GEMEINSCHAFTSPRAXIS

Dr. med. Dipl. Chem. Doris Bachg

Dr. med. Uwe Haselhorst
Ärzte für Laboratoriumsmedizin

Molecular Oncology
Directory of Services

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Content
Background information

Introduction to Molecular Tumor Diagnostics

Principles of our Services

The Testing

Isolation of Tumor Cells from Blood

Molecular Detection of Isolated Tumor Cells
Predicting Therapy Response and Chemoresistance
Alternative Treatment and Integrative Medicine
Alternative anti-cancer agents
Hyperthermia

Immune function testing by the Cellular NK-Test

Early Detection of Cancer
Diagnostic Assays for Hematological Malignancies

Overview

Overview of our assays and required specimens

Appendices

Table: Chemotherapeutic Drugs and Their Resistance Marker

Appendix 1: Description of Gene Function and References
Appendix 2: Guidelines for handling and shipping of blood samples

Contact information:
Gemeinschaftspraxis Recklinghausen, Berghäuser Strasse 295, D-45659 Recklinghausen, Germany.
Tel. +49 2361 3000-0. Fax: +49 2361 72288. E-mail: [email protected]. Internet: www.labor-re.de

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Introduction to Molecular Tumor Diagnostics
Almost all human cells contain molecules called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). The DNA is
harboring the hereditary information, the genes. The genes are controlling processes like
growth, cell division, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). In tumors, the cells became
abnormal by damages and alterations of the DNA, which results in uncontrolled growth and cell
proliferation. These alterations are usually complex and manifold.
Initially, the tumor cells divide locally defined. But when the tumor gets larger and acquires
more and more genetic alterations, the tumor may grow invasive beyond the local boundary and
become metastatic.

During the process of metastasis, the primary tumor is shedding cancer cells into the lymphatic
system and bloodstream. Thereby, the cancer cells are transported to distant body sites, where
metastases can emerge.

Modern techniques of molecular biology have allowed the identification of numerous of the
genetic alterations responsible for the emergence of cancer. This knowledge can be used for the
detection of tumor cells for diagnostic purposes. Consequently, many molecular markers are
available for the detection of circulating tumor cells in the bloodstream. From our wide panel of
analytic parameters we select for the appropriate combination depending on type of tumor and
each specific case.

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Because carcinomas are of epithelial origin and epithelial cells are normally absent in blood,
genes active in epithelial cells can be used for detection of circulating carcinoma cells. In this
context, the cytokeratin genes (e.g. CK19, CK20) are suitable markers for many carcinomas.
Depending of the origin of the tumor, genes coding for specific organ functions can be
measured in blood. For example, the detection of cells expressing the prostate specific antigen
(PSA) are indicative for circulating prostate carcinoma cells.
Typical cancerous aberrations are mutations in oncogenes (e.g. K-ras), allelic losses (i.e. LOH)
or overexpression of particular genes (e.g. erbb2, c-myc). Genes are known to be silent in
normal differentiated tissues but to be re-activated in malignant cells (e.g. telomerase, G250).
Furthermore, enzymes with anti-oxidative functions (e.g. MnSOD or Thioredoxin-reductase) are
frequently over-expressed in human tumors*. On the other hand, so called tumor suppressor
genes keeping cell proliferation under control in normal tissues are almost always inactivated in
tumors. Inactivation happens by mutation, genetic loss or predominantly by the mechanism of
promotor hypermethylation which can also be diagnostically detected.
Determination of resistance factors and metabolic properties of the tumor cells can provide
important information for selection of an appropriate therapy. For many anti-cancer drugs
metabolic enzymes are known whose differential expression in tumor cells may influence the
effect of therapy. The appended schedule in this brochure depicts the relations between genes
and drugs response.
In particular newer drugs can be accurately directed against specific target molecules (e.g.
Herceptin, Erlotinib or Sutent). These drugs are usually very effective and evoke rather less
severe side effects than undirected drugs. A therapy with the specific inhibitor appears rational
only if the molecular targets are present in the tumor cells. We use genetic analysis if these
molecular drug targets are expressed in the isolated tumor cells and a therapy with these
potent drugs is appropriate.

*supporting evidence from the academic literature:

Lincoln D. The Thioredoxin-Thioredoxin reductase system: over-expression in human cancer. Anticancer research.
2003; 23; 2425-2434.
Comment: Increased levels of thioredoxin (TRX) positively correlate with thioredoxin reductase (TR) erpression. Aggressive tumors over-express
both TRX and TR.

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Principles of our services
The discovery of specific genetic alterations in malignant tumors has opened up new directions
in cancer research. Knowledge about function of oncogenes and tumor proteins has
fundamentally contributed to the understanding of the molecular and cellular principles of
malignant growth. Based on these principles, molecular analyses of genes involved in
emergence and progression of human cancers are performed in our laboratory. We are focused
on aspects of:
early detection of cancer & detection of minimal residual disease
sensitivity and resistance to anticancer therapy

It is possible to isolate tumor cells from the peripheral blood of patients. By genetic
characterization of these cells, high-risk and low-risk patients can be identified. Moreover,
resistance factors can be determined which provide important information for setting up an
optimized therapy. This may influence decisions about:
early initiation of therapy or supportive treatment
targeted, patient specific therapy
identification of drug resistance

Our services for the molecular detection of circulating cancer cells in the blood stream allows
the identification of cancer patients probably at higher risk of relapse and metastasis. These
patients may benefit from additional adjuvant therapies. We use special techniques to isolate
micrometastases from peripheral blood.
For determination what therapies are most likely effective, we provide molecular analyses for
the expression of drug targets and chemo-resistance markers in the tumor cells. We perform
these analyses usually from a blood sample, but according to specific demands, tumor tissues,
ascites or bone marrow could be used as well.
Early detection of cancerous cells is also possible in body fluids like urine, lavages or in sputum.

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Isolation of tumor cells from the bloodstream
In blood circulating tumor cells originate from tissues which are different to normal blood cells.
Dependent on the originating tissue, the tumor cells have characteristic molecules on their
surface which are lacking on the blood cells. Antibodies coupled to magnetic particles can bind
to those characteristic molecules. By magnetic force, the tumor cells labeled with the
antibodies can be selectively separated from the unlabeled blood cells.
Also, tumor cells are usually larger than blood cells. Furthermore, disseminated cancer cells
may occur in the bloodstream as clusters of several cells – so called micrometastases.
Consequently, the smaller blood cells can be separated based on size difference from larger
carcinoma cells and it is common practice to isolate the micrometastases from body fluids by
filtration.
After the isolation, the cells are analysed by molecular genetic profiling to characterize these
cells as cancerous and to estimate how the cells will respond to chemotherapy.

Supporting evidence from the academic literature:

Hardingham JE, et al. Immunobead-PCR: a technique for the detection of circulating tumor cells using
immunomagnetic beads and the polymerase chain reaction. Cancer Res. 1993 Aug 1;53(15):3455-8.

Hirte HW, et al. A rapid and simple method for the purification of tumor cells from ascitic fluid of ovarian carcinoma.
Gynecol Oncol. 1992 Mar;44(3):223-6.

Rostagno P, et al. Detection of rare circulating breast cancer cells by filtration cytometry and identification by DNA
content: sensitivity in an experimental model. Anticancer Res. 1997 Jul-Aug;17(4A):2481-5.

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Molecular detection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs)
After the putative micrometastases are isolated from the blood stream, the identification of
these cells as cancerous cells is done by genetic analysis. We use real-time quantitative PCR to
measure the expression of genes which are typical for cancerous cells.
By our own experience, CTCs isolated from tumor patients frequently show genetic alterations
typical for cancer cells. According to academic research, the presence of tumor cells in the
bloodstream is a risk-factor for relapse and occurrence of metastases*. Such high-risk patients
may profit from adjuvant therapies to prevent further progression of the disease.

*supporting evidence from the academic literature:

Koch M, et al. Detection of hematogenous tumor cell dissemination predicts tumor relapse in patients undergoing
surgical resection of colorectal liver metastases. Ann Surg. 2005 Feb;241(2):199-205.
Comment: This is the first study demonstrating that detection of hematogenous tumor cell dissemination during hepatic rescection of colorectal
cancer metastases predicts tumor relapse.

