NAgad

SOMALILAND GENDER
GAP ASSESSMENT
March 2019
Acknowledgements
Many organisations and individuals gave crucial cooperation in the implementation of this research. The research team would
like to extend their appreciation to those who volunteered their time to participate in various capacities, particularly interviewees
and focus group discussion participants.
This report is a production of and attributable to NAGAAD, with Oxfam providing funding and technical support and Forcier
Consulting implementing the research. Thank you to the staff from each organisation involved in the production of this report.
Contact: NAGAAD, Hargeisa, Somaliland. [email protected] www.nagaad.org
This report is not a legally binding document. It is a collaborative informational and assessment document and does not necessarily
reflect the views of any of the contributing organisations or funding agencies in all of its contents. Any errors are the sole responsibility
of the authors.
Supported by:
CONTENTS
Acronyms 4
1. Executive Summary: The Gender Gap at a Glance 5
2. Recommendations 9
3. Introduction 11
4. Indicators for Composite Gender Gap Index 12
5. Limitations 13
6. Research Findings 14
6.1 Economic Participation 14
6.2 Economic Opportunity 19
6.3 Political Empowerment 31
6.4 Educational Attainment 37

7. Conclusion 50
8. Technical Annex 51
8.1 Methodological Framework 51
8.2 Index Calculation 52

ACRONYMS
ABE Alternative Basic Education
CATI Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviews
FGD Focus Group Discussion
HAVOYOCO Horn of Africa Voluntary Youth Committee
GAVO General Assistance and Volunteer Organisation
IDP Internally-displaced person

IQS Integrated Quranic Schools
KII Key Informant Interview
MOEHS Ministry of Education and Higher Studies
MESAF Ministry of Employment, Social Affairs and Family
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MP Member of Parliament
MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
SHG Self-help Group
SOCA Somali Consultants Association
STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
SLWCC Somaliland Women Chamber of Commerce
TVET Technical and Vocational Training
UNFPA UN Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
4
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:
THE GENDER GAP AT A GLANCE
The purpose of this study, the first of its kind in composed of four sub-components: economic
Somaliland, is to generate evidence on and better participation, economic opportunity, political
understand the gender gap between Somaliland empowerment and educational attainment.
women and men. As detailed, the gender gap runs
deep, with women comprehensively disadvantaged The study followed a mixed-methods approach. These
compared to men in terms of economics, politics and methods included a desk review of existing databases
education. This is major cause for alarm, as not only are and related reports as well as legislative documents, a
women negatively impacted, but families, communities nationally representative household survey with 1,200
and the broader Somaliland are also missing out on respondents, six Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) with
much of the potential that can be gained by greater relevant stakeholders, and 12 Focus Group Discussions
inclusion and empowerment of women. It is hoped (FGDs) with female and male community members.
this research can draw attention to and illuminate the
realities of gender inequalities in Somaliland, not just The index is a relative assessment of the gap between
to inspire action, but also to guide interventions by all women and men. It therefore does not take into
stakeholders to improve gender equality for the benefit account levels of attainment, but instead the gap
of all. between these: a score of 0 signals absolute inequality
whereas a score of 1 indicates absolute equality. This
This study establishes a composite index to measure section highlights key findings of the report.
the relative gender equality or inequality in Somaliland
Gender Gap for Gender Gap for

Economic Political
Participation: 0.58 Empowerment: 0.02
Overall Gender
Gap: 0.45
Gender Gap for Gender Gap for

Economic Educational
Opportunity: 0.56 Attainments: 0.68
5
Somaliland Gender Gap Assessment
Women in Somaliland have less than impede their access to the job market in particular,
half the opportunities afforded to men while pervasive clannism in the allocation of jobs,
in other words favouritism over qualification is a
The gender gap index of 0.45 indicates major barrier to employment for both women and
that women are severely disadvantaged in all of the men. However, the impact on women is exacerbated by
four assessed domains, ranging from fewer economic lower levels of literacy and education than their male
opportunities to de facto non-representation in political competitors, a weaker social network, their perceived
decision-making processes to lower educational inability to work in physical jobs, and restrictive socio-
attainments. cultural norms that place women in the domestic
sphere.
Women are far less likely than men to
participate in the labour market Women’s employment is largely seen as a
contribution to or substitute for the male
Somaliland’s economy offers limited head of household’s ability to provide
opportunities for formal employment. Women are
twice as likely as men to be unemployed but Both women and men recognise the necessity of
actively looking for a job (30.1% of the female labour women’s financial contributions to household income
force, compared to 16.4% among men). This indicates and women who work outside the household are
that despite pervasive socio-cultural norms that place respected and admired for their tenacity in shouldering
women in the domestic sphere, plenty of women the double burden of housework and livelihood
are looking for economic opportunities outside the activities. However, interviewed men who were opposed
house. This gap is particularly evident among youth: a to women working outside the household drew upon
staggering 53.8% of women aged 15 to 24 are not traditional concepts of masculinity that consider the
in employment or education, compared to 24.4% of male role to be that of sole provider, often justified
young men in the same cohort. through narrow religious definitions, while raising
concerns that woman would end up earning more
A woman’s educational background money than her husband, thus challenging traditional
decides the type of employment masculinity. Female interviewees were more likely
accessible to her to link women’s employment to sentiments of self-
determination and self-actualisation.
Higher education increases the likelihood of labour
market participation: 89.0% of female survey Men are almost twice as likely to rise
respondents who have obtained tertiary education to positions of leadership in their
are participating in the labour market (either workplace
employed or looking for a job), compared to 94.0%
among men. On the other hand, while vulnerable A far higher 44.1% of male survey
employment is widespread among both women and respondents state they are responsible for
men in Somaliland’s largely informal economy, women supervising the work of others, compared to
with little to no formal education are particularly prone only 25.0% of females. Women’s challenges in
to vulnerable employment as own-account workers or accessing leadership positions are likely the result of a
contributing family members: 91.5% of female survey conservative upbringing that teaches boys how to lead
respondents who identified as self-employed do and girls how to support, qualitative data suggests.
not employ any other person on a regular basis,
compared to 80.3% of men. This accounts for the lion’s Legislation on maternity leave exists
share of female-owned small-scale businesses, which but is only accessible to the small
make up the backbone of the Somaliland economy but number of formally employed women
are particularly vulnerable to external shocks or family
emergencies. Access to maternity leave is deemed a powerful
incentive for women to seek work outside the
Clannism is considered the main household. Legislation mandates four months of
challenge in accessing employment paid maternity leave for both private sector and
opportunities, in addition to gender- government employees. Enforcement is weak,
specific barriers however, particularly in smaller companies, with
no repercussions for violating the law. Existing legal
Women suffer from the precarious labour market regulations also do not extend to the large number of
situation in general and gender-specific barriers that self-employed women.
6
Lack of access to finance is the biggest processes behind the scenes, often by advocating for
challenge for women to sustainably a certain male representative, while opportunities to
grow their businesses exert their constitutional right to political participation
are slim to non-existent.
While access to the formal banking system is low in
general, survey findings indicate that women face Widespread understanding of the benefits
greater challenges than men in accessing financial of women’s involvement in politics
means. For instance, men are twice as likely as women
to have an account at a financial institution in their An overwhelming 85.8% of survey
own name. The terms and conditions to qualify for a respondents (90.8% of women and 80.7% of men)
bank loan are often not suited to the nature of women’s agree that women’s political participation is
small-scale businesses, as in many cases they are beneficial for society, demonstrating that women
unable to provide a guarantor or fixed assets to offer as and men do understand the importance and benefit
collateral. Women’s organisation into self-help groups of including women in politics. It’s critical that this
(SHGs) and cooperatives has proved an effective model sentiment translates to practical and sustained action
to increase the productivity of business activities, to increase women’s participation in politics and
facilitate access to loan schemes for business activities broader decision making in society.
or emergencies, and provide a social support network
to discuss personal and business issues, according to Survey respondents understand the
information by the Somaliland Women Chamber of importance of a quota to increase
Commerce (SLWCC) and qualitative data gathered for women’s political representation
this study. Strengthening the negotiating power of the
SLWCC or creating cluster associations of SHGs has An overwhelming 84.1% of survey respondents
the potential to increase the formal representation of agreed that the introduction of a quota system would
working women. increase the number of female representatives.
This data, which has never before been assessed in
Data reveals a large discrepancy a nationally representative survey, is a testament to
between women’s de facto lack of continuous advocacy efforts by NAGAAD and others,
political representation and high levels and are an inducement for political decision-makers to
of community openness towards their act according to their constituents’ interests.
political participation
The gap between women and men’s
Women’s representation in decision-making bodies is educational attainment runs deep
currently limited to nine local council representatives,
one female member of parliament, and three female Women are significantly less likely to
ministers (two full and one deputy). This stands in reach higher levels of education than their male
stark contrast to reported high levels of community counterparts. The percentage of female survey
openness towards political participation. respondents who have received no education or
have attended only Quranic school stands at 50.7%,
Women’s barriers to accessing the political arena are compared to 25.8% of men. Only 9.5% of female
based on socio-cultural norms that relegate women’s respondents attended secondary school, compared to
influence largely to the domestic sphere, women’s lack 20.1% of men, and 13.5% of female respondents have
of social capital in a society where influence on decision- obtained a university degree, compared to 23.2% of
making is strongly liked to one’s family background and men.
clan affiliation, women’s lower educational attainment
compared to men’s, and the lack of financial resources A pervasive narrative links girls’ access to
for women candidates to afford campaign expenses. education with their future reproductive
Decisions on political participation are also often role
made in informal gatherings of men. In Somaliland’s
traditional society, where religious leaders and Despite recent progress in girls’ enrolment and
elders hold the ultimate decision power, women are retention rates, the value of girls’ education is
hesitant to back up dissenting voices, particularly persistently linked to their reproductive role, with
those of other women. the expectation that educated mothers will raise
educated children. Only a few interviewees saw
Women are perceived to support but not lead. girls’ education linked to the increased potential of
Women are known for influencing decision-making
7
an educated woman to enter the labour market and woman (i.e. cooking, tailoring, and henna art) further
pursue self-fulfilment through professional work. In limits women’s options to break into the labour
case of financial difficulties, boys are more likely to market, according to qualitative data collection. While
remain enrolled in school, as they are expected to be the highly informal nature of vocational training in
the breadwinner for their family later on, while girls Somaliland makes it difficult for both young women
are largely prepared to take on their role as wife and and men to access high quality programmes and find
mother. sustainable employment after completion, the majority
of programmes focus on male-dominated trades (such
Higher education remains inaccessible as carpentry, construction, electrical installation,
to many young women due to high mechanics, and plumbing) and are therefore deemed
costs and limited mobility off-limits for women.
In addition to high tuition fees and lack of scholarships, Lack of legislative framework and
the need to move to a different region (which might not enforcement to support gender equality
be allowed by the family) further impedes the ability
of young women to pursue higher education. This was Across the assessed areas, there is a distinct lack
shown by the qualitative data gathered for this study. of legislation and enforcement to improve gender
equality, such as the lack of enforcement on maternity
Youth opt for vocational training leave, no law guaranteeing equal pay for equal work
programmes in line with gendered regardless of gender, and a lack of enforcement
expectations, strongly limiting women’s relating to non-discrimination in hiring practices, while
options to learn a trade legislation related to education fails to address many of
the key barriers to women achieving higher education.
Pervasive gender norms with regards to which trainings Both providing the appropriate legal framework and a
and trades are deemed appropriate for young men commitment to enforcement a key to addressing many
(i.e. any physical craftsmanship) and which for young aspects of the gender gap highlighted in this report.
8
2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on findings in this report, a number of key accessible to young women and men. Advocacy
recommendations for future policy, programming and efforts should focus on breaking down the notion of
advocacy work can be made for women’s advancement gender-specific training programmes, countering
in the four sub-components as listed below: the narrative that women’s vocational training can
only exist for trades such as cooking and tailoring.
Overall Closing of the Gender Gap: TVET centres should be encouraged to promote
their courses to women and men equally, and
• Policies to address all gaps: policies must be encourage women to sign up for classes that bring
developed in close consultation with women the greatest chances of employment, including ICT
and men to address the many deeply embedded trainings.
gender gaps highlighted throughout this research. • Support alternative forms of childcare:
This ranges from national government policies, Considering that the existing legal framework
such as those that support women’s political, on four months of paid maternity leave is only
education and economic empowerment, down accessible to the small number of formally
to business and other localised policies that can employed women – in addition to weak
create a more supportive environment for women. enforcement – SHG members could be further
For example, a law to ensure equal pay for equal encouraged to coordinate childcare among
work should be a government priority. themselves, for instance by allocating funds
• Enforcement of policies: policies alone are towards access to available nurseries or rotating
not enough to address the deep gender gap in childcare duties among members.
Somaliland, with the maternity leave policy a clear • Strengthen enforcement of labour law
example where lack of enforcement undermines regulations regarding maternity leave: Civil
effectiveness. Therefore, attention must also be society organisations (CSOs), together with
paid to enforcement and ensuring accessible business and government sector representatives,
avenues of recourse for women when policies are should continue their advocacy efforts for the full
not followed. implementation of the existing maternity leave
• Strategic addressing of underlying barriers to regulations, particularly pushing for fines in cases of
equality: issues such as persistent stereotypes non-compliance. Simultaneous awareness-raising
that disadvantage women must also be campaigns should focus on educating women on
comprehensively addressed beyond the policy their rights in the workplace, including where and
realm, such as by championing women’s how to file a complaint in case of discrimination.
contributions to society, supporting women’s • Promote legal representation of women
leadership and influence in decision-making entrepreneurs by organising SHGs into cluster-
making, and openly stated commitments to level associations: A potential next step for the
reducing the gender gap. SHGs supported by NAGAAD and other civil society
or business organisations could be to organise
Economic Participation and Opportunity: SHGs into cluster-level associations in order to
increase the women’s negotiating power towards
• Equal access to TVET programmes: Research price-makers such as wholesale distributors, as
findings revealed a gender dichotomy in the well as to strengthen their representation in front
vocational training programmes available and of legal bodies such as the Chamber of Commerce.
9
Political Empowerment: allocation, to make them more comfortable

