CANCER

CAUSES AND
RISKS
FACTORS
 Cancer is a term used for diseases in
which abnormal cells divide without
control and are able to invade other
tissues. Cancer cells can spread to
other parts of the body through the
blood and lymph systems.
 Cancer types can be grouped into
broader categories. The main categories
of cancer include:
• Carcinoma - cancer that begins in the skin or in
tissues that line or cover internal organs.
• Sarcoma - cancer that begins in bone, cartilage,
fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or
supportive tissue.
• Leukemia - cancer that starts in blood-forming
tissue such as the bone marrow and causes large
numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced
and enter the blood.
•Lymphoma and myeloma -
cancers that begin in the cells of
the immune system.

Central nervous system

cancers - cancers that begin in the
tissues of the brain and spinal
cord.
CAUSES OF
CANCER
Normal Cells transform into cancer cells
because of damage to DNA. People can
inherit damaged DNA, which accounts
for inherited cancers. Many times though,
a person’s DNA becomes damaged by
exposure to something toxic in the
environment such as chemicals, radiation
or viruses. Remember though that most
cancers have multiple causes and risk
factors.
1. Heredity/Family History
Certain type of cancers run in the family
such as breast cancer.
2. Carcinogens
A carcinogen is an agent capable of causing
cancer. This maybe a chemical, an
environmental agent, radiation and viruses.
Effects of carcinogen agents usually depend
on the dose or amount of exposure; the
larger the dose or amount of exposure, the
greater the risk of cancer.
Chemicals & Environmental Agents
Polycyclic hydrocarbons are chemicals
found in cigarette smoke, industrial agents,
or in food such as smoked foods. Polycyclic
hydrocarbons are also produced from
animal fat in the process of broiling meat
and are present in smoked meats and fish.
Aflatoxin is found in peanuts and peanut
butter.
Benzopyrene
Produced when meat and fish are
charcoal broiled or smoked (e.g. tinapa
or smoked fish). Avoid eating burned
food and eat smoked foods in
moderation.
Also produced when food is fried in
fat that has been reused repeatedly.
Avoid reusing cooking oil.
Nitrosamines
These are so powerful carcinogens
used as preservatives in foods like
tocino, longganisa, bacon and hotdog.
Formation of nitrosamines may be
inhibited by the presence of
antioxidants such as Vitamin C in the
stomach. Limit eating preserved foods
and eat more vegetables and fruits that
are rich in dietary fiber.
Radiation
Radiation can also cause cancer including
ultraviolet rays from sunlight, x-rays,
radioactive chemicals and other forms of
radiation.
Viruses
A virus can enter a host cell and cause cancer.
This is found in cervical cancer (human
papilloma virus), liver cancer (hepatitis B
virus), certain leukemias, lymphoma and
nasopharyngeal cancer (Epstein-Barr Virus).
 Origins of Cancer
• All cancers begin in cells, the body's basic
unit of life. To understand cancer, it's helpful
to know what happens when normal cells
become cancer cells.
• The body is made up of many types of cells.
These cells grow and divide in a controlled
way to produce more cells as they are needed
to keep the body healthy. When cells become
old or damaged, they die and are replaced
with new cells.
 However, sometimes this orderly process
goes wrong. The genetic material (DNA) of
a cell can become damaged or changed,
producing mutations that affect normal cell
growth and division. When this happens,
cells do not die when they should and new
cells form when the body does not need
them. The extra cells may form a mass of
tissue called a tumor.
Not all tumors are cancerous; tumors can be benign or
malignant.
Benign tumors aren't cancerous. They can often be
removed, and, in most cases, they do not come back.
Cells in benign tumors do not spread to other parts of
the body.
Malignant tumors are cancerous. Cells in these
tumors can invade nearby tissues and spread to other
parts of the body. The spread of cancer from one part
of the body to another is called metastasis.
Some cancers do not form tumors. For example,
leukemia is a cancer of the bone marrow and blood.
LUNG CANCER
Lung cancer is a disease of uncontrolled cell
growth in tissues of the lung. This growth
may lead to metastasis, which is the invasion
of adjacent tissue and infiltration beyond the
lungs. The vast majority of primary lung
cancers are carcinomas of the lung, derived
from epithelial cells. Lung cancer, the most
common cause of cancer-related death in
men and women, is responsible for 1.3
million deaths worldwide annually, as of
2004.
RISK FACTORS
>Tobacco use, including cigarettes,
cigars, chewing tobacco and snuff.
> Radiation Exposure
>Second-Hand Smoke
>Lung Diseases
>Air Pollution
 ORAL CANCER
Oral cancer can form in any part of the
mouth or throat. Most oral cancers begin in
the tongue and in the floor of the mouth.
Anyone can get oral cancer, but the risk is
higher if you are male, over age 40, use
tobacco or alcohol or have a history of 
head or neck cancer. Frequent sun exposure
is also a risk for lip cancer.
RISK FACTORS