Pantel K, Cote RJ, Fodstad O. Detection and clinical importance of micrometastatic disease. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999
Jul 7;91(13):1113-24. Review.

Testing for chemotherapy resistance and chemosensitivity

A fundamental treatment option for cancer is chemotherapy. For each type of tumor, different
chemotherapy regimes (drugs or drug combinations) exist. The efficacy of these regimes is
usually determined by clinical trials and those regimes showing statistically the best success-
rates are classified the most effective. However, an individual patient may respond differently to
each therapy and it is a difficult task for the physician to choose the most appropriate from the
available treatment regimes. Chemosensitivity testing can aid to select those drugs more likely
to be effective than others for an individual patient.
Our chemosensitivity testing is based on genetic profiling of drug-metabolizing genes and
cellular drug-target genes in the isolated tumor cells. The expression of these genes is
determined by accurate technique of real-time quantitative PCR. From the academic literature it
is known that the expression of drug metabolizing genes in tumor cells is influencing the action
of the drug*1,2. Some drugs act directly on specific cellular molecules, so called drug targets. An
effective response of such drugs requires the presence of these drug targets in the cells, which
we can assess by measuring the gene expression of the drug target gene.
Several chemo-drugs (e.g. cyclophosphamide, capecitabine, irinotecan, dacarbazine) are
virtually inactive in its parent form and need prior activation in the body, e.g. by liver enzymes.
Such drugs are rather problematic to test ex-vivo on tumor-tissues with the widely used cell-
viability chemosensitivity assays. In contrast, chemosensitivity testing by our genetic profiling
does not depend on prior activation of the test drugs by liver enzymes.
The aim of adjuvant therapies is the elimination of residual cancer cells (micrometastases)
which are responsible for relapse or metastasis after the primary tumor has been removed. Our
philosophy is therefore to use isolated micrometastases for the resistance analyses, since these
residula tumor cells should be actually killed by the therapy. It is well known from the literature
that tumors are very heterogeneous. They do not consist of identical cancer cells, but are rather

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composed of groups of cells which may differ in regard of their genetic alterations. The cells
shed in the blood stream forming micrometastases may consequently be not genetically
identical with the average primary tumor, which has recently been proven by academic work*3.
Therefore, a targeted therapy against the disseminated cancer cells may be a more
straightforward way to prevent the emergence of relapse and metastases.

Mechanisms of drug resistance and susceptibility

Tumors may become resistant to multiple drugs by activation of functions like MDR or GST,
leading to increased detoxification and efflux of chemotherapeutic drugs. We can measure the
levels of these multidrug-resistance conferring functions in the tumor cells.
Some drugs need metabolic activation within the tumor cells by enzymatic functions. A reduced
expression of these enzymes in the tumor cells may lead to diminished sensitivitiy to those
drugs.
It has also been observed that tumor might better respond to certain drugs, if the molecules
which are inhibited by these drugs are increased (overexpressed) in the tumor cells. Such
molecules are called drug-targets. The main drug-target for anthracycline drugs (e.g.
doxorubicine) is topoisomerase II. Tumors with higher level of topoisomerase II generally show
better sensitivity to anthracyclines.
Her2 (ERBB2) is the drug-target for Herceptin, an antibody specifically directed against ERBB2.
Besides breast cancer, Her2 can be detected in many different types of malignancies. Usually,
effective treatment of breast cancer with Herceptin requires overexpression of Her2 in the tumor
cells, which can be determined by genetic testing. Discordance of Her2 status between primary
tumor and metastases can occur by acquiring Her2 activation during tumor progression. In
breast cancer patients, circulating tumor cells have shown to overexpress Her2 despite Her2-
negative primary tumor. Importantly, after such cases had been treated with Herceptin, clinical
responses could have been achieved*4.
Especially in hematological malignancies, genetic malfunction induced by chromosomal
rearrangements leads to the uncontrolled production of molecules which are targets for
specifically designed anti-cancer agents. Leukemia positive for the bcr-abl chromosomal
rearrangement can be efficiently treated with Gleevec. Whereas most cases of chronic myeloid
leukemia (CML) are positive for bcr-abl and have a good prognosis, acute myeloid leukemia
(AML) positive for bcr-abl is a rare disease, characterized by a poor prognosis, with resistance to
induction chemotherapy and frequent relapses in responsive patients. Genetic testing for the
presence of bcr-abl can identify those patients which profit from Gleevec treatment.
As ever more specifically designed anticancer agents are developed and clinically used, the
determination of the target molecules in the tumor cells gets more and more important to
stratify patients for the appropriate use of expensive therapies. Examples of recently applied
drugs are Avastin, Sutent or Bortezomib, all known to attack certain molecules frequently
altered in many different tumors.
The treatment success of our clinical partners, who guide therapies according to our analytical
findings convinces us that our methods are sensible. Evidence from the academic literature is
supporting the principles of our strategy *.

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Beside the metabolic properties of the tumor cells, there are several other critical factors why
the chemosensitivity tests cannot always predict that the tumor will respond as supposed by
the results of our analyses:
The drug administered systemic must reach all the tumor cells
Patient-to-patient differences may exist how the drug is metabolized and excreted from
the body
Subsets of disseminated tumor cells may be present which behave differently
Some cells may have yet unknown genetic mechanisms which render them resistant.
During therapy, tumor cells accumulate further mutations which may result in the
selection of resistant clones.
Consequently, partial responses may occur and not necessarily a complete remission despite
the results of in vitro testing has not indicated resistance. Since in vitro testing can not be
absolutely accurate because of the mentioned reasons, our assay results should not be used as
a reason to refuse giving chemotherapy. If a proven effective therapy has not yet been tried, the
assay results should not determine that this therapy should not be used. However, the tests can
help to choose drugs from the available therapy options that might be more effective than
others . If resistance occurs to a drug, the tests can help to identify another agent that might
work better.

*supporting evidence from the academic literature:

1
Adlard JW, et al.: Prediction of the response of colorectal cancer to systemic therapy. Lancet Oncol. 2002
Feb;3(2):75-82. Review.
2
Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine 6th edition (April 2003): by Donald W., Md Kufe, Raphael E., Md Pollock, Ralph R.,
Md Weichselbaum, Robert C., Jr., Md Bast, Ted S., MD Gansler By BC Decker. Section 12: Chemotherapeutic agents.
3
Schmidt-Kittler O, et al. From latent disseminated cells to overt metastasis: genetic analysis of systemic breast
cancer progression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Jun 24;100(13):7737-42.
4
Meng S, et al. HER-2 gene amplification can be acquired as breast cancer progresses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
2004 Jun 22;101(25):9393-8.

What types of tumors can be tested?

Most types of tumors can be tested, including tumors originating from lung, colon, breast,
ovary, cervix, prostate, skin, intestine (stomach, gastric), esophagus, liver, kidney. In addition
to these most prominent tumor diseases, other less frequent tumors can also be tested. Please
inquire for special cases.
Hematological tumors can be assayed for typical rearrangements of hematological tumor cells
to permit detection of minimal residual leukemia cells in the bloodstream and to monitor the
success of treatment. If the therapy is effective, residual leukemia cells should disappear from
the bloodstream.

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Alternative Treatment
The concept of integrative medicine claims higher success rates if conventional anti-cancer
therapy (e.g. chemotherapy) is combined with alternative treatment. Conventional therapy may
be limited by toxicity to the patients or tumor resistance. Many agents from natural sources
have shown to have anti-tumor activity. Moreover, some of these agents are able to modulate
the cellular enzymatic functions causative for chemotherapy resistance in the tumor cells, which
could render the chemoresistant tumor cells again sensitive to chemotherapy.
Drug-transporter molecules (e.g. MDR or MRP) may be induced in tumor cells by chemotherapy.
As a consequence, increased efflux of drugs leads to multi-drug resistance of the tumor cells
which is a serious problem in cancer treatment. Natural agents like Curcumin or Haelan 951 (an
fermented soy-extract) are known modulators of MDR, possibly supporting chemotherapy of
tumors showing the MDR-phenotype.
Another mechanism for multidrug resistance is induction of conjugating enzymes leading to
increased detoxification of the chemo-drugs. In this context, elevated expression of GST/GCS in
tumor cells play an important role. Ellagic acid, an inhibitor of GST may here used to modulate
GST-related resistance.
Heat-shock proteins (HSP) may render tumor cells thermoresistant (see below “Hyperthermia”)
and resistant to some chemo-drugs. Quercetin is an inhibitor of the heat-shock protein HSP27
and may be used for treatment if tumors show high levels of HSP27.