speaking up about issues other than those related
• Women quota now! Supported by the fact that to the domestic domain.
over 84 per cent of survey respondents recognise
the importance of establishing a political quota for Educational Attainment:
women, NAGAAD – alongside allies in civil society,
business and government sectors – must continue • Redefine the benefit of education for girls and
its advocacy for the introduction of a quota system women: In order to counter the prevailing narrative
for the allocation of political seats, in particular that links girls’ education to their reproductive role,
encouraging the three political parties to adhere action must be taken to demonstrate the broader
to their promise of adding a 30 per cent quota for benefits of education for girls and women, such as
the upcoming parliamentarian elections in March having well-known and respected Somali women
2019 and the adoption of a minimum 25% quota to champion the value of education, curricula
to be allocated in the parliament in the same revisions that outline the diverse benefits of
elections. To that end, NAGAAD should continue its women and similar actions.
efforts to support women’s electoral campaigns by • Establish scholarship funds for girls: Considering
providing leadership trainings as well as training that girls are more likely to drop out of school if the
on fundraising. family encounters financial problems, scholarship
• Support women’s political leadership and funds should be established to retain girls in school.
influence: Advocacy campaigns should focus on Similarly, considering that high costs of university
increasing awareness of the difference between education were named the biggest deterrent to
openness towards women’s participation and de higher education, university scholarship funds for
facto participation. Advocacy messages should young women should be established. Those could
increase awareness for the difference between be based on merit and, as the 2017-2021 Education
influencing a decision and making a decision Sector Strategic Plan stipulates, linked to
and encourage women to support each other professions in sectors with high growth potential.
in community meetings. In order to overcome • Support accommodation for girls and young
the perceived dichotomy of women- and men- women: ensuring appropriate accommodation for
specific topics, actors should conduct community girls and young women can help overcome one of
sessions with women to coach them on issues of the key education access barriers, particularly for
public governance, including financial resource rural and remote communities.
10
3 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study is to generate evidence on and success to date. Due to a lack of financial and human
better understand the gender gap between women and resources, lack of coordinating capacity caused
men in Somaliland. While previous research projects by frequent staff changes, lack of coordination
have pointed to gender discrepancies on various between MOLSA and the civil society sector, and little
levels, there are little to no recent research figures to demonstrated interest of male representatives to
substantiate those working assumptions with data. drive the agenda forward, government ministries have
generally not mainstreamed the Gender Action Plan in
Somaliland’s legal framework references women’s their own programmes.3
rights in several instances. The National Constitution,
endorsed in a public referendum in 2001, establishes A composite index was selected for this research
national commitments and obligations directly related because it is a powerful tool for civil society to hold
to the promotion of gender equality and women’s rights its government and other influential stakeholders to
and empowerment. Article 36 on the Rights of Women account. This study establishes a composite index,
states that “[t]he rights, freedoms, and duties laid based on up-to-date data, to measure the gender gap
down in the Constitution are to be enjoyed equally by in Somaliland composed of four sub-components:
women and men save for matters which are specifically
ordained in Islamic Sharia.”1 Yet the challenges that
women face are manifold, largely owed to traditional
narratives that confine women’s influence to the
domestic sphere.
Recent efforts to increase women’s visibility and Economic Economic

bolster their participation in public affairs include the participation opportunity
Somaliland National Gender Policy, introduced in
2009 by the then Ministry of Family Affairs and Social
Development (now Ministry of Employment, Social
Affairs and Family, MESAF) with funding from UNDP
Somaliland. Focusing on five thematic areas – i.e. poverty Political Educational
reduction and economic empowerment (livelihoods), empowerment attainment
education and training, health and reproductive
health, political participation and decision-making, This data allows for nuanced recommendations and
and gender-based violence – the content of the highlights avenues for targeted advocacy as well as
National Gender Policy was largely seen as “externally project implementation. A description of the indicators
developed” and driven by donor language.2 In 2012, that are assessed in each sub-component is given in
the document was further developed into the National Section 4. The Technical Annex explains measurement
Gender Action Plan with limited implementation aspects in greater detail.
1 The Constitution of the Republic of Somaliland (Updated translation from April 2015) http://www.somalilandlaw.com/body_somaliland_constitution.
htm (Last accessed on 20 January 2019)
2 NAGAAD/Ministry of Justice/Progressio Somaliland. Women’s Human Rights in Somaliland. 2010. http://www.progressio.org.uk/sites/default/files/
Womens-human-rights-in-Somaliland.pdf (Last accessed on 20 January 2019)
3 Ibid.
11
4 INDICATORS FOR COMPOSITE
GENDER GAP INDEX
This section outlines the indicators that were measured research into existing legislation. The index therefore
under each sub-component and subsequently fed into includes both de jure and de facto indicators. De jure,
the composite gender gap index. The indicators listed or rules-based, indicators capture concepts such as
below have been inspired by the indicators used in the legislative regulations on, for instance, inheritance rights
Global Gender Gap Index and have been selected for or parental leave arrangements, and their enforcement.
their relevance, context-appropriateness and feasibility De facto, or outcome-based, indicators capture the
in accordance with the methodology for this research views of both experts as well as survey respondents
assignment. To ensure that all indicators are context- of various types (assessed through the quantitative
appropriate, their selection has been informed by a household survey).4 For further information on the
desk review of relevant data reports. indicators listed below, the Technical Annex offers
definitions as well as explanations on measurement
The composite gender gap index comprises perceptions aspects.
survey data, expert assessments, and desk-based
Economic Participation Economic Opportunity

• Adult unemployment rate (as % of female/male labour • Existing law that mandates non-discrimination based
force) on gender in hiring
• Female/male youth not in employment or education • Access to child care
• Female/male high-skilled share of labour force • Ability of women to rise to positions of leadership
• Employers (as % of female/male labour force) • Percentage of women/men with an account at a
• Female/male rate of vulnerable employment financial institution
• Female/male rate of underemployment • Access to financial services
• Law mandates equal pay • Access to remittances
• Women’s ability to make financial decisions
Political Empowerment • Inheritance rights for daughters
• Women’s secure access to land use, control and
• Quota for women on candidate lists in national/local ownership and women’s secure access to non-land
elections assets use, control and ownership
• Women’s representation in Local Council
• Women’s representation in Parliament (Upper & Lower Educational Attainment
House)
• Number of female ministers compared to males • Female literacy rate over male value
• Number of female judges compared to males • Female net primary enrolment rate over male value
• Community openness towards women’s participation in • Female net secondary enrolment rate over male value
formal government structures5 • Female/male primary education attainment rate
• Women’s influence on decision-making at the • Female/male secondary education attainment rate
community-level6 • Female/male tertiary education attainment rate
• Percentage of individuals using the internet (female,
male ratio)
4 Information on the use of de jure and de facto indicators in the creation of government indicators can be found here: Government Indicators:
Kaufmann, Daniel & Kraay, Aart. (2007); Governance Indicators: Where are We, Where Should We Be Going?; The World Bank Research Observer. 23.
10.1093/wbro/lkm012.
5 Considering that this indicator is perception-based rather than a de facto figure, it is not included in the composite indicator but rather serves as
contextual information.
6 See above.
12
5 LIMITATIONS
In view of the chosen methodological approach for that influences people’s decision to participate in
this study, three potentially limiting factors shall be a survey is their perceived prospect of benefitting
mentioned. personally, such as through monetary rewards or
humanitarian aid. This bias was mitigated to the
• Response bias: Although phone ownership best of the enumerators’ abilities by informing
across Somalia and Somaliland is very high at respondents about the purpose of the survey and
an estimated 90%,7 the response bias is inherent explaining that their participation would not result
to CATI data collection and likely to play a more in any immediate benefits. In order to assuage
significant role in rural locations where – although any potential privacy concerns, respondents were
phone ownership rates are estimated to be equally informed at the beginning of the survey, and
high as in urban settings – phone connectivity throughout, that they have the right to refuse to
is weaker. During data collection, this bias was answer any question, that their personal details
mitigated by ensuring that each respondent was will be kept confidential, and that the survey is
called at least three times before marking them only conducted for research purposes to improve
as unavailable. Once a respondent was marked project implementation.
as unavailable, he or she was replaced by another
respondent that was selected randomly from the • Social desirability bias: The social desirability
Forcier phone bank. This phone bank includes effect is a likely occurrence in any kind of social
over 8,500 contacts for Somaliland with an even science research that asks about sensitive topics
distribution across the six regions, urban and rural where respondents might feel compelled to
settlements, and an almost perfect 50:50 gender appear as good citizens. In this survey, it appears
split. This large number of available contact that respondents have over-estimated their
numbers ultimately allowed for the full realisation literacy levels and over-reported school enrolment
of the targeted sample. rates, as results are much higher than estimates
in previously conducted surveys (i.e. UNICEF MICS
• Self-selection bias: The self-selection bias is 2011; Educational Statistics Yearbook 2013/14;
pertinent to any kind of social science research Education Sector Strategic Plan 2017-2021).
where participation is voluntary. Hence, the However, this does not compromise the validity of
realised sample for this project is limited to the overall research, but should be considered in
respondents who consented to partake in the relation to the various results presented.
survey. In addition, a commonly observed factor
7 Reliable statistics on phone ownership in Somalia can be found here: http://www.altaiconsulting.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/WB-MME_Final-

Short-Version_20170608.pdf (Last accessed on 14 Nov 2018)
13
6 RESEARCH FINDINGS
30.1%
16.4%
Drawing upon qualitative and quantitative data as well as an extensive literature review, this section details
findings on the four sub-components: economic participation, economic opportunity, political empowerment, and
educational attainment.
6.1 Economic Participation Higher education increases the likelihood of

labour market Adult
participation
unemployment
for both genders. The
F
Women are twice as likely as men to be unemployed percentage of female
rate (as % or female, who have obtained
respondents
but actively looking for work. tertiary educationmale
and are force)
labour participating in the labour
market (either employed or looking) is almost as high
30.1% 53.8%Gender Gap: 0.54
as the percentage of men in the same cohort.
94.0%
89.0%
16.4% 24.4%
30.1% 53.8%
7
Adult unemployment Female/male youth not

rate (as % or female, 16.4% 24.4%
in employment or
male labour force) education
Female/male
Gender Gap: 0.54 Gender Gap: 0.45 share
high-skilled E
fe
of labour force
94.0% Gender
17.0% Gap: 0.94
89.0% G
Young women aged 15 to 24Adultare twice as likely as
unemployment Female/male youth not
young men in the same age ratecohort to be neither
(as % or female, Men are more likelyintoemployment
functionoras employers. The
employed nor in education. male labour force) percentage of respondents who are self-employed and
education
61.0%
Gender Gap: 0.54 employ at least one other person
Gender is higher among male
Gap: 0.45
53.8% than female
7.0%respondents.
43.0%
94.0% 17.0%
89.0%
24.4%
Female/male
high-skilled share Employers (as % of
7.0%
female, male labour
of labour force
force)
Gender Gap: 0.94 Female/male rate of
Gender Gap: 0.41
vulnerable
Female/male youth not
employment
in employment or
education
61.0% Female/male Gender
86.4% Gap: 0.71
high-skilled share 79.4 % Employers (as % of
Gender Gap: 0.45of labour force female, male labour
force)
43.0% Gap: 0.94
Gender
% 17.0% Gender Gap: 0.41
14
61.0% 86.4%
79.4 %
7.0%
53.8%
Female/male
Vulnerable employment, i.e. the sum of own-
high-skilled share 6.1.1 Labour
Employersforce
(as % ofparticipation
account workers and contributing
of labour force family workers, female, male labour
is widespread among both women and men in force)
Gender Gap: 0.94
The latest available data on labour market statistics is
Somaliland’s largely informal 24.4%
economy. the Labour Force
Gender Survey
Gap: 0.41 2012, conducted by the Ministry
of Labour with technical support from ILO. In 2012,
labour force participation rates stand at 56% for urban
61.0% 86.4%
males, 29%
79.4 for
% urban females, 57% for rural males, and
42% for rural females. By age groups, employment was
43.0% highest among 35-54 year-olds, followed by 25-34 year-
Female/male youth not olds. Women tend to be overwhelmingly employed
in employment or in the service and sales sector at 59%, but only make
education up 4% of managers, 5% of technicians, and 5% of
Gender Gap: 0.45 professionals.8
% 17.0% Based on this report’s survey findings, labour

force participation stands at 85.4%. This figure is
Female/male rate of
vulnerable considerably higher than the one presented the 2012
Female/male
employment rate of This is likely linked to the fact that
Labour Force Survey.
underemployment
Gender Gap: 0.71 the 2012 survey was only conducted in Borama, Burao,
Gender
and Hargeisa Gap: 1.00thus leaving large parts of the
districts,
7.0%
(predominantly rural) population unaccounted for.
In this survey, disaggregation by type of employment
Underemployment concerns women and men reveals Somaliland as a highly informal economy
equally. Among those respondents who indicated that with a high percentage of self-employed respondents,
they work less than 40 hours per week, 86.4% of men including farmers and livestock owners. The percentage
e
and 79.4% of women stated(asthat
Employers % of they would like to of self-employed respondents is twice as high in rural
work more hours (Note that
female, maledue to the polarity of the
labour
than in urban locations. Hence, the percentage of labour
force) is the desired outcome,
question, a lower percentage
4 force participation in this nationally representative
indicating smaller likelihood
Gender Gap:of underemployment).
0.41 survey is possibly higher, as respondents in rural
settings are more likely to be employed in (subsistence)
86.4% farming or pastoralism rather than indicating that they
79.4 % are unemployed.
0%
Somaliland’s economy is largely informal with
limited options for formal employment
As indicated in Figure 6.1, the percentage of respondents

who are in a formal employment relationship, i.e. in
either full-time or part-time paid employment, is low
in total (10.6% and 8.3%, respectively). However, there
e of is a clear gender divide: Male respondents are more
Female/male
rate of than four times more likely to be employed on a full-
underemployment time basis than female respondents (17.4% vs. 3.6%).
71 One third of respondents indicated that they are self-
Gender Gap: 1.00
employed or business owners, including farmers and
livestock owners. The gender gap in this category is
In terms of government legislation, the final present but less pronounced: 37.2% for men vs. 26.0%
indicator, there is currently no legislation in place for females. Although the overall percentage is quite
that mandates equal pay for equal work. small at 2.4%, females are three times more likely to
work as contributing family workers than males.
8 Labour Force Survey Somaliland 2012. Ministry of Labour & Ministry of Planning and National Development. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/
public/@africa/@ro-addis_ababa/@sro-addis_ababa/documents/publication/wcms_234412.pdf (Last accessed on 13 November 2018)
15
FIGURE 6.1 What is your main occupation?
3.6%
3.2%
1.2% 17.4% Paid, full-time employment
26.0% Paid, part-time employment
13.2% Seasonal work/flexible work
2.1% Self-employed/business owner (includes

farmer and livestock owner)
3.7%
Contributing family worker (helping out
37.2% in a business operated by family
members)
30.1%
Unemployed (not working outside the
home, not in school or training) –
looking for work
1.2% Unemployed (not working outside the

home, not in school or training) – not
looking for work
16.9%
22.1%
Student/apprentice/vocational
training
5.6%
9.0% Retired/disabled
1.0% 0.7% 5.6%
0.2% 0.2% Refused
592 608
Women with a higher education background women with a university degree are most likely to work
are most likely to be in formal employment in either full-time or part-time employment (42.9% who
are in full-time employment have university education,
Those respondents who indicated that they are in 47.4% who are in part-time employment have university
full-time or part-time paid employment were further education). Interestingly, a large percentage of women
asked to specify their type of job. As demonstrated who have received no formal education, i.e. Quranic
in Figure 6.2, a higher percentage of women are or no education, are self-employed (71.4% of self-
employed as professionals (60.0% of women vs. employed have received no education). No females
48.4% of men) whereas men are more likely to work with a university education identified as self-employed.
as skilled labourers. This indicates that while women This furthers the impression that women with low
are generally less likely to work outside the household, educational attainments who identify as self-employed
those that have obtained higher education are indeed are prone to vulnerable employment, as detailed in the
more likely to work in salaried positions. For instance, following sub-section.
16
FIGURE 6.2 (For those who indicated they are employed)