>Tobacco use (cigarette, cigar,

pipe, smokeless tobacco)
>Excessive alcohol use
>Chronic Irritation (e.g. ill-fitting
dentures)
>Vitamin A deficiency
 LARYNGEAL CANCER
Laryngeal cancer may also be called cancer of the
larynx or laryngeal carcinoma. Most laryngeal
cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, reflecting their
origin from the squamous cells which form the
majority of the laryngeal epithelium. Cancer can
develop in any part of the larynx, but the cure rate is
affected by the location of the tumor. For the purposes
of tumour staging, the larynx is divided into three
anatomical regions: the glottis (true vocal cords,
anterior and posterior commissures); the supraglottis
and the subglottis.
Most laryngeal cancers originate in
the glottis. Supraglottic cancers are less
common, andsubglottic tumours are least
frequent.
Laryngeal cancer may spread by direct
extension to adjacent structures,
by metastasis to regional cervical lymph
nodes, or more distantly, through the blood
stream. Distant metastates to the lung are
most common.
RISK FACTORS
>Tobacco use (cigarette, cigar, pipe,
smokeless tobacco)
>Poor Nutrition
>Alcohol
>Weakened Immune System
>Gender: 4-5 times more common in
men
>Age: more than 60 years
 BLADDER CANCER
Bladder cancer refers to any of several types of
malignant growths of the urinary bladder. It is a
disease in which abnormal cells multiply
without control in the bladder. The bladder is a
hollow, muscular organ that stores urine; it is
located in the pelvis. The most common type of
bladder cancer begins in cells lining the inside
of the bladder and is called transitional cell
carcinoma (sometimes urothelial cell
carcinoma).
RISK FACTORS

>Increasing age. Your risk of bladder cancer

increases as you age. Bladder cancer can
occur at any age, but it's rarely found in
people younger than 40.
>Being white. Whites have a greater risk of
bladder cancer than do people of other
races.
>Being a man. Men are more likely to
develop bladder cancer than women are.
>Smoking. Smoking cigarettes, cigars or pipes may
increase your risk of bladder cancer by causing
harmful chemicals to accumulate in your urine. When
you smoke, your body processes the chemicals in the
smoke and excretes some of them in your urine. These
harmful chemicals may damage the lining of your
bladder, which can increase your risk of cancer.

>Exposure to certain chemicals. Your kidneys play a

key role in filtering harmful chemicals from your
bloodstream and moving them into your bladder.
Because of this, it's thought that being around certain
chemicals may increase your risk of bladder cancer.
>Chronic bladder inflammation. Chronic
or repeated urinary infections or
inflammations (cystitis), such as may
happen with long-term use of a urinary
catheter, may increase your risk of a
squamous cell bladder cancer. In some
areas of the world, squamous cell
carcinoma is linked to chronic bladder
inflammation caused by the parasitic
infection known as schistosomiasis.
 >Personal or family history of cancer. If
you've had bladder cancer, you're more likely to
get it again. If one or more of your immediate
relatives have a history of bladder cancer, you
may have an increased risk of the disease,
although it's rare for bladder cancer to run in
families. A family history of hereditary
nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), also
called Lynch syndrome, can increase your risk
of cancer in your urinary system, as well as in
your colon, uterus, ovaries and other organs.
 RENAL CANCER
Renal cell carcinoma (RCC, also known
as hypernephroma) is a kidney cancer that
originates in the lining of the proximal
convoluted tubule, the very small tubes in the
kidney that filter the blood and remove waste
products. RCC is the most common type of
kidney cancer in adults, responsible for
approximately 80% of cases.  It is also known to
be the most lethal of all the genitourinary
tumors.
RISK FACTORS
>Cigarette smoking and obesity are the
strongest known risk factors. Hypertension and
a family history of the disease are also risk
factors.
>Dialysis patients with acquired cystic disease
of the kidney showed a 30 times greater risk
than in the general population for developing
RCC.
>Exposure to asbestos, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, gasoline has not
been shown to be consistently associated
with RCC risk.
>Patients with certain inherited disorders
such as von Hippel-Lindau disease,
hereditary papillary renal cancer, a
hereditary leiomyoma RCC syndrome
and Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome, show an
enhanced risk of RCC.
>Hysterectomy is associated with an approximately
doubled risk. Hormonal factors or injury of the ureter
during surgery were considered as possible causes.
>Gender: Renal cell carcinoma is more common
among men than women.