Testing the use of alternative agents in conjunction with chemotherapy:

For many natural anti-cancer agents, mechanisms of action are known and genetic testing can
provide useful advise for appropriate application. Beside the conventional drugs of
chemotherapy, alternative agents are also useful in treatment of cancer. Those alternative
agents may have anti-cancer activity by directly killing tumor cells, e.g. by induction of
apoptosis (programmed cell death). Alternative agents are reported to modulate cellular
functions conferring chemo-resistance to the tumor cells. In such cases, supportive therapy with
appropriate alternative agents may have synergistic action with conventional chemotherapy.
Our testing determines which alternative agents are likely to be effective or which may have a
beneficial use especially in conjunction with chemotherapy.

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The testing covers the following alternative agents:
Agent Functional Description
Quercetin Quercetin is an inhibitor of heat shock proteins (HSP). HSPs can confer thermo-
and chemoresistance to tumor cells.
A therapy with Quercetin may be considered if high HSP27 levels were measured
in the tumor cells.
IP6 (Inositol-6- IP6 is an inhibitor of telomerase. Telomerase is often overproduced in tumor cells.
P) A therapy with IP6 may be considered if high levels of telomerase were measured
in the tumor cells.
C-statin C-statin is an angiogenesis-inhibitor. Angiogenesis, i.e. the formation of new blood
vessels in the tumor tissue is promoted by the factors bFGF and VEGF.
Therapy with C-statin would be rational if tumor has high levels of bFGF or VEGF.
Dammarane Dammarane sapogenins can arrest cancer cell growth and induce programmed cell
sapogenins death (apoptosis).
Tumor cell may become resistant to multiple chemotherapy drugs by production of
high levels of MDR. Dammarane can efficiently disable MDR which allows higher
levels of chemotherapy drugs to accumulate in the cancer cells to enhance
efficacy. Especially if high levels of MDR had been measured, a therapy with
Dammarane may be considered.
Acetogenin Acetogenin (an ingredient of the formulation Graviola) can inhibit MDR. Tumor cell
Graviola may become resistant to multiple chemotherapy drugs by production of high levels
„GRAVIZON“ of MDR.

Haelan951 Haelan 951 can induce apoptosis and stop the growth of tumor cells
fermented soy- Ingredients of Haelan 951 bind to estrogen-receptor (ER) beta, conducting growth
extract inhibiting signals in the cell.
Measuring the levels of ER-beta allows to estimate the efficacy of a therapy with
Haelan 951. Haelan 951 itself can also stimulate the production of ER-beta, raising
the levels of ER-beta in tumor cells.
Moreover, Haelan 951 is a potent inhibitor of the multidrug resistance proteins
MDR and MRP. If in tumor cells high levels of MRP or MDR had been measured,
Haelan 951 may be used to disable these functions.
Curcumin Curcumin can inhibit several functions which may be overproduced in tumor cells,
like MDR, Cox2 or NF-kB (p65).
If the levels of these factors are elevated in the tumor cells, treatment with
Curcumin could be especially helpful.
Ellagic Acid Another function capable to induce multidrug resistance in cancer cells is GSTpi.
If tumors produce high levels of GSTpi, the GST-inhibitor ellagic acid may be
administered to counteract GST mediated drug resistance.
Arglabin Arglabin can inhibit farnesyltransferase (FNTR), an important function for growth
promoting signaling in tumor cells. If tumor cells show high levels of FNTR,
Arglabin may be of especial use for therapy.
Artemsinin and Artemisinin and its derivatives can inhibit tumor growth.
derivatives This anti-tumor effects are, at least in part, exerted by inhibition of angiogenesis.
(Artensunate, Moreover, Artemisinin derivatives are inhibitors of multidrug resistance inducing
Artemeter) functions MRP and GST.
Measurement of MRP, GST, and the angiogenesis factor bFGF are therefore
„ARTEMIS“ rational parameters for deciding a therapy with Artemisinin.
Amygdalin B17 Cox2 may be overexpressed in cancer and is therefore a target for anticancer
(Laetrile) therapy with Cox2-inhibitors like Celebrex.
Amygdalin B17 is capable to downregulate the expression of Cox2.
Tumors of high Cox2 expression may therefore be candidates to be treated with
Amygdalin B17.

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Testing for Hyperthermia
Hyperthermia (heat therapy) has shown to enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy or radiation
treatment. Hyperthermia is successfully used in combination of chemotherapy or radiation in
the treatment of malignant tumors.
A limiting factor for the efficiency of hyperthermia treatment is the induction of thermo-
resistance in the tumor cells. Responsible for thermo-resistance is the elevated expression of
heat-shock proteins (HSP) in the tumor cells.
By measuring the gene expression of HSP, we can estimate the usability of hyperthermia.
Hyperthermia is covered by the testing for chemosensitivity and alternative agents.

Immune function testing by the Cellular NK-Test

Beside chemotherapeutic or hormonal therapies that are directed against the malignant cells,
certain alternative treatment options have the aim to stimulate the body’s immune cells and to
augment the immune system in fighting the tumor. Numerous immuno-activating agents are
available, e.g.:
> Botanicals (e.g. Mistletoe, Biobran, etc.)
> Thymus extracts: (e.g. Thymosin, Thymoject)
> Cytokines (e.g. interleukin 2)

All these agents have a potent propensity to stimulate and activate Natural Killer (NK) cells. NK-
cells belong to the lymphocytes and play a very important role in the early defense of the
immune system against viruses, bacteria and tumor cells. Activation of the NK-cells is regulated
by a subtle balance between positive and negative signals. Surface receptors on the NK-cells
transmit either activating or inhibiting signals into the cell.
In tumor patients, NK-cells are often diminished in numbers and restricted in functionality. The
extent of this impaired immune function correlates with disease progression and time of
survival. Enhancement if the immune function is therefore a important therapeutic goal.
The mere number of NK cells is not sufficient to assess the functionality of this important
defense system. An in vitro assay has been established in our lab to measure the capability of
a patient’s immune cells to destroy tumor cells. For this, lymphocytes are isolated from a
patients blood sample and incubated together with dye-labeled tumor-cells. Lysis of the tumor
cells by the immune cells liberates the dye and can be quantified in the culture supernatant.

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The amount of liberated dye reflects the actual, spontaneous NK-cell activity (see Figure below).
Beside the determination of the spontaneous NK-cell activity, we can determine if the immune
cells are susceptible to be stimulated by immuno-acitvation therapy. The percentage increase of
tumor cell lysis compared to the spontaneous NK-cell activity is a degree of capability of the NK-
cells to be activated. This allows the estimation how promising a immune-stimulative therapy
will be. During the course of such a therapy, treatment success could thereby be monitored with
the assay.

Principle of the Cellular NK-Test

Tumor Cell
Dye

Tumor cells are

stained by
uptake of dye

Immune Cell

Patients
immune cells
may attack
tumor cells

Dye is released
from destroyed
tumor cells and
quantified in
supernatant

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Agents which can be tested in the Cellular NK-Test:
Basically, every substance claimed to activate the NK-cells could be used in the assay. We
routinely use thymus extracts, mistletoe extracts and interleukin 2.
Other agents could be tested upon request. In such instances, please provide a sample of the
agent to be tested.