In what type of job are you employed?
TOTAL %
60.0% 48.4%
50.4%
Proffesional
5.0% 25.3%
21.7% Skilled labour
15.0% 12.9%
13.3% Government
15.0% 9.7% Labour

10.6%
Agricultural sector
5.0% 3.8%
5.0%
40 186
6.1.2 Vulnerable employment almost all survey respondents agree that women are
capable of owning successful businesses. Interestingly,
The SLWCC, a women-led non-governmental FGD participants repeatedly pointed to traditionally
institution that supports women entrepreneurs female-connoted qualities such as patience, kindness,
including through skills training classes, estimates that and ability to sympathise with staff and customers as
women entrepreneurs make up 60-65% of businesses features of a successful business owner.
in the country.9 This reality is reflected in the fact that
FIGURE 6.3 Women are capable of owning successful businesses
0.5% 1.0%
0.5% 4.3%
5.1% 1.2%
1.2%
5.9%
Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neither agree nor

disagree
87.3%
92.6% Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Refused
0.3% 0.2%
592 608
9 Somaliland Women Chamber of Commerce. Annual Report Jan-Dec 2018.
17
Data from the SLWCC indicates that around 70 per cent but looking for work (16.9% among men, 30.1% among
of women entrepreneurs run small-scale enterprises women) and another 13.8% being unemployed and
that have started as micro-enterprises and have grown not looking (5.6% among men, 22.1% among women).
over time. In a recently conducted SLWCC study, two Hence, although over one-fifth of female respondents
thirds of the surveyed women said that they had identify as homemakers not looking to work outside the
expanded or diversified their business to some degree house, another 30.1% indicate that they would indeed
since it was established. At the time of the study, a total like to work outside the household. This signifies that
of 5,230 female-owned businesses were registered despite pervasive socio-cultural norms that place
from all sectors, such as agriculture, fisheries, women in the domestic sphere, plenty of women are
livestock, honey production, frankincense, and retail. looking for economic opportunities and would likely
Demographic information of business owners obtained take the chance if presented.
in the SSWC survey corroborates findings in this survey:
70% of SSWC members had not obtained any form Women are twice as likely as men to be
of education with high levels of illiteracy among the unemployed but looking for work
women surveyed.
Unemployment levels are particularly high among
Women with little to no formal education younger respondents: 36.7% of females below the age
background are most likely to run small of 25 are looking for a job (compared to 19.6% of males
businesses in the same age group) and 30.6% of females aged
26-35 (compared to 15.8% of males in the same age
Vulnerable employment is defined as the sum of own- group). A staggering 53.8% of women aged 15 to 24 are
account workers, i.e. self-employed workers who not in employment or education, compared to 24.4%
do not hire paid employees on a continuous basis, of young men in the same age group.
and contributing family workers.10 While precarious
employment situations are prevalent among both Moreover, urban dwellers are more likely to be looking
women and men, survey findings indicate that women for work than respondents in rural locations (25.5%
are more likely to find themselves in vulnerable vs. 21.1%), largely because rural populations are more
employment than men: the total percentage of likely to work in agriculture or pastoralism (42.7% for
vulnerable employment stands at 43.0% among men self-employed). Ultimately, the percentage of job-
and 61.0% among women. These figures are similar to seekers is highest among refugee and IDP populations
those reported in the 2012 Labour Force Survey (45.5% (38.1% for refugees, 31.8% for IDPs, and 22.1% for
among men and 65.2% among women).11 residents).13
Conversely, men are more likely to function as 6.1.4 Underemployment

employers.12 The 2012 Labour Force Survey reports
11.0% of men and 7.4% of women as employers.12 In Underemployment is measured by the total hours
this survey, 17.0% of male respondents employ at worked in all economic activities in one week. The rate
least one other person, compared to 7.0% of female of underemployment is the percentage of respondents
respondents. However, large businesses that employ who work less than 40 hours per week and wish to work
a considerable amount of people remain a rarity in more hours. According to the 2012 Labour Force Survey,
Somaliland. Out of those who indicated that they 8.8% of employed males and 14.3% of employed
indeed pay regular salaries to other people, 78.1% of females worked for less than 25 hours in the last week.
respondents do not employ more than five people. Conversely, 57% of males and 47% of females in urban
areas and 64% of males and 60% of females in rural
6.1.3 Unemployment areas expressed the desire to work for more hours.14
Unemployment levels among survey respondents are Based on survey findings, the average number of hours
quite high with 23.4% of respondents being unemployed worked per week comes to 49.3 for respondents who
10 Detailed definitions are provided in the technical annex.

11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
13 A total of 126 respondents identified as IDPs and 21 respondents identified as refugees. The household survey did not ask respondents to specify
where they fled from, although the most likely source countries are Yemen and Ethiopia.
14 Labour Force Survey Somaliland 2012. Ministry of Labour & Ministry of Planning and National Development.
18
are in formal employment or self-employed. Women 6.1.5 Equal pay for equal work
reported a slightly higher average of 50.8 hours,
compared to 48.6 hours among men. These high Key informants were largely unaware of any anti-
averages by global standards might hint at unregulated discrimination legislation that mandates equal pay
opening hours of small businesses and low productivity for equal work. While the few large-scale companies
jobs, i.e. long working hours for little output – be it as currently operating in Somaliland, e.g. Telesom
a market worker or as a pastoralist. Among those who or Dahabshil, were said to ensure fair pay through
indicated that they work less than 40 hours per week, company-wide policies such as pay scales and internal
86.4% of men and 79.4% of women stated that they complaint mechanisms, those efforts have limited
would like to work more hours. practical reach considering the largely informal
economy of Somaliland.
6.2 Economic Opportunity
Existing law that There is currently no legislation in place that mandates

mandates non-discrimination based on gender (or any other
non-discriminaction demographic variables) in hiring. This de jure indicator
based on gender in is therefore set at 0.0.
hiring: 0.0
Legislation mandates four months of paid maternity
leave for both private sector and government
Access to employees. However, enforcement is weak, in particular
parental leave: in smaller companies, with no repercussions for disregard
0.5 of the law. This de jure indicator is therefore set at 0.5.
Inheritance rights are regulated through Islamic

law, according to which a son inherits twice that of
a daughter, a brother twice that of a sister, and the
Inheritance rights husband twice that of his wife. Considering the socio-
for daughters: cultural context and research findings that indicate the
0.5 majority of respondents support inheritance rights as
prescribed in Sharia law, this de jure indicator is set at 0.5:
Women have some inheritance rights but not the same.
Land ownership in Somaliland is governed through

Women’s secure secular, customary (xeer), and Islamic law. The
access to land use, National Constitution as well as Sharia law recognise
control and women’s right to property. Xeer has been known to
ownership and
deny women their share of inheritance in both land
women’s secure
and livelihood assets in order to protect the property
access to non-land
of the patriarchal family. However, as this could not be
assets use, control
substantiated within the scope of this study, this de jure
and ownership: 1.0
indicator is set at 1.0.
19
Ability to rise Percentage of women/men
to positions of with an account at a
leadership financial institution
Gender Gap: 0.57 Gender Gap: 0.46
Men are almost twice as likely to rise to positions

of leadership in their job as women, as 3.8%
indicated by 7.8%
the percentage of respondents 3.2%
who indicated that
they supervise the work of other employees.
5.8%
44.1% 20.7%
44.1%
25.0%
9.5%
Porcentage of women/men
Porcentage of
who have taken out a loan 25.0%
women/men who 9.5%
at financial insitution
receive remittances
Gender Gap: 0.85
Gender Gap: 1.00
Ability to rise Percentage of women/men
to positions of with an account at a
leadership financial institution
Gender Gap: 0.57 Ability
Gender Gap:to0.46
rise Percentag
to positions of with a
leadership financ
3.8%
Access to financial means remains challenging for
7.8%Gender Gap: 0.57 Gend
both women and men. 3.2%
5.8% 3.8%
20.7% 7.8%
3.2%
9.5%
Porcentage of women/men
Porcentage of
who have taken out a loan
women/men who
at financial insitution
receive remittances
Gender Gap: 0.85 Porcentage of women/men
Gender Gap: 1.00 Porc
Percentage of women/men who have taken out a loan
wome
with an account at a at financial insitution
receive
financial institution Gender Gap: 0.85
Gende
Gender Gap: 0.46
7.8%
6.2.1 Challenges in accessing the labour in general and gender-specific barriers that impede
market their access to the job market in particular. Based
5.8%
on qualitative data, the single greatest impediment,
especially for young people, to find a job is pervasive
Clannism is the biggest barrier to accessing
clannism in the allocation of jobs, i.e. favouritism
employment opportunities for both women in hiring based on clan membership. Jobs are
and men distributed based on people’s connections, regardless
of qualification. This, in addition to the general lack
Women are prevented from seizing economic of employment opportunities, was said to dissuade
/men opportunities by the precarious
Porcentage oflabour market situation young people from pursuing higher education.
loan
women/men who
on
receive remittances
Gender Gap: 1.00
20
The main challenge when looking for a job is that having knowledge, experience, and
certificates is not enough. Unless you know someone important or famous, it will be very difficult
to be hired for a position.
Female Youth FGD participant, Borama
One of the main challenges is that people are not able to get a job in a company if they do not
have a family member that works there. This leads to educated people having to find jobs that
are way below their education level, whereas the uneducated are managing to get jobs in high
paying offices. So, favouritism based on clannism is a big challenge.
Male Youth FGD participant, Las Anod
Women’s challenges in accessing the labour market are tenacity in shouldering the double burden of housework
manifold, including lower levels of literacy/education and livelihood activities, women’s employment is
than their male competitors, a weaker social network, largely seen as a contribution to or substitute for the
perceived inability to work in physical jobs, and male head of household’s capacity to provide. Male FGD
restrictive socio-cultural norms that place women in participants were more likely to express reservations
the domestic sphere and discourage them from actively against women working outside the household,
seeking out economic opportunities. particularly if said work were of political or military
nature, or required long commutes. While both male
Women’s employment is largely seen as a and female FGD participants appeared to recognise
contribution to or substitute for the male head the necessity of women’s financial contributions to
the household income, female participants were more
of household’s ability to provide
likely to link women’s employment to sentiments of
self-determination and self-actualisation.
Evidence suggests that while women who work outside
the household are respected and admired for their
A woman who works outside the household is self-sufficient. Of course I will encourage my
family members to take the path towards self-determination and do what they want to do.
Female Adult FGD participant, Hargeisa
I would encourage my female family members [to seek work outside the household] because
we don’t know what might happen in the future. In case you get divorced, you shouldn’t have to
depend on your husband.
Female Youth FGD participant, Hargeisa
21
We are Muslims and our religion tells us that women should stay at home, as it is mentioned
in the Quran. But nowadays everything has changed. People forget what the Quran mandates
and do whatever feels good to them.
Male Adult FGD participant, Hargeisa
Those FGD participants who were in opposition to such as merit-based hiring and qualifying exams in
women working outside the household drew upon place, there is no indication that these practices are
traditional concepts of masculinity that understand carried over into the wider, largely informal, economy
the male role as that of the sole provider, often hiding in Somaliland. The Civil Service Commission – to give a
behind narrow religious definitions and referring to best-practice example – has introduced a quota system
feelings of emasculation in the event a woman ends up according to which at least 30 out of 100 jobs available
earning more money than her husband. in the government must be filled with women.
6.2.2 Legislation on non-discrimination

6.2.3 Women’s ability to rise to leadership
Based on key informants’ accounts, there are currently positions
no laws in place that prohibit gender-based
discrimination (or discrimination based on other As previously cited evidence suggests, women are an
demographic characteristics) in the labour market, integral part of Somaliland’s economy, albeit often
which in turn also allows clannist hiring practices under precarious working conditions. However, survey
to persist. Only one interviewee, a civil society respondents’ perceptions of women’s ability to rise to
representative, explained that while such anti- positions of leadership stands in stark contrast to their
discriminatory legislation exists on paper, it is not de facto representation.
enforced and employers do not face any consequences
in case of disregard.
Men are almost twice as likely to rise to
The Somaliland Human Rights Centre is said to
positions of leadership at their workplace
fight cases of discrimination in the private sector by
While the large majority of respondents (83.8% of men,
filing complaints on behalf of employees to MESAF.
92.1% of women) somewhat or strongly agree that
Government employees, on the other hand, can file
women have the same opportunities as men to assume
their complaints with the Civil Service Commission.
leadership roles at their workplace, survey data reveals
While private sector interviewees claim that the few
large gender discrepancies. Respondents who work in
larger companies operating in Somaliland (for example,
formal full-time or part-time employment were asked
Telesom and Dahabshil) do have fair hiring policies
I am not aware of any specific laws, but as far as the Civil Service Commission on behalf of the
government employees is concerned, we have fair hiring policies in place. Everyone has an
equal chance to apply for a job and be successful. If we find out that these practices are not
adhered to, we will follow up on it.
Government representative, Hargeisa
22
whether they are responsible for supervising the work on lead roles at the domestic level, while men govern
of other employees, for which 44.1% of men and only public affairs.
25.0% of women answered affirmatively. When these
figures are compared with the perception that women Women’s challenges in accessing leadership positions
indeed have the same opportunities at leadership as are likely the result of a conservative upbringing that
men, it is likely that respondents believe that women teaches boys how to lead and girls how to support, as
and men have the same chance to be successful within explained by key informants.
their respective gendered domain, i.e. women take
FIGURE 6.4 Women have the same opportunities as men to rise to positions of leadership
3.7%
2.0% 8.1%
1.7% 3.0%
6.6%
4.6%
9.5% Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neither agree nor

disagree
74.3%
Somewhat agree
85.5%
Strongly agree
Refused
0.5% 0.5%
592 608
Although a lot of progress has been made in terms of women accessing higher education, a lot
of these women do not believe that they can work in high level positions like their fellow male
university students. For example, a woman is much more likely to go for a deputy minister
position rather than the minister position. In this society, girls are brought up to be second best
to the boys, and to always support their brothers or male relatives. This makes them become
less ambitious later on in life.
At big meetings. All the men are greeting or hugging each other and having lots of banter, and
because we are a Muslim country, the woman would just be standing there all awkward. The
woman can’t hug or shake the men’s hands or be too friendly. She would be worried how she
would be perceived. […] In our culture, women are supposed to be shy and reserved. If you see
that the large majority of the men are all supporting something that you don’t agree with, it will
be very difficult as a woman to try to get your opinion across.
23
6.2.4 Access to parental leave GRAPH 6.1 How many months of maternity
or paternity leave are you able to take?
Access to maternity leave is a powerful incentive for
women to seek work outside the household. Article 15 MONTHS
of the Somaliland Private Sector Act (ACT NO-31/2004)
regulates access to maternity leave, mandating that a
pregnant mother is entitled to 16 weeks of maternity 1 78.9%
leave, which she is supposed to commence four weeks
prior to giving birth. In addition, a pregnant mother
or a mother who has given birth cannot be removed 15.0%
1-3
from work until the baby is one year old, except if her
contract period expires normally during that time.15 In
the 1996 Civil Service Law (Law No. 7/96), Article 35 on
Extraordinary Leave mandates that women in the civil 4 4.8%
service are entitled to paid maternity leave for a period
of four months, with one month having to be taken
after the date of delivery.16 +12 0.7%
FIGURE 6.5 In your job, do you have access 0.7%

to maternity or paternity leave? ?
Respondents who indicated that they are in a full-time

or part-time formal employment relation were asked
whether they have access to maternity or paternity
Yes leave, which 65.0% of respondents confirmed.
Considering that there are no formal regulations on
No
paternity leave in place, it might well be that male
respondents referred to maternity leave arrangements
Don't know
that their employer has in place for female colleagues.
67.5% 64.5% A closer look at the nature of parental leave, however,
indicates that the legal regulations that mandate four
months of maternity leave are largely disregarded by
employers who are said to offer leave. The majority
of survey respondents with access to parental leave
indicated that they are only granted one month or less.
22.5% 34.4% Only 4.8% of respondents stated that they are granted
the four months to which they are entitled by law.
10.0%
1.1% Nevertheless, the majority of respondents indicated
40 186 that they continue to receive their salary during
parental leave.
15 Republic of Somaliland. Presidential Decree No: 0431/03210. Private Sector Act.

