they can be identified. The date when the
13
reagent was made up, or received, should be on the label since some
chemicals, particularly nitrogen compounds, become unstable with age.
7. When diluting concentrated acids or bases, always add slowly to the water allowing
time to cool. Use only heat resistant (Pyrex) glassware. When diluting sulphuric acid
or when making up a solution of sodium hydroxide, cool the solution in a water bath.
8. Chromic acid cleaning solution is a mixture of sodium or potassium dichromate in

concentrated sulphuric acid. It dehydrates and oxidizes most organic matter,
including clothing. TREAT IT WITH CARE!
9. Use water as a lubricant when making glass to hose connections. For vinyl tubing,
hot water can be used to make the plastic more pliable. Gloves should be worn
when making hose connections to glass tubing.
10. Suction bulbs should be used on all pipettes. A valved type sold as a "PROPIPET"
will save fumbling. NEVER USE YOUR MOUTH TO PIPETTE!
11. Combining chemicals found in the laboratory without knowing how they will react
can produce unexpected and unpleasant results.
12. When disposing of any chemical in the sink, dilute with plenty of water.
13. Bottles of hazardous liquids should be stored near floor level in ventilated cupboards.
14. HASTE MAKES WASTE and accidents. Planning can save far more time than
hurrying and produces fewer mistakes.
13.15 SAFETY PRACTICES IN WORK AREAS

The following paragraphs list some of the specific safety measures an operator should
observe when carrying out his responsibilities in a plant.
13.15.1 NO SMOKING AREAS
1. Chemical storage areas
2. Fuel and lubrication storage areas
3. Wet and dry wells of plant pumping stations
4. Pump rooms
5. Tunnels having pipe galleries
11/03/03 13-14
CLASS I
6. Chlorine building
SAFETY
13
7. Manholes, tanks, reservoirs, excavations, trenches
13.15.2 CHLORINE BUILDINGS
1. The following signs must be posted outside the room door:
a) Turn on Vent Fan
b) Danger Chlorine Storage
2. A "Fresh Air" air pack must be located within 4.6 m (15 ft) of room door.
3. An eye wash bath must be located within 4.6 m (15 ft) of room door.
4. Mechanical ventilation of the chlorine room shall be sufficient to produce 30 air

changes an hour taking suction from within 45cm (18 in.) of the floor.
5. Operator must wear safety goggles and a pair of rubberized gloves.
6. Two operators shall be present for cylinder changing.
7. Fresh strong ammonia must be used for leak detection.
8. The chlorine room must NOT be used as a plant storage area.
13.15.3 WET WELLS
A wet well is classified as a confined space and therefore confined space regulations
apply. Before entering the operator must:
1. Test for oxygen content using an oxygen meter. DO NOT ENTER unless the
oxygen content in the atmosphere registers between 18 and 23%;
2. Test the noxious gases and vapours using a combustible gas analyser; and
3. Test for hydrogen sulphide using the colorimetric test. Tests for other gases may also
be necessary.
The operator must also take the following precaution on entry:
1. If any atmospheric contamination is suspected, a fixed or portable vent fan of at least

700 cfm capacity must be used before and during entry. If no vent fan is
available, a portable air pack must be worn;
2. Explosion and waterproof lighting must be used;
11/03/03 13-15
CLASS I
3.
SAFETY
An operator with a man hoist must be located at all times at the entrance to the wet well
13
to monitor the meters and observe the operator inside;
4. If a man hoist is not available two operators must be at the entrance;
5. A parachute type harness and lifeline and hard hat must be worn; and
6. A step-through parting is required at the ladder entrance.
13.15.4 DRY WELLS
A dry well is classified as a confined space and therefore confined space regulations
apply. Before entering the operator must:
1. Vent fan shall be started before entering the pumping station and left
operating continuously while the operator is in the station;
2. "DANGER PUMPS ON AUTOMATIC CONTROLLER" signs should be posted at

the control panel floor level, and the pump floor level;
3. "NO SMOKING" signs should be posted at the pump floor level; and
4. Lock out switches at control panel when working on any pump at any floor level.
13.15.5 PUMP ROOMS
1. "Caution Pumps on Automatic" signs must be posted.
2. Vent fans must be on.
13.16 HANDLING CHEMICALS

In handling chemicals in the water treatment process, the general safety requirements
outlined earlier should be met. Operators should be aware of the hazards associated with
chemicals used in a water treatment.
Chemicals should be properly sealed, kept away from heat sources and preferably stored
in locked lockers, when not in use.
13.16.1 ALUM
Wear protective dust-proof equipment (goggles and nose mask) and proper clothing
when handling and storing alum. If skin or nose irritations occur, wash thoroughly with
plenty of water.
11/03/03 13-16
CLASS I
13.16.2 HYDROFLUOSILIC ACID

SAFETY
13
The vapour or liquid chemical is very dangerous when it comes into contact with the eyes,
skin or any part of the body, or if taken internally.
Operator must wear protective clothing and equipment consisting of long gauntlet type
rubber gloves, high rubber boots or waders, short type rubber raincoat and chemical safety
goggles with a plastic face shield.
13.16.3 FLUORIDE POWDERS
Do not let dust touch skin or inhale fumes.
Air ventilation must be at least ten (10) air changes per hour.
Operator must wear good quality coveralls, rubber boots (knee length), rubber gloves or
plastic coated cotton gloves with cuffs of half a forearm length; dust proof cap and rubber
apron, plastic goggles, nose mask with replaceable filters approved by National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) for fluorides. The filter in the nose mask should
be replaced each day or more frequently if required.
Showers must be available. All rubberised clothing should be hosed down at the end of a
shift. Empty chemical bags must be deposited in a securely tied plastic bag at a sanitary
landfill. DO
NOT BURN THESE BAGS.
13.16.4 CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE (HTH)
This chemical is highly explosive if it is in contact with organic matter. Store it in a clean,
cool, dry area. Keep it away from open flame or heat. A "Metal X", Class D fire extinguisher
is the only type that will extinguish this material when on fire.
13.16.5 SODIUM HYPCHLORITE (LIQUID BLEACH)
Strong Sodium Hypochlorite solutions are powerful oxidizing agents that rapidly produce
burns when in contact with the skin. Do not handle directly or allow the solution to splash or
spill on any part of the body. Avoid accidental mixing with acids, as this will liberate
chlorine gas. With ammonia or ammonium compounds, explosive products may be formed.
13.16.6 CHLORINE GAS
Chlorine gas is an extremely dangerous chemical to work with and proper training is
essentially in operating a plant using chlorine gas as a method of disinfection. Proper
eyewear, gloves, self-contained breathing apparatus and aprons are required when handling
the gas. A ventilation hood is preferable for the area immediately surrounding the gas
11/03/03 13-17
CLASS I SAFETY
cylinders. Keep far away from ammonia, acetylene, fine metal and any combustible
13
material.
13.16.7 AMMONIA
Store cylinders in a cool, dry, ventilated place. Handle with care. An air pack should be
available. In case of cylinder leaks, only trained personnel should make repairs. You must
know your first aid if you handle and use this material.
13.16.8 ACTIVATED CARBON
Store in a dry, fire-proof space. Wear protective, dust-proof equipment (goggles and nose
mask) when handling activated carbon. Do not smoke while working with or near stored
material. Use plenty of water when washing and bathing.
13.16.9 LIME
Use protective, dust-proof equipment (goggles and nose mask) while handling lime and use
a dust collecting system, if possible. Store in a ventilated, dry area. If skin or nose
irritations occur, wash thoroughly with plenty of water. Consult a physician if irritation
becomes severe.
13.16.10 SODA ASH
Handle soda ash as described for lime. See above.
13.16.11 CAUSTIC SODA
Caustic soda used in water treatment is often used in liquid form. Proper gloves, apron and
eyewear are essential. Keep caustic soda away from Alum powder, acids, aluminum, tin and
zinc products. Always add soda to water and never water to soda. When soda is added to
water, it will release substantial heat, so keep oxidizable materials away from where you are
mix. If skin comes into contact with soda, flush with clean running water.
13.16.12 SOLVENTS
Be careful when using solvents in confined areas. The area should be well ventilated.
Clean solvents from skin to prevent irritations.
11/03/03 13-18
CLASS I
13.17 REVIEW
SAFETY
13
4. What is meant by a confined space? What are the
general procedures when working in one of these?
5. List the safety equipment that should be found in a water

treatment plant.
6. List 6 general safety rules around the water treatment plant.
7. What two vaccinations are urged for operators

working in a water treatment plant?
11/03/03 13-19
CLASS I EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS 14
14.0 EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS
14.1 OBJECTIVES
In this section you will learn about:
• The need to be prepared for emergencies;
• Assessing the system; and
• Protection of the system.
14.2 INTRODUCTION
All of us who live in communities depend on the community’s infrastructure to some
degree. We would at best be inconvenienced and at worst harmed or killed if the
infrastructure does not provide a reliable, safe service. As an example, if the power supply
goes out for twenty minutes it would be a minor inconvenience for most of us. If it were out
for two weeks in the winter it would be a serious inconvenience and people and property
might be harmed.
What would you do if this happened? Do you have a plan that you would follow?
This section will review some of what you need to know about emergency preparedness. The
emphasis is on planning for emergencies. You won’t find the answers about what to do in
this section; you have to do your own planning because every facility is different.
14.3 NEED FOR EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS

In recent times more attention has been drawn to infrastructure security issues than has been
common in the past. The infrastructure components we have to concern ourselves with are
the water supply, treatment and distribution systems.
There have been cases where entire community water systems have been compromised and
some people have become ill or even died from contamination of water systems. Most of
these have been inadvertent, but they illustrate the vulnerability of some systems.
Even if no one is physically harmed by contamination of the water system, think of the cost
of having to arrange for alternate water supplies for a community if the present system is
compromised. These include:
11/03/03 14-1
Physical intrusion
 Vandals;
 Children; or
 Unlawful Entry.
Contaminants intrusion
 Pathogens;
 Fuels and other substances; or
 Deliberate/accidental.
Service interruption
 Facility breakdown; or
 External interruption (e.g., power failure) .
14.4 ASSESSING THE SYSTEM

The system operator will likely be the most knowledgeable about the system, its strengths
and weaknesses. He or she is probably the best one to work on a plan to identify all the things
that could go wrong with the system. The system operator also needs to be involved in
planning what to do when things do go wrong.
If you know what can go wrong, if you have a plan for when things do go wrong, and if you
implement the plan, you might be able to prevent a mishap from becoming a catastrophe.
14.4.1 WHAT CAN GO WRONG?
The first thing you need to do is try to think of anything and everything that could possibly
go wrong. Make a list of everything you can think of. These could be accidents, natural
disasters or deliberate vandalism or sabotage. Don’t include failures due to poor operations
and maintenance of the system. You are trained and knowledgeable to do a proper job, and
you are responsible to do it.
These are just a few examples of the problems that could occur. You will have to develop
your own list.
14.4.1.1 Accidents
 Vehicle accidents/spills
11/03/03 14-2
Could the fuel truck overturn and spill fuel into the reservoir? Are there any
other hazardous materials that could spill into the system? What about the
sewage truck?
 Vehicle accidents/damage to facilities

Could an out-of-control vehicle destroy a critical part of the system?
 Fuel spills
What would happen if the fuel delivery driver fell asleep while filling the
plant tank? Where would the fuel end up? Would it affect the water supply?
 Other hazardous material spills

Is there anything stored near the facility that could contaminate the water
supply if spilled?
 Fire/Explosion
How would you supply water to the community if a fire or explosion
destroyed the system?
 Other accidents
Are there any other accidents that could prevent you from providing potable
water to the community?
14.4.1.2 Natural disasters
 Blizzards
While blizzards are a normal occurrence in many places in the North and most
people have adapted to them, have you considered how a severe one could
affect the water supply? Could someone get to the facility to replenish
consumables such as chlorine? What if maintenance is required on a pump? Is
there a backup?
 Fire
Is there enough clear space between any bush and your plant to save it from a
forest fire?
 Flood
Is any part of the system vulnerable to a flood? What can you do about it if the
system is threatened?
 Drought
Would you have enough water in an unusually dry year? Do you have a plan
to conserve water?
11/03/03 14-3
 Other disasters
Are there any other natural disasters that could prevent you from providing
potable water to the community?
14.4.1.3 Man/made problems
 Vandalism
Are good sturdy locks on all entrances? Are there intrusion alarms? Are there
fences with locked gates?
 Sabotage
Are good sturdy locks on all entrances? Are there intrusion alarms?
14.4.2 WHAT PROTECTIONS ARE BUILT-IN?
14.4.2.1 Accidents
 Vehicle accidents/spills
Are there safeguards in place to prevent vehicle accidents from compromising
the system? What are they?
 Vehicle accidents/damage to facilities

Are there safeguards in place to prevent vehicle accidents from compromising
the system? What are they?
 Fuel spills
Is there proper spill containment in place to prevent fuel spills from
compromising the water system? Is it properly maintained?
 Other hazardous material spills

Is there proper spill containment in place to prevent fuel spills from
compromising the water system? Is it properly maintained?
 Fire
Do you have enough of the proper type of fire extinguishers in place? Are
they accessible? Does the fire department know what chemicals you store and
handle? Are they prepared to deal with chemical fires?
11/03/03 14-4
14.5 PROTECTING THE SYSTEM
14.5.1 RESPONSE PLANS
Now that you have an assessment of the system, a good idea of many of the things that can
go wrong and some of the tools you have built in to the system to prevent or minimize
damage, you should develop a plan to deal with emergencies. It is usually a lot easier trying
to follow a plan that has been carefully thought out, than it is to make it up as you go when
there is a lot of pressure on you.
Decide what you would do if any, or several, of the emergencies happened. Write the plans
down. Things you need to have in the response plan include:
Who do you need to notify?
This could vary, depending on the nature of the emergency. It is likely to
always include the senior administrative officer. It may include the
Environmental Health Officer. It may include the fire department and police.
Remember when you contact them that you need to be able to provide clear,
concise and correct information. Don’t guess about things you are not sure
about.
What do you need to do?
Write down the steps that you would follow to rectify the problems.
Write down any steps you would follow to provide temporary service.
What resources do you need?
List the support agencies, people, supplies and equipment you will need to
rectify the problem. Write them down with contact numbers. List backups in
case your primary resources are not available.
Your SAO has to be involved in preparation of response plans. You will probably require
information from others as you develop plans. It has to be a team effort if it is likely to be
successful.
Put all this information in a binder so you can update it. There should be a copy in your
facility and in the community office. You should probably keep one at home. The fire
department should have one. Other copies may be required.
Review the plan at least once a year. Update it if new potential problems arise. Keep
the contact information up-to-date.
Remember, the points in this section are intended as examples only. You will need
to develop your own security plans, with help from others.
11/03/03 14-5
ADDENDUM A
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
Adsorption -
The taking up of one substance into the body of another.
ABS -
Abbreviation for Sodium alkyl benzene sulfonate.
Adsorbing -
(1) The adherence of a gas, liquid or dissolved solid onto the surface of a solid.
(2) A change in concentration of a gas or solute at the interface of a two-
phase
system.
Aeration -
The bringing about of intimate contact between air and a liquid by one or more
of the following methods:
a) spraying of liquids into the air,

b) bubbling air through the liquid,
c) agitating the liquid to promote surface adsorption of air.
Air gap -
the distance between the lowest opening of a pipe supplying water to a tank and
the upper rim of the tank.
Algae -
Tiny plants, usually living in water and often green in colour.
Algicide -
Anything applied to kill or control algae.
Alkalinity –
Substance that has a pH of greater than 7.
Anionic -
Relating to negatively charged ions.
Aquifer -
Porous, water-bearing formation of rock, sand, or gravel.
Artesian aquifer -
An aquifer where the water is under pressure and will rise to a higher elevation if
afforded an opportunity to do so.
Backflow -
The backing up of water through a conduit or channel in the direction that is
opposite to normal flow.
Bacteria -
Single-celled microscopic plants living in soil, water, organic matter or the bodies
of plants or animals.
Backwash -
The method used to clean filter media by reversing the water
flow.
Breakpoint chlorination – Addition of chlorine to water until the chlorine demand has
been satisfied. At this point, further additions of chlorine will result in a free
residual chlorine that is directly proportional to the amount of chlorine added
beyond the breakpoint.
Chelation –
A chemical forming of metallic cations with certain organic compounds such
EDTA (ethylene diamine tetracetic acid)
Chlorine demand -
The difference between the amount of chlorine added to a water and the amount of
chlorine residual left after a certain length of
time.
Chlorine residual -
The amount of chlorine still left available after a certain length of contact
time.
Clear well -
Reservoir for storing filtered water.
Coagulants -
In water and wastewater, chemicals used to thicken finely divided suspended
solids
into groups for easy
removal.
Coagulation -
In water treatment, the destabilization and initial aggregation of colloidal and finely
divided suspended matter by the addition of a floc-forming chemical or by
biological processes.
Coliform -
A group of bacteria normally living in the intestines of man and animals and are
also found elsewhere in nature. They are pollution indicators in water supplies.
Colloidal -
Too finely divided to settle; requiring coagulation, biochemical action, or membrane
filtration for removal.
CSA –
Canadian Standards Association, a group that published safety standards for Canada
Detention Time –
The length of time a drop of water or a suspended particle remains in a tank
or chamber.
Filtration –
The removal of solid particles from water by passing the water through a filtering
medium such as sand.
Floc -
Small jelly- like masses formed in a liquid by adding a coagulant.
Flocculation -
The collection of coagulated suspended solids into a mass by gentle
stirring.
Flocculation aids -
Materials added to liquid to form
flocs.
Flocculator -
Mechanical equipment used to encourage the formation of floc in
liquid.
Free Available Chlorine –