Agent Function
Standard agents
Thymus-extract NK-activator
Thymoject
Mistletoe NK-activator
(e.g. Helixor,
Lektinol or Iscador)
IL2 NK-activator
Other agents
Biobran NK-activator
Maitake NK-activator
Grifola frondosa
any other claimed NK-activator

Early detection of cancer

The main reason for the high mortality caused by cancer is too late detection of the disease.
Higher cure rates are achieved if the disease was detected in the beginnings of an early stage.
To increase the chance of surviving cancer, it is therefore important to detect the very first signs
of a neoplasia.
Usually, cancer screening and foresight is done by imaging techniques. Standard imaging
techniques may have the drawbacks of low sensitivity or to be uncomfortable (e.g. colonscopy).
As a consequence, foresight by imaging techniques may be consulted too infrequently or the
disease is perhaps detected in a progressed stage. To reduce overall cancer morality, diagnostic
methods are required which are sensitive and well tolerated. Acceptance for foresight
examinations may be raised if the test is non-invasive, i.e. it can be performed with body fluids
like blood, urine, or stool which are easily accessible.
Molecular techniques allow the detection of genetic alterations typically observed in tumors.
Cancer is a multi-factorial genetic disease, i.e., multiple genetic alterations have to occur in
combination so that a malignant cancer cell can emerge. The very first genetic alterations during
the evolution of a cancer cell can be detected in pre-cancerous lesions as well as in the tumors
which arose thereof. The presence of such early signs in a patient must not inevitably lead to
cancer, but can be considered as a risk factor. As a consequence of the detection of risk factors,
changes in nutritional and environmental behavior may be applicable as well as enhanced
vigilance to monitor for further progression.
We provide several assays for the detection of cancer risk factors from different body fluids:

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> From blood
This diagnostic test is done on an individual because of clinical suspicion of disease. Because
tumor cells can be disseminated to the blood stream early, a cancer screening test can be done
with peripheral blood. Improvements in technology made it possible to detect even a few tumor
cells. Moreover, detection of disseminated cells can be used to monitor the efficiency of
treatment. If the therapy is effective, minimal residual cancer cells should disappear from the
bloodstream. A limitation of this assay is that it cannot be specified from which body site these
tumor cells are scattered into the blood stream. Furthermore, the neoplasia must also have
already progressed and gained access to the circulation. To overcome this limitations, we
established detection assays using organ-confined specimens (urine, sputum) allowing a closer
localisation of the source of the neoplastic cells.

*supporting evidence from the academic literature:

Fehm T., et al. Cytogenetic evidence that circulating epithelial cells in patients with carcinoma are malignant.
Clinical Cancer Research 2002 Vol. 8. 2073-2004.
Comment: Numerous studies of circulating epithelial cells have been described in cancer patients. The vast majority of these circulating
epithelial cells in breast, kidney, prostate, and colon cancer patients are aneusomic and are derived from the primary tumor.

> From urine

Pre-malignant and malignant cells of prostate cancer or bladder cancer are shed in the urine. We
have established molecular tests for the detection of genetic alterations typical seen in such
tumors. Urinary detection of these alterations can be indicative for these cancers or pre-
malignancies.

*supporting evidence from the academic literature:

Hoque MO, et al.: Quantitative methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction gene patterns in urine sediment
distinguish prostate cancer patients from control subjects. J Clin Oncol. 2005 Sep 20;23(27):6569-75.

> From sputum

Smokers are at higher risk for developing lung cancer. However, only about 20 % of smokers are
affected. It is therefore important to identify those individuals which already progressed to a
higher risk state. Pre-malignant and malignant cells of lung-cancer can be detected in sputum.
We have established molecular tests for the detection of genetic alterations typical seen in such
tumors. Detection of these alterations can be indicative for such cancers or pre-malignancies.

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Diagnostic Assays for Hematological Malignancies
Typical chromosomal rearrangements like translocations are often associated with a certain
type of hematological cancer. For example, the well known Philadelphia chromosome, which is
the result of a translocation between the chromosomes 9 and 22 occurs in about 90% of CML
cases.
Leukemia is categorized in subtypes which may differ regarding prognosis and the appropriate
treatment modalities. Many subtypes are associated with distinct chromosomal abnormalities.
The sensitive detection of these rearrangements can be used to monitor minimal residual
disease and consequently the success of an ongoing therapy.
We have established assays for the diagnosis of various chromosomal rearrangements
occurring in leukemia. By identification of subtype associated translocations, prognosis or an
appropriate therapy can be estimated.

Panel of translocation which can be determined at Biofocus:

Leukemia Translocation Subtype Prognosis of Translocation

90 % of CML have t(9;22), which is associated
CML t(9;22)
with a better prognosis
t(9;22) M1 poor prognosis
t(6;11) M4, M5 poor prognosis
good prognosis in adults, sensitive to ara-C,
t(8;21) (q22;q22) M2 (50%), seldom M4
AML in children poor prognosis
t(9;11) (p22;q23) M5a (30%), seldom M2, M4 rather good prognosis
very good prognosis, responsive to retinoic
t(15;17) M3 (APL)
acid treatment
CLL t(11;14) (q13;q32) B-CLL poor prognosis
t(1;19) L1, L2, prä B (25 %) poor prognosis
ALL
t(9;22) L1, L2, 0 very poor prognosis
centrocytic NHL associated with poor prognosis
t(11;14) (q13;q32)
mantle cell lmyph.
NHL
follicular NHL (80%) good prognosis
t(14;18) (q32,q21)
diffuse large cell NHL (20%)
CML= chronic myeloid leukemia. AML = acute myeloid leukemia. CLL = chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
ALL = acute lymphocytic leukemia. NHL = non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

Additionally, detection of minimal residual lymphoma can be done by analysis of immune-

receptor rearrangements. The detection of individual, prominent VDJ-receptor rearrangements
in the blood is conclusive for a clonal proliferation of lymphocytes, especially B-lymphocytes.
VDJ-receptor rearrangements are found in 95 % of B-cell ALLs, but also in 14 % of T-cell ALLs.
Clonal expansion of T-cells can be diagnosed by detection of VJ-receptor rearrangements, which
are found in 91 % of T-cell ALLs, but also in 55 % of B-cell ALLs.

VDJ receptor rearrangement ALL (B-cell) 95 % of B-cell ALLs, 14 % of T-cell ALLs

VJ receptor rearrangement ALL (T-cell) 91 % of T-cell ALLs, 55 % of B-cell ALLs

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Overview of our assays and required specimens
Molecular Detection of Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs)
By this assay, we only check if CTCs are present in the blood. Further assays like
chemosensitivity testing or testing for use of alternative agents could be done afterwards
without sending a new specimen.
Specimen required: 20 ml heparinized blood, freshly drawn as described in Appendix 2

Molecular detection of CTCs plus testing for use of chemotherapeutic drugs and
alternative agents
This is the most comprehensive testing. It includes molecular detection of CTCs. If CTCs could
have been detected, molecular markers for drug resistance and drug targets are analysed by
genetic profiling. Markers for chemotherapeutic drugs as well as alternative agents are
analysed. The testing allows an estimation, which drugs are more appropriate or less useful for
therapy.
Specimen required: 20 ml heparinized blood, freshly drawn as described in Appendix 2

Detection and testing of CTCs for use of alternative agents in conjunction with
standard chemotherapy
This assay is a subset of the test described in the former paragraph. CTCs in the blood are
analysed for drug targets for alternative agents but not for chemotherapeutic drugs. In
particular, with this analysis it is determined which alternative agents are suitable to be used
supportive to chemotherapy
Specimen required: 20 ml heparinized blood, freshly drawn as described in Appendix 2

Immune function testing by the Cellular NK-Test

The immune cells isolated from a patients blood sample are tested how efficiently tumor cells
are destroyed. Immune-stimulative additives can be used in the assay to check if the efficacy of
tumor cell lysis could be enhanced.
Specimen required: 30 ml heparinized blood (50 ml if requested together with one of the other
blood tests), freshly drawn as described in Appendix 2

Early detection assays

from sputum for lung cancer risk (e.g. smokers):
20 ml heparinized blood, freshly drawn in glass Vacutainers or comparable glass vessels.
Please see Appendix 2 how blood samples should be handled.

