Opamp Application

ENG207
Principles of Electronic Instrumentation
Operational Amplifiers
What is an Operational Amplifier ?
 An operational amplifier (op amp) is a device that is made up of

dozens of transistors on a single integrated circuit (ic) chip.
 An op amp requires at least one and usually two dc voltage
supplies. These supplies are used to
 enable internal transistors to operate in their active regions;
and
 supply dc power that the op amp converts into useful signal
power.
Why use an Operational Amplifier ?
 An op amp has near-ideal amplifier characteristics:

 large voltage gain;
 draws negligible current from the preceding circuit;
 supplies any required current to the following circuit.
 The ideal characteristics create many useful applications.
 The model for the ideal op amp is simple, so circuits can be
designed easily and quickly.
The Ideal Op Amp Model
The op amp is often represented as a three-terminal device, with
 two input terminals, called inverting and non-inverting input terminals,
 an output terminal.
Ideal Op Amp Model
Input and output voltages are voltages relative to a common
reference node (ground); the ground node is usually not shown on
a diagram.
Ideal Op Amp Model
The ideal model:
v+ = v-
i+ = 0 and i- = 0
vO and iO are determined by

circuit equations.
Op Amp Connections
The op amp must be connected

to either
 one voltage supply (single-
supply operation) or
 two voltage supplies (dual-
supply operation);
The supply terminals are also
usually not shown!!
Maximum range of output

voltage is from +Vcc to -Vcc
Standard Amplifier Configurations
 The model equation v+ = v- implies that the voltage gain of the
op amp: vO
A 
v  v
is very large (it is assumed to be infinite!).
 When used as an amplifier, the output terminal is connected to
the inverting input terminal. This connection provides a
feedback path.
 The feedback will cause the overall gain to be set by external
elements and not by the gain of the op amp.
Example: The Voltage Follower
 A wire connects the output to the inverting input: v- = vO.

 A signal source is connected to the non-inverting input: v+ = vS.
Example: The Voltage Follower
 From the op amp model: v- = v+.

 Therefore: vO = vS.
Voltage Follower
 This circuit is called a voltage follower because output voltage follows the
input voltage.
 The voltage follower is also called a buffer amplifier: it can act as a buffer
between two stages so the stages do not interfere with each other.
Example: Voltage Divider
We can use a voltage divider to
generate any voltage that is less
than an input voltage:
R2
Vout   Vin
R1  R2
However, if an extra element
(the “load”) is placed across the
output terminals of the voltage
divider, then the value of the
output voltage will change.
For example, if the load element
is a resistor RL then
R2 || RL
Vout   Vin
R1  R2 || RL
Placing a voltage follower between the voltage divider circuit and
the load will allow the original output voltage to be maintained:
R2
Vo   Vin
R1  R2
Vout  Vo
R2
 Vout   Vin
R1  R2
Non-Inverting Amplifier
 op amps are often used in one of two standard amplifier

configurations: non-inverting and inverting.
 The standard non-inverting amplifier is shown below.
At non-inverting terminal:
v  vS
At inverting terminal, i- = 0, so
using the voltage divider rule:
R1
v  vO
R1  R2
Using the op amp model:
v  v
R1
 vS  vO
R1  R2
R1  R2
 vO  vS
R1
 R 
 vO  1  2  vS
 R1 
Non-Inverting Amplifier: Design Notes
 The voltage gain is set by a resistor ratio: R2/R1.

 The gain equation makes no claim about the size of the
resistors: one resistor can be treated as a free variable; the
second resistor is then fixed by the gain equation.
 The assumptions behind the ideal op amp model could become
invalid if resistors are too large or too small. Recommended
range: 1kW – 100kW.
Inverting Amplifier
The standard inverting amplifier is shown below.
Notice that the inverting and non-inverting terminals have been
flipped over.
Inverting Amplifier
At the non-inverting terminal:
v  0
KCL at the inverting terminal:
vS  v vO  v
  i
R1 RF
Inverting Amplifier
Using the op amp model:
i  0
v  v  0
vS  0 vO  0
  0
R1 RF
vO vS
  
RF R1
RF
 vO   vS
R1
Inverting Amplifier: Design Notes
 The voltage gain is set by a resistor ratio: RF/R1.