Chlorine in excess of that required to destroy the chloramines, which is free to
form hypochlorite ions.
Gre ensand –
A granular material that is a natural ion exchange material, which is capable of
softening water. Greensand which has been treated with potassium permanganate is
called manganese greensand this product is used to remove iron, manganese and
hydrogen sulphide from ground waters
Hydrologic cycle -
The movement of water from the atmosphere to the earth and back to
the atmosphere through precipitation, infiltration, storage, transpiration, evaporation
etc.
Hydrolysis -
A chemical process of decomposition using the addition of water. Also, the
process
solid matter goes through to become liquid.
Hypochlorination –
Is the application of hypochlorite (a compound of chlorine and another
chemical), usually in the form of solution, for disinfection purposes.
Indicator bacteria -
Coliforms that point to the presence of intestinal
pathogens.
Influent -
Water flowing into a treatment plant or any of its units.
Injection wells -
Wells created to recharge groundwater.
Inorganic -
Made of matter that is not plant or animal.
Insoluble –
Something that cannot be dissolved
Ion exchange -
A chemical process in which ions from two different molecules are exchanged.
Ionizing -
Creating ions by adding electrons to, or removing them from, atoms or molecules.
Leaching –
Percolating liquid through soil or other solids to remove the soluble ingredients.
Metabolism -
The process in which food is used and wastes are formed by living matter.
MF -
Membrane filter (used in bacteriological lab test)
Microbes -
Microscopic organisms, especially pathogenic bacterium.
Micro-organisms -
Minute organisms, either plant or animal, invisible or barely visible to the naked eye.
MPN -
Most PROBABLE Number (used in bacteriological lab test).
Nutrient -
Food for the growth of organisms.
Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) –

The units we use when we measure Turbidity. To estimate how light is scattered
by suspended particulate material in the water.
NSF –
An international non-governmental, not- for-profit group that issues
standards specializing in food, air, water and the environement.
Organic -
Made of matter that is plant or animal.
Ozonization -
The act or process of charging or treating with ozone. Also, the conversion of
oxygen into ozone. Used for disinfection purposes.
Pathogenic -
Disease-producing bacteria.
Permeable -
Having pores or openings that permit liquids or gases to pass through.
pH -
The measure of the acid/alkaline balance, expressed on a scale of 0 to 14, with
7 being neutral; 7 to 0 increasing acidity, and 7 to 14 increasing alkalinity.
Pressure head -
A measure of the pressure exerted by a
fluid.
Pseudomonad -
Short rod-shaped bacteria, some of which live on dead or decaying organic
matter,
or cause disease
Pumping level -
The height where water stands in a well during
pumping.
Reducing agent -
A substance that causes the loss of an electron retention time Detention time;
the length of time that water or wastewater is held in a unit for any treatment.
Sedimentation –
The process through which solid materials separate out from a liquid. Settling
takes place when the velocity of liquid is below the point at which it can transport
suspended material.
Septic -
Anaerobic (decomposition without oxygen).
Sludge –
The heavier solids that separate from water and sink to the bottom. Solids
accumulate and must be periodically removed by pumping.
Solution –
Consists of two components, a solvent which is the dissolving medium and a solute
which is the substance dissolved.
Spores -
Walled, single to many-celled reproductive bodies of microorganisms, able to
produce new organisms directly or indirectly.
Staining -
Colouring specimens for microscopic study. Also, colouring or discolouring
anything.
Static level -
The height of a water surface when groundwater is not being removed.
Supernatant -
The liquid standing above a sediment. In sludge digestion, the liquid
standing between the sludge at the bottom and the scum at the top.
Surface water -
All water found on the surface of the earth.
Suspended solids -
(1) Solids that either float on the surface of, or are in suspension in, water,
wastewater, or other liquids, and which are largely removable by
laboratory filtering.
(2) The quantity of material removed from water or wastewater in a

laboratory test, as prescribed in "Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater" and referred to as non-filterable residue.
Titration -
The method finding how much of something is in a solution by measuring how
much of something else is needed to cause a chemical change.
Total solids -
The sum of dissolved and undissolved constituents in water or wastewater,
usually stated in milligrams per litre.
Transpiration -
The process by which plants return water to the atmosphere.
Turbidity -
A condition in water caused by suspended matter; murkiness.
UL –
Underwriters Laboratories Inc., another group that published standards for safety for
consumer related activities.
Volatile solids -
The quantity of solids in water, wastewater, or other liquids, lost on ignition of
the dry solids at 55 0 C.
Water hammer -
Loud blows caused by moving water against the sides of its containing pipe.
Watershed –
An area that drains into a particular body of water or watercourse.
Weir –
A dam or enclosure in water or wastewater used to raise the water level or change the
direction of its flow; it measures the flow.
Well Head –
The top of the well.
ADDENDUM B
MATH REVIEW & DOSAGE

EXAMPLES CHEMISTRY,
SOLUTION &
PREPARATION
MATH REVIEW & DOSAGE EXAMPLES
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this unit is to introduce the operator to the application of mathematics in solving
problems related to the field of water treatment and to prepare him or her for further course work in
the water treatment field.
We will discuss the theoretical concepts of mathematics which form the basis for solving
problems encountered in the operator's day to day work. Examples were written with the objective
of showing by example how a typical problem is solved. To assist the student, a number of
practice problems follow each section. For each question on the exercise sheet there is a
corresponding example and practice problem for the operator to refer to for assistance in completing
each lesson.
For those students who are not comfortable with metric measurements, a brief explanation of the
system and a set of conversion tables have been provided.
A short review of basic geometry has also been

included.
It should be remembered and emphasized that the intent of this course is to allow the operator
the opportunity to apply mathematical computations in solving water treatment problems and to
improve his skills in mathematics.
B-1
METRICS:
Scientists and many other people throughout the world measure lengths, distance, area, volumes,
weight, temperature and other values by a standard method called the metric system. There are
two major systems of measurement in use, both related to one another. The English System and the
Metric System.
The English system of measurement developed from man's need to measure size and distances and
were based on units that were a part of his body. For example, a "cubit" was the length of a man's
forearm from his elbow to the tip of his middle finger. The Romans used the uncia for the width of a
thumb and the English inch comes from this method. Twelve uncia equaled roughly the length of a
man's foot and a man's foot was used to measure distance. The foot at first was the length of any
man's foot. In some countries it was the length of the 'kings' foot. Measuring units based on a man's
size failed because not all men were the same size, and as a result measurements varied from man to
man. However, there was little need for standardization until man began to travel and trade with
other men and some form of
'standard units' became necessary. Today one still finds different units in-use from one country to
another. An example is the volume of a "gallon" by definition between Canada and the United states:
1.0
Imperial gallons = 1.2 U.S.
gallons.
Out of such confusion there developed a need for a simple standard system of measurement. In 1670
a French priest, Gabriel Mouton, developed a system of measurement using the decimal system. In
1790 the French National Assembly appointed a commission to study the measurement situation.
This commission of French scientists proposed the metric system and in 1799 France adopted it as
the legal system of weights and measures. In 1875 the "Treaty of the Metre" was signed to establish
the General Conference on Weights and Measures which meets to determine the official definitions
for units used in metric countries. In 1960 the present form was adopted and named the Systeme
International d'Units or International System of Units more commonly known as SI. Since the early
1970' s both Canada and the United states have been working towards a changeover to the metric
system.
The popularity of the metric system stems from two characteristics, its simplicity and
standardization. The metric system did not develop haphazardly nor did it use parts of the human
body as units. In the metric system all units have a uniform scale based on the decimal system. The
principal unit is the metre which is comparable to the yard as a unit of length. One meter is 39.37
inches or 1.093 yards long.
B-2
Before 1960 the standard for the meter was a platinum- iridium meter bar, but the metre is now
defined world-wide to be 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red light from the spectrum of
krypton-86 measured in a vacuum. The reason: the length never varies and this measurement can be
duplicated in the laboratory.
There are seven basic units which form the foundation of the metric system. The followlng four
are involved with most everday use:
1. length or distance with the base unit belng the

metre
2. weight or mass when measured on earth is the
kilogram
3. the base unlt of time is the
second
4. temperature units are expressed in the Kelvin scale but most people when measuring in
o o
metrics use the Celsius scale as 1 Kelvin equals 1 Celsius.
The other three units have more specialized uses by the

scientist.
5. the ampere is the base unit for electrical

measurements.
6. the mole is the base unit involved in chemical
reactions.
7. the candela is the base unit for measuring
light.
The scientists who desiqned the metric system developed it to fit their needs and they made it
logical and exact. The metric system is simple to use for two reasons. First, it follows the decimal
number system, that is, units increase or decrease in size by lO's. Secondly, it is made up of only
seven basic units of measurement.
The scale of multiples and subdivisions of the meter is ten and all other units can be represented by
the product of ten. An example of the decimal scale using meters:
10 millimetres = 1
centimetre
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre
10 decimetres = 1 metre
10 metres = 1 decametre
10 decametres = 1 hectometre
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre
B-3
or
Name or Symbol Measurement : meters
-3
millimetre (mm) 1/1000 m or 10 m
-2
centimetre (cm) 1/100 m or 10 m
-1
decimetre (dm) 1/10 m or 10 m
0
metre (m) 1 m or 10 m
1
decametre (dam) 10 m or 10 m
2
hectometre (hm) 100 m or 10 m
3
kilometre (km) 1 000 m or 10 m
This same system applies to the other units, the liter and the gram. Ten litres equals one decaliter and
10 decigrams equals one gram. This uniform system of names is one of the advantages of the metric
system. With the chief units of measure being tenths, hundredths and thousandths, the various units of
measure get their names by adding Latin and Greek prefixes. For example: by adding Latin prefixes
deci means one tenth, centi means one hundredth and milli means one-thousandth: by adding Greek
prefixes, deca means tens, hecto means hundreds and kilo means thousands.
B-4
CONVERSION TABLE:
when you know multiply by to find
inches 25.40 millimetres

feet 30.48 centimetres
yards 0.91 metres
miles 1.61 kilometres
millimetres 0.04 inches
centimeters 0.39 inches
metres 1.09 yards
kilometres 0.62 miles
square inches 6.45 square centimetres
square feet 0.09 square metres
square yards 0.84 square meters
square miles .59 square kilometres
acres 0.41 hectares
square centimetres 0.16 square inches
square metres 1.20 square yards
square kilometres 0.39 square miles
hectares 2.47 acres
fluid ounces US 29.57 millilitres
fluid ounces Imperial 35.49 millilitres
pints US 0.47 litres
pints Imperial 0.57 litres
quarts US 0.95 litres
quarts Imperlal 1.14 litres
gallons US 3.78 litres
gallons Imperial 4.54 litres
millilitres 0.034 ounces fluld US
millilitres 0.028 ounces fluid Imperial
litres 2.11 pints US
litres 1.76 pints Imperial
litres 1.06 quarts US
B-5
litres 0.88 quarts Imperial
litres 0.26 gallons US
litres 0.22 gallons Imperial
ounces (dry) 28.35 grams
pounds 0.45 kilograms
grams 0.035 ounces (dry)
kilograms 2.20 pounds
short tons 0.91 metric tons
metric tons 1.1 short tons
0 o
Fahrenheit 5/9 after subtracting 32 Celsius
o o
Celsius 9/5 then add 32 Fahrenheit
p.s.i. (water) 2.31 pressure head in feet

TDH (feet) 0.43 pressure in p.s.i.
B-6
METRIC SUMMARY:
Length: 1 metre = 100 cm = 1000 mm
2 2
Area: 1 square metre = 10 000 cm = 1 000 000 mm
3 3
Volume: 1 m = 1000 L = 1 000 000 mL = 1 000 000 cm
Mass: 1 kg = 1000 g = 1 000 000 mg
Pressure: 1 pascal = 1 newton per square metre
Note: i ) 1 kilogram of water has a volume of 1 litre

ii) A force of 9.81 newtons is required to hold up 1 kilogram of
mass
Length: 1 inch = 2.54 cm

1 foot = 30.48 cm
1 metre = 39.37 inches
2
Areas: 1 square inch = 6.45 cm
2
1 square foot = 929 cm
Volume: 1 cubic foot = 28.32 litres

1 gallon Imperial = 4.54 litres
1 gallon US = 3.785 litres
Mass: 1 pound = 453.6 grams

1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
Force: 1 pound (lb) = 4.45 newtons (N)
2 2
Pressure: 1 psi = 6900 newtons/m (N/m )
= 6900 pascals (Pa)
= 6.9 kilopascals (kPa)
= 2.31 feet of head
1 pascal = 1 newton/square metre
1 atmosphere = 14.5 psi = 1 Bar = 100 kPa
Water Pressure: 1 meter of water = 9.8 kilo pascals (kPa)
1 foot of water = 3.0 kPa
B-7
EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS FOR WATER TREATMENT OPERATORS
RATE OF FLOW CALCULATIONS
These calculations are important as they provide data that is necessary in determining the cost of
treatment and the efficiency of the process control equipment. The accuracy of the flowmeters
and pumping capacities can be checked and the measurement of flows, contributed by various sources,
such as ground water run-off or industrial wastes, can be estimated with some degree of accuracy.
Rates of flow must be determined for proper sizing of clarifiers, aeration tanks, grit chambers, filters
etc.
EXAMPLE 1
A channel 2 m wide has a water flowing to a depth of 0.5 m. What is the daily FLOW in the
channel if the velocity of the water is 0.75 m/s?
RATE OF FLOW = WIDTH x DEPTH x VELOCITY

= (2 m) (0.5m) (0.75 m/s)
3
= 0.75 m /s
However, we are asked to find the daily flow.
Daily Flow = rate of flow x 60 s/min x 1440
min/d
3
= (0.75 m /s) (60 s/min) (1440 min/d)
3
= 64 800 m /d
EXAMPLE 2
B-8
What is the daily FLOW in a 300 mm diameter pipe that is flowing 75% full if the velocity is 40
m/min?
Volume of flow = Cross sectional area x Velocity

= (0.75) (pr2) (40 m/min)
= (0.75) (3.14) (.15 m) (.15m) (40 m/min)
3
= 2.1 m /min
3 3
We need to convert 2.1 m /min to a standard expression of flow rate. Either L/s or m /d are
3
correct, and we are asked to put the answer in terms of daily flow (m /d).
Daily flow = Volume of Flow x 1440 min/d

3
= (2.1 m /min) (1440 min/d)
3
= 3 024 m /d
B-9
PERCENT
EXAMPLE 1
A lime solution having a mass of 80 kg contains 85% water and the remainder is lime. What is the
mass of the lime?
SOLUTION
The total mass of the solution is 80 kg which represents 100%. If the water represents 85%, then
the lime represents:
(Total Mass) - (Mass of Water) = (Mass of Lime)
100% - 85% = 15%
Mass of lime = 15% x 80 kg

= 0.15 x 80 kg
= 12 kg
EXAMPLE 2
An alum solution having a mass of 200 kg contains 176 kg of water and the rest is
alum. a) What percentage of the mixture is water?
b) What percentage of the mixture is Alum?
SOLUTION
a) In the above question we are told the total mass of the mixture is 200 kg or 100%. The mass
of the water is 176 kg.
To find the percentage of water:

% of water = 176 kg x 100%
200 kg
% of water = 88%
B - 10
b) If 88% of the mixture is water then;
Total Mass - Mass of Water = Mass of Alum
100% - 88% = 12%
DETENTION TIME
The concept of detention time is used in conjunction with many treatment plant processes.
"DETENTION TIME" refers to the length of time a drop of water or a suspended particle remains in
a tank or chamber.
Detention time may also be thought of as the number of minutes or hours required for each tank to
fill and overflow. The mental image might be one of the flow from the time water enters the tank
until it leaves the tank completely , as shown in the following figure. This process is also known as
"plug flow".
EXAMPLE
3 3
A sedimentation tank has a capacity of 132 m . If the hourly flow to the clarifier is 47 m /h, what is
the detention time?
Since the flow rate is expressed in hours, the detention time calculated is also in
hours: Detention time = Volume of tank

Flow rate
3
= 132 m
3
47 m /h
= 2.8 h
WEIR OVERFLOW RATE
B - 11
The calculation of WEIR OVERFLOW RATE is important in detecting high velocities near the
weir, which adversely affect the efficiency of the sedimentation process. With excessively high
velocities, the settling solids are pulled over the weirs and into the effluent troughs.
In calculating the weir overflow rate, you will be concerned with the litres per second flowing over
each metre of weir length. The following figures can be associated with weir overflow rate in
rectangular and circular sedimentation basins.
Since weir overflow rate is L/s flow over each m of weir length, the corresponding mathematical
equation is:
Weir overflow rate = flow (L/s)

weir length (m)
EXAMPLE 1
If a sedimentation tank has a total of 27 m of weir over which the water flows, what is the weir
overflow rate when the flow is 90 L/s?
Weir overflow rate = flow (L/s) weir length (m)

= 90 L/s
B - 12
27 m
= 3.3 L/s
m
EXAMPLE 2
3
A circular clarifier receives a flow of 16 416 m /d. If the diameter is 24 m, what is the weir
overflow rate?
Before you can calculate the weir overflow rate, you must know the total length of the weir. The
relationship of the diameter and circumference of a circle is the key to determining this problem.
Circumference = 3.14 x Diameter
In this problem, the diameter is 24 m. Therefore, the length of weir (circumference) is