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Testable Chemotherapeutic Drugs and Their Clinical Application
Substance Drug Application

Alkylating agents
Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan) Advanced breast carcinoma
Advanced ovarial carcinoma
Rhabdomyosarcoma, Ewing-
sarcomas
Small cell lung carcinoma
Morbus Hodgkin
Leukemia (NHL, ALL adults)
Ifosfamide (Ifex) Lung carcinoma
Nitrogen- Ovarial carcinoma
mustrads Trofosphamide (Ixoten) Testicular tumor
Ewing-sarcoma
Base-alkylation at Zervix carcinoma
N7-position Breast carcinoma
Pancreatic carcinoma
Malignant lymphoma
Melphalan (Alkeran) Multiple Myeloma (Plasmocytoma)
Ovarial carcinoma
Chlorambucil (Leukeran) Leukemia (CML, NHL, MH)
Advanced ovarial carcinoma
Breast carcinoma
Carmustine BCNU Primary brain tumors
Multiple myeloma
Leukemia (malignant Lymphoma,
Morb. Hodgkin)
Lymphosarcoma
Advanced gastrointestinal carcinoma
Lomustine CCNU (CeeBU) Morbus Hodgkin
Nitrosoureas Tumors o.t. central nervous system
Metast. malignant melanoma
Base-alkylation at Lung carcinoma
O6-position Nimustine ACNU Malignant glioma
Small cell lung carcinoma (brain
metas.)
Colorectal carcinoma
Advanced stomach carcinoma
Leukemia (CML, NHL, MH)
Hydrazines Dacarbazine (DTIC-Dome) Metast. malignant melanoma
Base-alkylation at
O6-position
Thiotepa (Thioplex) localized apl.:
Bladder-papilloma and carcinoma
systemic apl.:
Aziridines Breast carcinoma
Ovarial carcinoma
Chron. Leukemia
Morbus Hodgkin

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 Mitomycin C (Mutamycin, Mitozytex) Bladder tumor
Stomach carcinoma
Lung carcinoma
Pancreatic carcinoma
Colorectal carcinoma
Breast carcinoma
Liver carcinoma
Zervix carcinoma
Esophagal carcinoma
Head-neck carcinoma
CML
Osteosarcoma
Alkyl Busulfan
Sulfonates
Treosulfan
Platinum compounds (N7)
Cisplatin (Platinol) Lung carcinoma (NSCLC, SCLC)
Bladder carcinoma
Endometrial carcinoma
Testicular tumor
Head-neck carcinoma
Melanoma
Ovarial carcinoma
Prostate carcinoma
Sarcoma
Cervical carcinoma
Carboplatin (Paraplatin) Small cell lung carcinoma
Head-neck carcinoma
Zervical carcinoma
Epithelial ovarial carcinoma
Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin) Metast. colorectal carcinoma
Antifolates
Methotrexate MTX Chorion epithelioma
Breast carcinoma
Head-neck carcinoma
Leukemia (NHL, ALL)
Osteosarcoma
Small cell lung carcinoma
Pemetrexed NSCLC
Mesothelioma

Purine-Analoga
Cladribine 2CdA (Leustatin) Leukemia
Pyrimidin-Analoga
5 Fluoruracil (Adrucil, Ribofluor, Colorectal carcinoma
Verrumal) Stomach carcinoma
Pancreatic carcinoma
Metast. breast carcinoma
Capecitabine (Xeloda) Colorectal carcinoma
Metast. breast carcinoma
Gemcitabine (Gemzar) Bladder carcinoma
Non-small cell lung carcinoma
Pancreatic adeno carcinoma
Cytarabine araC (Cytosar-U) Leukemia (AML, ALL, CML)

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Topoisomerase II inhibitors
Anthrazyclines Doxorubicin (adriamycin, Rubex, Doxil) Small cell lung carcinoma
(intercalating) Endometrial carcinoma
Ewing-Sarcom
Bladder carcinoma
Hodgkin-lymphoma
Stomach carcinoma
Breast carcinoma
Neuroblastoma,
Osteosarcoma
Ovarial carcinoma
Epirubicin (Ellence) Breast carcinoma
Ovarial carcinoma
Stomach carcinoma
Lung carcinoma
Soft tissue sarcoma
Daunoruicin (Cerubidine) ALL
Anthrazyclines AML
(intercalating) Mitoxantrone (Novantrone) Breast carcinoma
Leukemia (malignant Lymphome)
Primary liver carcinoma
Ovarial carcinoma
Podophyllo- Etoposide VP16 (Vepesid) Small cell Lung carcinoma
toxine Non-small cell lung carcinoma
derivates Leukemia (NHL, MH, AML)
(non-intercalating) Testicular tumor
Chorion carcinoma
Ovarial carcinomae
Topoisomerase I inhibitors
Topotecan (Hycamtin) Ovarial carcinoma
Irinotecan (Camptosar) Colorectal carcinoma

Microtubuli-inhibitors
Taxanes Paclitaxel (Taxol) Ovarial carcinoma
Breast carcinoma
Non-small cell lung carcinoma
Docetaxel (Taxotere) Breast carcinoma
Non-small cell lung carcinoma
Vinca Vincristine (Oncovin) Leukemia (akute Leukemia, ALL,
alkaloides MH)
Small cell lung carcinoma
Breast carcinoma
Wilms-tumor
Rhabdomyosarcoma
Ewing-sarcoma
Neuroblastoma
Vinblastine (Velban) Leukemia (NHL, MH)
Testicular tumor
Kaposi-sarcoma
Breast carcinoma
Vinorelbine (Navelbine) Non-small cell lung carcinoma
Breast carcinoma
Estramustine Advanced prostate carcinoma

Hormones
Tamoxifen (Nolvadex) Breast carcinoma

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Special inhibitors DrugTarget
Antibodies Cetuximab (Erbitux) Colorectal carcinoma EGF-R
Erlotinib (Tarceva)
Bevacizumab (Avastin) Colorectal carcinoma VEGF
Trastuzumab (Herceptin) Breast carcinoma ERB-B2
Tyrosinkinase Imatinib (Gleevec) Leukemia (CML) bcr-abl
inhibitors gastrointest. Tumors (GIST) c-Kit
PDGFR a / b
Gefitinib (Iressa) Non-small cell lung carcinoma EGF-R

Farnesyl- Arglabin Colorectal carcinoma FNTB

transferase- Pankreatic carcinoma
inhibitors Lonafarnib Non small cell lung carcinoma (trials)
Tipifarnib
Aromatase- Exemestane Breast carcinoma Aromatase
inhibitors Formestane
Anastrozole
Letrozole
FGF-inhibitors Suramin bFGF
COX-inhib. Celecoxib Colorectal carcinoma cox2
Proteasome Bortezomib (Velcade) Multiple myeloma p65 NF-kB
inhibitors
Anti-Adrogens flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, Prostate CA AR
cyproterone acetate
flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, Prostate CA AR
Anti-Adrogens cyproterone acetate
Oblimersen Bcl2
Bcl2-Inhibitors

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Appendix 1: Molecular tumor markers and therapy-related genes

AFP Levels of alpha-Feto-Protein (AFP) are increased in Hepatoma and Teratoma (liver, pancreas, prostate). AFP has
structural and functional similarities to albumin and is normally decreased in adults.

Gibbs et al. Structure, polymorphism and novel repeated DNA elements revealed by a complete sequence of the
human alpha-fetoprotein gene. Biochemistry 26: 1332 –1343, 1987
Albumin Specific product of hepatocytes. Detection of gene expression is specific for the diagnosis of hepatocellular
carcinoma.

APC The adenomatosis poliposis coli (APC) gene is a tumor suppressor. Germ line mutations in APC cause an
inherited form of colorectal cancer (adenomatosis poliposis coli). Defects in the APC gene (mutations, LOH,
methylation) are also frequently found in spontaneous colorectal carcinomas and other tumor types.

Polakis P.: The adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) tumor suppressor. Biochimica Biophysica Acta 1332, F127-48,
(1997)
Aromatase Aromatase is catalyzing the formation of C18 estrogens from C19 androgens. Inhibitory anti-cancer drugs of
aromatase prevent the production of estrogens and consequently the growth of estrogen dependent tumors.
Expression of aromatase in tumors is may be considered as a prerequisite for a rational therapy with aromatase
inhibitors.

Johnston SR, Dowsett M Aromatase inhibitors for breast cancer: lessons from the laboratory. Nat Rev Cancer.
2003 Nov;3(11):821-31.
BAX BAX is a pro-apoptotic mitochondrial membrane protein. It inhibits Bcl2 and accelerates the programmed cell
death (apoptosis).
Reduced expression of BAX in relation to Bcl2 correlates with non-response to 5-fluorouracil, epirubicin and
cyclophosphamide.

