28/02/2016

Fakulti Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional

BBE 31103 Saifullizam Puteh

Jab. Kej. Pendid ik an
DIAGNOUS DAN SENGGARAAN F PTV
UTHM
AUDIO VIDEO

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS The Basics

and More

OBJECTIVE OF LECTURE

 Describe how an ideal operational amplifier (op amp) behaves.

 Define voltage gain, current gain, transresistance gain, and
transconductance gain.
 Explain the operation of an ideal op amp in a voltage comparator and
inverting amplifier circuit.
 Show the effect of using a real op amp.
 Chapters 5.1-5.3 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

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OP AMPS APPLICATIONS

 Audio amplifiers
 Speakers and microphone circuits in cell phones, computers, mpg players, boom
boxes, etc.
 Instrumentation amplifiers
 Biomedical systems including heart monitors and oxygen sensors.
 Power amplifiers
 Analog computers
 Combination of integrators, differentiators, summing amplifiers, and multipliers

SYMBOLS FOR IDEAL AND REAL OP

AMPS

OpAmp uA741

LM111 LM324

TERMINALS ON AN OP AMP

Positive power supply (Positive

rail)

Non-inverting
Input terminal

Output terminal

Inverting input
terminal

Negative power supply

(Negative rail)

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OP AMP EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

vd = v2 – v1
A is the open-loop voltage gain
v2

v1
Voltage controlled voltage
source

TYPICAL OP AMP PARAMETERS

Parameter Variable Typical Ranges Ideal Values

Open-Loop A 105 to 108

Voltage Gain
∞
Input Resistance Ri 105 to 1013 
∞ 
Output Resistance Ro 10 to 100  0 

Supply Voltage Vcc/V+ 5 to 30 V N/A

-Vcc/V- -30V to 0V N/A

HOW TO FIND THESE VALUES

 Component Datasheets
 Many manufacturers have made these freely available on the internet
 Example: LM 324 Operational Amplifier

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DB

 Decibels
Since P = V 2 /R
10 log (P/Pref) or 20 log (V/Vref)

In this case:
20 log (Vo/Vin) = 20 log (A) = 100
A = 105 = 100,000

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LARGE SIGNAL VOLTAGE GAIN = A

 Typical
 A = 100 V/m V = 100V/0.001V = 100,000
 Minimum
 A = 25 V/m V = 25 V/0.001V = 25,000

CAUTION – A IS FREQUENCY
DEPENDENT

http://www.national.com/ds/LM/LM124.pdf

OPEN CIRCUIT OUTPUT VOLTAGE

vo = A vd
 Ideal Op Amp
vo = ∞ (vd)

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OPEN CIRCUIT OUTPUT VOLTAGE

 Real Op Amp

Voltage Range Output Voltage

Positive Saturation A vd > V + vo ~ V +

Linear Region V - < A vd < V + vo = A v d
Negative Saturation A vd < V - vo ~ V -

The voltage produced by the dependent voltage source inside the op amp is limited by the voltage
applied to the positive and negative rails.

VOLTAGE TRANSFER CHARACTERISTIC

Range where we
operate the op amp
as an amplifier.

vd

IDEAL OP AMP
Because Ri is equal to ∞, the
voltage across Ri is 0V.

v1 = v2
i2 = 0
v2 vd = 0 V

i1 = 0

v1

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ALMOST IDEAL OP AMP

 Ri = ∞ 
 Therefore, i 1 = i 2 = 0A
 Ro = 0 
 Usually, v d = 0V so v1 = v2
 The op amp forces the voltage at the inverting input terminal to be equal to
the voltage at the noninverting input terminal if there is some component
connecting the output terminal to the inverting input terminal.
 Rarely is the op amp limited to V- < vo < V + .
 The output voltage is allowed to be as positive or as negative as needed to
force v d = 0V.

EXAMPLE #1: VOLTAGE COMPARATOR

is = 0 i1 = 0

i2 = 0

Note that the inverting input and non-inverting input terminals have
rotated in this schematic.

EXAMPLE #1 (CON’T)

 The internal circuitry in the op amp tries to force the voltage at the
inverting input to be equal to the non-inverting input.
 As we will see shortly, a number of op amp circuits have a resistor between the
output terminal and the inverting input terminals to allow the output voltage to
influence the value of the voltage at the inverting input terminal.

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EXAMPLE #1: VOLTAGE COMPARATOR

is = 0 i1 = 0

i2 = 0

When Vs is equal to 0V, Vo = 0V.