Circumference = (p) (Diameter)
= (3.14) (24 m)
= 75.4 m
3
We now must convert m /d to L/s by the following:
3
m /d x 1 000 L =
L/s s/d
3
m
3
16 416 m /d x 1 000 L = 190 L/s
3
86 400 s/d m
Now solve for the weir overflow rate:
B - 13
Weir overflow rate = flow (L/s)
weir length (m)
= 190 L/s
75.4 m
= 2.5 L/s
m
PUMPING RATES
The rate of flow produced by a pump is expressed as the volume of water pumped during a
given period of time. The mathematical equation used in pumping rate problems can usually be
determined from the verbal statement of the problem.
3
VERBAL: What is the pumping rate in m per
day? MATH: pumping rate = m
VERBAL: What is the pumping rate in litres per

second? MATH: pumping rate = L
The volume pumped during a period can be determined either by a flowmeter or by measuring
the volume being pumped into or out of a tank.
Most pumping rate problems will ask you to give an answer in one form (L/s) and will give you
the information in another form (m/d). At first the conversion between these two expressions looks
difficult, but once you become familiar with their relationship to each other, converting is simple.
Here is the proof.
3 3
m /d = m x 1 000 L = L or L/s
3
86 400 s/d s m s
or conversely
3 3
L - 1 000 L = m x 86 400s = m or
3 3
m /d s m s d d
B - 14
EXAMPLE
An empty rectangular tank 8 m long and 6 m wide can hold water to a depth of 2 m. If this tank is
filled by a pump in 55 min. What is the pumping rate in litres per second?
In this example, the entire tank was filled during the 55 min pumping test. Therefore the total
volume pumped is equal to the capacity of the tank in m .
Volume of Tank = Area of Rectangle x Depth

= (8 m) (6 m) (2 m)
3
= 96 m
3
To find L/s we convert 96 m to litres and 55 min to seconds.
3
96 m x 1 000 L = 96 000 L
3
m
55 min x 60 s = 3 300
s min
Then we divide:
96 000 L = 29.1 L/s

3 300 s
29.1 L/S is the answer to the first part of the question. To find the answer to the second part, we
must convert L/s to m /d.
29.1 L - 1 000 L x 86 400 s = 2 514

3 3
m /d s m d
3
2 514 m /d is the answer to the second part of the question.
B - 15
DENSITY
For scientific and technical purposes, the DENSITY of a body of material is precisely defined as
the mass PER UNIT OF VOLUME. The density of dry materials, such as sand, activated carbon,
3
lime and liquids such as water, liquid alum or liquid chlorine can be expressed as g/cm . The density
of gases, such as air, chlorine, methane or carbon dioxide is normally expressed in g/L.
The density of a substance CHANGES SLIGHTLY AS THE TEMPERATURE OF

THE SUBSTANCE CHANGES. This happens because substances usually increase in volume
as they become warmer, as illustrated in Figure 1. Because of the expansion with warming, the mass
is spread over a larger volume, so the density is less when a substance is warm than when it is cold.
Similarly, a change in pressure will change the volume occupied by a substance. As a result,
DENSITY VARIES WITH PRESSURE, increasing as pressure increases and decreasing as
pressure decreases (Figure 2).
The effects of pressure and temperature on solids and liquids, are very small and are usually
ignored. However, temperature and pressure have a significant effect on the density of gases and
whenever the density of a gas is given, then the temperature and pressure at that density are usually
also given.
RELATIVE DENSITY (Specific Gravity)
Although there may be many numbers that express the density of the same substance (depending on
the unit used) there is only one relative density associated with each substance (for one
particular temperature and pressure). The relative density of a substance is compared against a
"Standard" density.
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SOLIDS & LIQUIDS
The standard density used for solids and liquids is that of water, which is one g/cm at 4 degrees C
and a
pressure of 101.3 kN/m or kilopascals (kPa), the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level. Therefore,
B - 16
the relative density of a solid or liquid is the density of that solid or liquid COMPARED TO
THE DENSITY OF WATER. It is the ratio of the density of that substance to the density of
water. Let's look at an example. The density of SAE 30 motor oil is
3
Relative Density = oil 0.9 g/cm
3
water 1.0 g/cm
= 0.90
In other words, relative density in this example tells you that oil is only 9/10 as dense as water.
3 3
Because a cm of oil has a mass less than a cm of water, oil floats on the surface of water.
Relative Density of Gases
The relative density of a gas is usually determined by comparing the density of the gas with the
density of air, which is 1.2 g/L at a temperature of 20 degrees C and a pressure of 101.3 (kN/m) or
kilopascals (kPa) the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level. For example, the density of chlorine
gas is 2.99 g/L . Its relative density would be calculated as follows:
Relative Density = Cl2 2.99 g/L =

2.49 air 1.2
g/L
This tells you that chlorine gas is approximately 2.5 times as dense as air. Therefore, when chlorine
gas is introduced into a room it will concentrate at the bottom of the room. This is important to know
since chlorine is a deadly toxic gas.
DOSAGE CALCULATIONS
It is most necessary for a plant operator to know how to calculate the dosages of the various
chemicals used in water treatment. It is important to be accurate when calculating dosages as too
little chemical
B - 17
may be ineffective and too much a waste of money. In process control the exact dose of chemical
must be determined through calculation for the purposes of efficient operation and economy.
EXAMPLE 1
The chlorine dosage of an effluent is 15 mg/L. How many kilograms of chlorine will be required to
3
dose a flow of 8 500 m /d?
In this question, it will be necessary to utilize your knowledge of the metric system.
3
1 mg/L = 1 kg/l 000 m
3
For every 1 000 m of water of flow, we will need to use 15 kg chlorine.
3
15 kg Cl2 x 8 500 m /d = 127.5 kg C12/d
3
1 000 m
3
Above we expressed 15 mg/L as 15 kg Cl2 /1 000 m and multiplied it by the flow to obtain the
answer expressed as 127.5 kg C12/d
EXAMPLE 2:
A chlorinator is set to feed a 94.8 kg/d of chlorine. If the average daily flow through the plant is 7
900 m3/d, what is the DAILY AVERAGE CHLORINE DOSAGE IN MG/L?
We know that 1 mg/L = 1 kg

3
1 000 m
3
We are told we use 94.8 kg chlorine for every 7900 m water.
94.8 kg Cl2/d = 12 kg Cl2 = 12 mg/L

3 3
7.9 x 1 000 m /d 1 000 m
Above we divided the mass of chlorine used per day by the flow expressed in 1 000 m per day
and
B - 18
found we used 12 kg Cl2 for every
1 000 m of flow or 12 mg/L.
HYPOCHLORINATION CALCULATIONS
Definition - Hypochlorination is the application of hypochlorite ( a compound of chlorine and

another chemical), usually in the form of solution, for disinfection purposes.
EXAMPLE 1
The treated product at a water treatment plant requires a chlorine dosage of 98 kg/d for
disinfection purposes. If we are using a solution of hypochlorite containing 60% available chlorine,
how many kg/d hypochlorite will be required?
SOLUTION
We are told in the problem that 60% of the hypochlorite is available chlorine which is the portion of
the solution capable of disinfecting. Solving the equation we have;
kg/d hypochlorite = 98 kg/d of chlorine

needed
0.6 available chlorine in sol'n
= 163.3 kg/d hypochlorite

solution
EXAMPLE 2
A hypochlorite solution contains 5% available chlorine. If 4 kg of available chlorine are needed to

disinfect a watermain, how much 5% solution would be required?
B - 19
We are told 4 kg of chlorine will do the job of disinfection. By a 5% solution we mean that 5% by
mass of the solution is to be made up of chlorine. So 100 kg of 5% hypochlorite solution will
contain 5 kg chlorine.
Using the formula for ratios A =

CB D
we substitute:
5 kg chlorine = 4 kg chlorine required

100 kg sol'n ? kg sol'n required
Since D = C x B = 4 kg x 100 kg = 80 kg solution

A 5 kg
CHEMICAL FEEDING
Solution Preparation - Jar Tests
Jar tests are used to determine correct chemical dosages for such chemicals as alum, ferric chloride
and polymers. These are chemicals utilized in water treatment facilities for coagulation and
flocculation of colloidal particles. The jar test simulates, on a small scale, the activities going on in
various sections of the full scale treatment process. Varying amounts of the chemicals are compared
against each other to find out which chemical and dosage best accomplishes the desired results.
Stock solutions of coagulants, coagulant aids and other chemicals, should be prepared at
concentrations such that quantities suitable for use in the jar tests can be measured accurately and
conveniently. If one is dealing with dry chemicals the preparation of these stock solutions is straight
forward. For example to prepare a 1 g/L stock solution using dry chemicals, 1 gram of the chemical is
made up to 1 000 mL with water. However, with concentrated liquid solutions a dilution step is
required. Any dilution step must take into account the relative density of the solution being
diluted. For example, if one has a 48.5% alum solution with a relative density of 1.35 and wishes to
make up a 1 g/L stock solution the following procedure should be followed:
1 mL 48.5% liquid alum has a mass of 1.35 g
B - 20
1 mL contains 1.35 g x 48.5 = 0.65 g alum
100
so 1.54 mL of the sol'n will contain 1 g Alum
Therefore, add 1.54 mL liquid alum to water and make up to 1 000 mL for a 1 g/L stock solution.
1 g/L solutions are easy to use because 1 mL of solution has a mass of 1 mg.
After jar tests have been carried out the type of chemical dosage and point of application best suited
to the characteristics of the water or sewage to be treated should easily be established. The next step
is to feed the chemical to be used at the dosage determined in the jar tests into the full scale treatment
facility. The operator is faced with using a dry or liquid chemical which will be fed into the process
by means of a dry or liquid chemical feeder. If feeding dry chemicals, the feeder will be calibrated,
most likely, in grams per minute or, if liquid chemicals are being utilized, in millilitres per
minute . Following is a detailed approach to establishing feed rates for chemicals.
EXAMPLE
3
Given a daily flow rate of 16 000 m /d and an alum dosage of 13 mg/L, what is the alum flow rate
in g/min?
Step 1 Determine kg/d of Alum required.
1. Alum dosage of 13 mg/L = 13 kg

3
1 000 m
2. Feed Rate = Dosage x Flow

3
= 13 kg x 16 000 m
3
1 000 m d
= 208 kg/d of alum
B - 21
Step 2 We are asked to give the flow rate in g/min
1. Convert kg/d to g/d. Since 1 kg = 1 000 g
208 kg = 208 000 g

d d
2. Convert kg/d to g/min. Since 1 day is equivalent to 1 440 min (24 h x 60 min)
208 000g/d = 144.4 g/min

1 440 min/d
EXERCISE 1
1. Calculate the surface area of a rectangular settling tank 18 m long and 4m wide.
2. Calculate the surface area of a circular sand filter with a diameter of 15m.
3. Calculate the volume of a raw water intake crib 8 m long, 3 m wide and 6m deep.
4. What is the volume of a circular storage tank that is 7 m in diameter and 15m high?
5. What is the volume of water contained in 84 m of pipe with an inside diameter of 10 cm:
3
a) in m ?
b) in L?
6. If a pump delivers 1.44 m3 in 20 minutes, what is the pumping rate in:
a) L/s?
3
b) m /d?
3
7. How many m of water will a 5 L/s pump deliver in 5 minutes?
3
8. A 12 m storage tank supplies alum for coagulation at a rate of 330 mL/min. How often will
the
B - 22
tank need to be refilled?
3
9. The prechlorination chamber at a water treatment plant has a volume of 225m . If the flow
rate from the tank is 11 L/s, what is the average detention time in hours?
3
10. How many kg of chlorine are required to treat 18 000 m of water per day with chlorine at
5.0 mg/L?
3
11. A gas chlorinator treats 2 700 m with 2 kg of chlorine per day. Calculate the dosage rate.
The residual is measured at 0.27 mg/L. What is the chlorine demand:
a) in mg/L?
b) in kg/d?
12. In the chart below determine the mass of chemical in kg that will be required to feed at the
rate indicated along the top of the chart in relationship to the volume of water flowing as
indicated down the side.
B - 23
13. In the chart below determine the dosage in mg/L that will coincide with the flow indicated on
the vertical scale and the mass of alum on the horizontal scale.
14. A liquid solution with a total mass of 97 kg contains 84 kg of water and the remainder is
alum. a) What percentage of the solution is water?

b) What percentage of the solution is alum?
15. A mixture of water and powdered carbon is to be 85% water. If the total volume required
is
3
3.6 m , what is the mass of the carbon?
16. A hypochlorite solution contains 12% available chlorine. If 3 kg of available chlorine are
needed
B - 24
to disinfect a main:
a) how many kg of solution are required?

b) how many litres of solution are required?
B - 25
FILTER LOADING RATE
3 2
The "filter loading rate" is expressed as L or m of water applied to each m of surface area. This
2
could also be described as the amount of water flowing down through each m of filter surface.
2
Filter design loading rates are expressed as L/s/m .
3
Filter loading rate = m /d Flow x 24
2
h m Filter Area d
NOTE: Design loading rates for filters are expressed in US gals at present. Using
conversion factors to obtain S.I. units is necessary when studying American
designed filters. Typical loading rates are shown below:
2 2
Rapid sand filter = 1.36 L/s/m , (2 US gpm/ft )
2
Dual Media = 0.136 - 0.272 L/s/m , (0.2 - 0.4 US
2 2
gpm/ft ) Multi Media = 3.41 - 6.82 L/s/m , (5 - 10 US
2
gpm/ft ) EXAMPLE
3
A rapid sand filter is 10 m wide and 15 m long. If the flow through the filter is 17 630 m /d what is
2
the filter loading rate in L/s/m ?
First, convert the flow to L/s

3
17 630 m x 1 000 L 86 400 s = 204 L
d m d s
Then express the filter loading rate mathematically
as: Filter loading rate = flow

filter area
= 204 Ls
2
150 m
2
= 1.36 L/s/m
B - 26
FILTER BACKWASH RATE
There are two methods that may be used to calculate the filter backwash rate.
a) Filter Backwash Rate = flow L/s

2
filter area m
b) Filter Backwash Rate = meters of water rise

hour
NOTE: As with filter loading rates, filter backwash rates are also expressed in U.S. gals at
present.
Rates are shown below:
2 2
Minimum = 10.2 L/s/m , (15 US gpm/ft )
2
Maximum = 15.3 L/ms/m , (22.5 US
2
gpm/ft )
This is equivalent to a rise in the water level of 36.67 m/h (2 ft/min) to 55.0 m/h (3
ft/min). EXAMPLE 1
A rapid sand filter is 10 m wide and 12 m long. If backwash water is flowing upward at a rate of
2
1.56 m /s, what is the backwash rate in L/s/m ?
3
Flow = 1.56 m x 1 000 L
2
s m
= 1 560 L/s
Therefore, there are 1 560 L/s flowing upward through a filter with a surface area of 120 m . This
can be written mathematically as:
Filter backwash rate = flow

filter area
B - 27
= 1 560 L/s
2
120 m
2
= 13 L/s/m
EXAMPLE 2
A mixed-media filter is 8 m wide and 11 m long. If the filter receives a backwash flow of 84 000
3 2
m /d, what is the filter backwash flow rate in L/s/m ?
As in the last example, first convert the backwash flow to

L/s.
3
84 000 m x 1 000 L 86 400 s = 972.22 L
3
d m d s
Filter backwash rate = flow filter

area
= 972.22 L/s
(8 m) (11 m)
= 972.2 L/s
2
88 m
2
= 11.05 L/s/m
Filter backwash rates, as noted earlier, are sometimes expressed in terms of vertical rise of water in
a time interval measured in hours, for example, metres per hour (m/h). The units of measure are
directly related to each other as shown by the following proof:
= 11.05 L/m x 3 600 s 1 000 L
3
s h m
3 2
= 39.672 m /m
h
= 39.672 m/h
For simplification, a conversion factor can be extracted from the above

proof.
3 600 s 1 000 L
3
h m
B - 28
3
= 3.6 s/m /h/L
Then by substitution back into the proof:

2 3
11.05 L/m x 3.6 s/m = 39.672
3 2
m /m
s h/L h
= 39.672 m/h
EXERCISE 2
1. A rapid sand filter is 5 m wide and 10 m long. If the backwash water flow rate is 55 600
3
m , determine the filter backwash rate in m/h?
2
2. What is the filter backwash rate in L/s/m corresponding to a filter backwash rate of 37 m/h?
3. During the operation of a multi media sand filter, the operator measured the flow rate to be
2
14.4 m/h. Express this flow rate in L/s/m ?
B - 29
4. A rapid sand filter system is 4 m wide and 7 m long. If the flow through the filter is 3 300
3
m /d what is the filter loading rate:
2
a) in L/s/m ?
b) in m/h?
Chemical Feeding & Preparation of Stock Solutions
SOLUTIONS
A solution consists of two components, a solvent which is the dissolving medium and a solute which
is the substance dissolved. The solute is dispersed as molecules and ions and the distribution of the
solute is homogenous throughout the solution. A common example of solvent and solute is water and
sugar.
A concentrated solution is one which contains a relatively large amount of solute per unit volume
of solution. A dilute solution is one which contains a relatively small amount of solute per unit
volume of solution. The words "strong" and "weak" should not be used when referring to the
concentration of a solution. Strong and weak are terms that are more properly used to describe the
chemical activity of a substance.
Solution Preparation - Jar Tests
Jar tests are used to determine correct chemical dosages for such chemicals as alum or polymers.
These chemicals are utilized in water treatment for coagulation and flocculation of colloidal particles.
The jar test simulates, on a small scale, the activities going on in the full scale treatment process.
Varying amounts of the chemicals are compared to each other to see which chemical and
dosage, best accomplishes the desired results.
Stock solutions of coagulants, coagulant aids and other chemicals, should be prepared at
concentrations such that quantities suitable for use in the jar tests can be measured accurately and
conveniently.
When making stock solutions from dry chemicals, a very straight forward approach is used. Dissolve
1
B - 30
gram of solute in 1 litre of water to obtain a 1 g/L solution. Using the solution is easy because 1 gram
of solute is contained in 1 litre solvent; therefore 1 mg of solute is contained in 1 mL of solvent.
When a jar test requires dosages of solution, simply fill a pipet to the required dosage and the
proper mass of chemical will be present in the contained volume of the solution.
EXAMPLE:
One gram of soda ash is contained in one litre of distilled water. We now have a 1 g/L solution of
soda ash. A jar test requires dosages of 5 mg/L, 10 mg/L, 15 mg/L, 20 mg/L, 25 mg/L and one
jar is a blank. How many mL of soda ash solution are required for each dosage?
1 g/L soda ash solution = 1 mg of soda ash/mL of solution
5 mg of soda ash / 5 mL of solution
Req'd dosages = 5 mg/L, 10 mg/L 15 mg/L, 20 mg/L, 25 mg/L
mL of solution = 5 mL, 10 mL, 15mL, 20 mL, 25 mL
Remember that the dosage is being added to 1 litre of raw water so now the dosage is expressed as
5 mg of soda ash/L of raw water. Conveniently 5 mg/L, and so on for each of the other required
dosages.
When preparing solutions from liquid concentrates, the amount of chemical present in the solution
needs to be known as well as the relative density of the original solution. The concentration and relative
density are usually found on the product label.
A concentrated alum solution contains 48.5% alum and has a relative density of 1.35. To prepare a
1 g/L solution from the concentrated alum, we need to find out how many mL of concentrate
contains 1 gram of pure alum.
1 mL of concentrated = 1.35 x 0.485 g of alum solution

contains
= 0.65 g of alum
B - 31
Then the volume occupied of 1 g of alum
is:
= 1g
0.65 g/mL
= 1.54 mL
1.54 mL of concentrated alum contains 1 gram of alum. To make a 1 g/L solution of alum simply
dilute l.54 mL of concentrated solution to one litre with distilled water. Dosages can now be
applied to jar tests as described earlier.
EXAMPLE
3
A water plant with a daily flow of 1 700 m doses at 55 mg/L with a 48.5% liquid alum solution.
What is the feed rate in mL/min?
3
Data: Flow 1.7 x 1000 m /d
48.5% alum by mass as active ingredient
3
1.34 g/cm relative density
3
mass of sol'n req'd = (55 kg/l 000 m ) (1.7 x 1000
3
m /d)
0.485
= 192.8 kg/d
volume of sol'n = 192.8 kg/d