Le Blanc H. et al. Tumor-cell resistance to death-receptor induced apoptosis through mutational inactivation of
the proapoptotic Bcl 2 homolog BAX. Nat Med, 2002. 8(3):p. 274-81

Krajewski S. et al. Prognostic significance of apoptosis regulators in breast cancer.Endocr Relat Cancer, 1999.
6(1):p.29-40
Bcl 2 Bcl2 is coding for an anti-apoptotic mitochondrial membrane protein. Bcl 2 is overexpressed in many tumors and
consequently causes resistance to apoptosis-inducing drugs (e.g. intercalating agents, alkylating agents, platinum
compounds).

Ikeguchi M.S. et al. Quantitative analysis of expression levels of BAX, Bcl 2 and survivin in cancer cells during
cisplatin treatment. Oncol Rep, 2002. 9(5):p. 1121-6
CEA Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) is found in gastrointestinal and colorectal tumors. Measuremnt of expression in
blood is used for diagnosis of circulating cancer cells, since expression of CEA is usually absent in blood cells.

Tremblay F.: Breast cancer masquerading as a primary gastric carcinoma. J Gastrointest Surg 2002 Jul – Aug;
6(4):614-6
c-KIT c-kit (= CD117) is the receptor of the stem cell growth factor. The receptor type is a tyrosine kinase. In some
special small-cell lung cancers and gastrointestinal tumors, c-kit is overexpressed. Overexpression is indicative
for considering therapy with the tyrosine kinase-inhibitor Gleevec (STI571).

Potti A et al. CD117 (c-KIT) overexpression in patients with extensive-stage small-cell lung carcinoma. Ann
Oncol. 2003 Jun;14(6):894-7.

Allander SV et al.: Gastrointestinal stromal tumors with KIT mutations exhibit a remarkably homogeneous gene
expression profile. Cancer Res. 2001 Dec 15;61(24):8624-8.
Cytokeratin Cytokeratins (CK) are expressed in epithelial cells and usually not in mononuclear blood cells. Therefore, they are
CK19 suitable for the detection of circulating tumor cells of epithelial origin.
CK20 Which cytokeratins are used as detection markers depend on the tumor type:
CK7
CK19: tumors of breast, lung and prostate
CK20: gastrointestinal tumors
CK7: tumors of ovaries, uterus, breast and stomach

Burchill et al.: Detection of epithelial cancer cells in peripheral blood by reverse transcriptase PCR. British Journal
of Cancer 71:278-281, 1995
c-myc The gene for the transcription factor c-myc is amplified (DNA) or overexpressed (RNA) in advanced, aggressive
tumors.

Zajac-Kaye M.: Myc oncogene: a key component in cell cycle regulation and its implication for lung cancer. Lung
Cancer 2001 Dec;34 Suppl 2:S43-6

Cox 2 Cyclooxigenase 2 (Cox2) is overexpressed in colorectal adenomas and tumors. These tumors can be treated with
specific Cox-2 inhibitors, since high expression levels confer susceptibility to these drugs.

Adlard et al.: Prediction of the response of colorectal cancer to systemic therapy. Lancet Oncology 3, 75-82
(2002)

DCC DCC (Deleted in Colorectal Carcinoma) is a tumor suppressor, which is frequently altered by deletion or LOH in
colorectal but also other tumors.

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DCK Desoxycytidine kinase (DCK) is activating drugs belonging to nucleoside analogues like gemcitabine or
cytarabine. The activated drugs inhibit cell proliferation by blocking the DNA-polymerase. Tumor cells develop
resistance to these drugs by a lowered DCK-expression which results in reduced DCK activity.

Gregoire V. et al. Role of deoxycytidine kinase ( DCK ) activity in gemcitabine´s radioenhancement in mice and
human cell lines in vitro. Radiother Oncol 2002 Jun; 63(3):329-338.

Holland, Frei: Cancer Medicine 5, Section 1: Cancer Biology / Section 14: Chemotherapeutic agents – Pyrimidine
and purine antimetabolites.

DPD Dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD) has a detoxifying enzymatic function. It catalyzes the degradation of 5-
fluorouracil to an inactive metabolite. Overexpression of DPD correlates with resistance to 5-fluorouracil due to an
accelerated degradation.

Ichikawa et al.: Combination of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase and thymidylate synthase gene expressions in
primary tumors as predictive parameters for the efficacy of fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy for metastatic
colorectal cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2003 Feb;9(2):786-91.

Salonga D et al.: Colorectal tumors responding to 5-fluorouracil have low gene expression levels of
dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase, thymidylate synthase, and thymidine phosphorylase. Clin Cancer Res. 2000
Apr;6(4):1322-7.

DHFR Dihydrofolate reduktase (DHFR) provides reduced methyl-moieties for DNA-synthesis. DHFR is blocked by
methotrexate. Tumor cells develop resistance to methotrexate by overexpression of DHFR.

Banerjee D. et al. : Novel aspects of resistance to drugs targeted to dihydrofolate reductase and thymidylate
synthase. Biochim Biophys Acta 2002 Jul 18; 1587(2-3):164 – 73

ERCC1 Excision repair cross complementation 1 (ERCC1) is capable to remove DNA-damages, e.g. induced by platinum
compound drugs. Overexpression of ERCC1 induces resistance to drugs like oxaliplatin, cisplatin, carboplatin.

Shirota et al. ERCC1 and Thymidylate synthase mRNA levels predict survival for colorectal cancer patients
receiving combination oxaliplatin and fluoruracil chemotherapy. Journal of clinical oncology 19, 4298-304 2001

Rosell et al.: Molecular Predictors of Response to Chemptherapy in Lung Cancer. Seminars in Oncology 31, 20-7
(2004)

EGFR EGFR is the receptor for the epidermal growth factor (EGF) and other members of the EGF family. Tumors
overexpressing EGFR probably respond to treatment with EGFR-inhibitors like EGFR-antibodies (cetuximab,
panitumumab).

Moroni M et al.: Gene copy number for epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and clinical response to
antiEGFR treatment in colorectal cancer: a cohort study. Lancet Oncol. 2005 May;6(5):279-86.

Janmaat ML, Giaccone G. The epidermal growth factor receptor pathway and its inhibition as anticancer therapy.
Drugs Today (Barc). 2003;39 Suppl C:61-80.
ER Estrogen receptor (ER) is the molecular target for tamoxifen. Treatment with tamoxifen is only recommended if
the ER is expressed in the tumor. Loss of ER expression has been observed in 15% of patients with acquired
resistance to tamoxifen.

Osborne K.: Tamoxifen in the treatment of breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 339, 1609 (1998)

ERBB2 Erbb2 (also HER2/neu) is a tyrosine kinase involved in cell proliferation an differentiation. Tumors overexpressing
Erbb2 can be treated with Herceptin (an Erbb2-antibody). Moreover, ER-positive tumors generally do not respond
to tamoxifen if Erbb2 is overexpressed.

Stebbing J. et al. Herceptin (trastuzamab) in advanced breast cancer. Cancer Treatment Reviews 26, 287-90
(2000)
FGF2 Overexpression of the basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF2) occurs in many tumors. The drug suramin inhibits the
(bFGF) binding of growth factors on its receptors and is therefore used in combination treatment of tumors especially
overexpressing FGF2.

Zhang Yet al.: Nontoxic doses of suramin enhance activity of doxorubicin in prostate tumors. J Pharmacol Exp
Ther. 2001 Nov;299(2):426-33.
FNTB Farnesyltransferase is catalyzing farnesylation of proteins like Ras. A logic requirement for a therapy with
farnesyltransferase-inhibitors like Arglabin is expression of farnesyltransferase in the tumor cells.

Sebati S et al.: Farnesyltransferase Inhibitors. Seminars in Oncology 31, 28-39 (2004)

Shaikenov TE, et al.: Arglabin-DMA, a plant derived sesquiterpene, inhibits farnesyltransferase.

Oncol Rep. 2001 Jan-Feb;8(1):173-9.

GCS Glutamate cystein synthetase (GCS) is involved in the synthesis of gluthation. Anticancer drugs like nitrogen
mustards or nitrosoureas are detoxified by conjugation with gluthation. Resistance to these drugs is observed in
tumors with high levels of GCS expression.

Holland, Frei: Cancer Medicine 5, Section 1: Cancer Biology / Section 14: Chemotherapeutic agents – Alkylating
Agents

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G250 G250 is a renal cell carcinoma–associated antigen is suitable for the detection of renal carcinomas. In contrast to
normal renal tissues, it is expressed in about 80% of primary and metastatic renal carcinomas.