When Vs is smaller than 0V, Vo = V+.
When Vs is larger than 0V, Vo = V-.

ELECTRONIC RESPONSE

 Given how an op amp functions, what do you expect Vo to be if v2 =

5V when:
1. Vs = 0V?
2. Vs = 5V?
3. Vs = 6V?

EXAMPLE #2: CLOSED LOOP GAIN

if

is i1 = 0

v1

v2
i2 = 0

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EXAMPLE #2 (CON’T)

if

is i1

io

i2

For an almost ideal op amp, Ri = ∞  and Ro = 0  The output

voltage will never reach V+ or V-.

EXAMPLE #2 (CON’T)

if
Virtual ground

is i1

i2

The op amp outputs a voltage Vo such

that V1 = V2

EXAMPLE #2 (CON’T)

is
i1 if
i

i2

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EXAMPLE #2: CLOSED LOOP GAIN

v1  0V
VS  R 1is
A B
vo  Rf i f
C
is  i f  i
vo / Vs  Rf / R 1
AV  Rf / R1

This circuit is known as an inverting amplifier.

TYPES OF GAIN

if

is i1
io

i2

TYPES OF CLOSED LOOP GAIN

Gain Variable Equation Units

Name
Voltage Gain AV vo/vs None or V/V
Current Gain AI io/is None or A/A
Transresistance Gain AR vo/is V/A or 
Transconductance Gain AG io/vs A/V or 

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EXAMPLE #3: CLOSED LOOP GAIN

WITH REAL OP AMP
if

is i1

v1

v2
i2

EXAMPLE #3 (CON’T)

is = i1 + if
i = if
- i1 = i2
vd = v2 – v1 = Ri (- i1) = Ri (i2)
Vo = Avd - Ro(- i)
Vs = R1(is) – vd
Vs = R1(is) + Rf(if) + Vo

Vo /Vs = (-Rf/R1){A/[1 +A]}, where  = R1/(R1+Rf)

SUMMARY

 The output of an ideal op amp is a v oltage from a dependent v oltage

source that attempts to force the voltage at the inverting input terminal to equal the
voltage at the non-inverting input terminal .
 Almost ideal op amp: Output voltage limited to the range between V + and V-.
 Ideal op amp is assumed to hav e Ri = ∞  and Ro = 0 
 Almost ideal op amp: vd = 0 V and the current flowing into the output terminal of
the op amp is as much as required to force v 1 = v2 when V+< vo< V-.
 Operation of an op amp was used in the analysis of v oltage com parator
and inv erting am plifier circuit s.
 Effect of Ri < ∞  and Ro > 0  was shown.

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RADIO-FREQUENCY What is
more?
CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION

 There is a need to modulate a signal using an information signal

 This signal is referred to as a baseband signal
 The carrier needs to be a higher frequency than the baseband
 RF Amplifiers, Oscillators, Mixers, and frequency synthesizers are
used to meet these conditions

HIGH-FREQUENCY EFFECTS

 At very low frequencies, capacitors and other components

behave in very straightforward ways
 A capacitor is considered an open circuit to DC voltages and a
short circuit for AC at low frequencies
 As frequencies become higher, component interaction becomes
more critical both directly and as “stray” reactances,
inductances, and capacitances

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EFFECT OF FREQUENCY ON DEVICE

CHARACTERISTICS

 All electronic devices have

capacitances and inductances
 As frequency increases, so does
inductive reactance
 As frequency increases,
capacitive reactance decreases
 At some point, the two
reactances will be equal and the
circuit will self-resonate

LUMPED & DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS

 At low frequencies, the capacitances and inductances found

between the traces on a printed circuit board are negligible
 As frequency increases, the stray capacitances and inductances
are considered as distributed along the length of the pc board
 They are said to be distributed constants

HIGH-FREQUENCY
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

 Circuits are designed to reduce the “stray” capacitances and

inductances resulting from the wiring and circuit board
 Traces and wires are kept short and well separated
 Conductors and inductors in close proximity are kept at right
angles
 Toroidal cores for inductors are used to reduce stray magnetic
f ields
 Shielding is used
 A gimmick is used in some circuits

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RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS

 RF amplifiers differ from audio amplifiers in that wide

bandwidth may or may not be required
 Linearity of the output may or may not be required
 Efficiency can be improved through the use of Class C
amplifiers