16 Republic of Somaliland. Civil Service Law (Law No. 7/96).
24
FIGURE 6.6 If yes, is the maternity or paternity leave paid?
2.0%
Yes, I continue to
0.7% 15.7% receive my salary
Yes, I continue to
receive some money,
81.6% but not my full salary
No, the leave is unpaid

Total: 147
Don't know
Legislation on maternity leave exists but is the primary caregivers. However, FGD participants
only accessible to the small number of formally welcomed the idea of a father being allowed to spend
employed women some time with his wife and new-born.
While most FGD participants seemed to be aware of 6.2.5 Access to financial means and services
the legal regulations that mandate maternity leave,
few knew about women who had been granted such Women in post-civil war Somaliland have increasingly
leave, with most referring to government employees, taken on greater economic responsibilities due to men
employees at public institutions such as hospitals, or being absent, abroad for work, or incapacitated due
NGO workers. Interviewed key informants explained to khat17 consumption; however, their influence on
that while larger companies such as Telesom offer financial decision-making remains largely limited to
leave, this does not translate to practices in smaller the domestic sphere.18
companies which do not have the resources to cover
for a person taking four months of leave, let alone In line with desk research that found women are likely
female own-account workers who essentially have to to be the financial decision-makers at the household
shut down their business activities after delivery. level, survey findings indicate that women are at least
equally responsible for major financial decisions of
The issue of paternity leave, for which there are currently their household. The largest group of respondents
no legal regulations, was considered less important indicated the husband and wife (or father and mother)
among interviewees because women are seen as made joint household financial decisions at 47.8%.
Where I used to work, we were granted five days of paternity leave because you need to
support your wife or there may be an emergency during delivery.
17 Khat is a plant that is chewed for a stimulant-type effect. Its use is subject to debate in Somaliland.
18 NAGAAD/Ministry of Justice/Progressio Somaliland. Women’s Human Rights in Somaliland. 2010.
25
GRAPH 6.2 If your household has to make a major financial decision (such as buying more
livestock or making repair works to your house), who makes this decision?
Husband/
21.0%
father
Wife/ 23.3%
mother
Husband
and wife (father
and mother)
47.8%
together
A male family
member 5.0%
(uncle/bother)
A female family
member 1.3%
(aunt/sister)
Don’t know ? 1.4%
Refused 0.3%
SLWCC identified access to finance as the biggest A 2013 Financial Sector Diagnostic Study for Hargeisa,
challenge for women entrepreneurs, as most small Somaliland, by ILO found that only 16% of surveyed
enterprises do not qualify for bank credit due to a respondents had a formal account with a bank
lack of fixed assets to offer as collateral. In a study or remittance company. However, around 44% of
conducted by the SLWCC, only 13 percent of surveyed surveyed households use hagbed,20 with women being
women said that they had taken out a bank loan, more likely to contribute frequently at 24% compared
mostly because they were able to offer fixed assets to 11% of men. In this study, 30% of respondents
– often those of their parents – as loan security. The indicated that they had borrowed money, however,
terms and conditions of loans, including those offered the majority had borrowed from family or friends, not
by microfinance institutions, are also unfavourable to through formal institutions.21
small businesses, as loan repayments are not based on
the capacity of such enterprises, thus making it difficult Survey findings indicate that women face greater
for small businesses meet their repayment obligations. challenges in accessing financial means. Access to the
As a short-term solution, women entrepreneurs often formal banking system, including hagbed, is low in
borrow from the informal sector, which is not conducive general. Nevertheless, men are twice as likely to have
to sustainable business growth.19 an account at a financial institution in their own name
as women (20.7% for men, 9.5% for women). Urban
Lack of access to the financial market is the dwellers are also more likely to have a bank account
than rural dwellers (19.7% for urban, 10.1% for rural).
biggest challenge for women to grow their
businesses sustainably
19 Somaliland Women Chamber of Commerce. Annual Report Jan-Dec 2018.

20 Hagbed – also known as ayuuto or shalong – is a typical rotating credit and saving association (ROSCA). It follows the principle of a micro-saving and
lending scheme with groups between 20 and 30 members, often women, pooling money together in a common fund. For more information see: Mobile
money and Somali social networks: Cultivating monetary alternatives in a volatile world. Gianluca Iazzolino. https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/
api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:199524&datastreamId=FULL-TEXT.PDF (Last accessed on 13 November 2018)
21 Financial Sector Diagnostic Study for Hargeisa, Somaliland. ILO. April 2013. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---africa/---ro-addis_ababa/-
--sro-addis_ababa/documents/projectdocumentation/wcms_398843.pdf (Last accessed on 13 November 2018)
26
GRAPH 6.3 Do you have an account at a

financial institution in your own name?
90.5% I think women face greater challenges

when it comes to taking out a loan
79.3%
from a financial institution, as they will
have to provide a land title [to offer as
collateral] or a guarantor and most
women do not have those things.
20.7% Female Adult FGD participant, Borama

9.5%
NO YES NO YES
was the biggest impediment to taking out a loan. Male
On the other hand, both male and female respondents
participants said that women were more likely to be
reported limited options for loans from financial
granted a loan as they are known to be more reliable
institutions. Only 3.5% of respondents had borrowed
in making repayments. This was disputed by female
money from a financial institution. The majority of
participants.
those 42 respondents who have taken out a loan
used the money for business activities (12 men and
Desk review suggests that remittances are
15 women), followed by livelihood assets (including
overwhelmingly sent directly to and controlled by
livestock), to buy food and other goods (3 men and 3
women, as they are in control of the household budget
women), and for school fees and related expenses (2
and considered more reliable than men. However, only
men and 3 women).
6.8% of all respondents received regular remittances,
with female respondents only slightly more likely to
GRAPH 6.4 Have you ever borrowed money/ receive them in their name. Remittances were primarily
taken out a loan from a financial institution sent by family members living abroad, and female and
in your own name? male family members were equally likely to function as
senders.
3.2% 3.8%
GRAPH 6.5 Do you personally receive
remittances from abroad on a regular
basis?
7.8% 5.8%
Yes
Yes
No
No
I tried but
95.8% 95.4% was denied
Refused
Refused
92.1% 94.2%
0.8% 0.8%
0.2% 0.0%
Six out of the 10 respondents who said they had applied

for a loan but were denied could not find a guarantor
or co-signer. This corresponds to qualitative findings
from FGD participants, who said the lack of a guarantor 0.2% 0.0%
27
There is a share for men and a share for women, from which is left by parents and those
nearest related, whether the property be small or large – a legal share.
There was no great variation between genders on explained by referring to the financial obligations that
the purpose of remittance spending. In addition men bear, as they have to bestow mahr upon their
to personal expenses, remittances were said to go wives, a mandatory payment paid to the bride at the
towards managing everyday life, including buying food time of marriage. All expenses of wives and children
and other household goods, school fees, and saving are to be paid for by the husband, while wives are
money for emergency or health purposes. not obliged to spend any of their wealth, including
mahr and inheritance that they bring into marriage or
income earned through livelihood activities, on anyone
6.2.6 Women’s inheritance rights
else. Both women and men can write a will as long as
it does not violate the principles outlined in the Quran.
In Somaliland, inheritance rights are regulated through
Sharia law. Islam does not deny women’s inheritance
The quantitative survey included a somewhat
but sets out the rules by which inheritance is to be
controversial question to probe respondent attitudes
shared among female and male dependents.
towards inheritance rights. Based on the legacy of
Sharia and customary law in Somaliland, the majority
In Sharia law a son inherits twice that of a daughter, a
of respondents support inheritance rights as they are
brother twice that of a sister, and the husband twice
prescribed in Sharia law: 64.5% of respondents strongly
that of his wife (Verse 11, Surah 4, An-Nisa).22 This
disagreed with the notion that a daughter should
apparent unequal treatment of sons and daughters is
have the same right to inherit family assets as a son.
FIGURE 6.7 A daughter should have the same right to inherit family assets as a son
Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neither agree nor

disagree
62.0% 66.9%
Somewhat agree
3.0% Strongly agree

0.8% 1.6%
6.6% 0.7% 3.1%
Refused
16.6%
19.8%
11.0%
7.8%
592 608
28
In ancient times, women were not allowed to inherit anything, but the Quran abolished this
unjust practice and included women as heirs in their own right, capped at one third of the total
inheritance. These are the shares that have been decreed by Allah, so it is not permissible for
anyone to change them.
Interestingly, 18.2% of respondents – 16.6% among 6.2.7 Women’s secure access to land use,
men and 19.8% among women – strongly support the control and ownership and women’s
idea of equal inheritance rights. However, considering secure access to non-land assets use,
respondents’ socio-cultural frame of reference, it might
control and ownership
well be that respondents had the current regulations
in mind and simply reaffirmed that they perceived
Land ownership in Somaliland is governed through
them as fair and equal. Considering the sensitivity of
secular, customary (xeer), and Islamic law. As stipulated
the question, the comparatively high percentage of
in Article 12 (1) of the Constitution, “land is a public
“refused” responses at 9.4% is not surprising.
property commonly owned by the nation, and the
state is responsible for it.” Two national statutes govern
Qualitative findings largely corroborated survey data
land: the Urban Land Management Law No. 17/2001
with FGD participants supporting strict adherence to
(amended in 2008), which regulates the allocation,
Sharia law principles.
usage, and control of land, including land tenure; and
FIGURE 6.8 Women should be able to buy or inherit land in their own name
3.6% 5.1%
1.9%
1.5% 1.2%
5.7% 1.3% 5.9%
Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree
86.2% Neither agree nor

86.5% disagree
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Refused
0.8% 0.3%
592 608
23 For further information on land tenure rights see: Research Guide to the Somaliland Legal System. Mohamed Farah Hersi/Update by Mohamoud
Hussein Farah: http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Somaliland1.html#LandTenure (Last accessed on 20 January 2019)
29
the Agricultural Land Ownership Law No. 08/1999. Xeer Speaking to the lack of economic opportunities in
mostly regulates land usage rights for pasture, grazing general, private sector representatives pointed to the
land, forests and water in rural areas.23 Article 36 on need of investing in and modernising the agricultural
The Rights of Women in the National Constitution sector and investing in labour-intensive infrastructure
states that “Women have the right to own, manage, projects. Policies should include both the redistribution
oversee, trade in, or pass on property in accordance of land that has been seized by individuals and support
with the law.” for women to grow their own produce instead of
importing it.
Survey respondents strongly support equal land
ownership rights with 86.3% agreeing that women While collective organising in form of self-
should be able to buy or inherit land in their own help groups and cooperatives provide a social
name. Differences between genders are not statistically
support network and are effective in increasing
significant.
the productivity of women’s business activities,
the need for expanding labour-intensive
Islamic law recognises women’s property rights before
and after marriage, stipulating that the woman keeps
industries remains a top priority
her belongings upon entering marriage and shall be
According to information by the SLWCC and qualitative
taken care of financially by her husband. In that regard,
data gathered for this study, the formation of SHGs and
legal scholars contend that Sharia law is fairer than
women cooperatives has proved an effective model
Somali customary law. While Sharia law grants women
to increase the productivity of business activities,
rights to inheritance and ownership, Xeer has been
facilitate access to loan schemes for business activities
known to deny women their share of inheritance in
or emergencies, and provide a social support network
both land and livelihood assets in order to protect the
to discuss personal and business issues.
property of the family.24 A study that by Forcier in 2014
found that survey respondents were overwhelmingly
SLWCC organises women entrepreneurs into
in favour of women having equal legal land rights.
cooperatives of 20 members to increase productivity
Despite the legal enshrinement of this equality, familial
through offering specialised training courses on
and traditional dynamics – such as the fear that land
business management and skills, legal advice, and
would transfer to another clan at the time of marriage
facilitating access to financial resources. Similarly,
– were found to impede women’s ability to own land.25
SHGs supported by NAGAAD consist of 20 women who
These findings were echoed by one of the interviewed
pay a monthly contribution of $5 into a common pot,
civil society representatives, who said that in reality
as explained by interviewed SHG members in Sool.
women’s properties are often confiscated by their
Depending on need, a member can take out a loan of
husbands.
up to two months’ worth of money, ($200). Those funds
can be used for emergencies or to salvage or scale-up
6.2.8 Women’s economic opportunities – the business activities.
way forward
A SHG is formed after an initial workshop where women
Evidence gathered for this report suggests several learn about the advantages of organising collectively
ways forward to facilitate women’s participation in the and are introduced to SHG procedures, such as how
labour market and increase their chances for occupying to choose a chairwoman and bookkeeper. The groups
leadership positions, including focusing on the meet at least once a month to discuss how much money
rehabilitation or expansion of labour-intensive sectors; has been collected in that month, how the money
encouraging the organisation of women into self-help should be used, and how the members can support
groups and cooperatives to increase productivity; each other. Husbands are said to be largely supportive
and offering start-up grants and loan schemes to of their wives’ participation, albeit some interviewed
women entrepreneurs. In addition, one private sector members stated that often their husbands were not
representative urged young women to use the digital even aware of their membership. SHG membership
transformation and social media to start and market is described as personally rewarding and reassuring
their businesses from home. as a result of the bonds that women are able to forge
with each other and the knowledge that there will be
financial support in case of an emergency.