1.34 kg/L
= 143.9 L/d
Flow Rate = 143.9 L x 1 000 mL 1 440 min

d L d
= 99.9 mL/min
It is important to mention that feed rates are properly expressed as mL/s but using mL/min is
convenient
B - 32
to calibrate and measure. To obtain mL/s simply divide mL/min by 60 s/min as shown with the
above example.
Flow rate = 99.9 mL - 60 s

min min
= 1.665 mL/s
CALCULATION OF FEED RATES USING A FORMULA
An alternate method of calculating feed rates in mL/min is through the use of a formula that takes
into account all variables such as chemical concentrations, optimum dosages, plant flow, etc.
Below is a mathematical method for determining feed rates of chemical addition in millilitres per
minute (mL/min), the normal units found on most liquid chemical feeders. These units of feed rate are
utilized as they provide a convenient volume and time scale for calibration and accurate feeding of
highly expensive and sometimes hazardous chemicals.
The formula takes into account variations in concentrations of chemicals and their relative
densities. Once proper dosage has been established through jar tests and daily flows from the flow
chart and the variations in the chemical's composition from the delivery tag this formula will provide
the correct feed rate in millilitres per minute.
FEED RATE FORMULA (mL/min)
3
mL/min = (Dosage mg/L) (flow/l 000 m /d) (1 000 mL/L)
% active chemical x relative x 1 400 min/d
as decimal fraction density
This formula contains conversion factors that are constants. These are indicated by the boxes in
the formula. For ease of calculation, we can reduce the two conversion factors to one. The constant
would
B - 33
be:
1 000 mL/L = 0.694
1 440 min/d
As a result, we can simplify the feed rate formula. Using the previous example, determination of the
alum feed rate, the calculation can be shown as:
3
mL/min = (Dosage mg/L) (Flow/l 000 m /d) (0.694)
% active chemical x Relative
as a decimal fraction Density
3
= (55 mg/L) (1.7 x 1 000 m /d)
(0.694) (0.485) (1.34 kg/L)
= 99.8 mL/min
B - 34
EXERCISE 3
1. How many mL of alum are needed to prepare 1 000 mL of a 1 g/L solution of alum if
the concentrated solution is 42.3% by mass and the relative density is 1.42?
2. How many mL of alum are required to make up 1 L of a 1 g/L solution for jar tests if the
alum is
48% by mass and the relative density is 1.34?
3. In a water treatment plant both alum and activated silica are being used in the coagulation
stage to help precipitate the colloidal suspensions. Jar tests indicated that 50 mg/L alum and
5.5 mg/L activated silica is the optimum dosage. Calculate, using the formula, the feed rate
needed for each chemical in mL/min.
3
DATA: Flow 1 000 m /d
Liquid Alum Relative Density 1.35 kg/L
Liquid Alum contains 48.5% Al2(SO4)3 14
H2O Activated Silica Rel. Dens. 1 kg/L
Activated Silica contains 1% solution
4. The dry alum dosage rate is 12 mg/L at a water treatment plant. The flow rate at this plant is
13
3
500 m /d. How many kilograms per day of alum are required?
B - 35
CHEMISTRY, SOLUTION & PREPARATION
SUBJECT: BASIC CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES
OBJECTIVES:
The Student will be able to:
1. Select the correct definition from a given list for each of the following items:
a. electron
b. proton
c. neutron
d. atom
e. element
f. compound
g. valence
2. Select the examples from a given list to indicate the following terms:
a. ion i) anion ii)

cation b. radical
c. organic compound
d. inorganic compound
3. Calculate molecular weight for specified compounds given a list of atomic weights.
4. Select from a given list, the correct name for a given simple compound.
B -38
BASIC CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY
Chemistry might be defined as the science that deals with the composition, properties and
changes undergone by matter under certain influences.
MATTER
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has

mass.
The page these words are written on is a form of matter, as is the ink which forms the letters on
the page.
Some forms of matter consist of a single kind of matter called a pure
substance. ATOMS
Pure substances are made up of one or more "atoms". An atom might be defined as the smallest
particle we could separate which would still exhibit the characteristic properties of that pure substance.
Pure substances can be either "elements" or "compounds". Elements are Pure Substances which
contain only one kind of atom, whereas compounds are pure substances which contain more than
one kind of atom.
Examples of common elements are gold (Au), chlorine (Cl), sulphur (S), oxygen (O) and hydrogen
(H).
Examples of common compounds are sodium chloride (NaCl), water (H2O), hydrogen sulphide
(H2S)
and calcium hydroxide (CaOH).
ELEMENTS
B -39
We have established that matter is composed of one or more elements, but what is an element?
An element is a pure substance which may be a solid, a liquid, or a gas. Since it will have only one
kind of "atom" present, it will have certain characteristics not duplicated by any other element.
What is an "atom"? One of the common elements is hydrogen which is a clear colourless gas, and is
lighter than air. If it were possible to separate the smallest particle we could get, that would still have
the characteristics of hydrogen, this tiny particle would be an atom. We might see something like this
if it were possible to put it under a super-powerful microscope:
The centre is the nucleus. In this case, the nucleus contains only one thing - a proton. It is a tiny
particle that always has a positive charge.
The small red spot is a satellite, and the circle represents its orbit. This satellite is called an electron.
It is also a tiny particle but has a negative charge.
Since there is only one proton, we can say that hydrogen has a mass of 1. The electron, being so
much smaller, is ignored as far as this mass is concerned.
B -40
Hydrogen is the lightest atom. Let us look at helium to show you
why:
In the helium atom nucleus, the two black spots represent two protons. The orbit has two electrons.
The two small circles in the nucleus represent something new, two neutrons. A neutron is a particle
which has the same weight as a proton but has no electrical charge (neutral). If we say that
hydrogen has a mass of 1, then helium will have a mass of 4. This relative mass is called the
atomic weight of an element. If we proceed down the list of elements, we will discover that each
one has a different atom with a different arrangement of protons, neutrons and electrons. Using the
number of protons and neutrons present, we can make a list of theoretical atomic weights.
Every once in a while we will find an odd example of an element mixed in with its sisters. It will
have a slightly different arrangement of the nucleus, such as an extra neutron. This atom will be
exactly like the others except for weight and is called an isotope. An isotope might be described as
a mutation of the usual atom.
Atomic Atomic
Wt 2 Wt 1
B -41
Hydrogen "Heavy" Hydrogen
(an isotope)
If we could take a quantity of hydrogen atoms and weigh them, we would find that the average
weight is not 1 but 1.008 due to the occasional presence of the heavier isotope. This explains why
atomic weights are not all even numbers.
If you will turn to the accompanying table cataloguing the distribution of electrons in each orbit
around the nucleus (Table 1-2), you will see that each orbit has only so many "parking spots" and
once these are occupied, a new orbit shell is begun. An exception to this occurs in some of the
outermost orbits where some "double parking" is overlooked. In any case, there are never more than
8 electrons in the outer-most shell.
On the basis of the distribution of electrons we can isolate four different structural types of
atoms:
1. Inert elements - these with all orbit shells filled to the

maximum.
2. Simple elements - those with only one unfilled

shell.
3. Transition elements - those with two unfilled

shells.
4. Rare earth elements - those with three unfilled

shells.
You will notice that the elements are arranged in the table in order by their atomic number. This
is nothing more than the sum of the number of electrons in the shells surrounding the nucleus. Each
element differs from its immediate neighbours by one electron and therefore one proton in the nucleus
(since all elements must be electrically neutral).
B -42
TABLE B-2
IONS
Some atoms, under certain circumstances can lose electrons and others can gain electrons. When
an atom loses an electron, it will have an excess proton or one plus (+) charge and will be very
active. Gaining an electron from another element causes an atom to become negatively (-) charged
and also very active. This process is called ionization. Ions (electrically charged atoms) are formed.
Ions are of two types depending on their charge:
- -
1. Anions - negatively charged ions - e.g. Cl , I ,
-
Br
+ +
2. Cations - positively charged ions - e.g. H , Na ,
+
K
COMPOUNDS
As we have said, compounds are pure substances made up of atoms of more than one element.
Atoms of two or more elements combine to form a molecule of a compound with distinctive
properties of its
B -43
own. A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound which could be separated, that would still
show all of the properties of that compound. A molecule is usually made up of atoms of more
than one element and is therefore somewhat larger in size than an atom.
When atoms combine to form molecules, only the outer shells of electrons take part in the joining.
The nuclei are not affected. Let us look at atoms of sodium and chlorine to see what makes them
eager to join together to form a molecule of the compound sodium chloride (or table salt).
Sodium Chlorine
We can see that both atoms have completed inner electron shells with the maximum number of
electrons. Neither has a complete outer orbit however. Chlorine has 7 electrons and is seeking
one more electron to make a complete shell. This makes chlorine a very active element.
Sodium on the other hand has only one electron in its outer shell. It would gladly give up this
electron to any atom that has a strong desire for it. This also makes sodium an active element.
If we could get the sodium atom and the chlorine atom to come together and make the transfer of
a single electron, both would be happy. When these two elements contact each other, that is exactly
what happens; two violently reactive elements combine to form a new, extremely stable compound.
B -44
SODIUM CHLORIDE
(table salt)
A few other examples of compounds formed this way are: HCl, KI, H2S and HNO3. With these
last two, H2S and HNO3, you will notice that it is possible for several atoms to get into this
exchanging act, if all of them will benefit by becoming more stable electrically.
In nature, what we find is that elements that have highly reactive atoms, exist in their uncombined
form only as long as it takes to find another atom that can be convinced to undertake an electron
exchange with it. When they find another compound already formed with a weaker element having
those desirable atoms, this highly reactive element can force the weaker element to change places
with it. In this sense, justice doesn't exist in the chemical world.
B -45
MOLECULES
We have learned that atoms of two different elements can combine to form a molecule of a new
compound, but a molecule can also be formed from atoms of the same element in some cases.
Certain elements, particularly those which are gases commonly combine with themselves to form
molecules. Examples of this are: H2, O2 and C12. The subscript "2" indicates that two atoms
have formed a molecule. Let us look at hydrogen to explain this.
Hydrogen Hydrogen
If these two atoms join together, they can share these two electrons and each will then have a
stable
outer shell of 2 electrons.
H2
(Hydrogen Gas)
B -46
VALENCE
The tendency of elements to form compounds through a shift of electronic structures is known as
valence. Let us examine two methods of attaining a stable electronic distribution.
A. Electrovalence
As we said earlier, under some conditions, an atom can lose one or more electrons, which leaves
the atom with a corresponding number of tiny positive electrical charges. Other atoms can gain one or
more electrons in a similar manner which will give them negative charges.
These positive and negative charges are equal and are attracted to each other by electrostatic
action. Such atoms are said to be electrovalent and the term valence is used to describe the
number of such bonds. Usually the ionized atoms of metals have positive charges (positive valence)
and the symbols could be written as follows:
+ + ++ +++
Na , K , Ca , Al
(Cations)
On the other hand, the atoms of nonmetals tend to become negatively charged or have negative
valence. For example:
- -- ---
Cl , O , S
(Anions)
Electrovalent compounds are thus formed when anions and cations combine in the correct number
to satisfy their valences. See Table B-3, Table of Electrovalence
B. Covalence
On the basis of electrovalence we would expect an element like carbon to be fairly inert and form
few compounds; yet, this element forms more compounds than all the other elements put
together.
Obviously, there must be some other valence mechanism.
B -47
Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell. Hydrogen has one electron in its only shell. If
four hydrogen atoms were to approach a carbon atom so closely, that the shell of each hydrogen
atom penetrated into the outermost shell of the carbon atom, the electrons in these interpenetrated
shells would then be influenced by the nuclei of both types of atoms. Both atoms could then
share these electrons. What we would have is a carbon atom sharing one electron with each of
four hydrogen atoms. In effect, the hydrogen electron would be spending part of its time orbiting the
hydrogen nucleus and part of its time orbiting the carbon nucleus.
Methane - Covalent Bonding
In methane, each hydrogen atom now has two electrons, giving it the stable helium configuration in
its orbits, and eight electrons are now associated with the carbon atom giving it the stable
neon configuration. Both types of atoms have benefited by attaining a stable structure through this
sharing process. Covalent compounds are thus formed by the sharing of pairs of electrons.
When only one pair of electrons is shared by the same two atoms, the bond is said to be a single
bond. When two pairs are shared, we describe this as a double bond and with three pairs, a triple
bond.
B -48
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Most compounds which follow the covalent method of bonding just described and contain the
element carbon, are, or have been at some time, part of the earth’s life process. These are said to
be organic compounds.
Compounds which do not fit into this category are labeled inorganic. For
example: Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds

CH4 HCl
C2H2 Na2SO4
C6H5OH NH40H
NaC2H3O4 AgNO3
RADICALS
In many chemical compounds there are clusters of elements which behave as if they were a single
element; such a group of elements is known as a radical.
B -49
Radicals exhibit some of the characteristics of ions, in that they all have an excess or a deficiency of
electrons, causing the radical to posses an electrical charge. They will therefore combine with other
ions or radicals to form compounds.
Common examples of radicals are:

+ -
NH4 ammonium NO 2 nitrite
- --
C2H3O2 acetate CO3 carbonate
- --
HCO3 bicarbonate SO4 sulphate
- --
OH hydroxide SO3 sulphite
-
NO 3 nitrate
Since ammonium is a positive radical, it will form compounds with all negative ions or radicals.
For example:
NH4Cl ammonium chloride

(NH4)2CO3 ammonium carbonate
Note that it takes two ammonium radicals to satisfy the electrical charge (valence) of the
carbonate radical.
If you look carefully at the names and formulas of the radicals you will notice that the suffixes -"ite"
and "-ate" occur repeatedly. These suffixes are used only with radicals containing oxygen atoms.
Notice that "-ite" radicals always contains fewer oxygen atoms that "-ate" radicals.
For example:
-- --
Sulphite SO3 Sulphate SO4
- -
Nitrite NO2 Nitrate NO3
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
When we were discussing atoms, we said that the relative mass of one atom compared to another
is
known as its atomic weight. We also said that the elements relative mass must be the average of
its
B -50
mass, taking into account the abundance of natural isotopes found.
Table B-3 is a list of International Relative Atomic Weights scaled to the relative atomic mass of
carbon as 12.
International Relative Atomic Weights

Actinium Ac 227 ** Holmium Ho 164.93032 Rhenium Re 186.207
Aluminum Al 26.981538 Hydrogen H 1.00794 Rhodium Rh 102.90550
Americium Am 243 Indium In 114.818 Rubidium Rb 85.4678
Antimony Sb 121.760 Iodine I Ruthenium Ru 101.07
Argon Ar 39.948 126.90447 Rutherfordium Rf 267
Arsenic As 74.92160 Iridium Ir 192.217 Samarium Sm 150.36
Astatine At 210 Iron Fc Scandium Sc 44.955910
Barium Ba 137.327 55.845 Selenium Se 78.96
Berkelium Bk 247 Krypton Kr 3.80 Seaborgium Sg 266
Beryllium Be 9.012182 Lanthanum La 138.9055 Silicon Si 28.0855
Bismuth Bi 208.98038 Lawrencium Lr 262 Silver Ag 107.8682
Bohrium Bh 264 Lead Pb 207.2 Sodium Na 22.989770
Boron B 10.811 Lithium Li 6.941 Strontium Sr 87.62
Bromine Br 79.904 Lutetium Lu 174.967 Sulfur S 32.065
Cadmium Cd 112.411 Magnesium M 24.3050 Tantalum Ta 180.9479
Calcium Ca 40.078 Manganese Mn 54.938049 Technetium Tc 98
Californium Cf 251 Meitnerium Mt 268 Tellurium Te 127.60
Carbon C 12.0107 Mendelevium Md 258 Terbium Tb 158.92534
Cerium Cc 140.116 Mercury Hg 200.59 Thallium TI 204.3833
Cesium CS 132.9054 Molybdenum Mo 95.94 Thorium Th 232.0381
Chlorine C l 35.453 Neodymium Nd 144.24 Thulium Tm 168.93421
Chromium Cr 51.9961 Neon Ne 20.1797 Tin Sn 118.710
Cobalt Co 58.933200 Neptunium Np 237 Titanium Ti 47.867
Copper Cu 63.546 Nickel Ni 58.6934 Tungsten W 183.84
Curium Cm 247 Niobium Nb 92.90638 Ununilium Uun 281
Dubnium Db 262 Nitrogen N 14.0067 Ununquadium Uuq 289
Dyprosium Dy 162.50 Nobelium No 259 Uranium U 238.02891
Einsteinium Es 252 Osmium Os 190.23 Vanadium V 50.9415
Erbium Er 167.259 Oxygen Os 15.9994 Xenon Xe 131.293
Europium Eu 151.964 Palladium Pd 106.42 Ytterbium Yh 173.04
Fermium Fm 257 Phosphorus P 30.973761 Yttrium Y 88.90585
Fluorine F 18.9984032 Platinum Pt 195.078 Zinc Zn 65.39
Francium Fr 223 Plutonium Pu 244 Zirconium Zr 91.22
Gadolinium Gd 157.25 Polonium Po 209
Gallium Ga 69.723 Potassium K 39.0983
Germanium Ge 72.64 Praseodymium Pr 140.90765
Gold An 196.96655 Promethium Pm 145
Hafnium Hf 178.49 Protactinium Pa 231.03588
Hassium Hs 277 Radium Ra 226
Helium He 4.002602 Radon Rn 222
B -39
To find the relative mass of any molecule or its molecular weight, one simply adds up the atomic
weights of each of the atoms in the molecule. For example:
1. HOCl
(Hypochlorous Acid)
Molecular weight = H + O + Cl
= 1.008 + 15.999 + 35.453
= 52.460
2. FeSO4 (Ferrous Sulphate)
Molecular weight = Fe + S + 4 (O)