Bismar T. et al.: Quantification of G250 mRNA expression in renal epithelial neoplasms by real-time reverse
transcription PCR of dissected tissue from paraffin section Pathology, 35(6) :513-7, Dec. 2003

GST-pi For detoxification purposes, glutathion-S-transferase pi (GST-pi) transmits gluthation moieties onto anticancer
drugs like alkylating agents or platinum compounds. Resistance of tumors to these compounds is associated with
increased expression of GST-pi.

Holland, Frei: Cancer Medicine 5, Section 1: Cancer Biology / Section 14: Chemotherapeutic agents – Alkylating
Agents)

HCG-b beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG-b) is used as a marker for the detection of germ cell tumors, malignant
melanomas and chorion carcinomas.

F.Doi et al. Detection of beta-human chorionic gonadotropin mRNA as a marker for cutaneous malignant
melanoma. Int J Cancer 65 (1996) 454-459
Interferon receptor is analyzed in the context of immunotheraypy of tumors. This receptor binds interferon, which
IFN-R has anti-proliferative properties. Interferon therapy is impaired by reduced expression of the IFN-R or by
diminished receptor binding.

Dinney CP. et al. Inhibition of basic fibroblast growth factor expression, angiogenesis and growth of human
bladder carcinoma in mice by systemic interferon-alpha administration. Cancer Res 1998 Feb 15;58(4):808-14
K-ras is often mutated in numerous tumor types (e.g. 40% of colorectal adenocarcinomas; 75% of pancreas
K-ras carcinomas). Detection of K-ras mutations in stool samples can be used for early diagnosis of colorectal cancer.

Frattini et al.: Tumor location and detection of K-ras mutations in stool from colorectal cancer patients. Journal of
the National Cancer Institute 95, 72-73, (2003)
MDR1 Multidrug resistance 1 (MDR 1) is a glycoprotein capable to transport anticancer drugs out of the cells. Tumor
cells overexpressing MDR1 are resistant to multiple drug types like vinca-alkaloides, anthracyclines, taxanes or
mitomycin C.

Borst et al.: A family of drug transporters: the multidrug resistance-associated proteins. Journal of the National
Cancer Institute 92, 1295-1302 (2000)

Litman et al.: From MDR to MXR: new understanding of multidrug resistance systems, their properties and clinical
significance. CMLS 58, 931 – 59 (2001)
MGMT o-6-methylguanin-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) is a repair enzyme removing DNA-damages induced by toxic
and alkylating agents. If overexpressed in tumors, resistance to nitrosoureas and hydrazines (dacarbazine) is
observed.

Ma S. et al Analysis of O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase in melanoma tumours in patients treated with

dacarbazine-based chemotherapy. Melanoma Res 2002 Aug; 12(4):335-42

Nozoe T. et al. Smoking-related increase of O(6)-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase expression in

squamous cell carcinoma or the esophagus.. Cancer Lett 2002 Oct 8;184(1):49-55

MRP2 Multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2) is a membrane associated glycoprotein which can transport
gluthathion-conjugated drugs out of the cell. Tumor cells overexpressing MRP2 are resistant to multiple
anticancer-drugs like vinca-alkaloides, anthracyclines and methotrexate. In contrast to the related protein MRP1,
also platinum compounds (cis- and carboplatin) are transported.

Borst et al.: A family of drug transporters: the multidrug resistance-associated proteins. Journal of the National
Cancer Institute 92, 1295-1302 (2000)
MnSOD Manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) is detoxifying reactive superoxide radicals. Many tumors are
overexpressing MnSOD, possibly protecting them against some chemotherapeutics.

Izutani R, wet al.: Expression of manganese superoxide dismutase in esophageal and gastric cancers. J
Gastroenterol 1998 Dec;33(6):816-22
PDGFR Platelet derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGF-R alpha) binds the PDGF-alpha, a growth and angiogenesis
alpha factor. PDGF-R alpha is frequently overexpressed in tumors and is inhibited by the drug Gleevec.

Buchdunger E et al.: Abl protein-tyrosine kinase inhibitor STI571 inhibits in vitro signal transduction mediated by
c-kit and platelet-derived growth factor receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2000 Oct;295(1):139-45.
PDGFR beta Platelet derived growth factor receptor beta is mediating growth signals upon binding of its ligand, PDGF-beta.
This receptor is also blocked by the drug Gleevec. Expression of PDGFR-beta is therefore a logic requirement of
a therapy with Gleevec.

Buchdunger E et al.: Abl protein-tyrosine kinase inhibitor STI571 inhibits in vitro signal transduction mediated by
c-kit and platelet-derived growth factor receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2000 Oct;295(1):139-45.
PSA PSA is the prostate specific antigen, a protease synthesized in the prostate. Disseminated prostate carcinoma
cells can be detected by measuring the gene expression of PSA in blood.

Ghossein et al.: Molecular detection of micrometastases and circulating tumor cells in solid tumors. Clinical
Cancer Research 5, 1950-60 (1999).
p53 p53 is a tumor suppressor gene and regulates the cell cycle. Mutations in p53 are the most frequent genetic
alterations in human malignancies. Genetic alterations in p53 (mutations, LOH, expression) are therefore used as
molecular tumor markers.

Levine A.J. et al. The P53 tumorsuppressor gene. Nature 351, 453, 1991

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TS Thymidylate synthetase (TS) is the molecular target of 5-fluorouracil. Inhibition of TS by agents like 5-fluorouracil
causes starvation of deoxynucleotides which results in inhibited DNA-synthesis and growth arrest. Poor response
to therapy with 5-fluorouracil correlates with elevated TS expression

Salonga D et al.: Colorectal tumors responding to 5-fluorouracil have low gene expression levels of
dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase, thymidylate synthase, and thymidine phosphorylase. Clin Cancer Res. 2000
Apr;6(4):1322-7.

Ichikawa et al.: Combination of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase and thymidylate synthase gene expressions in
primary tumors as predictive parameters for the efficacy of fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy for metastatic
colorectal cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2003 Feb;9(2):786-91.

Telomerase Telomerase compensates the shortening of the chromosomes during each cycle of DNA-replication. In
(reverse differentiated normal tissues, telomerase is usually not active. However, reactivation of telomerase occurs in
transcription tumors and measuring telomerase gene expression can therefore be used as a tumor marker.
subunit)
McKenzie et al.: Applications of telomerase research in the fight against cancer.. Mol Med Today 1999
Mar;5(3):114-22

Topo IIa Topoisomerase II alpha is catalyzing controlled cuts and reconnection of DNA-double strands during DNA-
replication. Inhibitors of Topoisomerase II (anthrazyclines, mitoxantron, etoposid) are provoking faulty action of
Topo II, leaving behind DNA-damages.
If Topo II is underexpressed in tumor cells, lesser DNA-damages occur and the therapy may fail.
On the other hand, overexpression of Topo II sensitizes the cells to Topo II inhibitors.

Tanner, M., P. Jarvinen, and J. Isola, Amplification of HER-2/neu and topoisomerase IIalpha in primary and
metastatic breast cancer. Cancer Res, 2001. 61(14): p. 5345-8

Topo I Topoisomerase I is catalyzing controlled cuts and reconnection of DNA-single strands during DNA-replication.
Chemotherapeutics like irinotecan and topotecan disturb Topo I function, inducing breaks in DNA during DNA
replication. Underexpression of Topo I renders the tumor cells more resistant to these drugs.

Holland, Frei: Cancer Medicine 5, Section 1: Cancer Biology / Section 14: Chemotherapeutic agents –
Topoisomerases

TP Thymidine phosphorylase (TP) is involved in the metabolism of 5-fluorouracil. High expression levels correlate
with resistance to therapy with 5-fluorouracil.

Metzger R.: High basal level gene expression of thymidine phosphorylase (platelet-derived endothelial cell growth
factor) in colorectal tumors is associated with nonresponse to 5-fluorouracil. Clin Cancer Res. 1998
Oct;4(10):2371-6

Yoshinare K et al.: Gene expression in colorectal cancer and in vitro chemosensitivity to 5-fluorouracil: a study of
88 surgical specimens. Cancer Sci. 2003 Jul;94(7):633-8.
TXNRD1 Thioredoxin reductase (TXNRD1) is reducing thioredoxin, which protects proteins from oxidative damage.
Thioredoxin reductase is often overexpressed in tumors. Elevated levels of thioredoxin possibly cause increased
cell proliferation and resistance to apoptosis.