25 Observatory of Conflict and Violence Prevention. Baseline Assessment on Land Ownership and Land Rights in Somaliland. February 2014.
30
When someone is part of a group, compared to being alone as an individual, you are much more
able to achieve something greater. […] We collect money from each other every month so that
we can support each other in times of need. We are all women that come from a relatively poor
background and some may not have family support. If a woman starts a business but runs into
financial trouble, we may be able to dip into our savings pot and support the woman.
SHG member, Sool
“Although we may not all have taken out money from the fund yet, there is that sense of security
that if you are in need, whether it is for your child’s education or for your business, money is
available to you and your household.”
SHG member, Sool
Moreover, interviewed SHG members expressed interest in forming umbrella groups or cluster-level associations
that represent SHGs at a regional level, in addition to providing women with additional trainings such as literacy
trainings or business skills trainings.
A SHG is always beneficial. Nothing bad will ever come out of [being member of] a SHG.
Imagine bringing all the SHGs together? I can only imagine that the benefit will be even
greater. An umbrella group will be much more powerful and will have much more of a voice.
SHG member, Sool
6.3 Political Empowerment

Women’s de facto political representation is low to non-existent.
Local Council Upper House

(Guurti)
9 female and 365 82 male and 0 female

male representantives representatives
Lower House
Ministers
(Parliament)
3 female (2 full, 1 1 female and 82 male
deputy) and 29 male Members of Parlament
ministers
Judges
0 female judges
31
There is currently no legislation in place for a quota 6.3.1 Women’s lack of political leadership
for women on candidate lists in national or local
elections. Attempts to pass a bill have so far not found Article 22 in the National Constitution grants women
the necessary support by the Guurti and Lower House. equal rights to political participation, form political
parties and nomination by political parties for
political leadership. Findings reveal an enormous
gap between de facto figures and perception-based
data. Figures on community openness towards
women’s political participation and perceived ability
Quota for women on of women to influence decision-making stand in stark
candidate lists in contrast to the reality of women’s representation in
national/local government structures: There are currently nine female
elections: 0.0 representatives in the Local Council out of 365, one
female Member of Parliament out of 82, no women in
the Upper House (Guurti), three female ministers (two
full and one deputy minister) our of 32, and no female
However, survey respondents demonstrated high
judges.
levels of support for women’s participation in both
formal government structures and the community
Perceptions of women’s current representation in
level.
government structures among respondents were
rather polarised, with 42.0% of respondents agreeing or
0.76% 0.78% 0.76% 0.83% 0.83%strongly agreeing and 49.2% disagreeing that women
0.76% 0.76%
are currently sufficiently represented. Interestingly,
male respondents were slightly more likely to view
women’s current representation as insufficient.
A total of 90.4% respondents (86.8% among men,

94.1% among women) agreed that women were
capable of participating in all forms of government,
including local councils, Upper and Lower House, and
ministries. Among the remaining respondents who did
r community Score for community Perception of women’s Perception
not ofview
women’s
women capable of participating in all levels of
ess towards openness towards influence on influence on
participation in women’s participation in decision-making at
government,
decision-making at
the majority stated that women were not
government formal government community level (1 is fit to level
community participate
(1 is at any level (55 respondents in total, 41
(1 means total structures (1 means total men,
highest level of influence) highest level of 14 women).
influence)
enness) openness)
FIGURE 6.9 Women are sufficiently represented in the government in Somaliland
34.1% 43.9%
Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree
10.6%
Neither agree nor
3.7% 9.5% disagree
6.8%
4.6%
Somewhat agree
6.3%
39.2% 31.9% Strongly agree
Refused
5.6% 3.8%
592 608
32
FIGURE 6.10 Women’s participation in government structures like the national parliament
and the local councils is beneficial for society
5.6%
1.5% 12.5%
1.4% 5.2% 2.3%
3.3%
6.7%
Strongly disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neither agree nor

disagree
Somewhat agree
85.6% 74.0%
Strongly agree
Refused
0.7% 1.2%
592 608
Survey data indicates that respondents have recognised Women’s influence at the community level is perceived
the potential of women’s participation in political as positive. The majority of respondents agree that
decision-making processes, both in formal government women have the same right to speak up at community
structures and on community level. The overwhelming meetings as men, with male respondents slightly
majority of respondents indicated openness to less inclined to agree with this statement (Figure
women’s participation, with 79.8% strongly agreeing 6.11). Similarly, women who speak up at community
that their participation is beneficial for society (74.0% meetings are well respected (Figure 6.12).
among men, 85.6% among women).
FIGURE 6.11 Women have the same right to speak up in community meetings as men
11.2% 6.7%
19.7%
3.0%
3.2%
7.9% 3.5%
8.4% Somewhat disagree
Neither agree nor

disagree
73.7% 63.3% Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Refused
1.0% 1.2%
592 608
33
FIGURE 6.12 If a woman speaks up at a community meeting, her opinion is as respected as

a man’s opinion
10.5%
14.5%
3.0%
4.9% 3.0%
7.4% 4.6%
Somewhat disagree
Neither agree nor

disagree
72.3% 69.2%
Somewhat agree
Strongly agree
Refused
1.9% 1.8%
592 608
Discrepancy between women’s de facto non- sphere and place the ultimate decision power in the
representation and high levels of community hands of religious leaders and elders; women’s lack
openness towards women’s political of social capital in a society where one’s influence is
strongly liked to family background and clan affiliation;
participation
women’s lower educational attainment compared to
men’s; and women’s lack of financial resources to launch
This paradox of de facto non-representation on the one
electoral campaigns. While women’s engagement at
hand and high levels of community openness towards
the community level – be it through talking to family
women’s political participation on the other hand
members or attending community or district council
warrants more nuanced analysis. Based on qualitative
meetings – is deemed important, women are often
accounts, the barriers that women face when trying
barred from informal networking, which tends to occur
to access the political arena include pervasive socio-
when men gather in informal men-only spaces called
cultural norms that relegate women to the domestic
mafresh to talk and chew khat together.26
If the elders do not support a woman’s opinion, no one will support her
Female Adult FGD participant, Hargeisa
“Men do not tend to put their support behind other women, as they consider the women’s place
to be in the home. Even in our everyday life, all the girl hears is ‘You are a girl, stay at home. You
are a girl, go do the cooking/cleaning/groceries.’ Although our religion is very clear on the rights
of a woman […], people are often not educated enough on religious matters and take the Imam
by his word when he says that a woman should stay at home. Ignorance is a big issue.
Civil society representative, Hargeisa
34
Women played a very important role in rebuilding the country. […] Although they did not have
a seat at the table to join the reconciliation talks, women took care of all the logistics and
rallied the people. And if the men didn’t come to an agreement, the women played a big role in
influencing them behind the scene. […] As you know, a woman can marry into a different clan, so
they have a big say behind the scene.
Civil society representative, Hargeisa
Moreover, in addition to men viewing women who raise conducted by Forcier for NAGAAD and Oxfam in early
their voices as competitors whose influence needs to be summer 2018. Women’s influence is often limited to
curtailed, women do not have a strong support network advocating for male candidates or supporting the ideas
among themselves. This is largely because ultimate of elders in community meetings. Socio-cultural norms
decision-making power lies with religious leaders and make it difficult for women to exert influence by putting
elders, and women in particular are hesitant to support forward their own ideas.
dissenting voices.
Although able to influence decision-making at the
Women are raised to support, not to lead community level, women labour under the gendered
dichotomy between the domestic and public spheres
These findings are largely reflective of some of the key because of attitudes about women’s expertise. Survey
findings presented in the Talo Wadaag baseline study respondents saw women most apt to be consulted
FIGURE 6.13 On which of the following issues should women be consulted?

Total 7,381 Percent of cases:27
(N=1,200) 615.1%
974 81.2% Family affairs
Health
944 78.7%
Education
897 74.8%
Economic development
834 69.5% Peacebuilding
686 57.2% Religious matters
How public money is spent

650 54.2%
Issues related to taxes
629 52.4%
Infrastructure projects
613 51.1%
Distribution of land
580 48.3% Other
525 43.8% Women should not be consulted
Refused
27 2.3%
12 1.0%
10 0.8%
27 Since respondents could choose more than one answer option to this question, the total percentage supersedes 100.0%.
35
about issues relating to the domestic domain and the elections, NAGAAD had established a Quota Task
wellbeing of children, including family affairs, health, Force including a group of elite stakeholders from
and education, while only around half or less than half different professional backgrounds to advocate for the
of respondents identified topics relating to financial women’s quota. The taskforce also assisted the three
resource allocation (including how public money political parties in developing and adopting policies
is spent, tax issues, infrastructure projects, or the on establishing a voluntary quota within the party. This
distribution of land) as matters of concern to women. resulted in the three political parties adding a 30 per
Answers did not vary significantly between male and cent quota for the upcoming March 2019 parliamentary
female respondents. elections to their by-laws. NAGAAD is advocating for the
adoption of a minimum 25 per cent quota for women
The fact that men are unwilling to share power to be seated in the parliament.28
voluntarily, along with lack of coordination and support
among women, relegates women to supporting Survey respondents understand the
roles and effectively bars them from leadership. This importance of a quota to increase women’s
reinforces the urgency of establishing a quota system
political representation
for the allocation of political seats.
Although 42.0% of survey respondents stated that
6.3.2 Introduction of a quota system women’s current political representation is sufficient,
an overwhelming 84.1% agreed that the introduction
Recognising that a quota system is an effective of a quota system would increase the number of female
measure to increase women’s participation in political representatives. This data, which has never before
decision-making processes – albeit a temporary means been assessed in a nationally representative survey,
to the long-term goal of gender equality in democratic is a testament to continuous advocacy efforts and is a
processes – NAGAAD has worked with allies in civil sign for political decision-makers to act according to
society, business and government on the introduction their constituents’ interests. This attitude towards the
of a quota system to mainstream women’s political introduction of a quota system is equally high across all
participation since 2005. Prior to the 2017 presidential six regions as well as age groups.
GRAPH 6.6 In your opinion, do you think that a quota system that allocates a specific
number of seats for women within government bodies would help to increase the number
of female representatives?
Yes
No
90.2% 78.1% Don’t know
Refused
19.7%
2.5% 6.9% 1.8%
0.3% 0.3%
28 NAGAAD. Advocacy Campaign Strategy for Ratification of the 25% Quota for Women. March 2017.
36
6.4 Educational Attainment Female respondents are significantly less likely to

reach higher levels of education than their male
Literacy levels are higher among men than among counterparts.
women.29
0.83% 82.7%
77.6%
0.61%
Gender gap in
secondary education
attainment rate: 0.26
Literacy scores Primary net

(combined ability to enrolment rates
read, write and do basic
Gender Gap: 0.94
maths)
Gender Gap: 0.74
0.83% 82.7%
Primary and secondary net enrolment rates are 77.6%
Gender gap in primary
similar for boys and girls, but somewhat higher for education attainment
boys.30 0.61% 71.3%
66.1% rate: 0.61
82.7%
77.6%
Literacy scores Primary net

(combined ability to Genderrates
enrolment gap in tertiary
read, write and do basic education attainment
Gender Gap: 0.94
Secondary
maths) net
enrolment rates rate: 0.31
Gender Gap:net
Primary 0.74
Gender Gap:rates
enrolment 0.93
Gender Gap: 0.94
Women are less likely than men to have regular
71.3% access to the internet.
66.1%
Gender gap in access

to internet: 0.71
Secondary net
enrolment rates
Gender Gap: 0.93
29 Considering that reported literacy levels in this survey are slightly higher than in MICS data or the 2012 Labour Force Survey, it is plausible that
respondents have overestimated their reading, writing and maths capabilities as a result of social desirability bias.
30 Social desirability bias may also explain the discrepancy here between respondents and government surveys.
37
Article 36 on The Rights of Women in the National family wealth is a significant determinant of female
Constitution states: “In order to raise the level of literacy: 64.7% of females in the richest wealth quintile
education and income of women, and also the welfare are literate, compared to only 14.1% in the poorest
of the family, women shall have the right to have quintile.33 According to the 2012 Labour Force Survey,
extended to them an education in home economics reported literacy rates were highest among youth aged
and to have opened for them vocational, special skills 15-25, with literacy rates of 74% for males and 55% for
and adult education schools.” Girls’ enrolment has females, while literacy decreases significantly among
continuously improved based on recently available older age groups.34
data. This section outlines achievements in literacy
and enrolment rates as well as primary, secondary, and According to survey findings for this report, male
tertiary education attainment levels by drawing upon a respondents supersede female respondents in terms of
comprehensive desk review as well as quantitative and literacy levels in all three categories of reading, writing,
qualitative research findings. and basic math skills. Literacy levels decline with age.
While 80.8% of respondents aged 15 or younger report
6.4.1 Literacy being able to read a book and fully understand it, this
percentage drops to 62.2% for 26-35 year-olds, 50.2% for
Data on literacy rates in Somaliland is scarce. The 36-64 year-olds, and 28.1% for over 65 year-olds. Figures
Somaliland MDG Report (2010) draws on MICS31 data are similar for writing and math skills. Disaggregated by
from 1999, which put the overall literacy rate at just group status, non-displaced people’s literacy skills far
26.9% with a significant gap between female and male supersede those of IDPs or refugees. For instance, while
levels (54.8% among males, 25.4% among females).32 12.2% of residents say they cannot read, this percentage
UNICEF MICS data from 2011 put the literacy rate rises to 30.2% among IDPs, and 47.6% among refugees
among young women aged 15-24 at 40.0% with great (writing: 12.2% among residents, 32.5% among IDPs,
variance between urban and rural locations (53.8% in and 47.6% among refugees). The same holds true for
urban locations, 27.3% in rural locations). Awdal was the divide between urban and rural settlements, with
the region with the highest level of literacy at 50.7% and rural dwellers twice as likely to be illiterate.
Togdheer had the lowest rate at 35.6%. Unsurprisingly,
GRAPH 6.7 How would you rate your ability to read in your mother tongue?
I cannot read
75.3%
I can read a few words such as names of shops or villages
I can read simple sentences
I can read and understand a simple text

I can read a book and fully understar it 49.5%
Refused
23.1%
19.8%
10.0%
5.9% 4.7% 5.4%
2.5% 3.3% 0.3% 0.0%
31 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey

32 Somaliland MDG Report 2010. UNDP. http://www.undp.org/content/dam/somalia/docs/MDGs/Somaliland%20MDG%20Report%20First%20
draft%20(2).pdf (Last accessed on 13 November 2018)
33 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011. Somaliland Final Report 2014. UNICEF. https://mics-surveys-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/MICS4/Eastern%20
and%20Southern%20Africa/Somalia%20%28Somaliland%29/2011/Final/Somalia%20%28Somaliland%29%202011%20MICS_English.pdf (Last
accessed on 13 November 2018)
34 Labour Force Survey Somaliland 2012. Ministry of Labour & Ministry of Planning and National Development.
38
GRAPH 6.8 How would you rate your ability to write in your mother tongue?
I cannot write
74.2%
I can write a few words such as names of family members
I can write simple sentences
I can write a simple text
I can write a longer text such as a homework assignment for school 48.7%
Refused
24.2%
18.4%
11.2%
6.1% 5.3%
4.9% 3.6% 3.3% 0.3% 0.0%
GRAPH 6.9 How would you rate your ability to do calculations?
71.6%
I cannot do any calculations
I can do simple calculations,

44.8% for example adding the
prices of goods that I buy at
42.9% the market
I have basic mathematic