= 55.847 + 32.064 + 4 (15.999)
= 151.907
3. Ca(OH)2 (Hydrated
Lime)
Molecular weight = Ca + 2 (O + H)
= 40.08 + 2 (15.999 + 1.008)
= 74.094
Since these weights are only relative masses, they have no units. However, the proportions of each
atom which combine to form a molecule are always the same. For example, HCl, hydrochloric
acid will always contain 1.008 parts by weight of hydrogen and 35.453 parts by weight of chlorine.
If the parts or units we choose are grams, HCl will always contain 1.008 grams hydrogen and
35.453 grams of chlorine in every 36.461 grams of HCl. In this way we can express the relative
masses of atoms as gram atomic weights and their combined weights as gram molecular weights.
These terms will become especially important to us later when we discuss the preparation of standard
solutions.
NAMING COMPOUNDS
Binary Compounds
B -38
Binary compounds are those which are made up of two elements; simple examples are the salts
NaCl and KCl. The names of these compounds consist of the names of the two elements, the positive
element first, with the ending of the second element changed to "ide".
eg:
NaCl - sodium chloride
KCl - potassium chloride
If the metal has two different oxidation numbers (valences) this is indicated by the use of the suffix "-
ous" for the lower or weaker example and "-ic" for the highest or stronger one.
eg:
FeCl2 - ferrous chloride

FeCl3 - ferric chloride
Occasionally two elements can form into two or more compounds of different proportion and a
different naming system is resorted to. The name of the second element is preceded by a prefix -eg-
mono-(one), di-(two), tri-(three), tetra(four) etc. Oxides are good examples of this.
eg:
CO - carbon monoxide
CO2 - carbon dioxide
P 2O 3 - phosphorous trioxide
P 2O 5 - phosphorous pentoxide
Compounds Containing
Radicals
Naming compounds containing radicals is done in the same way as for binary compounds, except
that the name for the radical is used rather than the names of its component elements
eg:
CaCO3 - calcium carbonate
Na2SO4 - sodium sulfate
NH4Cl - ammonium chloride
B -39
KOH - potassium hydroxide
Fe(OH)2 - ferrous hydroxide
Fe(OH)3 - ferric hydroxide
Acids
Binary acids are named using the prefix "hydro-" in front of the name of the negative element,
followed by the suffix "-ic".
eg:
HF - hydrofluoric acid
HCl - hydrochloric acid
HBr - hydrobromic acid
HI - hydroiodic acid
Many common acid molecules contain hydrogen, a nonmetal (negative element), and oxygen. Since
the amount of oxygen often varies, the name of the most common form of the acid in the series
consists of the stem of the name of the nonmetal with the suffix "-ic". The acid containing one less
atom of oxygen than the common form has the suffix "-ous". The acid containing one more atom
of oxygen than the common form has the prefix "per-" and the suffix "-ic". The acid containing
two less atoms of oxygen than the common form has the prefix "hypo-" and the suffix "-ous".
eg:
HNO3 - nitric acid
HNO2 - nitrous acid
HCl03 - chloric acid
HClO 2 - chlorous acid
HClO - hypochlorous acid
H2SO4 - sulfuric acid
H2SO3 - sulfurous acid
H3PO4 - phosphoric acid
H3PO3 - phosphorous acid
H2CO3 - carbonic acid
H2C2O4 - oxalic acid
H3BO3 - boric acid
B -40
SUBJECT: SOLUTION
PREPARATION OBJECTIVES:
The student will be able to:
1. Select the correct definition from a given list for each of the following items:
a. solute
b. solvent
c. normality
d. molarity
e. percentage composition
2. Calculate the weight in grams of a given compound required to make a litre of 3 normal
solution.
3. List the quantities represented in an indicated list of S.I. prefixes, by a given quantity in grams
B -41
SOLUTIONS
A solution consists of two components, a solvent which is the dissolving medium and a solute which
is the substance dissolved. The solute is dispersed as molecules or ions and the distribution of the
solute is perfectly homogenous throughout the solution. Common examples of solvent and solute are:
SOLVENT SOLUTE
water sugar
alcohol table salt
chloroform baking soda
vinegar starch
A concentrated solution is one which contains a relatively large amount of solute per unit volume
of solution. A dilute solution is one which contains a relatively small amount of solute per unit
volume of solution. The words "strong" and "weak" should not be used when referring to the
concentration of a solution. Strong and weak are terms that are more properly used to describe the
chemical activity of a substance.
CONCENTRATION
The concentration of a solution can be expressed in a number of ways. The units of expression give
an indication of the way in which a solution of this concentration would be made up. The most
common units of expression for concentration are:
1. Molarity
2. Normality
3. Molality
4. Percentage Composition
MOLARITY
B -42
The molarity of a solution is the number of gram molecular weights of solute per litre of solution.
"Gram molecular weight" is sometimes abbreviated as mole, so molarity becomes
Molarity (M) = Number of moles of solute

Litre of solution
A solution which contains a half mole of solute per litre of solution would therefore be a 0.5 M
solution. NORMALITY
The normality of a solution is the number of gram equivalent weights of solute per lit re of solution.
"Gram equivalent weight" is a new term and is often abbreviated as equivalent.
Normality (N) = Number of equivalents of solute

Litre of solution
The equivalent weight of a compound is found from the net positive valance of the compound. If
we take the valance of the positive (+) part of the compound and multiply it by its subscript we will
have the total number of positive charges available, or net positive valence.
net positive valence = (valence of + element) x (its subscript if
any) The equivalent weight of any compound is then found from the relationship
equivalent weight = molecular weight
net positive valence
Let us use solutions of NaCl and K2CO3 in water to illustrate this principle. To make up a 1 N
solution of either salt we will need 1 gram equivalent weight (equivalent) of each dissolved in 1 litre of
solution.
For NaCl, the net positive valence is 1 so the equivalent weight of NaCl is the same as its
molecular weight.
B -43
For K2CO3 however, the net positive valence is 2 so the equivalent weight of K2C03 is its
molecular weight over 2.
MOLALITY
The molality of a solution is the number of moles of solute per 1000 grams of solvent . Since the
solvent will not always be water, this method of expression is considerably different from molarity.
molality (m) = Number of moles of solute

1000 grams of solvent
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
This method of expression of concentration may use either percentage by weight or percentage
by volume as its units.
% by weight = weight of solute x

100 weight of solution
% by volume = volume of solute x

100 volume of solution
Percentage by weight is usually used in referring to solids dissolved in liquids. Percentage by volume
is normally used with reference to gases in gases, or liquids in liquids.
CONCENTRATION EXAMPLE
If we were given the task of preparing a 3 N solution of K2CO3, we must start with the fact that
3N = 3 equivalents of solute
Litre of solution
What we now need to know is the gram equivalent weight of K2CO3. Let's start out by finding the
gram molecular weight of K2CO3:
B -44
gm molecular wt K2CO3 = 2 (39.102) + 12.011 + 3 (15.999)
= 138.212 gm
Since the valence of K is 1, the net positive valence of K2CO3 is
2. gm equivalent wt of K2CO3 = gm molecular wt

net positive valence
= 138.212 gm
2
= 69.106 gm
Since, as we said earlier,
3N = 3 equivalents of solute
Litre of solution
we can now substitute
3N = 3 (69.106 gm)
Litre of solution
= 207.218 gm K2CO3
Litre of solution
We can now make up this solution by weighing accurately 207.218 gm of dried K2CO3, placing
this amount in a l-litre volumetric flask and diluting the solution to occupy exactly 1 litre.
SOLUTION PREPARATION
Where solutions of known concentration are used as standards in the analysis of other compounds,
the
preparation of these solutions must be undertaken with great care.
B -45
Atomic weights are given in the tables with great precision, and gram molecular or gram
equivalent weights can be calculated to at least 4 decimal places. It is our responsibility then to
see that only devices and procedures capable of continuing this precision are used in the
preparation of standard solutions.
To prepare a standard solution, approximate desired quantities of granular or powdered solute are
deposited in a weighing bottle, paper weigh-boat or aluminum weighing dish and dried for at least
o
one hour in a laboratory oven at 103 C.
After drying, the weighing bottle containing the sample is placed in a laboratory desiccator to cool
to room temperature in a dry atmosphere.
The net weight of the solute is then determined using an analytical balance capable of 0.1 mg
precision (0.0001 g). If any minor changes in the finished weight are desired, small amounts of
solute may be removed at this time and the sample redried and cooled.
The sample is considered to have reached stable weight when three consecutive desiccating and
weighing cycles results in a difference of less than 1 mg. The mean of the three weight values is
then taken as the weight of the sample.
When the desired final weight is reached, the solute is transferred, using a powder funnel, from
the weighing container to a 1 litre volumetric flask. A "rubber policeman" may be used to push the
last few grains of powder into the funnel. A stream of distilled water from a wash bottle is then used
to flush the weighing container and the powder funnel to dislodge and dissolve any stubborn powder.
The powder in the volumetric flask is dissolved in a small amount of distilled water by inverting
or swirling the flask. When all of the powder is dissolved, enough distilled water is added to bring the
level in the flask almost to the engraved line on the neck. The contents of the flask are then mixed by
inverting several times.
When the solution is considered to be well mixed, it is allowed to stand for sometime so that all of
the solution will drain back into the bottom of the flask. Then, using a fine-tipped wash bottle,
distilled water is added slowly to bring the bottom of the meniscus curve exactly level with the
engraved line.
B -46
After mixing the solution again by inverting at least twenty times, the solution must be
standardized against some known laboratory standard solution to prove its concentration. The proven
concentration of the solution is then marked clearly on the label of its container.
THE S.I. (METRIC) SYSTEM
The S.I. system of weights and measures is used in all laboratory work. The entire system is based
upon the length of the metre, a bar of special metal which is carefully preserved in Paris (see Math
unit for more recent definition). This bar represents one-ten ten millionth of the distance from the
equator to the North Pole. It serves as a standard for measuring distance, area and dry volume.
The unit of measure for weight is the gram. The units for weight, distance and liquid volume are
related, in that the unit of measure for liquid volume is the litre, and 1/1000 litre (1 millilitre) of water
at 39.2 F weighs one gram and occupies 1 cubic centimetre.
The system uses a variety of prefixes attached to these basic units in order to scale the units up or
down conveniently. A list of the common prefixes appears in Table 2-1.
TABLE B-4 Prefixes Most Commonly Used with

S.I.
Prefix Meaning Symbol
6
mega- 10 M
3
kilo- 10 k
B -47
deci- 10
-1 d
milli- 10
-3 m
micro- 10
-6 u
By our choice of prefix we can change very large numbers or very small numbers into convenient-sized
readable numbers. For example:
35 000 metres = 36 kilometres
0.0016 litres = 1.6 millilitres
0.0000032 grams = 3.2 micrograms
To change a number from one unit of the system to one with a different prefix, one simply moves
the decimal point to the right or left the correct number of places. Using the prefixes in Table B-5.
365 grams = 0.000365 megagrams

= 0.365 kilograms
= 3650 decigrams
= 365000 milligrams
= 365 000 000 micrograms
B -48
ADDENDUM C
GUIDELINES FOR CANADIAN

DRINKING WATER QUALITY
Summary of Guidelines for Canadian
Drinking Water Quality
Prepared by the Federal–Provincial–Territorial Committee

on Drinking Water of the
Federal–Provincial–Territorial Committee
on Environmental and Occupational Health
April 2002
The Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality are published by Health Canada. In order to keep
interested parties informed of changes to the Guidelines between publication of new editions, this summary table is
updated and published every spring on Health Canada’s website (www.hc-sc.gc.ca/waterquality). The April 2002
“Summary of Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality” supercedes all previous versions, including that
contained in the published booklet.
Membership of the Federal–Provincial–Territorial Committee on Drinking

Water and Secretariat
Provincial and Territorial

Representatives
Alberta Department of Environment Mr. Karu Chinniah
British Columbia Ministry of Health Planning Mr. Barry Boettger
Manitoba Department of Conservation Mr. Don Rocan
New Brunswick Department of Health and Wellness Mr. Ivan Brophy
Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Environment Mr. Martin Goebel
Northwest Territories Department of Health and Social Services Mr. Duane Fleming
Nova Scotia Department of Environment and Labour Mr. David Briggins
Nunavut Territory Department of Health and Social Services Mr. Bruce Trotter
Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy Mr. Adam Socha
Prince Edward Island Department of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Environment Mr. George Somers
Québec Ministère de l’Environnement Ms. Hélène Tremblay
Saskatchewan Department of the Environment Mr. Thon Phommavong
Yukon Territory Department of Health and Social Services Ms. Patricia Brooks
Federal
Representatives
Health Canada Ms. Michèle Giddings
Environment Canada Ms. Connie Gaudet
Liaison Officers
Dr. Jim Popplow Federal–Provincial–Territorial Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health
Mr. Tim Macaulay Canadian Advisory Council on Plumbing
Committee Secretary
Health Canada (Water Quality and Health Bureau, Safe Environments Programme,
Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch) Mr. David Green
1
Summary of Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality (04/02) Safe Environments Programme
Federal–Provincial–Territorial Committee on Drinking Water Health Canada
New, Revised and Reaffirmed Guidelines
New, revised and reaffirmed guidelines for chemical, physical and microbiological parameters are presented in
Table 1.
Table 1
New, Revised and Reaffirmed Guidelines* for Chemical, Physical and Microbiological
Parameters since the Publication of the Sixth Edition of the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking
Water Quality
Guideline Previous guideline Year
Parameter (mg/L) (mg/L) approved
Chemical and Physical Parameters
Aluminum 0.1** None 1998
Antimony IMAC 0.006 None 1997
Bromate IMAC 0.01 None 1998
Cyanobacterial toxins 0.0015 None 2002
(as Microcystin-LR)
Fluoride MAC 1.5 MAC 1.5 1996
Formaldehyde None required None 1997
– see Table 3
Uranium IMAC 0.02 MAC 0.1 1999
Microbiological Parameters
Bacteria *** Ongoing
Protozoa *** Ongoing
Viruses *** Ongoing
* MAC = maximum acceptable concentration; IMAC = interim maximum acceptable concentration.