>Race: Renal cell carcinoma is more common among

African Americans than Caucasians.
>Age: Renal cell carcinoma is more
common in people between the age of
40 and 60.
>Smoking: Smoking cigarettes
increases the risk for renal cell
carcinoma by 40 percent. This risk
decreases if the person stops smoking.
>Obesity: Overweight people are at
higher risk to develop kidney cancer.
Occupational exposure: Many studies
suggest that certain work environments (ex:
the iron and steel industry) increase the risk
for renal cell carcinoma. The exposure to
certain chemical and substances, such
as asbestos (a mineral fiber that can be
used in construction materials for insulation
and as fire-retardant) and cadmium (a rare,
soft, bluish-white chemical element used in
batteries and plastic industry), also increase
the risk for renal cell carcinoma.
 CERVICAL CANCER
Cervical cancer is malignant
neoplasm of the cervix uteri or
cervical area. It may present with
vaginal bleeding but symptoms
may be absent until the cancer is
in its advanced stages.
RISK FACTORS
>HPV infection: HPV is a group of viruses
that can infect the cervix. An HPV infection
that doesn't go away can cause cervical cancer
in some women. HPV is the cause of nearly all
cervical cancers.
HPV infections are very common. These
viruses are passed from person to person
through sexual contact. Most adults have been
infected with HPV at some time in their lives,
but most infections clear up on their own.
>Lack of regular Pap tests: Cervical
cancer is more common among women
who don't have regular Pap tests. The Pap
test helps doctors find abnormal cells.
Removing or killing the abnormal cells
usually prevents cervical cancer.
 
>Smoking: Among women who are
infected with HPV, smoking cigarettes
slightly increases the risk of cervical
cancer.
>Weakened immune system (the body's natural
defense system): Infection with HIV(the virus that
causes AIDS) or taking drugs that suppress the
immune system increases the risk of cervical cancer.
 
>Sexual history: Women who have had many sexual
partners have a higher risk of developing cervical
cancer. Also, a woman who has had sex with a man
who has had many sexual partners may be at higher
risk of developing cervical cancer. In both cases, the
risk of developing cervical cancer is higher because
these women have a higher risk of HPV infection.
>Using birth control pills for a long time:
Using birth control pills for a long time (5 or
more years) may slightly increase the risk of
cervical cancer among women with HPV
infection. However, the risk decreases quickly
when women stop using birth control pills.
 
>Having many children: Studies suggest
that giving birth to many children (5 or more)
may slightly increase the risk of cervical
cancer among women with HPV infection.
 ESOPHAGEAL CANCER
Esophageal cancer (or oesophageal cancer)
is malignancy of the esophagus. There are
various subtypes,
primarily adenocarcinoma (approx. 50-80% of
all Esophageal cancer) and squamous cell
cancer. Squamous cell cancer arises from the
cells that line the upper part of the esophagus.
Adenocarcinoma arises from glandular cells that
are present at the junction of the esophagus and
stomach.
Esophageal tumors usually lead
to dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), pain
and other symptoms, and are diagnosed
with biopsy. Small and localized tumors
are treated surgically with curative intent.
Larger tumors tend not to be operable and
hence are treated with palliative care;
their growth can still be delayed
with chemotherapy, radiotherapy or a
combination of the two.
RISK FACTORS
>Age. Most patients are over 60, and
the median in US patients is 67.
Sex. It is more common in men.
>Heredity. It is more likely in people
who have close relatives with cancer.
>Tobacco smoking and
heavy alcohol use increase the risk, and
together appear to increase the risk
more than either individually.
>Gastroesophageal reflux
disease (GERD) and its
resultant Barrett's esophagus increase
esophageal cancer risk due to the chronic
irritation of the mucosal lining
(adenocarcinoma is more common in this
condition, while all other risk factors
predispose more for squamous cell
carcinoma).

>Human papillomavirus (HPV)

>Gender: 3 times more
common in men
>Diet: Low in fruits and
vegetables
 BREAST CANCER

Breast cancer (malignant breast neoplasm)