24.3% skills, such as doing
addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division
12.0%
4.1% Refused
0.3% 0.0%
6.4.2 Enrolment rates girls (47.3%). There was an urban-rural divide with
a participation rate of 59.1% in urban and 43.1% in
Background information on primary enrolment rural locations. Attendance rate was highest in Awdal
at 62.7% and lowest in Sool at 39.4%. Household
In Somaliland, there are 8 years of primary school wealth as well as the mother’s education status are
starting at age 6 and four years of secondary school significant determinants: 70.8% of children of primary
starting at age 14. According to UNICEF MICS data school age in the richest wealth quintile are attending
from 2011, just over half of the children of primary school, compared to 28.1% in the poorest wealth
school age were attending school (51.4%). Primary quintile. If the mother has attained secondary or higher
school enrolment is higher among boys (55.4%) than education, 75.6% of children of primary school age are
39
enrolled, compared to 66.3% of children with mothers attending secondary school or higher. The urban-rural
who have attained primary school education, and gap is more pronounced here than at primary school
47.5% of children with mothers with no educational level, with 30.3% attending in urban settings and only
attainments.35 6.6% in rural settings. Attendance is highest in Maroodi
Jeex/Sahil at 26.5% and lowest in Togdheer at 10.1%.
The Somaliland Education Statistics Yearbook 2013/14 Here again household wealth as well as the mother’s
presents contending figures to those outlined above, education status are important determinants. While
as it puts the net primary enrolment rate at just 41.8% of children from households in the richest wealth
33.3% (36.2% for boys and 30.3% for girls).36 This is quintile attend secondary school, this percentage drops
surprising, as this report includes Integrated Quranic to 0.4% in the poorest wealth quintile. In addition,
Schools (IQS) and Alternative Basic Education (ABE)37 42.6% of youth whose mothers attended secondary
as part of formal primary education. IQS use the same or higher education are attending secondary school,
curriculum, teachers and textbooks as formal primary compared to 26.7% for mothers with primary education
schools, alongside additional Quranic subjects.38 and 16.4% for mothers with no education. The gender
gap is more pronounced than at primary education
The 2017-2021 Education Sector Strategic Plan level (24.3% of boys, 16.3% of girls).40
estimates net primary enrolment at 33.7% (with 5% less
enrolment among girls) with a projected trend of 54% The Somaliland Education Statistics Yearbook 2013/14
by 2021.39 Speaking to the key challenges that prevent puts net secondary enrolment at only 9.5% (10.8%
children from going to schools, including natural among boys and 8.0% among girls).41 The strategic plan
disasters (drought, flooding, and cyclones), financial estimates that, as of 2015, the net secondary enrolment
shocks, and conflicts, the report details that up to rate was 10.5% (boys 11.6%, girls 9%). The report also
35,000 children were forced out of school for periods highlighted a drastic urban-rural divide: Only 10% of
of varying length in the previous strategic period. Most secondary teachers are deployed in rural areas, while
vulnerable were children in rural areas, in nomadic/ only 78 or 4% of teachers are female.42
pastoralist communities and IDPs.
Survey data on enrolment rates
Measures to increase girls’ enrolment outlined in the
2017-2021 Strategic Plan include: adequate and girl- Survey respondents were asked whether they have
friendly facilities; encouraging female teacher training children of school age: 46.7% or 560 respondents
(the proportion of female teachers is under 5%) and have sons between the ages of 6 and 14; 44.3% or 531
placement, especially in secondary schools; affirmative respondents have daughters of primary school age.
policies to achieve gender parity among teaching staff, 26.2% or 314 respondents have sons between the
including head teachers; scholarship programmes that ages of 15 and 18 and 25.8% or 310 respondents have
target girls at secondary level; and improved systems daughters of secondary school age.
for students with special needs.
Out of those respondents, 80.9% indicated that they
Background information on secondary enrolment send their sons of primary school age to school and
75.5% indicated the same for their daughters. It shall
The official age range for secondary education in be noted that respondents have likely over-reported
Somaliland is between 14 and 18. Secondary school their children’s school enrolment for reasons of social
attendance is low: According to UNICEF MICS data from desirability bias. Nevertheless, the gender gap is
2011, only 20.5% of secondary school aged youth are apparent.
35 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011. Somaliland Final Report 2014. UNICEF.
36 Education Statistics Yearbook 2013/14. Ministry of Education and Higher Education. https://www.unicef.org/somalia/SOM_resources_
somalilandeducstats2014.pdf (Last accessed on 13 November 2018)
37 ABE education targets children who join the formal education system at a later stage and aims to facilitate a smooth transition to formal secondary
schools. The ABE curriculum matches the formal primary curriculum but is accelerated in order to better serve older out of school children.
38 Note that the research methodology and sample design of these two studies were very different. For the MICS 2011 assessment, a total of 4,820
households were interviewed across the six regions. The Yearbook on Education Statistics is based on questionnaires that were sent to schools for data
collection through regional and district education offices. The data was then analysed by the Ministry of Education and Higher Education.
39 Republic of Somaliland. Ministry of Education and Higher Studies. Education Sector Strategic Plan 2017-2021. October 2017
41 Education Statistics Yearbook 2013/14. Ministry of Education and Higher Education.
42 Republic of Somaliland. Ministry of Education and Higher Studies. ESSP 2017-2021.
40
FIGURE 6.14 Do your children between the ages of 6 and 14 attend school?
7.9% 6.8%
(42) (38)
12.3%
16.6% (69)
(88)
Yes
75.5% (401) 80.9% (453)
No
Some of them attend

school, while others
don't
531 560
The majority of primary school children are enrolled in formal primary school, IQS, or ABE). Maroodi Jeex
in formal schools, with a less significant percentage sees the highest number of primary enrolment (88.8%
attending IQS or ABE. Only 5.7% of sons and 7.0% of for boys, 83.2% for girls). Sool sees the lowest number
daughters receive their education at other Quranic of boys’ primary enrolment at 70.7%. Girls’ primary
schools. (Note that the gender gap calculation only enrolment is lowest in Sanaag at 67.0%.
takes into account the number of children enrolled
FIGURE 6.15 Which type of primary school do your children between the ages of 6 and 14
attend?
7.0% 5.7%
7.0% (31) 6.5%(28)
(31) (32)
12.0%
12.0%
(59)
(53)
75.8% (372)
74.0% (328) Formal primary school
Integrated Quranic
school (IQS)
Alternative Basic
Education (ABE)
Other Quranic school

443 491
41
FIGURE 6.16 Do your children between the ages of 15 and 18 attend secondary school?
5.2% 0.3%
(16) (1)
6.7%
(21)
33.6%
(104) 28.7%
(90)
61.0% (189) 64.7% (203) Yes
No
Some of them attend

school, while others
don't
Refused
310 314
The gap between girls’ and boys’ enrolment information, with statements underlining that in case
becomes apparent at secondary school level of a money shortage, families are more likely to retain
boys in school, as they are expected to provide for
Secondary school enrolment was highest for boys in their families later on. Survey data suggests that this
Maroodi Jeex at 73.8% (lowest in Sool at 51.4%) and gap becomes more pronounced at secondary school
highest for girls in Awdal at 69.2% (lowest in Sanaag at level with 56.2% of respondents stating that there is no
52.6%). Enrolment rates are consistently higher in urban money for girls to go to school, compared to 36.0% for
than in rural areas. Here again the reported numbers boys (Figure 6.18).
are higher than expected, considering earlier enrolment
statistics. In addition to social desirability bias, it is All FGD participants viewed girls’ school enrolment
possible that respondents also answered affirmatively favourably, expressing satisfaction that communities
if their children of secondary school age are actually have finally recognised the value of educating girls.
enrolled in primary school, although enumerators The decision of how and where to send children to
have been clearly instructed to tell respondents that school is said to lie with the parents – often the mother,
the question is about secondary school enrolment only whose dominance over household decisions extends
(i.e. to calculate the net enrolment rate). Regardless, to education decisions.
the gender gap at this stage becomes much more
pronounced with 64.7% of sons being reported as FGD participants claimed that there is no difference
attending secondary school, compared to 33.6% of between boys’ and girls’ enrolment, regardless of type
daughters. of school; the only difference might be in the daily
Reasons for not enrolling children in primary schools schedule with boys attending in the morning and girls
are overwhelmingly related to the inaccessibility of in the afternoon. Girls were described as more invested
education due to high costs, in addition to having no in their education and less likely to drop out once
school available nearby. The percentage of parents they got in, while early khat consumption was seen as
stating that there is no money available to send the greatest impediment to retaining boys in school.
children to primary school is equally high for girls and Nevertheless, when asked about secondary school
boys. In addition, 13.9% of parents stated that girls enrolment more specifically, responses become more
had to help at home with household chores, while nuanced with participants explaining that boys are
only 6.5% said the same about boys (Figure 6.17). more likely to attend secondary school, as girls have to
These findings are largely corroborated by qualitative help with household chores and tend to get married at
a younger age.
42
FIGURE 6.17 Why do your children - or some of your children - not attend primary school?
TOTAL: 127.1%43 TOTAL: 118.5%
56.2% 56.1% No money to send to school
No school available/school too

15.4% 23.4% far away
11.5% 20.6% Education is not valuable
14.6% 11.2% Other
13.9% 6.5% They need to help at home with

household chores
1.5% 3.7% Disabled/illness
2.3% 1.9% They need to work in the family

business/help with farming or
0.8% 1.9% herding
1.5% 0.9% They need to earn money outside

the household
0.0% 0.9% Family doesn’t allow schooling
0.0% 0.0% Refused
0.8% 0.0% They need to learn a job
154 (N=130) 136 (N=107) School is not safe
FIGURE 6.18 Why do your children - or some of your children - not attend secondary school?
TOTAL: 115.3%44 TOTAL: 118.5%
36.0% No money to send to school

56.2%
Other
14.6% 28.8%
No school available/school too far away
15.4% 17.1%
They need to help at home with
13.9% 13.5% household chores
11.5% 6.3% Education is not valuable
They need to earn money outside the

0.8% 4.5% household
2.3% 4.5% They need to work in the family

business/help with farming or herding
1.8% 0.0%
They need to learn a job/are in
0.9% vocational training
0.0%
Refused
1.5% 0.9%
Disabled/illness
0.9% 1.5%
Family doesn’t allow schooling
0.8% 0.0%
School is not safe
128 154
43
People understand the value of education. In the past, many people thought that education is
just for men and that women should stay at home, but now they understand.
In this century, 90 per cent of girls are attending school. We have passed the years in which girls
were told to stay at home and only boys attended school
Male Adult FGD participant, Borama
The narrative linking girls’ access to education qualitative data suggests that this is not necessarily the
to their future reproductive role is pervasive expected trajectory for girls who attend school.
Although demonstrating support for girls’ education, 6.4.3 Educational attainments

the data strongly suggests that the value of girls’
education is persistently linked to their reproductive Women are less likely to reach higher levels of
role, with the expectation that educated mothers will education than men
raise educated children. Few FGD participants saw
girls’ education linked to the increased potential of The gender gap on educational attainment is definitive:
an educated woman to enter the labour market and female respondents are far less likely to reach higher
pursue self-fulfilment through professional work. This is levels of education than their male counterparts. The
strongly linked to the previously mentioned notion that percentage of female respondents who have received
women’s livelihood activities, while necessary, are only no education or have attended Quranic school stands at
seen as a contribution to or substitute for a husband’s 50.7%, compared to 25.8% of men. Only 9.5% of female
capability to provide for his family. While data shows respondents attended secondary school, compared to
that women with higher education are more likely to 20.1% of men, and 13.5% of female respondents have
be in full-time or part-time employment relations, obtained a university degree, compared to 23.2% of
men.
FIGURE 6.19 What is your highest level of education?

0.7% 0.5% 2.8%
Total: 592 (4) (3) Total: 608 (17)
24.7% 10.2% No education

12.8% (62)
(146)
(76) Quranic school – no formal
20.4%
education
(124) 15.6%
(95) Lower primary school (Grade 1-4)
Upper primary school (Grade 5-8)
9.5% Secondary school (Grade 9-12)
(56)
26.0% University degree
(154) 10.4% Advanced university degree
20.1% (63)
(122) (Master, Doctorate)
15.5% Refused
(92) 10.3%
20.6% (125)
(61)
44
Educational attainments vary greatly by age group at 24.0% for women aged 25 and younger, and rises
for both male and female respondents. The younger significantly for older age groups. Similarly, 18.1% of
a respondent, the higher the likelihood of achieving women aged 25 or younger have attended secondary
higher education. The percentage of female school and 29.0% have obtained a university degree
respondents without any formal education stands (Figure 6.20).
FIGURE 6.20 FEMALE RESPONDENTS: What is your highest level of education?
1.4% 1.2%
10.0% 6.4%
4.6%
27.6% 26-35 25.4%
25 and younger
14.0%
14.5%
10.4%
Total: 221 12.7% Total: 173

18.1%
18.6% 35.3%
0.5%
2.1% 0.5%
4.3% 9.1%
9.1%
13.4% 36-64 65 and older
8.0%
18.2%
39.0%
Total: 187 Total: 11
32.1% 63.6%
No education Secondary school (Grade 9-12)

Quranic school – no formal education University degree
Lower primary school (Grade 1-4) Advanced university degree (Master, Doctorate)
Upper primary school (Grade 5-8) Refused
45
Nevertheless, even in the youngest age group male 46.0% have obtained a university degree (Figure 6.21).
respondents supersede their female peers. Only 8.1% Here again it shall be noted that respondents might
of males aged 25 or younger have not obtained any have over-reported their educational attainments due
form of formal education, while 25.0% of respondents to social desirability bias.
in this age group have attended secondary school, and
FIGURE 6.21 MALE RESPONDENTS: What is your highest level of education?
3.4% 3.4%
4.7% 6.0% 7.1%

6.1% 9.8%
25 and younger 26-35
24.5%
14.9%
10.9%
42.6%
22.3% 19.6%
25.0%
0.4%
6.3%
14.3%
15.3%
23.8%
36-64 65 and older
17.3% 4.8%
22.8%
25.1%
12.9% 57.1%
No education Secondary school (Grade 9-12)