NARROWBAND AMPLIFIERS

 Many RF amplifiers are

required to operate only
within a narrow range of
frequencies
 Filters are used to reduce the
bandwidth
 The tuned amplifier is set
according to the formula:
1
f o
2π L C
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MILLER EFFECT

 Inter-electrode capacitance and inductance is a problem in RF

circuits
 This problem is especially severe for the collector-base
capacitance in a common-emitter amplifier
 The multiplication of the effect of capacitance in this
configuration is called the Miller Effect

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COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER

 One solution to the Miller

Effect is to use a common-
base amplifier configuration as
shown at the right

WIDEBAND AMPLIFIERS

 Baseband parts of RF systems may make use of wideband

amplifiers
 Wideband amplifiers typically use transformer coupling
 Typical wideband amplifiers need negative feedback to
compensate for higher low-frequency gain: as frequency
increases, negative feedback decreases

AMPLIFIER CLASSES

 Amplifiers are classified according to the portion of the input

cycle the active device conducts current
 This is referred to as the conduction angle and is expressed in
degrees
 Single-ended audio amps are operated in Class A where the
device conducts for 360 °
 Push-pull amps can be a Class B if one of the two devices is
conducting at all times
 Most audio power amps operate in Class AB - a compromise
between Class A and Class B

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CLASS B RF AMPLIFIER

 A simple Class B amplifier is

shown at the right
 It uses transformer coupling
 Both transistors are biased
near cutoff

CLASS C AMPLIFIERS

 Class C amplifiers conduct

for less than 180 ° of the
input cycle
 Class C amplifiers can be
single-ended or push-pull
 Class C amplifiers are very
efficient in RF applications
but inherently induce severe
distortion

NEUTRALIZATION

 Transistors or tubes may

introduce sufficient feedback to
cause the circuit to oscillate and
become unstable
 Neutralization can cancel this
type of feedback by feeding back
a portion of the output signal to
the input in such a way that it
has the same amplitude as the
unwanted signal but the opposite
phase

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FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS

 Sometimes it is useful to use harmonic operation to generate a

frequency higher than is conveniently generated by using a
frequency multiplier

RADIO-FREQUENCY OSCILLATORS

 RF oscillators do not differ in principle than other oscillators but

practical circuits are quite different
 Any amplifier can be made to oscillate if a portion of the output
signal is fed back to the input
 The Barkhausen criteria establishes the requirements for a
circuit to oscillate

LC OSCILLATORS

 Practical RF circuits whose frequency is controlled by a

resonant LC circuit are:
 Hartley Oscillator
 Colpitts Oscillator
 Clapp Oscillator

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HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

• Common configurations for a Hartley Oscillator

COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

 Common configurations for

a Colpitts Oscillator

CLAPP OSCILLATOR

 Common configuration
for a Clapp Oscillator

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VARACTOR-TUNED OSCILLATOR

 The frequency of an oscillator may be tuned by varying the

inductance or capacitance of the circuit
 Varactors are more convenient substitutes than variable
capacitors in many circumstances

CRYSTAL-CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

 Crystal-controlled oscillators are more stable than LC oscillators

 Crystal oscillators utilize the piezoelectric effect to generate a
frequency-variable signal

MIXERS

 Mixers are nonlinear circuits that combine two signals to produce

the sum and difference of of the two input frequencies

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TYPES OF MIXERS

 Square-law mixers: output is derived by the formula:

vo Av 
i Bv i  Cv
2 3
i
 Diode Mixers use a diode operated in the forward bias mode
 Transistor Mixers use bipolar and FET transistors
 Balanced Mixers are mixers where the input frequencies do not
appear at the output

FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS

 Conventional LC oscillators tend to be unstable because of:

 Vibration
 Temperature changes
 Voltage changes
 Component aging
 Crystal oscillators are more stable but are are limited to a narrow
range of operating frequencies
 Frequency Synthesizers overcome these limitations and may end
up being more cost effective

PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS

 The phase-locked loop is the basis of nearly all modern

synthesizer designs
 The loop consists of a:
 Phase detector
 Voltage-controlled oscillator ( VCO)
 Low-pass filter
 The purpose of the PLL is lock the VCO to the reference signal

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SIMPLE FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER

 In addition to the phase detector, VCO, and fi l ter, a programmable

divider is necessary for frequency synthesis using a PLL as shown below

PRESCALING

 Because programmable dividers are unavailable at frequencies

above 100MHz, f ixed- and two-modulus prescalers are used
 Two-modulus prescalers can be programmed to divide by two
consecutive integers

THE END

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