** Refer to note 1 in Table 2.
*** Refer to section on Summary of Guidelines for Microbiological Parameters.
Summary of Guidelines for Microbiological Parameters
Bacteria (Under Review)

The maximum acceptable concentration (MAC) for bacteriological quality of public, semi-public, and private
drinking water systems is no coliforms detectable per 100 mL. However, because coliforms are not uniformly
distributed in water and are subject to considerable variation in public health significance, drinking water that fulfills
the following conditions is considered to conform to this MAC:
Public Drinking Water

Systems
1. No sample should contain Escherichia coli. E. coli indicates recent faecal contamination and the possible
presence of enteric pathogens that may adversly affect human health. If E. coli is confirmed, the appropriate
agencies should be notified, a boil water advisory should be issued, and corrective actions taken.
2
Safe Environments Programme Summary of Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality (04/02)
Health Canada Federal–Provincial–Territorial Committee on Drinking Water
2. No consecutive samples from the same site or not more than 10% of samples from the distribution system in a
given calendar month should show the presence of total coliform bacteria. The ability of total coliforms to
indicate the presence of faecal pollution is less reliable than E. coli. However, this group of bacteria is a good
indicator of quality control. The presence of total coliforms does not necessarily require the issuance of a boil
water advisory but corrective actions should be taken.
Semi-public and Private Drinking Water Supply Systems

1. No sample should contain E. coli. As stated above, the presence of E. coli indicates faecal contamination and
the possible presence of enteric pathogens; therefore the water is unsafe to drink. If E. coli is detected, a boil
water advisory should be issued and corrective actions taken.
2. No sample should contain total coliform bacteria. In non-disinfected well water, the presence of total coliform
bacteria in the absence of E. coli indicates the well is prone to surface water infiltration and therefore at risk of
faecal contamination. In disinfected water systems, the presence of total coliform bacteria indicates a failure in
the disinfection process. In both disinfected and non-disinfected systems, total coliform detection may also
indicate the presence of biofilm in the well or plumbing system. The degree of response to the presence of total
coliform bacteria, in the absence of E. coli, may be site specific and can vary between jurisdictions.
Protozoa (Under Review)

Numerical guidelines for the protozoa Giardia and Cryptosporidium are not proposed at this time. Routine
methods available for the detection of protozoan cysts and oocysts suffer from low recovery rates and do not provide
any information on their viability or human infectivity. Nevertheless, until better monitoring data and information on
the viability and infectivity of cysts and oocysts present in drinking water are available, measures to reduce the risk
of illness as much as possible should be implemented. If viable, human-infectious cysts or oocysts are present or
suspected to be present in source waters or if Giardia or Cryptosporidium has been responsible for past waterborne
outbreaks in a community, a treatment regime and a watershed or wellhead protection plan (where feasible) or other
measures known to reduce the risk of illness should be implemented.
Viruses (Under Review)

Numerical guidelines for human enteric viruses are not proposed at this time. There are more than 120 types of
human enteric viruses, many of which are non-culturable. Testing is complicated, expensive, not available for all
viruses, and beyond the capabilities of most laboratories involved in routine water quality monitoring. The best
means of safeguarding against the presence of human enteric viruses are based upon the application of adequate
treatment and the absence of faecal indicator organisms, such as Escherichia coli.
Boil Water Advisories

General guidance on the issuing and rescinding of boil water advisories is provided. In the event of an advisory,
a rolling boil for 1 minute is considered adequate.
Summary of Guidelines for Chemical and Physical Parameters
Parameters with Guidelines

Guidelines for all chemical and physical parameters, including all new, revised and reaffirmed maximum
acceptable concentrations (MACs), interim maximum acceptable concentrations (IMACs) and aesthetic objectives
(AOs), are listed in Table 2. For more information on the drinking water guideline for any particular compound,
please refer to the Supporting Documentation for the parameter of concern.
3
Table 2
Summary of Guidelines for Chemical and Physical Parameters
MAC IMAC AO
Parameter (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
aldicarb 0.009
aldrin + dieldrin 0.0007
aluminum 1
antimony 0.006 2
arsenic 0.025
atrazine + metabolites 0.005
azinphos-methyl 0.02
barium 1.0
bendiocarb 0.04
benzene 0.005
benzo[a]pyrene 0.00001
boron 5
bromate 0.01
bromoxynil 0.005
cadmium 0.005
carbaryl 0.09
carbofuran 0.09
carbon tetrachloride 0.005
chloramines (total) 3.0
chloride 250
chlorpyrifos 0.09
chromium 0.05
colour 15 TCU 4
copper 2 1.0
cyanazine 0.01
cyanide 0.2
cyanobacterial toxins (as microcystin-LR) 3 0.0015
diazinon 0.02
dicamba 0.12
dichlorobenzene, 1,2- 5 0.20 0.003
dichlorobenzene, 1,4- 5 0.005 0.001
dichloroethane, 1,2- 0.005
dichloroethylene, 1,1- 0.014
dichloromethane 0.05
dichlorophenol, 2,4- 0.9 0.0003
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4- (2,4-D) 0.1
diclofop-methyl 0.009
dimethoate 0.02
dinoseb 0.01
diquat 0.07
diuron 0.15
ethylbenzene 0.0024
fluoride 6 1.5
glyphosate 0.28
4
MAC IMAC AO
Parameter (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
iron 0.3
lead 2 0.010
malathion 0.19
manganese 0.05
mercury 0.001
methoxychlor 0.9
metolachlor 0.05
metribuzin 0.08
monochlorobenzene 0.08 0.03
nitrate 7 45
nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) 0.4
odour Inoffensive
paraquat (as dichloride) 0.01 8
parathion 0.05
pentachlorophenol 0.06 0.030
pH 6.5–8.5 9
phorate 0.002
picloram 0.19
selenium 0.01
simazine 0.01
sodium 10 200
sulphate 11 500
sulphide (as H2S) 0.05
taste Inoffensive
temperature 15 C
terbufos 0.001
tetrachloroethylene 0.03
tetrachlorophenol, 2,3,4,6- 0.1 0.001
toluene 0.024
total dissolved solids (TDS) 500
trichloroethylene 0.05
trichlorophenol, 2,4,6- 0.005 0.002
trifluralin 0.045
trihalomethanes (total) 12 0.1
turbidity 1 NTU 13 5 NTU 13,14
uranium 0.02
vinyl chloride 0.002
xylenes (total) 0.3
zinc 2 5.0
5
Notes:
1. A health-based guideline for aluminum in drinking water has not been established. However, water treatment plants using
aluminum-based coagulants should optimize their operations to reduce residual aluminum levels in treated water to the lowest
extent possible as a precautionary measure. Operational guidance values of less than 100 µg/L total aluminum for conventional
treatment plants and less than 200 µg/L total aluminum for other types of treatment systems are recommended. Any attempt to
minimize aluminum residuals must not compromise the effectiveness of disinfection processes or interfere with the removal of
disinfection by-product precursors.
2. Because first-drawn water may contain higher concentrations of metals than are found in running water after flushing, faucets
should be thoroughly flushed before water is taken for consumption or analysis.
3. The guideline is considered protective of human health against exposure to other microcystins (total microcystins) that may also
be present.
4. TCU = true colour unit.
5. In cases where total dichlorobenzenes are measured and concentrations exceed the most stringent value (0.005 mg/L), the
concentrations of the individual isomers should be established.
6. It is recommended, however, that the concentration of fluoride be adjusted to 0.8–1.0 mg/L, which is the optimum range for the
control of dental caries.
7. Equivalent to 10 mg/L as nitrate–nitrogen. Where nitrate and nitrite are determined separately, levels of nitrite should not exceed
3.2 mg/L.
8. Equivalent to 0.007 mg/L for paraquat ion.
9. No units.
10. It is recommended that sodium be included in routine monitoring programmes, as levels may be of interest to authorities who
wish to prescribe sodium-restricted diets for their patients.
11. There may be a laxative effect in some individuals when sulphate levels exceed 500 mg/L.
12. The IMAC for trihalomethanes is expressed as a running annual average. It is based on the risk associated with chloroform, the
trihalomethane most often present and in greatest concentration in drinking water. The guideline is designated as interim until such
time as the risks from other disinfection by-products are ascertained. The preferred method of controlling disinfection by-products
is precursor removal; however, any method of control employed must not compromise the effectiveness of water disinfection.
13. NTU = nephelometric turbidity unit.
14. At the point of consumption.
Parameters without Guidelines

Since 1978, some chemical and physical parameters have been identified as not requiring a numerical guideline.
Table 3 lists these parameters.
The reasons for parameters having no numerical guideline include the following:
currently available data indicate no health risk or aesthetic problem (e.g., calcium);
data indicate the compound, which may be harmful, is not registered for use in Canada (e.g., 2,4,5-TP) or is not
likely to occur in drinking water at levels that present a health risk (e.g., silver); or
the parameter is composed of several compounds for which individual guidelines may be required (e.g.,
pesticides [total]).
6
Table 3
Summary List of Parameters without Guidelines
Parameter Parameter
ammonia pesticides (total)
asbestos phenols
calcium phthalic acid esters (PAE)
chlordane (total isomers) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) 2
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) + metabolites radon
endrin resin acids
formaldehyde silver
gasoline tannin
hardness 1 temephos
heptachlor + heptachlor epoxide total organic carbon
lignin toxaphene
lindane triallate
magnesium trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4,5- (2,4,5-T)
methyl-parathion trichlorophenoxypropionic acid, 2,4,5- (2,4,5-TP)
mirex
Notes:
1. Public acceptance of hardness varies considerably. Generally, hardness levels between 80 and 100 mg/L (as CaCO3) are
considered acceptable; levels greater than 200 mg/L are considered poor but can be tolerated; those in excess of 500 mg/L are
normally considered unacceptable. Where water is softened by sodium ion exchange, it is recommended that a separate, unsoftened
supply
be retained for culinary and drinking purposes.
2. Other than benzo[a]pyrene.
Summary of Guidelines for Radiological Parameters
In setting dose guidelines for radionuclides in drinking water, it is recognized that water consumption
contributes only a portion of the total radiation dose and that some radionuclides present are natural in origin and
therefore cannot be excluded. Consequently, maximum acceptable concentrations (MACs) for radionuclides in
drinking water have been derived based on a committed effective dose of 0.1 mSv* from one year’s consumption
of drinking water. This dose represents less than 5% of the average annual dose attributable to natural background
radiation.
To facilitate the monitoring of radionuclides in drinking water, the reference level of dose is expressed as an
activity concentration, which can be derived for each radionuclide from published radiological data. The National
Radiological Protection Board has calculated dose conversion factors (DCFs) for radionuclides based on metabolic
and dosimetric models for adults and children. Each DCF provides an estimate of the 50-year committed effective
dose resulting from a single intake of 1 Bq** of a given radionuclide.
The MACs of radionuclides in public water supplies are derived from adult DCFs, assuming a daily water intake
of 2 L, or 730 L/year, and a maximum committed effective dose of 0.1 mSv, or 10% of the International
Commission on Radiological Protection limit on public exposure:
1 10-4 (Sv/year)
MAC (Bq/L) =
730 (L/year) DCF (Sv/Bq)
* Sievert (Sv) is the unit of radiation dose. It replaces the old unit, rem (1 rem = 0.01 Sv).
** Becquerel (Bq) is the unit of activity of a radioactive substance, or the rate at which transformations occur in the substance.
One becquerel is equal to one transformation per second and is approximately equal to 27 picocuries (pCi).
7
When two or more radionuclides are found in drinking water, the following relationship should be satisfied:
C1 c2 ci
+ + ...
MAC1 MAC2 MACi
where ci and MACi are the observed and maximum acceptable concentrations, respectively, for each
contributing radionuclide.
MACs for radionuclides that should be monitored in water samples are listed in Table 4. If a sample is analysed
by gamma-spectroscopy, additional screening for radionuclides that may be present under certain conditions can be
performed. MACs for these radionuclides are given in Table 5. MACs for a number of additional radionuclides,
both natural and artificial, can be found in the sixth edition of the guidelines booklet.
Water samples may be initially screened for radioactivity using techniques for gross alpha and gross beta
activity determinations. Compliance with the guidelines may be inferred if the measurements for gross alpha and
gross beta activity are less than 0.1 Bq/L and 1 Bq/L, respectively, as these are lower than the strictest MACs.
Sampling and analyses should be carried out often enough to accurately characterize the annual exposure. If the
source of the activity is known, or expected, to be changing rapidly with time, then the sampling frequency should
reflect this factor. If there is no reason to suppose that the source varies with time, then the sampling may be done
annually. If measured concentrations are consistent and well below the reference levels, this would be an argument
for reducing the sampling frequency. On the other hand, the sampling frequency should be maintained, or even
increased, if concentrations are approaching the reference levels. In such a case, the specific radionuclides should be
identified and individual activity concentrations measured.
Table 4
Primary List of Radionuclides – Maximum Acceptable Concentrations
Radionuclide Half-life t½ DCF (Sv/Bq) MAC (Bq/L)
Natural Radionuclides
Lead-210 210Pb 22.3 years 1.3 × 10-6 0.1
Radium-224 224Ra 3.66 days 8.0 × 10-8 2
Radium-226 226Ra 1600 years 2.2 × 10-7 0.6
Radium-228 228Ra 5.76 years 2.7 × 10-7 0.5
Thorium-228 228Th 1.91 years 6.7 × 10-8 2
Thorium-230 230Th 7.54 × 104 years 3.5 × 10-7 0.4
Thorium-232 232Th 1.40 × 1010 years 1.8 × 10-6 0.1
Thorium-234 234Th 24.1 days 5.7 × 10-9 20
Uranium-234 234U 2.45 × 105 years 3.9 × 10-8 4*
Uranium-235 235U 7.04 × 108 years 3.8 × 10-8 4*
Uranium-238 238U 4.47 × 109 years 3.6 × 10-8 4*
Artificial Radionuclides
Cesium-134 134Cs 2.07 years 1.9 × 10-8 7
Cesium-137 137Cs 30.2 years 1.3 × 10-8 10
Iodine-125 125I 59.9 days 1.5 × 10-8 10
Iodine-131 131I 8.04 days 2.2 × 10-8 6
Molybdenum-99 99Mo 65.9 hours 1.9 × 10-9 70
Strontium-90 90Sr 29 years 2.8 × 10-8 5
Tritium** 3H 12.3 years 1.8 × 10-11 7000
* The activity concentration of natural uranium corresponding to the chemical guideline of 0.02 mg/L is about 0.5 Bq/L.
** Tritium is also produced naturally in the atmosphere in significant quantities.
8
Table 5
Secondary List of Radionuclides – Maximum Acceptable Concentrations (MACs)
Natural Radionuclides
Beryllium-7 7Be 53.3 days 3.3 × 10-11 4000
Bismurh-210 210Bi 5.01 days 2.1 × 10-9 70
Polonium-210 210Po 138.4 days 6.2 × 10-7 0.2
Artificial Radionuclides**
Americium-241 241Am 432 years 5.7 × 10-7 0.2
Antimony-122 122Sb 2.71 days 2.8 × 10-9 50
Antimony-124 124Sb 60.2 days 3.6 × 10-9 40
Antimony-125 125Sb 2.76 years 9.8 × 10-10 100
Barium-140 140Ba 12.8 days 3.7 × 10-9 40
Bromine-82 82Br 35.3 hours 4.8 × 10-10 300
Calcium-45 45Ca 165 days 8.9 × 10-10 200
Calcium-47 47Ca 4.54 days 2.2 × 10-9 60
Carbon-14 14C 5730 years 5.6 × 10-10 200
Cerium-141 141Ce 32.5 days 1.2 × 10-9 100
Cerium-144 144Ce 284.4 days 8.8 × 10-9 20
Cesium-131 131Cs 9.69 days 6.6 × 10-11 2000
Cesium-136 136Cs 13.1 days 3.0 × 10-9 50
Chromium-51 51Cr 27.7 days 5.3 × 10-11 3000
Cobalt-57 57Co 271.8 days 3.5 × 10-9 40
Cobalt-58 58Co 70.9 days 6.8 × 10-9 20
Cobalt-60 60Co 5.27 years 9.2 × 10-8 2
Gallium-67 67Ga 78.3 hours 2.6 × 10-10 500
Gold-198 198Au 2.69 days 1.6 × 10-9 90
Indium-111 111In 2.81 days 3.9 × 10-10 400
Iodine-129 129I 1.60 × 107 years 1.1 × 10-7 1
Iron-55 55Fe 2.68 years 4.0 × 10-10 300
Iron-59 59Fe 44.5 days 3.1 × 10-9 40
Manganese-54 54Mn 312.2 days 7.3 × 10-10 200
Mercury-197 197Hg 64.1 hours 3.3 × 10-10 400
Mercury-203 203Hg 46.6 days 1.8 × 10-9 80
Neptunium-239 239Np 2.35 days 1.2 × 10-9 100
Niobium-95 95Nb 35.0 days 7.7 × 10-10 200
Phosphorus-32 32P 14.3 days 2.6 × 10-9 50
Plutonium-238 238Pu 87.7 years 5.1 × 10-7 0.3
Plutonium-239 239Pu 2.41 × 104 years 5.6 × 10-7 0.2
Plutonium-240 240Pu 6560 years 5.6 × 10-7 0.2
Plutonium-241 241Pu 14.4 years 1.1 × 10-8 10
* The activity concentration of natural uranium corresponding to the chemical guideline of 0.1 mg/L (see separate criteria summary
on uranium in the Supporting Documentation) is about 2.6 Bq/L.
** Tritium and 14C are also produced naturally in the atmosphere in significant quantities.
9
Table 5 (cont’d)
Rhodium-105 105Rh 35.4 hours 5.4 × 10-10 300
Rubidium-81 81Rb 4.58 hours 5.3 × 10-11 3000
Rubidium-86 86Rb 18.6 days 2.5 × 10-9 50
Ruthenium-103 103Ru 39.2 days 1.1 × 10-9 100
Ruthenium-106 106Ru 372.6 days 1.1 × 10-8 10
Selenium-75 75Se 119.8 days 2.1 × 10-9 70
Silver-108m 108mAg 127 years 2.1 × 10-9 70
Silver-110m 110mAg 249.8 days 3.0 × 10-9 50
Silver-111 111Ag 7.47 days 2.0 × 10-9 70
Sodium-22 22Na 2.61 years 3.0 × 10-9 50
Strontium-85 85Sr 64.8 days 5.3 × 10-10 300
Strontium-89 89Sr 50.5 days 3.8 × 10-9 40
Sulphur-35 35S 87.2 days 3.0 × 10-10 500
Technetium-99 99Tc 2.13 × 105 years 6.7 × 10-10 200
Technetium-99m 99mTc 6.01 hours 2.1 × 10-11 7000
Tellurium-129m 129mTe 33.4 days 3.9 × 10-9 40
Tellurium-131m 131mTe 32.4 hours 3.4 × 10-9 40
Tellurium-132 132Te 78.2 hours 3.5 × 10-9 40
Thallium-201 201Tl 3.04 days 7.4 × 10-11 2000
Ytterbium-169 169Yb 32.0 days 1.1 × 10-9 100
Yttrium-90 90Y 64 hours 4.2 × 10-9 30
Yttrium-91 91Y 58.5 days 4.0 × 10-9 30
Zinc-65 65Zn 243.8 days 3.8 × 10-9 40
Zirconium-95 95Zr 64.0 days 1.3 × 10-9 100
10
ADDENDUM D
CWMS WATER SUPPLY AND

DISTRIBUTION SHEETS
Community Works Management System
Technical Specifications
WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
General Remarks
The major objectives for Community Water Supply System maintenance are:
1. To provide the community with water that conforms to the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking
Water Quality and Department of Health Regulations on potable water quality.
2. To provide an adequate water supply for fire protection purposes as directed by
Government of the NWT, Municipal and Community Affairs and the Office of the Fire
Marshal.
3. To keep the system functioning reliably and operating efficiently.
4. To protect the capital investment.
5. To minimize annual operations and maintenance costs.
6. To ensure that there will be no cross-connections or back flow conditions permitted in
the system.
The maintenance of the Community Water Supply System shall meet the most current issue of
all applicable Federal, Territorial, and Municipal codes and regulations, such as:
1. The community’s Water Licence (issued by the applicable Water Board).