Berggren, M., et al., Thioredoxin and thioredoxin reductase gene expression in human tumors and cell lines, and
the effects of serum stimulation and hypoxia. Anticancer Res, 1996. 16(6B): p. 3459-66.
UP The Uridine phosphorylase (UP) level is frequently elevated in tumor tissues compared to normal tissues. UP is
catalyzing the formation of the active metabolite 5-fluorouracil-monophosphate from the inactive 5-fluorouracil.
In tumor cells resistant to 5-fluorouracil down-regulation of UP has been observed.

Chung, Y.M., et al., Establishment and characterization of 5-fluorouracil-resistant gastric cancer cells. Cancer
Lett, 2000. 159(1): p. 95-101.

Kanzaki, A., et al., Expression of uridine and thymidine phosphorylase genes in human breast carcinoma. Int J
Cancer, 2002. 97(5): p. 631-5.
VEGF Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is up-regulated in many tumors and is inducing angiogenesis by
paracrine stimulation of endothelial cells. High expression levels of VEGF in tumor cells are associated with poor
response to hormone therapy with tamoxifen and combination chemotherapy with FAC or CMF.
New anticancer agents like bevacizumab (Avastin) are targeted specifically against VEGF.

Sledge, G.W., Jr., Vascular endothelial growth factor in breast cancer: biologic and therapeutic aspects. Semin
Oncol, 2002. 29(3 Suppl 11): p. 104-10.

Bachelder, R.E., et al., Vascular endothelial growth factor is an autocrine survival factor for neuropilin-expressing
breast carcinoma cells. Cancer Res, 2001. 61(15): p. 5736-40

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 Appendix 2:

Guidelines for Handling

and Shipping of Blood
Samples

-26-
Please follow these steps:

1. Fill out the Examination Assignment Form on the last page of this document. The from
is also provided on our website (www.biofocus.de).

2. Enclose the form to the sample package or fax to Biofocus

3. About 20 to 30 ml of blood is needed for the analyses. Please read careflully below how
the blood should be drawn. Avoid sampling immediately after administration of any i.v.
medication.

4. Prepare the blood samples as described below for shipment to us. It is important to send
the samples cooled as fast as possible to us.

If you have any further questions, do not hesitate to contact us by email, phone or fax.
Contact addresses are:
Dr. D. Bachg ([email protected]). Tel. +49 2361 3000-144. Fax +49 2361 3000-162
Dr. L. Prix ([email protected]) Tel. +49 2361 3000-130. Fax +49 2361 3000-162

What kind of specimen should be provided to Biofocus?

The analyses are usually made from blood.
We usually need about 20 ml of freshly drawn blood, provided in two heparinized
glass BD Vacutainers, 10 ml, green cap.
Comparable blood drawing vessels are also suitable, however they must contain
heparine as anti-coagulant and must be made of glass! Please see below how the blood
should be drawn in detail.

Biofocus GmbH 2
How should blood be drawn by the physician?
The blood should be drawn in BD Vacutainers. It is important to use heparinized Vacutainers
made of glass and not of plastic! In total, about 20 ml of blood in two Vacutainers is needed
for a complete analysis.

Materials required:
2 1 BD Vacutainer blood collection set (butterfly)
2 BD Vacutainer holder
3 BD Vacutainer collection tube, 10 ml (glass,
green cap, sodium heparine for anticoagulation).
1

Step 1:
Remove the blood collection set from the
packaging and attach it to the BD Vacutainer
holder. Never use a blood collection set without
the holder.

Step 2:
Access the vein using standard needle insertion
technique. If the vein is properly accessed, blood
will enter the tubing.

Step 3:
While the needle is still in the vein, apply the
green capped glass tube to the BD Vacutainer
Holder until the tube is filled with blood. Remove
the tube from the holder. If more than one tube
has to be collected, insert a new one into the
holder.
Upon completion of collection, apply light
pressure to blood collection site and withdraw
blood collection set.
IMPORTANT: Turn the blood collection tubes
several times upside-down to disperse the
heparine in the blood evenly!

Biofocus GmbH 3
How should the specimens be shipped to Biofocus from Overseas?
Samples have to arrive within 48 hours at Biofocus
Send per FedEx International Priority service. Use our FedEx customer no. 289979026.
Commoditiy description on the waybill: „non-hazardous, non-infectious human blood
samples for in vitro diagnostic testing“.
IMPORTANT: To avoid custom delays, include an appropriately filled commercial invoice
(example see next page).
U.S. shipment must be on Mondays or Tuesdays to arrive in time before the weekend
The samples must be shipped at 41-50°F (5-10°C). Do not use dry ice for cooling!
Contact for ordering blood shipment kits:
North America:
Cameron Packaging, Lima OH, phone: 419 222 9404, www.cameronpackaging.com

Other countries:
You may contact us directly: Biofocus GmbH, phone +49 2361 3000-130, [email protected]

Blood shipment kit required:

1 Standard cooling box (e.g. foam box)
2 Secondary receptacle with adsorbent (towel)
and blood BD Vacutainer
1 3 Refrigerated ice packs for cooling

for ordering complete kits see above

2
3

Step 1
Since the Vacutainer is made of glass, it is
important to put the vacutainer in an appropriate
secondary receptacle to protect it from breaking.
The secondary receptacle also prevents
unwanted freezing of the blood by direct contact
of the Vacutainer with the ice packs.

Step 2
Put the protected Vacutainer together with the ice
packs in the foam box and prepare for shipment.
Store the package in the refrigerator (5-10°C; 41-
50°F) until pickup by the parcel service.

Biofocus GmbH 4
Examination Assignment Form Institute for
for Molecular Oncology Laboratory Medicine
Send to: Berghäuser Straße 295
Biofocus – Institute for Laboratory Medicine [Ecke Blitzkuhlenstraße]
Dr. med. Dipl. Chem. Doris Bachg 45659 Recklinghausen
Dr. med. Uwe Haselhorst Telefon +49 [0] 2361 3000 144
Berghäuser Str. 295 Telefax +49 [0] 2361 3000 162
45659 Recklinghausen Internet www.biofocus.de
Germany e-mail [email protected]

Information about patient

Name:________________________ Date of Birth:_______________ q Male q Female

Date of Blood Extraction:__________________ Type of Tumor/Stage: ________________________________

Patient formerly treated with: ___________________________________________________________

Intended further treatment:_____________________________________________________________

Requested Analyses
q 1. Molecular detection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in blood
Price: 490.- Euro. Specimen: 20 ml heparinized blood (required for test option #2. and #3.)

q 2. Molecular detection of CTCs plus testing for use of chemotherapeutic drugs and alternative agents
Price: 1890.- Euro. Specimen: 20 ml heparinized blood (includes test option #1)

q 3. Detection and testing of CTCs for use of alternative agents in conjunction with standard chemotherapy
Price: 1330.- Euro. Specimen: 20 ml heparinized blood (includes test option #1)

q 4. Immune function testing by the Cellular NK-Test

Price: 190.- Euro. Specimen: 30 ml heparinized blood

IMPORTANT:
Samples must arrive within 48h at Biofocus. Send specimens cooled by FedEx as described on our homepage (www.biofocus.de).
Contact persons: Dr. Doris Bachg ([email protected]) ( +49 2361 3000-144 or Dr. Lothar Prix ([email protected]) ( +49 2361 3000-130

Institution Consent of patient

Clinic: _____________________________ I have been informed by my physician about the requested examinations and
accept the costs for these analyses. Additionally, 60 € shipping costs accrue.
Physician:__________________________
Phone:_________________________ PAYMENT BY CREDIT CARD:
VISA / MASTERCARD / AMERICAN EXPRESS delete as appropriate
FAX: ______________________________ CARD NO.___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
email:_____________________________ EXPIRY ___ ___ / ___ ___ CARD VERIFICATION CODE ___ ___ ___ ___

Date / Signature of Patient:________________________________________

Stamp of clinic / physician
 Biof
ocusGmbH
Dr.LotharPr
ix
BerghäuserStr.295
45659Rec kl
inghausen
Germany

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