Quranic school – no formal education University degree
Lower primary school (Grade 1-4) Advanced university degree (Master, Doctorate)
Upper primary school (Grade 5-8)
46
Educational attainments are particularly low among Amoud, and Gollis – having only completed a Bachelor
IDPs and refugees. A total of 77 out of 126 IDP- degree.46
identified respondents (61.1%) have not received any
formal education, while only nine IDPs have attended Access to higher education remains
secondary school and only two have obtained a unattainable to many young women due to
university degree. In addition, 14 out of 21 refugee-
high costs and limited mobility
identified respondents have not received any formal
education.
In a review of the higher education sector in Somalia
published in 2013, The Heritage Institute concluded
There is also a clear urban-rural divide in educational
that 35% or 17,500 of the over 50,000 students in
attainment: 49.7% of rural dwellers have not received
Somalia and Somaliland are enrolled at a higher
any formal education, compared to 27.2% of urban
education institution in Somaliland. The University
settlers. While 32.3% of urban respondents have
of Hargeisa was said to enrol 7.6% or 3,900 students
obtained a university degree, this holds true for only
out of these 50,000 students.47 The report does not
2.8% of rural respondents.
offer any gender-disaggregated information. The
National Development Plan (2012-2016) published
6.4.4 Access to higher education in 2015 found 20,441 students enrolled at universities
in Somaliland for the academic year 2014.48 The only
Figures on tertiary education rates are difficult to come gender disaggregated data is for graduation rates,
by. Somaliland is still in the process of rebuilding which puts the male graduation rate at roughly 4,200
its education sector and its first university, Amoud and the female graduation rate at roughly 1,750 in
University in Borama, Awdal, was only opened in 2014. The 2017-2021 Strategic Plan stipulates that less
1997. According to the 2017-2021 Education Sector than 2% of all Somali youth will ever attend university.
Strategy Plan, there are between 24 and 35 recognised Out of all Somali youth that will ever enrol in higher
universities in Somaliland, with Amoud, Hargeisa, education, an estimated 30% will be women.49 As per
Gollis, and Burao University the largest.45 The higher qualitative data, access to higher education remains
education sector is overwhelmingly driven by private unattainable for many young people, as they cannot
investment, with universities being founded by NGOs afford the fees without scholarships. Women’s access
or private entities and funded through tuition fees. is often particularly limited, as their family might not
Teaching staff qualifications are low with the majority consent to having to travel or relocate to different
of staff at the three biggest universities – Hargeisa, regions.
Access to university is good in our area, even though it is expensive and most people cannot afford
it. But the quality is good.
The biggest barrier for young people to access higher education is the cost of the universities, which
is very high. Since they cannot afford the fees, they drop out after high school.
Students would often like to move to a different region or go abroad for their university degree. This
is possible for boys, but girls are often not allowed to live somewhere else without their family.
Male Adult FGD participant, Las Anod

46 Ibid.
47 The State of Higher Education in Somalia. The Heritage Institute. August 2013. http://www.heritageinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/
HIPS_Higher_Education_ENGLISH.pdf (Last accessed on 13 November 2018)
48 National Development Plan (2012-2016). Edition 12 (Data of 2014). Ministry of National Planning and Development. https://slministryofplanning.org/
images/Statistics/Final_Somaliland_Infigures_2014.pdf (Last accessed on 13 November 2018)
47
As per survey data, female respondents with a investing in initiatives such as Innovative Venture, a
university background are gravitating towards health social enterprise that provides trainings to youth and
science, nursing, and midwifery degrees, whereas holds competitions for them to pitch their business
male respondents are more likely to enrol in or obtain ideas.
business, engineering and IT degrees. This trend
towards a gender-specific selection of studies was Among survey respondents, 29.9% of respondents
confirmed by qualitative accounts. FGD participants (38.3% male and 21.3% of female) stated that they
said that men were more interested in science, have participated in a vocational training of some
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) sorts. This percentage is likely linked to the high degree
subjects as well as business/accounting courses (and, of informality and lack of standardisation, as even
interestingly, poetry), while women tended to choose a two week course offered by an NGO could lead to
health-related professions, especially midwifery. some sort of certification. FGD participants shared their
grievances over the unavailability of vocational training
Seeking to encourage young women to enrol in programmes, explaining that offers are limited (e.g. for
traditionally male subjects, the Government’s 2017- mechanics, construction, tailoring, cooking, henna art),
2021 Strategic Plan outlines key strategies including expensive, and therefore inaccessible – especially to
providing scholarships “based on (a) clear set of women. They further pointed to the short-lived nature
guidelines, addressing the economic added value,” of most programmes known to them and emphasised
focusing on areas with sustainable growth potential, that trainings need to be followed by job placements
including marine studies (fisheries), dry land agriculture, and start-up grants.
livestock by-products, food processing, energy, mining
and gems, and mineralogy (petroleum). It says that Youth opt for vocational training programmes
scholarships should be allocated based on merit with a in line with gendered expectations, strongly
ratio of 70% from public and 30% from private school.50
limiting women’s options to learn a trade
Notably, most of these areas are typically male-
dominated, and there it little to no mention of targeting
Enrolment in vocational training programmes is of a
women for scholarships.
highly gendered nature, with young women opting
almost entirely for a select few traditionally female
6.4.5 Vocational training vocations such as cooking, tailoring, and henna art
trainings, thus further limiting their options. This was
Technical and vocational training (TVET) programmes evidenced in both survey data and qualitative accounts.
in Somaliland are characterised by little to no Young men are overwhelmingly trained in physical
standardisation. There is little government labour jobs such as electrical installation, mechanics,
coordination, with most TVET programmes being plumbing, building and construction, carpentry, as
privately owned and administered, often dependent on well as ICT and accounting. The gender split is less
donor funding or NGOs. According to the Government’s pronounced with regards to business management
2017-2021 Strategic Plan, attempts to pass legislation and office administration courses, while women are
or policy frameworks such as the 2011 National overrepresented in nursing, food processing/cooking,
Vocational Qualifications Framework (VQF) have not and beauty salon trainings.
come to fruition yet. A draft TVAQ Bill was developed
but not finalised.51 The TVET Department of the Ministry The Government’s 2017-2021 Strategic Plan says that
of Education and Higher Studies (MOEHS) offers due to national budgetary constraints, progress on the
trainings in technical schools in Hargeisa and Burao availability of publicly funded TVET programmes is not
and entertains one technical agricultural school close expected in the near future. However, it does refer to
to Burao. the promotion of gender equity in TVET centres as one
of its key strategies, seeking to overcome barriers to
Interviewed private sector representatives referred to female enrolment.
different vocational trainings including by organisations
such as the Somali Consultants Association (SOCA),
6.4.6 Internet access
Horn of Africa Voluntary Youth Committee (HAVOYOCO),
and General Assistance and Volunteer Organisation
According to UNICEF MICS data from 2011, 16.4% of
(GAVO). Larger companies such as Telesom are known
surveyed women between the age of 15 and 24 have
to run their own training programmes, in addition to

51 Ibid.
48
used the internet at some point, 14.3% have used it younger generations use the internet more frequently
during the past 12 months, and 12.2% have used it (48.8% use it “every day” among 25 and younger; 79.4%
at least once a week during the past week.52 As this “never” use it among 36-64 year-olds). IDP and refugee
question was only asked to women, there are no populations have less access to the internet than
comparable statistics for male respondents. residents (52.7% for “never” among residents, 86.5%
for “never” among IDPs, and 81.0% for “never” among
Women are less likely to have access to the internet refugees). Similarly, while 43.8% of urban population
regularly, according to survey respondents, with 35.2% states that they use the internet every day (36.1% for
of male respondents reporting daily access to the “never”), only 11.3% of rural populations access the
internet, compared to 21.6% of women. Unsurprisingly, internet every day (79.5% for “never”).
FIGURE 6.22 How often do you usually access the internet (on a mobile phone, a computer,
or some other device)?
21.6% 35.2%
7.8% 6.6%
4.4% 2.5%
2.7% 5.3%
63.0% 50.2%
0.5% 0.3%
592 608
Every day Every 2-4 weeks
Every 2-3 days Never
Once a week Refused
49
7 CONCLUSION
This report has measured and analysed the gender o In order to promote the legal representation
gap between women and men’s achievements and of women entrepreneurs and strengthen their
opportunities, as it pertains to the four sub-components negotiating power towards price-makers as
of economic participation, economic opportunities, well as legal bodies, SHGs could be organised
political empowerment and educational attainment. into cluster-level associations.
Gender equality is highest in the field of education and o Improving women’s protection at the workplace
lowest in formal political representation. The depth through strict enforcement of labour law
and breadth of gender inequality demands that all provisions regarding maternity leave is likely to
stakeholders take coordinated and concerted action at encourage more women to seek work outside
both the policy and practice level to close the gender the household, while equal pay for equal work
gap in Somaliland. The following are key concluding must be made into law.
points relating to the research focus on economics,
politics and education. • In Somaliland’s traditional society, where religious
leaders and elders are the ultimate decision-
• The structure of Somaliland’s economy, with makers, women not only lack the social capital to
little to no industrial production, few large-scale exert their right to political participation but also
enterprises, and the predominance of small-scale, the financial resources for women candidates to
low-productivity businesses, has challenges for both pay for campaign expenses. Women’s roles are
women and men. However, women, in particular therefore often relegated to influencing decision-
female youth aged 15 to 24, are disproportionately making processes behind the scenes, for instance
affected by unemployment. Women who have not by advocating for certain male candidates.
received any formal education are more likely than o In addition to introducing a quota system
men to find themselves in vulnerable employment for the allocation of political seats, advocacy
situations. campaigns should focus on increasing
awareness for the difference between openness
• While the single biggest impediment to accessing towards women’s participation and de facto
the labour market was said to be clannism in participation. Advocacy messages should
the distribution of jobs, women face a series of increase awareness for the difference between
additional challenges that limit their economic influencing a decision and making a decision
opportunities and chances to rise to a position and encourage women to support each other
of leadership at their workplace. This includes in community meetings.
lower levels of literacy and education than their
male competitors, a weaker social network, • Girls in Somaliland are less likely to reach higher
perceived inability to work in physical jobs, and levels of education than boys. In case of financial
restrictive socio-cultural norms that place women difficulties, boys are more likely to remain
in the domestic sphere and discourage them from enrolled in school, as they are expected to be
actively seeking out economic opportunities. the breadwinner for their family later on, while
o While the Government should prioritise the girls are largely prepared to take on their role as
expansion of labour-intensive industries as wife and mother. Scholarship funds and other
the most urgent action to address chronic support mechanisms, such as women-friendly
unemployment, interim measures should focus accommodation options, should be established to
on linking highly qualified youth with potential retain girls and young women in formal education.
employers, for instance through internships.
50
8 TECHNICAL ANNEX
8.1 Methodological Framework combined as one rural category. The sample was
stratified proportionally to the population size of the
This study followed a mixed-methods approach in six regions in Somaliland by both rural and urban
order to best address the objectives of establishing a settlements and gender. A randomly drawn sample size
composite index comprised of four sub-components and of n=1,200 results in a margin of error of 2.8% at the
formulating nuanced and targeted recommendations 95% confidence interval.
for future advocacy and programming. This included a
thorough desk review of existing databases and related 8.1.2 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs)
reports (e.g. on economic and education indicators)
as well as legislative documents (e.g. on legislation KIIs are a crucial way to access a population of influential
governing topics such as non-discrimination in hiring, people who would otherwise not be captured by a
equal pay for equal work, and maternity leave), a typical household survey, in particular local government
quantitative household survey with 1,200 respondents, partners or influential private sector representatives.
six Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) with relevant In analysis and report writing, this allows for new and
stakeholders, and 12 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) often overlooked voices to be documented, as well as
with female and male community members. detailed experiences and sentiments that can only be
gathered from open-ended questions. For the purpose
8.1.1 Quantitative Household Survey of this research assignment, six KIIs were conducted
to gather contextual information on gender gaps
The quantitative household survey, administered to within the four sub-components and learn from key
1,200 respondents via Computer-Assisted Telephone informants’ perspectives on these topics. All six KIIs
Interviews (CATI), constitutes the core of this research. were conducted in Hargeisa. Targeted interviewees
The survey was administered by Forcier’s in-house call included:
centre in Hargeisa utilising the mobile data collection
platform ONA/ODK. • 2 business leaders (1 male, 1 female),
• 2 government representatives (1 male, 1 female),
Sampling and
• 2 leaders of civil society organisations (1 male, 1
Due to the lack of a population census since 1975, female).
sampling for this survey relied on data from the
updated version of the 2014 UNFPA Population 8.1.3 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)
Estimation, published by OCHA in 2017.53 This version
is disaggregated by district, which was necessary for Focus group discussions allow for nuanced and open-
creating a proportional sample for Somaliland, as the ended responses to difficult questions, eliciting more
older version of UNFPA combines the regions Maroodi information on attitudes, perceptions, and experiences
Jeex and Sahil. The estimates provide a breakdown that otherwise cannot be obtained by a quantitative
of rural, urban, nomadic and settlements of internally survey. While the household survey allows for analysis
displaced persons. For the purpose of regional of general population trends, FGDs allow for more
allocation, rural, nomadic and IDP populations were detailed reports including in-depth explorations of
53 The UNFPA Population Estimation survey can be found here: https://data.humdata.org/dataset/somalia-population-data (Last accessed on 14
November 2018)
51
respondents’ views and experiences. For the purpose well. De jure indicators, such as existence of non-
of this research assignment, 12 FGDs were conducted discrimination laws or legislative regulations on
to gather community perceptions on gender gaps maternity/paternity leave, were assessed on the
within the four sub-components. In order to ensure a same scale, ranging from 0 (“non-existent”) to 1
geographical spread, interviews were conducted in (“existent”) with an optional 0.5 step (e.g. “some
the regional capitals of Awdal, Maroodi Jeex, and Sool. laws are in place”) if deemed appropriate based on
FGDs were held with women and men separately in research findings.
order to ensure that women feel comfortable speaking
up and giving their honest opinions. In addition, FGDs 2. Truncate data at equality benchmark
were be split by age. The breakdown looked as follows: As a second step, the obtained ratios were truncated
at the “equality benchmark”. For all indicators, this
• 2 FGDs with younger women (16-35 years old) in equality benchmark was taken to be 1, meaning
Borama and Hargeisa equal chances for women and men. In line with
• 2 FGDs with older women (over 35 years old) in the WEF Gender Gap Index methodology, a one-
Borama and Hargeisa sided scale which measures how close women
• 2 FGDs with members of women self-help groups are to reaching parity with men has been chosen.
in vicinity of Las Anod This is the most appropriate, as it does not reward
• 3 FGDs with younger men (16-35 years old) in countries for having exceed the parity benchmark.
Borama, Hargeisa, and Las Anod 3. Calculate sub index scores
• 3 FGDs with older men (over 35 years old) in The third step in the process involved calculating
Borama, Hargeisa, and Las Anod. the average of the indicators within each sub-
component to create the sub-index scores. The
Gender Gap Index uses linear, additive aggregation
8.2 Index Calculation
and weights each indicator equally within its
sub-index. While there are different aggregation
The steps taken to calculate the Gender Gap Index are
methods, the merit of this approach lies in its
as follows:
simplicity, transparency, and accessibility.
1. Convert data to ratios/normalising data if
4. Calculate the final score
necessary
The composite index is in turn an unweighted
Initially, all data was converted to female-to-male
average of all of the underlying sub-indices. For
ratios. This was to ensure that the Index captures
all the sub-indices, the highest possible score is 1
gaps between women and men’s attainment levels,
(parity), and the lowest possible score is 0 (imparity),
rather than the levels themselves. Indicators that
binding the scores between equality and inequality.
were assessed on a Likert scale (e.g. literacy levels,
Similarly, the composite index ranges between 1
frequency of internet usage) were calculated using
and 0, allowing for comparisons to be made relative
min-max normalisation, which transforms the data
to ideal standards of equality across the different
on a common scale from 0 to 1, i.e. the maximum
dimensions of the index.
value possible becomes the highest score and the
minimum possible value becomes the lowest score.
The following tables give an overview of the
This method is not affected by skewed values,
indicators for each sub-component, including
and does not make any assumptions about the
definitions, comments on measurement, and the
distribution of the data. The obtained mean scores
figures that fed into the index.
were then converted to female-to-male ratios as
52
8.2.1 Economic Participation
Comments on Male Female Gender