2. Public Health Act, Consolidation of Public Water Supply Regulations, RRNWT 1990, c.p-23.
3. Safety Act, General Safety Regulations.
4. Safety Act, Consolidation of Work Site Hazardous Materials Information System Regulations,
RRNWT 1990, c.S-2.
5. Community Bylaws.
6. Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality, Health and Welfare Canada.
7. National Fire Code of Canada, Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes, National
Research Council of Canada, AWWA Standards for public water systems.
NOTE: The maintenance of specific components of a particular section of the system shall meet the
requirements and objectives hereafter specified. However, all procedures outlined in an Operation
and Maintenance Manual (O&M) for the facility should be followed in addition to the requirements of
this CWMS Manual.
Open Reservoirs (Raw Water)
1. Synthetic liners shall be maintained to prevent leakage from or infiltration into the reservoir and
shall be of a material approved for potable water.
2. Water shall be free of polluting material (e.g. garbage).
3. Reservoirs shall maintain adequate capacity.
4. Organic growth (algae, grass, weeds or trees) in reservoirs shall be controlled. Herbicides
must not be allowed to enter the reservoir unless they are approved for potable water. It is
recommended that vegetation be controlled by mechanical/ hand means only.
5. Reservoir shall be completely fenced to prevent unauthorized entry and possible deliberate or
accidental contamination of water supply.
6. Subdrain systems shall be maintained to prevent groundwater from seeping into reservoir,
reduce hydrostatic pressure in the berms and prevent ponding in areas adjacent to the berms.
7. Public motorized vehicles (boats/snowmobiles) shall not be allowed on the reservoir.
8. Reservoirs should be checked twice a year for animal burrows. Burrows must not be permitted
in an earthen dyke.
9. Landscaping shall be kept attractive.
10. Freeze protection systems for piping shall be maintained in good operating condition. If a heat
transfer fluid is used for freeze protection, it must be non-toxic and fail-safe isolated
from potable water.
11. Pump inlet screens and reservoir overflows shall be kept clean and free of blockages.
12. Periodic inspection by divers should be scheduled.
Treated Water Storage
1. Water storage tanks will be constructed of or lined with a material approved for potable water.
2. Water storage facilities shall not leak.
3. Water reservoirs, tanks and standpipes shall be kept free of organic growth, corrosion
and sludge.
4. Exterior surfaces shall be kept clean and attractive and free of rust, scale or peeling
and chipped paint.
5. Water-level controls shall be maintained and kept free of rust, dirt, scale, etc.
6. Structural integrity shall be maintained.
7. Landscaping shall be kept attractive and shall not cover or hide any of the tank unless the tank
is specifically designed to allow fo r landscape cover or partial cover.
8. Integrity of all insulation shall be maintained.
9. Positive drainage away from storage facility shall be maintained to prevent ponding in
areas adjacent to the tank.
10. Freeze protection systems for piping shall be maintained in good operating condition.
11. Pump inlet screens and tank overflows shall be kept clean and free of blockages.
12. Tank vent screens shall be kept clean and free from blockages and ice and/or frost formation.
Intake Structures
1. Intake structures, wet wells, and screens shall be kept free of sludge, growths and debris.
2. Water intakes shall be maintained in a physical condition compatible with the
original installations.
3. Intakes shall be protected from ice blockage, damage and freezing.
4. Periodic diving inspection of intakes should be scheduled.
Wells
1. Well water quality shall be checked for changes in water chemistry or new contaminants.
2. Freeze protection systems and procedures for wells and supply lines shall be maintained.
3. Well structures and surrounding area shall be maintained to ensure positive drainage
away from the well.
4. Each well shall be used regularly to prevent stagnant water and the growth of organic’s in the
water.
5. The electrical system for the well pumps shall be maintained.
6. Well water shall be analyzed for chemical water quality.
7. The well head shall be sealed at all times.
Water Treatment
1. Water treatment plant operators should be trained and certified to the required level.
2. Water quality shall meet or exceed the requirements of the Public Health Act, the Water
Licence, and the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.
3. Raw and treated water shall be tested regularly in accordance with the Public Health Act, the
Water License and the facility O&M Manual.
4. Water treatment equipment shall be capable of controlled and accurate addition of chemicals.
5. Any contamination from chemical solutions shall be removed from the equipment and work
area in a safe manner.
6. WHMIS regulations for chemical use, handling, storage and disposal shall be posted in a
conspicuous location and followed.
7. First aid kits shall be maintained and restocked in accordance with the Safety Act, General
Safety Regulations.
8. Test equipment shall be maintained in good condition.
9. The operators shall read and understand available water treatment equipment manufacturers
data on proper operation and maintenance located in the O&M Manual.
10. Water treatment and associated equipment shall be regularly inspected and maintained in
good, efficient operating condition in accordance with the O&M Manual and
manufacturer’s
recommendations.
11. All equipment shall be kept clear of corrosion, organic growth, scaling or sludge buildups.
12. Treatment equipment should generally not be left full of water and inactive for any
extended period of time as this may result in bacterial growth in the equipment.
13. Disposal of sludge and backwash wastewater shall be in accordance with all environmental,
public health and local bylaw regulations.
14. Freeze protection and water tempering systems shall be maintained.
15. Sufficient spare parts shall be maintained to prevent extended interruptions in the supply
of treated water.
16. Duplicate chlorination devices shall be maintained at all times, in accordance with the Public
Water Supply Regulations, in order to ensure that water is treated with out interruption.
17. Water test results, instrument readings, equipment maintenance and chemical usage shall be
recorded in accordance with the Public Health Act, the Water License and the facility O&M
Manual.
Heating Systems
1. Water heating systems shall be maintained and operated to prevent freezing of the water
systems and for optimal water treatment.
2. Building heating systems shall be maintained to keep building above freezing when
unoccupied and at a comfortable temperature when personnel are working in the building.
3. Heating systems shall be maintained to operate safely and efficiently at minimum costs.
4. An adequate fuel supply shall be maintained.
5. Building ventilation systems shall be maintained for a safe working environment. Adequate
combustion air for fuel burning equipment and humidity control shall be maintained.
6. Filters shall be maintained to maximize the efficiency of heating and ventilation equipment.
7. Fuel supply systems shall be maintained leak free to prevent contamination of the water
supply and the environment. Secondary containment storage should be used exclusively.
8. Alarm systems shall be maintained to warn of equipment failures which could result in
system freeze ups or overheating.
9. Oil burning equipment shall be maintained in accordance with applicable CWMS Building
Services Standards.
Water Mains
1. Water mains shall be kept clean, disinfected and free of potential sources of contamination.
2. Water mains shall maintain acceptable water tightness.
3. Note: For various pipe materials and pressures there are established allowable leakages for newly installed
mains. It is assumed that this allowance has not been exceeded in the original installation. An acceptable degree
of water tightness shall therefore not exceed the original leakage allowance by more than 20 per cent. Refer to
the system O&M Manual and obtain manufacturer’s recommendations on allowable leakage rates for specific
piping materials.
4. Water mains shall be capable of delivering the fire flows which satisfy the recommendations of
NWT Fire Code while maintaining a minimum working pressure of 140 kPa (Public Health
Act) throughout the entire system. Pressure should be monitored regularly.
5. Water mains shall not degrade the quality of water by adding rust, organic matter
or undesirable odours, tastes and colour.
6. Water mains will be constructed and maintained separated from sewerage lines and in
all other respects be in accordance with the Public Water Supply regulations.
7. For recirculating flow type water main systems, a minimum flow shall be maintained to
prevent freeze-up during low water demand periods. Minimum flow is established as part of
the system design but may be field adjusted due to changes in pipe insulation, water
temperature, exterior temperature, ground temperature, and demand.
8. The use of water main systems using bleeders into the sewer main system (at access vaults)
for freeze protection of non-circulating type water main systems are discouraged, however,
where utilized ensure that system is not a source of potential contamination of the water
system through accidental or intentional acts. Air gaps and/or backflow preventer must be
incorporated into bleeders and must be maintained.
9. For non-recirculating type water main systems using bleeders into the sewer main system,
bleeder control valves shall be field set to maintain the minimum flow to prevent freeze
-up during low water demand periods and backflow preventer valves maintained to
prevent contamination of the water main.
10. All water control and monitoring systems shall be maintained for proper operation of the
water main system.
11. Water main temperatures shall be monitored.
12. Free residual Cl2 will be maintained for disinfection purposes (Health regulations).
13. Daily sampling shall be done to ensure adequate level of Cl2.
Buried Valves
1. Valves shall be maintained to be fully operational.

2. Valve indicators shall be clean and easily visible.
3. Valve boxes shall be clean and set at proper grade and angle.
4. Valves shall be protected from freezing and physical damage.
Water Pumps
1. Water pumps, piping and fittings shall not leak.

2. Pumping equipment shall be fastened securely to solid bases to prevent vibration.
Checks must be done for vibration which can cause serious damage to the pump.
3. Pumps not located in a heated building shall be protected against freezing.
4. Pump failure alarms shall be maintained.
5. Electric motors shall be maintained and/or serviced so that they operate at or near their
original efficiency and motor amperage draw condition.
6. Pumps shall be maintained and/or serviced so that they operate at or near their original
efficiency. This shall include inspection and adjustment of stuffing boxes and
glands, scheduled lubrication, and proper adjustment of water seals.
Loading Arms
1. Piping, fittings and seals shall be maintained leak free.

2. Water spillage shall be minimized.
3. Adequate lighting shall be maintained.
4. Site drainage away from truck-fill area shall be maintained.
5. Operation of truck-fill system and alarms shall be maintained.
6. Pipe insulation and jacket shall be maintained securely attached to the piping.
7. Arm heat trace systems shall be checked for operation and maintained in working order.
Access Vaults
1. Access vaults shall be kept clean and in good repair, including access seals and insulation.
2. Access vaults shall be kept dry.
3. Infiltration shall be minimized. Water buildup shall be removed immediately to reduce the risk
of contaminating the water mains. Freezing of water within the access vault may cause
damage to the vault or piping within, or prevent operation of the water or sewer piping.
4. Access vault inspection plates must be kept closed. Any piping leaks must be repaired
immediately.
5. Bollards to protect the access vaults shall be maintained to prevent damage to the vaults.
Hydrants
1. Fire hydrants shall be kept in good operating condition in accordance with the National Fire
Code of Canada.
2. Freeze protective measures such as the filling of hydrant cavities with food grade glycol shall
be maintained.
3. Proper hydrant flow and pressure shall be maintained.
4. Hydrants shall be maintained to an acceptable finish and appearance standard.
5. Location of hydrants shall be clearly marked year round.
Standby Generators
1. Standby electrical generating systems shall be maintained and tested to provide a

reliable power supply if line power is lost.
2. An adequate fuel supply shall be maintained.
3. Fuel Supply systems shall be maintained leak free to prevent contamination of the water
supply and the environment. Secondary containment storage should be used exclusively.
4. Control and alarm systems shall be maintained for reliable operation and to prevent
damage to equipment.
Water-Trucked Delivery
1. Water trucks and water mounted tanks shall be maintained to be functional on demand.
2. Water tanks shall not alter water quality.
3. Water tanks shall be free from structural damage.
4. Water tank plumbing shall operate in the manner intended.
6. 7 deliveries per week (water barrels), 3 deliveries per week (0 - 1400 litre tanks), 3 - 2
deliveries per week (1400 litre tanks and larger)
7. A scheduled water delivery should be implemented and maintained.
Water-Fire Protection
1. Water trucks shall accompany Fire Trucks to all fires.

2. The driver will be under the direction of the fire chief.
Recreation
1. Water will be required by the Recreation Department to flood ice hockey and
curling surfaces.
2. Water will be required for the swimming pool.
3. Maintain accurate water tickets for quantity of treated water used.
Meter-Insp./Replace/Repair
1. Truck water meters should be tested for accuracy once a year, simply by filling a water
tank to desired level and checking meter reading to tank level.
2. Truck water meters should be maintained, replaced as per manufacture’s specification.
Activity Activity
Code: Activity Description Code: Activity Description
 101 Water Trucked Delivery  109 Hydrants
 102 Water Sampling  110 Water Tempering (includes boilers, etc.)
 103 Water Treatment  111 Meter Inspection/Replacement/
Repair
 104 Water Reservoir  112 Water Meter Reading
 105 Water Intake  113 Water Fire Protection
 106 Pumps O&M Pumping Equipment  114 Water Recreation
 107 Water Mains  115 Water – Other
 108 Water Access Vaults
1. Facility: truck service
2. Crew Size: 3. Equipment: 4. Materials:
1 – Light Equipment 1 – Water Truck Water
Operator
5. Activities to complete
50 deliveries per day
6. Time to Complete each Activity

9 minutes per delivery
7. Quality Standard:
1 – 7 deliveries per week (water barrels)
2 - 3 deliveries per week (0 - 1400 litre tanks)
3 - 2 deliveries per week (1400 litre tanks and larger)

8. Work Method:
1. Using scheduled routes, water will be delivered in an efficient and cost effective manner.
2. Each delivery, including amount delivered will be recorded on the form provided.
3. The water truck will be returned to the parking garage full at the end of each shift.
Activity Activity
 101 Water Trucked Delivery  109 Hydrants
 102 Water Sampling  110 Water Tempering (includes boilers, etc.)
Repair
1. Facility: truck or piped
1 – Water Treatment Water sample Kit Water
Plant Operator or CW
Foreman
5. Activities to complete
As required
6. Time to Complete each Activity
The frequency of sampling and the number of samples required each time samples are taken
will vary depending on the population, water quality history, integrity of the system, complexity
of the system and laboratory services available. Contact the Regional Environmental Health
Officer to establish a sampling protocol for your community.
8. Work Method: Samples for bacteriological testing

1. Flame the faucet rim or pump spout with a match or lighter.
2. Let the water run for two minutes.
3. Remove the top from the STERILE sample bottle, fill until nearly full, and replace top tightly.
DO NOT RINSE THE BOTTLE FIRST. DO NOT LET ANYTHING TOUCH THE LIP
OF THE BOTTLE OR THE INSIDE OF THE BOTTLE CAP.
4. Fill out the sample form as instructed by the Regional Environmental Health Officer.
5. Send the sample to the laboratory as designated by the Regional Environmental Health
Officer.
6. Follow shipping instructions exactly.
Activity Activity
 103 Water Treatment  111 Meter Inspection/Replacement/
Repair
1. Facility: Water Treatment Plant
1 – Water Treatment Safety equipment and
Plant Operator or CW practices, disinfectant, record
Foreman forms and pen/pencils,
camera, hand tools, water
sample kit
5. Activities to complete 6. Time to Complete each Activity

Daily D 4.0 hrs
Weekly W 4.0 hrs
Monthly M 20.0 hrs
Semi-Annual S/A 6.0 hrs
Annual A 10.0 hrs
See O & M Manual
8. Work Method:
Prior to performing any maintenance ensure equipment is in a safe condition for this work.
This may include:
- Disconnecting power source and ensure it cannot be reconnected accidentally.
- Equipment is isolated from pressure sources then depressurized.
- Harmful chemicals are removed and flushed from equipment.
- Protective shields are in place.
- Fire extinguishers are available.
- Sources of ignition are removed from the area or turned off.
- Personnel safety equipment and clothing is at the site and used appropriately in accordance with
WHIMS and the GNWT Safety Act and General Safety Regulations.
- All safety procedures in the GNWT Safety Act and General Safety Regulations and O&M manual or
manufacturer’s instructions are followed.
Follow O&M manual and equipment manufacturer’s recommended procedures where manuals exist.
Work Method Continued:
General
D 1. Perform walk through of entire facility, check operation of all equipment, note
any problems, initiate corrective action as required.
D 2. Check all equipment for leaks and clean up any spilled fluid.
D 3. Check temperature of raw water into the building (when raw water pump is running).
Record results.
D 4. Check reading of meter for raw water entering the facility. Record results.
D 5. Check reading of meter for treated water leaving facility. Record results.
D 6. Check wet well level.
D 7. Check all pressure gauges and site gauges, and record all
readings. D 8. Check control panels for alarms and perform lamp test
for all lamps.
D 9. Test treated water for total and free chlorine residual and record readings.
D 10. Check all water treatment chemical feed systems, including flexible chemical injection
tubing, connections and injectors, for leaks, blockages and proper operation. Clean
or repair as required.
D 11. Maintain water test equipment in clean operable condition in accordance
with manufacturer’s instructions.
D 12. Check and record levels in chemical solution tanks and prepare more solution as
required.
D 13. Check that building is secure and locked.
D 14. Check all floor and equipment drains.
D 15. Check chlorine system injection rate (pulse and stroke for liquid solution type; gas
is by unit volume); record readings and chemical solution strengths.
D 16. Check all chemical feed pumps for proper operation. Service when required.
Record pump settings and reasons for changing settings.
W 17. Check automatic control systems, ensure proper operation of all
equipment. W 18. Check all alarms for proper operation.
W 19. Check all safety guards are securely in place.
W 20. Check operation of pump control valves, air relief valves, pressure gauges,
etc. M 21. Clean chlorine chemical mixing tank.
M 22. Clean chemical pump heads by flushing with clean, warm water.
M 23. Check all gauges, sensors, control switches and recording devices for
proper operation.
M 24. Check all flow control systems (electronic, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic) for
proper operation.
M 25. Wash floor and clean equipment, piping and tanks, etc.
M 26. Service all control valves in accordance with manufacturer=s maintenance
procedures.
M 27. Check and replace all burned out lights.