is cancer originating from breast tissue,
most commonly from the inner lining
of milk ducts or the lobules that supply the
ducts with milk. Cancers originating from
ducts are known as ductal carcinomas;
those originating from lobules are known
as lobular carcinomas.
RISK FACTORS
>Family history: A woman's risk of
breast cancer is higher if her mother,
sister, or daughter had breast cancer.
The risk is higher if her family
member got breast cancer before age
40. Having other relatives with breast
cancer (in either her mother's or
father's family) may also increase a
woman's risk.
>Certain breast changes: Atypical
hyperplasia and lobular carcinoma in
situ found in benign breast conditions
such as fibrocystic breast changes are
correlated with an increased breast
cancer risk.
>Race: Breast cancer is diagnosed
most often in women of African
ancestry, followed by European and
Asian ancestry.
>Early Menarche/ late menopause
>AGE- changes in hormone levels
throughout life, such as age at first
menstruation, number of
pregnancies, and age at menopause.
>High fat diet
>Obesity
>Physical Inactivity
>Recent oral contraceptive use
Studies have found that women using
oral contraceptives (birth control pills)
have a slightly greater risk of breast
cancer than women who have never used
them. This risk seems to decline back to
normal over time once the pills are
stopped. Women who stopped using oral
contraceptives more than 10 years ago do
not appear to have any increased breast
cancer risk.
 PROSTATE CANCER
Prostate cancer is a form of cancer that develops in
the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system.
Most prostate cancers are slow growing; however,
there are cases of aggressive prostate cancers. The
cancer cells may metastasize (spread) from the
prostate to other parts of the body, particularly
the bones and lymph nodes. Prostate cancer may
cause pain, difficulty in urinating, problems during
sexual intercourse, or erectile dysfunction. Other
symptoms can potentially develop during later stages
of the disease.
RISK FACTORS
>Age
>Family History
>Race
>Dietary Fat
>Hormones
>Cadmium
>Vitamin A & D
 LIVER CANCER
Liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma) is
a cancer arising from the liver. It is also known
as primary liver cancer or hepatoma. The liver is
made up of different cell types (for example, bile
ducts, blood vessels, and fat-storing cells).
However, liver cells (hepatocytes) make up 80%
of the liver tissue. Thus, the majority of primary
liver cancers (over 90%-95%) arises from liver
cells and is called hepatocellular cancer or
carcinoma.
RISK FACTORS
>Hepatitis B infection
Hepatitis B can be caught from
contaminated blood products or used
needles or sexual contact but is frequent
among Asian children from
contamination at birth or even biting
among children at play. The role of
hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in
causing liver cancer is well established.
>Hepatitis C infection
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is
more difficult to get than hepatitis B. It
usually requires direct contact with
infected blood, either from contaminated
blood products or needles. HCV is also
associated with the development of liver
cancer. In fact, in Japan, hepatitis C virus
is present in up to 75% of cases of liver
cancer.
>Alcohol
Cirrhosis caused by chronic alcohol
consumption is the most common association
of liver cancer in the developed world. In
fact, at autopsy, as many as half of alcoholics
previously unsuspected to have cancer will
have early evidence of cancer hidden within
the liver. Many of these people are also
infected with chronic hepatitis C virus. The
usual setting is an individual with alcoholic
cirrhosis who has stopped drinking for 10
years and then develops liver cancer.
 SKIN
CANCER
Types of Skin Cancer
>Basal cell carcinoma
-is the most common form of skin cancer.
This type of skin cancer does not typically
spread, but does require treatment. Basal
cell carcinomas most often develop in areas
of the skin exposed to the sun.
>Squamous cell carcinomas develop in
the middle layer of the epidermis. This
type of cancer can spread and can be life
threatening if not treated appropriately.
>Abnormal growths of melanocytes,
called malignant melanomas, are the
most aggressive form of skin cancer.
Melanomas can spread quickly to other
parts of the body and to organs.
RISK FACTORS
>Increased sun exposure and
a history of sunburns increase
the risk for developing skin
cancer.

>Fair Complexion
 COLONIC CANCER
Colorectal cancer, also called colon
cancer or large bowel cancer,
includes cancerous growths in
the colon, rectum and appendix. With
655,000 deaths worldwide per year, it is the
fourth most common form of cancer in
the United States and the third leading cause
of cancer-related death in the Western
world. Colorectal cancers arise
from adenomatous polyps in the colon.
 These mushroom-shaped
growths are usually benign, but
some develop into cancer over
time. Localized colon cancer is
usually diagnosed
through colonoscopy.
RISK FACTORS
>Daily alcohol use (may double
the risk)
>Eating a high-fat, low-fiber diet
>Obesity
>Sedentary lifestyle
>Smoking
 UTERINE CANCER
Uterine cancer is a type of cancer that affects
the uterus in the female reproductive system.
Cancer most commonly develops in
the endometrium of the uterus, resulting
in endometrial cancer, the most prevalent type of
uterine cancer. Much less commonly, cancer
develops in the muscles and other tissues that
support the uterus. When this occurs, it is called a
uterine sarcoma. Less than 5% of uterine cancers
are sarcomas.
RISK FACTORS
>Never being pregnant
>Beginning menstruation
before age 12 and continuing
through age 50 or more
>Being diabetic
>Obesity
>Use of estrogen replacement
therapy (ERT)

>Personal or family history of

breast or ovarian cancer

>Use of Tamoxifen, a breast

cancer treatment drug