Indicator Definition
Measurement Figure Figure Gap
Percentage of male/female
Adult Share of the labour force
survey respondents
unemployment rate aged 15-64 that is without
aged 15-64 that are 16.35% 30.12% 0.54
(as % of female, work but available for and
unemployed but actively
male labour force) seeking employment.54
looking
Percentage of people
Female/male youth survey respondents
aged 15-24 who are not in
not in employment aged 15-24 who are not 24.35% 53.8% 0.45
employment and not in
or education in employment and
education or training.55
education or training
Proportion of a country’s Percentage of male/female

working-age population survey respondents who
Female/male high- with a tertiary degree have obtained tertiary
skilled share of that engages actively in education and are 0.94% 0.89% 0.94
labour force the labour market, either participating in the labour
by working or looking for market (either employed
work.56 or looking)
“Self-employed” in
the sense that their
remuneration is directly
dependent upon the Percentage of male/female
Employers (as % profits derived from survey respondents who
of female, male the goods and services are self-employed and 17.02% 6.98% 0.41
labour force) produced and who, in this employ at least one other
capacity, have engaged, person
on a continuous basis, one
or more persons to work
for them as employees.57
Vulnerable employment
is defined as the sum of
survey respondents whose
OAW and CFW.58 The rate
employment can be
of vulnerable employment
classified as OAW or CFW.
Rate of vulnerable refers to the employed
In the Somali context, 0.43% 0.61% 0.71
employment working age population
OAW applies to the
in the vulnerable
majority of female shop
employment expressed
owners, street vendors,
as a proportion to total
and market women.
employment.59
54 Definition taken from: The Global Gender Gap Index Report 2017. World Economic Forum.
55 Ibid.
56 Ibid.
57 Ibid.
58 Contributing family workers (as % of female, male labor force): A contributing family worker is a person who holds a self-employment job in a
market-oriented establishment operated by a related person living in the same household, and who cannot be regarded as a partner because of the
degree of his or her commitment to the operation of the establishment, in terms of the working time or other factors to be determined by national
circumstances, is not at a level comparable with that of the head of the establishment. Own-account workers (as % of female, male labor force):
Own-account workers are those self-employed who do not hire paid employees on a continuous basis but may have assistance from contributing family
workers (unpaid employee who usually lives in the same household and are related to family members).
(Definitions taken from: The Global Gender Gap Index Report 2017. World Economic Forum.)
59 Definition taken from: Labour Force Survey Somaliland 2012. Ministry of Labour & Ministry of Planning and National Development.
53
Employment at less than

desired or normal working Percentage of male/female
hours (40-48 hours per survey respondents who
Rate of
week). Measured by the work less than normal 86.39% 79.41% 1.00
underemployment
total hours worked in all working hours per week
economic activities in one and less than desired
week.60
0.0
This was assessed through
Law mandates There is currently no legislation in
desk review and relevant
equal pay place that mandates equal pay for
KIIs.
equal work.
8.2.2 Economic Opportunity
Gender
Indicator Comments on Measurement Male Figure Female Figure
Gap
Existing law that
0.0
mandates non-
This was assessed through desk review and There is currently no legislation in place that
discrimination
relevant KIIs. mandates non-discrimination based on gender
based on gender in
(or any other demographic variables) in hiring.
hiring
This indicator looks at the length of
maternity/paternity leave (days), wages
paid during maternity/paternity leave,
and provider of maternity/paternity 0.5
leave benefits. It was assessed on various Legislation mandates 4 months of paid
levels, including a desk review on existing maternity leave for both private sector and
Access to child care
legislation, quantitative survey questions to government employees. However, enforcement
relevant respondents (i.e. those in a formal is weak, in particular in smaller companies, with
employment relation), KIIs with private no repercussions in case of disregard.
sector and government representatives,
as well as FGDs to allow for more in-depth
discussion of the subject matter.
This was assessed through the ratio of female
and male survey respondents who stated
Ability of women to that they were in a formal employment
rise to positions of relation (either full-time or part-time 44.09% 25.00% 0.57
leadership employment) and are in a managerial
role, i.e. are supervising the work of other
employees.
This measures the percentage of women
and men who report having an account (in
their own name) at a bank or another type
Percentage of of financial institution. Respondents were
women/men with asked whether they have an account with
20.72% 9.46% 0.46
an account at a a bank, including ROSCA, or remittance
financial institution company in their name. It was made clear
that the use of mobile money transfer (Zaad,
hawala), which is independent from a bank
account, is not what was asked for.
60 Ibid.
54
Respondents were asked whether they

have borrowed money/taken out a loan in
their own name from a bank or remittance
Access to financial
company (such as Dahabshil), microfinance 3.78% 3.21% 0.85
services
services (such as Salaam Financial Services
or Kabaa Microfinance Institution), or
ROSCA.
Respondents were asked whether they
Access to
personally are receiving remittances via a 5.76% 7.77% 1.00
remittances
bank transfer or remittance company.
This was assessed through a survey

question asking about who in the household
is responsible for major financial decisions
(such as purchasing livelihood assets or
land). The figures on the right refer to the
Women’s ability
percentage of respondents who indicated
to make financial 26.00% 24.50% 0.94
that either a male household member
decisions
or a female household member alone is
responsible for financial decisions. This
does not take into account the percentage of
respondents indicating that both male and
female HH members are decision-makers.
0.5
Inheritance rights are regulated through Islamic

law, according to which a son inherits twice
that of a daughter, a brother twice that of a
sister, and the husband twice that of his wife.
This refers to whether daughters and sons
Considering the socio-cultural context and
Inheritance rights have equal inheritance rights and was
research findings that indicate the majority
for daughters assessed through desk review of existing
of respondents support inheritance rights as
legislature and KIIs.
they are prescribed in Sharia law, i.e. 64.5% of
respondents strongly disagreed with the notion
that a daughter should have the same right to
inherit family assets as a son, the gap for this de
jure indicator is set at 0.5: Women have some
inheritance rights but not the same.
1.0
Women’s secure Land ownership in Somaliland is governed

access to land This refers to whether women and men have through secular, customary and Islamic law.
use, control and equal and secure access to land use, control The National Constitution as well as Sharia
ownership and and ownership and to non-land assets use, law recognise women’s right to property. Xeer
women’s secure control and ownership and was assessed has been known to deny women their share
access to non-land through desk review of existing legislature of inheritance in both land and livelihood
assets use, control and interviews with government officials. assets in order to protect the property of the
and ownership patriarchal family. However, as this could not be
substantiated within the scope of this study, this
de jure indicator is set at 1.0.
55
8.2.3 Political Empowerment
Male Female Gender

Indicator Comments on Measurement
Figure Figure Gap
0.0
Drawing on the on-going debate about
Quota for women There is currently no legislation for a quota
establishing a quota system for political
on candidate lists for women on candidate lists in national//
representation in Somaliland, this indicator
in national/local local elections in place. Attempts to pass
was assessed through desk review and KIIs
elections a bill has not found the necessary support
with government and CSO representatives.
by Guurti and Lower House thus far.
Women’s
representation in 365 9 0.02
Local Council
Women’s 82 Guurti 0 0.00

Women’s representation in Somaliland’s
representation in
government structure was assessed through
Parliament (Upper
desk review and KIIs with government and CSO
& Lower House) 81 MPs 1 0.01
representatives. The desk review drew, among
Number of other sources, on the Talo-Wadaag project
female ministers baseline that Forcier conducted for Oxfam in
early summer 2018. 29 3 0.10
compared to male
number
Number of female
judges compared N/A 0 0.00
to male number
In addition to establishing hard facts

on women’s actual representation, the
quantitative survey as well as FGDs assessed
respondents’ perceptions of and readiness
towards women’s political participation.
Since attitudes of survey respondents
do not necessarily correspond to actual
levels of representation, these questions
Community
are not included in the composition of the
openness
Gender Gap Index but provide interesting
towards women’s
comparisons between attitudes and de facto 0.76 0.78 0.97
participation in
representation. The figures on the right are
formal government
the average of the mean scores of responses to
structures
the following survey questions:
Women’s participation in government
structures like the national parliament and
the local councils is beneficial for society.
Women are sufficiently represented in the
government in Somaliland.
Do you think women are capable of
participating in all levels of government?
56
In addition to looking at formal political

structures, the quantitative survey as well as
FGDs and relevant KIIs also assessed women’s
level of influence on decision-making at the
community level, including the topics on which
women have the most influence and whether
men support them. Since attitudes of survey
respondents do not necessarily correspond
to actual levels of representation,
Women’s influence
these questions are not included in the
on decision-making
composition of the Gender Gap Index but 0.76 0.83 0.92
at the community-
provide interesting comparisons between
level
attitudes and de facto representation. The
figures on the right are the average of the mean
scores of responses to the following survey
questions:
Women have the same right to speak up
in community meetings as men.
If a woman speaks up at a community
meeting, her opinion is as respected as a
man’s opinion.
8.2.4 Educational Attainment
Comments on Female Gender

Indicator Definition Male Figure
Measurement Figure Gap
Average of mean scores of

responses to the following
survey questions:
Part of the
How would you rate
population aged
Female your ability to read in
15 and over with
literacy rate your mother tongue?
the ability to read 0.83 0.61 0.74
of male How would you rate
and write and make
value your ability to write in
simple arithmetic
your mother tongue?
calculations.61
How would you rate
your ability to do
calculations?
This was assessed by
asking survey respondents
Percentage of girls whether their children of
Female net and boys in the primary school age are
primary official school age enrolled. The percentages
enrolment range who are only include those 0.83% 0.78% 0.94
rate over enrolled in either children enrolled in formal
male value primary or secondary education, i.e. formal
education.62 schools, Integrated Quranic
Schools, Alternative Basic
Education.
61 Definition taken from: The Global Gender Gap Index Report 2017. World Economic Forum.
62 Ibid.
57
Percentage of girls
Female net and boys in the This was assessed by
secondary official age range for asking survey respondents
enrolment secondary education whether their children of 0.71% 0.66% 0.93
rate over who are enrolled secondary school age are
male value in secondary enrolled.
education.63
Female, male
lower primary
education
91.89% 76.02% 0.83
attainment
rate: 25 and
younger
Female, male
lower primary
education 83.16% 38.15% 0.46
attainment
rate: 26-35
Female, male
lower primary
education 61.95% 28.34% 0.46
attainment
rate: 36-64
Percentage of the
population with This was assessed in the Female, male
at least a primary quantitative survey by lower primary
education, split up asking about respondents’ education
19.05% 18.18% 0.95
Female, in lower primary highest level of education. attainment
male (Grade 1-4) and Data was disaggregated rate: 65 and
primary upper primary by age groups. The overall older
education (Grade 5-8). Data is education attainment rates Female, male
attainment cumulative, which are the average of all age upper primary
rate means that those groups at the respective education
85.8% 65.61% 0.76
with secondary level, i.e. primary (lower attainment
education and above and upper), secondary, rate: 25 and
are counted in the and tertiary. younger
figures.64 Female, male
upper primary
education 72.29% 25.43% 0.35
attainment
rate: 26-35
Female, male
upper primary
education 49.01% 20.32% 0.41
attainment
rate: 36-64
Female, male
upper primary
education
14.29% 9.09% 0.64
attainment
rate: 65 and
older
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
58
Female, male
secondary
education
85.81% 47.06% 0.55
attainment
rate: 25 and
younger
Percentage of the
Female, male
population with at
secondary
least a secondary
Female, education 52.72% 10.98% 0.21
education. Data
male attainment
is cumulative,
secondary rate: 26-35
which means that
education Female, male
those with tertiary
attainment secondary
education are
rate education 23.91% 6.95% 0.29
counted in the
figures.65 attainment
rate: 36-64
Female, male
secondary
education
0.00% 0.00% 0.00
attainment
rate: 65 and
older
Female,
male tertiary
education
45.95% 28.96% 0.63
attainment
rate: 25 and
younger
Female,
male tertiary
Female, education 30.44% 6.36% 0.21
male Percentage of the attainment
tertiary population with rate: 26-35
education tertiary education.66
Female,
attainment
male tertiary
rate
education 6.66% 2.67% 0.40
attainment
rate: 36-64
Female,
male tertiary
education
0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
attainment
rate: 65 and
older
Percentage Frequency of internet
Mean score of responses
of usage on any device
to survey question: How
individuals from any location.
often do you usually access
using the Assessed to provide 0.43 0.30 0.71
the internet (on a mobile
internet an insight into ease of
phone, a computer, or
(female, access and exposure
some other device)?
male ratio) to information.
65 Ibid.
66 Ibid.
59

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SOMALILAND GENDER

Contact: NAGAAD, Hargeisa, Somaliland. [email protected] www.nagaad.org

1. Executive Summary: The Gender Gap at a Glance 5

4. Indicators for Composite Gender Gap Index 12

6.1 Economic Participation 14

6.2 Economic Opportunity 19

6.3 Political Empowerment 31

6.4 Educational Attainment 37

8.1 Methodological Framework 51

8.2 Index Calculation 52

ABE Alternative Basic Education

CATI Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviews

FGD Focus Group Discussion

HAVOYOCO Horn of Africa Voluntary Youth Committee

GAVO General Assistance and Volunteer Organisation

IDP Internally-displaced person

KII Key Informant Interview

MOEHS Ministry of Education and Higher Studies

MESAF Ministry of Employment, Social Affairs and Family

MDG Millennium Development Goals

MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey

OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

SHG Self-help Group

SOCA Somali Consultants Association

STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

SLWCC Somaliland Women Chamber of Commerce

TVET Technical and Vocational Training

UNFPA UN Population Fund

UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

Gender Gap for Gender Gap for

Gender Gap for Gender Gap for

Political Empowerment: allocation, to make them more comfortable

Recent efforts to increase women’s visibility and Economic Economic

Economic Participation Economic Opportunity

7 Reliable statistics on phone ownership in Somalia can be found here: http://www.altaiconsulting.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/WB-MME_Final-

6.1 Economic Participation Higher education increases the likelihood of

Adult unemployment Female/male youth not

% 17.0% Based on this report’s survey findings, labour

As indicated in Figure 6.1, the percentage of respondents

FIGURE 6.1 What is your main occupation?

2.1% Self-employed/business owner (includes

1.2% Unemployed (not working outside the

FIGURE 6.2 (For those who indicated they are employed)

15.0% 9.7% Labour

FIGURE 6.3 Women are capable of owning successful businesses

Neither agree nor

9 Somaliland Women Chamber of Commerce. Annual Report Jan-Dec 2018.

Conversely, men are more likely to function as 6.1.4 Underemployment

10 Detailed definitions are provided in the technical annex.

6.2 Economic Opportunity

Existing law that There is currently no legislation in place that mandates

Inheritance rights are regulated through Islamic

Land ownership in Somaliland is governed through

Men are almost twice as likely to rise to positions

Female Adult FGD participant, Hargeisa

Female Youth FGD participant, Hargeisa

Male Adult FGD participant, Hargeisa

6.2.2 Legislation on non-discrimination

Government representative, Hargeisa