M 28. Check valves to ensure they are in the proper position - normally open,
normally closed, or modulating properly (use a check list and record positions).
M 29. Check, service and operate all valves (isolation, modulation, flow control) for
proper operation.
M 30. Check for proper storage of treatment chemicals.
M 31. Check that WHMIS sheets are available for all chemicals, are complete and are in
a visible location.
S/A 32. Clean deposits from orifices, valves and strainers. Inspect and repair
injectors. S/A 33. Check safety equipment, note expiry date, and replace as necessary.
A/R 34. Sample treated water and submit to approved laboratory for testing of the
substances listed in the water licence.
A/R 35. Verify stock of essential replacement parts.
A/R 36. Re-order chemicals. Record on log sheet.
A/R 37. Check and restock first aid kit and keep in visible location.
A/R 38. Notify the Water Board, in writing, of any changes to the water treatment
system which would affect the community’s water licence.
A/R 39. Perform general outside clean-up and maintenance. Cut grass or remove snow
Filtration System
A/R 1. Backwash filters in accordance with the O&M manual if not done automatically.
Record day, time, flow rate, inlet and outlet pressures, and duration of
backwash. A 2. Inspect water treatment filter media and check for cracking,
unevenness, sludge
buildup or mud-ball formation.
A 3. Check interior surfaces of all water treatment filters. Repair or replace as necessary.
A 4. Check filter media depth - top-up as necessary.
A 5. Clean out wastewater sump.
A/R 6. Service pumps according to manufacturer=s recommended procedure and record on
log sheet.
A/R 7. Replace filter media when required or as recommended. Backwash twice before
putting into operation.
WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION S YSTEM
Activity Activity
Repair
 104 Water Reservoir  112 Water Meter Reading
Plant Operator or CW practices, disinfectant, record
Foreman forms and pen/pencils,
camera, water truck and hose,
tape measure or stick, hand
tools, water sample kit

Daily D 0.5 hrs
Weekly W 0.5 hrs
Monthly M 5.5hrs
Semi-Annual S/A 0.5 hrs
Annual A 30.0 hrs
See O & M Manual
8. Work Method:
D 1. Check water level as indicated by monitoring equipment. Record reading.
D 2. Check water quality as directed by the O&M Manual
D 3. Check that fence is secure and locked.
M 4. Measure water level and compare results to level monitoring equipment. Record
levels and any incidents.
M 5. Check for and remove garbage in and around reservoir. Check that
warning/information signs are in place.

M 6. Check for animal burrows, control as necessary. Check vegetation growth in and
around reservoir. Control as necessary. Visually check for algae, disturbed sediment
and any other condition that could be increasing turbidity and creating an excessive
chlorine demand. If the problem persists contact Environmental Health Officer.
M 7. Sample raw water and submit for bacteriological analysis.
S/A 8. Check raw water quality - spring and fall.
A 9. Check subdrain system for blockages and accumulation of water.
A 10. Check freeze protection system for proper operation. Check system failure alarms -
fall.
A 11. Check exposed liners for leaks or damage.
A 12. Check drain valves, drains, pump inlet screens, reservoir overflows and piping for
damage and proper operation. Clean as required.
A 13. For liners covered with gravel or earth, check for areas of uncovered
liner. A 14. Check aerator equipment, airlines and diffusers for damage.
A 15. Check berms for signs of erosion or failure. Repair immediately.
A/R 16. Clean reservoir by flushing and cleaning exposed areas of reservoir walls. On
open reservoirs this is not usually practical but may be required in special
circumstances.
A/R 17. Note or photograph any problems and initiate corrective action as
required. Follow O&M manual procedures.
Enclosed Reservoir & Storage Tanks

A 18. Check supports and ladders for condition and safety problems.
A 19. Ensure positive drainage is maintained away from structure.
A 20. Check tanks for deformation or damage and condition of exterior coating or
cover. A 21. Check condition of concrete in concrete reservoirs.
A 22. Check drain valves, drains, pump inlet screens, tank overflows, piping, breather caps
and vents for damage and proper operation. Clean as required.
A 23. Drain, clean and inspect tank liner or interior coating and surfaces. Remove rust and
other foreign matter.
A 24. Clean tanks as per manufacturers recommendations.
A 25. Check insulation. Initiate repair as required.
A/R 26. Re-apply/repair coating if necessary.
A/R 27. Note any problems and initiate corrective action as required.
Activity Activity
Repair
 105 Water Intake  113 Water Fire Protection
Plant Operator or CW practices, hand tools,
Foreman

Daily D .25 hrs
Monthly M 8.0hrs
Annual A 16.0 hrs
See O & M Manual
8. Work Method:
D 1. Check flow rates.
M 2. Backwash intake. Where feasible.
M 3. Check freeze protection systems for proper operation and check system failure
alarms.
A 4. Check intake structure, protective equipment, wet well, screen and intake valves.
Clean as required.
A 5. Check condition of intake. (May require divers).
A 6. Check intake pump and piping removal mechanism.
A 7. Check operation of level sensors, alarms and low level shut off.
Activity Activity
Repair
 106 Pumps O&M Pumping  114 Water Recreation
Equipment
Plant Operator or CW practices, lubricants, recording
Foreman form (flow, pressure,
temperature, maintenance),
hand tools.

Daily D 1.0 hrs
Weekly W 1.0 hrs
Monthly M 1.0 hrs
Quarterly Q 2.0 hrs
Annual A 1.0 hrs
(per pumping station)
See O & M Manual
8. Work Method:
D 1. Check operation of pump(s).
D 2. Check pumps and fittings for leaks.
D 3. Listen for abnormal noise while equipment is operating.
D 4. Check flow meters, record flow, and abnormal flows.
D 5. Check pump suction and discharge pressure gauges and record results.
D 6. Check operation of all controls.
D 7. Check pump packing glands & mechanical seals for abnormal leaks & adjust as
necessary.
W 8. Check lubrication reservoir if applicable, top up as required.

W 9. Check freeze protection devices for proper operation.
M 10. Check pump anchor bolts and pump base.
M 11. Switch primary duty (lead) and standby (lag) pump.
Q 12. Manually run standby pump(s) if the standby pumps are not regularly run as duty
pump.
Q 13. Check all electrical components and controls for operation, motor amperage draw and
voltage, and record.
Q 14. Check pump alarms.
Q 15. Clean pipeline strainers as required.
A 16. Check ancillary equipment such as foot valves, check valves, and control valves.
A/R 17. Note any problems a nd initiate corrective action as required
Activity Activity
Repair
 107 Water Mains  115 Water – Other
1. Facility: Water Distribution System
Plant Operator or CW practices, water main flushing
Foreman equipment, water test
equipment, water sampling kit.

Annual A 15.0 hrs
(per 100 M pipe)
Annual A 8.0 hrs
(per 100 M pipe flush)
See O & M Manual
8. Work Method:
A 1. Check, service and exercise all valves

A 2. Check for ground settlement over mains.
A 3. Check for signs of leakage along line.
A 4. Check all supports and insulation on above ground piping.
A 5. Check all freeze protection and recovery systems including heat trace and bleeder
systems.
A 6. Check all pipe corrosion protection systems and replace when necessary.
A 7. Check condition and operation of backflow preventer valves.
A 8. Flush water mains.
A/R 9. Bleeder flows should be adjusted according to water temperatures and minimum
flows required.
Activity Activity
Repair
 108 Water Access Vaults
Plant Operator or CW practices, hand tools.
Foreman

Weekly W .25 hrs
Monthly M .50 hrs
Annual A .50 hrs
(per vault)
See O & M Manual
8. Work Method:
Check for water in bottom of access vaults. Remove water and fix source of leak.
W 2 Check that locking devices are securely fastened.
M 3 Check that water and sewer piping and fittings are tight and secure.
M 4 Check covers over sewer cleanouts are properly installed with gaskets in
place.
A 5 Check interior and exterior surfaces of access vaults for signs of structural
damage.
A 6 Check coatings on interior and exterior. Repair damaged coatings.
A/R 7 Note any problems and initiate corrective action as required.
Activity Activity
 101 Water Trucked Delivery  109 Hydrants
Repair
Plant Operator or CW practices, lubricants, paint,
Foreman food grade glycol, Flow testing
equipment and documentation
forms.

Semi-Annual SA .25 hrs
Annual A 6.0 hrs
Six Year 6yr 2.0 hrs
(per hydrant)
GNWT FIRE CODE
8. Work Method:
Check for leaks (seals, joints) and signs of damage.
SA 2 Check operating nut for wear, rounded corners and function. Lubricate threads.
SA 3 Check connection caps, threads, and chains. All caps shall be in place. Caps
with rusted, damaged or worn threads that prevent easy removal shall be
repaired or replaced. Ensure chains are in place and do not prevent cap
removal.
SA 4 Check all valves for proper operation and exercise.
SA 5 Drain to the ground or pump out hydrant barrel. For self-draining hydrants make
sure they drain completely. Repair main valve or drain valve if water is present
prior to draining or pumping out.

SA 6 Check glycol level and concentration (for non self-draining units). Ensure glycol is
food grade. Adjust or replace as necessary.
SA 7 Check that hydrant locations are clearly identified under all conditions.
A 8 Flush hydrant with main valve and any outlet valves fully opened until water
runs clear.
A 9 Contact the Office of the Fire Marshal to confirm required fire flow requirements for
the community, fire code updates that affect hydrant maintenance, and arrange for
flow testing of fire hydrants. Record test results.
A 10 Inspect breakaway component of hydrant if possible.
A/R 11 Check for access obstructions. Remove or minimize
obstruction. A/R 12 Note any problems and initiate corrective action
as required.
A/R 13 Records of inspections and tests shall be retained for examination by the Office of
the Fire Marshal.
6 YR.14 Clean and paint hydrant.
Activity Activity
 102 Water Sampling  110 Water Tempering (includes boilers, etc.)
Repair
1. Facility:
8. Work Method:
Activity Activity
 103 Water Treatment  111 Meter Inspection/Replacement/
Repair
1. Facility: Water Truck, Water Distribution System
1-Light Equipment Hand tools
Operator, Water
Treatment Plant
Operator, CW Foreman
or Mechanic
This activity is used for any repair/replace of Truck Water Meter of House Water Meter
8. Work Method:
As per manufacture’s specifications
Activity Activity
Repair
 104 Water Reservoir  112 Water Meter Reading
1- Water Treatment Plant Light vehicle, Recording form
Operator, CW Foreman
or W&S Clerk

Monthly M .25
(meter)
This activity is used for monthly recordings of water meters in residential, commercial &
government buildings.
8. Work Method:
M 1 Record the reading from the Water Meter
Activity Activity
Repair
 105 Water Intake  113 Water Fire Protection
1. Facility: Truck Service
1- Light Equipment 1 – water Truck Water
Operator

As required
8. Work Method:
1. The designated water truck(s) shall accompany Fire Pumpers to all fires for the provision
of extra water as required.
2. The water truck driver will be under the direction of the Fire Chief during this activity.
3. Water trucks will be filled up before returning to the parking garage.
** Extra care during this activity will be required.

Activity Activity
Repair
 106 Pumps O&M Pumping Equipment  114 Water Recreation
1. Facility: Truck Service
1- Light Equipment 1 – water Truck Water
Operator

As required
8. Work Method:
1. Water will be required by the Recreation Department to flood ice hockey and curling
surfaces.
2. Water will be required for the swimming pool.
3. Water will be applied under the direction of the Recreation

Coordinator
Activity Activity
Repair
 107 Water Mains  115 Water – Other
1. Facility: Truck Service or Water Distribution system

As required
8. Work Method:
Any work related to the water supply and distribution system that is not covered by other
defined activities.
ADDENDUM E
ABC NEED-TO-KNOW
CRITERIA
ADDENDUM F
ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF
INFORMATION
Contacts & Additional Sources of Information
Internet
Water Boards in the NWT

Board Website
Mackenzie Valley Land and Water Board www.mvlwb.com
Mackenzie Valley Environmental Impact Review Board www.mveirb.nt.ca
Gwich'in Land and Water Board www. glwb.com
Gwich'in Land Use Planning Board www.gwichinplanning.nt.ca
Gwich'in Renewable Resources Board www.grrb.nt.ca
Sahtu Land and Water Board www.slwb.com
Sahtu Land Use Planning Board www.sahtulanduseplan.com
The NWT Water Board retains responsibility for the Inuvialuit Settlement Region.
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality - Supporting Documentation.

These documents represent the technical or scientific supporting documentation used by the
Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Drinking Water in developing and approving guidelines for
contaminants found in drinking water.
http://www.hc -sc.gc.ca/ehp/ehd/catalogue/bch.htm
NWT Water Quality Database

The NWT Water Qua lity database is a joint project between the departments of Health & Social
Services, Municipal & Community Affairs, and Public Works & Services of the Government of
the Northwest Territories located at: http://www.pws.gov.nt.ca/WaterAndSanitation/Index.htm
Chlorination
http://www.hc -sc.gc.ca/english/iyh/environment/chlorine.html
Workers Compensation Board of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut

http://www.wcb.nt.ca
1-800-661-0792 (in the NWT)
1-877-404-4407 (in Nunvaut)
Environmental Health Officer Contacts

Region Phone number
Inuvik Regional Health/Social Services Authority (867) 777-8184
(867) 873-2183
Stanton Territorial Health Protection, Health Promotion & Protection (867) 873-2940
(867) 669-6722
Hay River Community Health Board (867) 874-7135
REFERENCES
1) Water Treatment Plant Operation Foundation of California State University, Sacramento,
1983
2) Chemistry (Principles and Concepts) _ Sturchio M., Nechamk in H ., Dorfman 11 .

Prentice Hall Inc., 1966
3) Concepts in Chemistry _ Greenstone A.W., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc., 1970
4) Fundamental Principles of Bacteriology _ Salle, A.J ., McGraw _ Hill Book Co., 1973
5) Water Quality and Treatment _ prepared by AWWA Inc ., McGraw _ Hill Book Co.,
1971
6) Water Treatment and Examination _ Holden W.S., J. & A. Churchill, 1970
7) Physicochemical Processes for Water Quality Control Weber, W.J. Wiley _ Interscience
(Toronto), 1972
8) Filtration _ Dickey G.D., Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y. 1961
9) Water Supply and Treatment _ Riehl M ., National Line Association, Washington, 1962
10) Water and Waste Engineering _ Fair G.M., Geyer, J.C., Okun D.A., J. Wiley & sons Inc.,
N.Y. 1968
11) Handbook of Chlorination for Potable Water, Waste Water, Cooling Water, Industrial
Processes and Swimming Pools _ White E.C., Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 1972
12) Permutit Water Conditioning Data Book, The Permutit Company, 1961
13) Water Supply Engineering _ Babbitt H., Doland J ., McGraw _ Hill Book Co. Inc., 1955
14) Water Treatment Plant Design _ prepared by AWWA Inc., Air water Works Assoc. Inc.,
1969
15) Taste and Odour Control in Water Purification _ West Virginia Pulp and Paper _
Chemical Div. NY
16) Taste and Odour Control in Municipal Water Supplies, Redekopp A., Masters Thesis,
University of Toronto, 1960
17) Algal in water Supplies _ U .S . Department of Health Education and Welfare, Public
Health Service Publication No: 657, Reprinted 1962
18) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater _ American Public
Health Association Inc .
19) Ministry of the Environment, Ontario Drinking Water objectives, revised 1983
20) Ground Water & Wells, Edward E . Johnson Inc .

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Class I Water Treatment Plant Operator Program

Government of the Northwest Territories

FSC Architects & Engineers

FSC Project Number: 2003-0070

1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1-1

2.0 MICROBIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS .................................... 2-1

3.0 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS ......................... 3-1

4.0 PRE-TREATMENT ...................................................................... 4-1

5.0 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION ........................................ 5-1

6.0 JAR TESTS ................................................................................ 6-1

7.0 SEDIMENTATION ....................................................................... 7-1

8.0 WATER FILTRATION ................................................................. 8-1

9.0 IRON AND MANGANESE CONTROL............................................ 9-1

10.0 CHLORINATION....................................................................... 10-1

11.0 SAMPLING .............................................................................. 11-1

12.0 RECORDS ................................................................................ 12-1

13.0 SAFETY................................................................................... 13-1

14.0 EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS.................................................. 14-1

ADDENDUM B MATH TOPICS, DOSAGE EXAMPLES, CHEMISTRY AND SOLUTION

ADDENDUM D CWMS WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION SHEETS

ADDENDUM E ABC NEED-TO-KNOW CRITERIA

ADDENDUM F ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION

1.1 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

• Protect the public's health;

• Protect the environment; and

• Protect the public's purse.

Operating a water treatment plant is complex and requires knowledge of machinery,

1.2 CONTACTS AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION

You should remember these three things:

Table 1-1: Contacts and Duties

1.3 ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES

A certified water treatment operator is a professional. In

The multi-barrier approach is...

… an integrated system of procedures, processes and tools

As a safeguard, it is important for contingency plans to be in place to respond to incidents as

 Legislative and policy frameworks;

 Public involvement and awareness;

 Guidelines, standards and objectives;

 The development of science and technology solutions.

More information can be found at:

2. What do you do if you do not have sufficient time to complete

2. List the sources of bacteria in the water.

3. Understand the use of "indicator" bacteria.

6. Understand the importance of correct sampling procedures.

7. List three important criteria for effective destruction of bacteria.

This section should be read in conjunction with the

2.2.2 NATURE OF BACTERIA AND ALGAE

There are two basic shapes of bacterial cells;

1) Spherical forms called cocci,

2) Rod-shaped forms called bacilli,

Figure 2-1 A mixed culture of cocci and bacilli

2.2.5 SOURCES OF BACTERIA IN WATER

2.2.6 BACTERIA AND PATHOGENICITY

Figure 2-2 Sources of Contamination of Water

2.2.6.1 Heterotrophic plate count

As an operational guideline HPC concentrations should

Should elevated HPC not respond to increased chlorine,

Chlorine demand and turbidity should be part of diagnostic testing.

2.2.6.3 Total Coliform