 The voltage gain is negative – changes in the input are inverted
at the output: so, if vs increases then vo decreases, and vice
versa.
Summer
Recall that KCL is used to
add (sum) currents at the
inverting terminal.
We can use KCL at the
inverting terminal to
combine two or more input
signals.
Example: Two-input Summer
Using KCL and the ideal op amp
model:
i1  i2  io  0
v1  0 v  0 v  0
  2  o  0
R1 R2 RF
v v 
 vo   RF  1  2 
 R1 R2 
The output vo is a weighted sum
of the inputs v1 and v2.
Difference Amplifier
A difference amplifier amplifies the difference between two input

signals.
Difference Amplifier
Non-inverting terminal:
R2
v   v2
R1  R2
At the inverting terminal:
v1  v v2  v
  0
R1 R2
v+ = v- leads to:
R2
vo    v1  v2 
R1
Updated Ideal Model for the Op Amp
Define the input voltage

difference as vd = v+ - v-.
Assume a dual-supply
operation, with positive voltage
supply VCC and the negative
supply -VCC.
The output-input characteristics
are shown on the right …..
Amplifier Response to Output Voltage Limits
 The limits to output voltage are often called saturation levels:

the output saturates, so it cannot go any higher to lower.
 We can account for the effects of saturation in our amplifier
designs by re-analysing the circuits with vd = v+ - v- treated as a
variable.
 Consider the case of the non-inverting amplifier.
The Limits to Voltage Swing
Start with the voltage at each
input terminal:
v  vS
R1
v  vO
R1  R2
vd  v  v
R1
 vS  vO
R1  R2
Rearranging:
R1  R2
vO   vS  vd 
R1
 R   R 
 vO  1  2  vS  1  2  vd
 R1   R1 
Now superimpose this equation onto the op amp characteristic

curve …..
 R   R 
vO  1  2  vS  1  2  vd
 R1   R1 
 The standard solution

corresponds to vd= 0.
 As vS increases, the
intercept with the vO axis
increases until saturation
is reached.
 When vS increases still
further, the output is
clamped at the positive
saturation level (+VCC).
 The standard solution corresponds to solutions with vd = 0 V.

 For solutions in either saturation region: vd ≠ 0:
 The limits to output swing imply that:
 The gain is only valid if vS stays within a certain range.
 The output waveform will be “clipped” so it doesn’t exceed ±VCC.
 These effects can be viewed on a transfer function.
Non-Inverting Amplifier Transfer Curve
Operating regions:
vS   VS , sat : vO   VCC
 R 
VS , sat  vS  VS , sat : vO
 1  2  vS
 R1 
vS   VS , sat : vO   VCC
where
VCC
VS , sat 
R
1  2
R1
Linear Operation
 When the op amp operates with vd = 0, the op amp is said to

operate in its linear region.
 Notice that with both the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers,
the feedback resistor connects the output terminal to the
inverting terminal.
 What happens if
 there is no connection from output to input?
 the output is connected to the non-inverting terminal?
No Feedback: The Comparator
If there is no feedback, then any small difference across the input

terminals is multiplied by the very large gain, so the op amp will
operate at one of the two saturation levels.
This characteristic has a useful application in a device called a
comparator.
No Feedback: The Comparator
Consider the circuit on the right:

 If vs > vr then vo = VCC
 If vs < vr then vo = -VCC
 If vs = vr then vo is undefined
– but this event is unlikely.
This circuit can be used to

generate a pulse-width
modulated signal.
Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)
 If vs is a triangular waveform
and vr is a constant, then vo
is a pulse waveform.
 The width of the pulse is
altered (modulated) by
changing vr.
 Pulse-Width Modulators are
used in switch-mode power
supplies and inverters.

Opamp Application

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ENG207

Principles of Electronic Instrumentation

 An operational amplifier (op amp) is a device that is made up of

 An op amp has near-ideal amplifier characteristics:

vO and iO are determined by

The op amp must be connected

Maximum range of output

 A wire connects the output to the inverting input: v- = vO.

 From the op amp model: v- = v+.

 op amps are often used in one of two standard amplifier

 The voltage gain is set by a resistor ratio: R2/R1.

KCL at the inverting terminal:

 The voltage gain is set by a resistor ratio: RF/R1.

A difference amplifier amplifies the difference between two input

Define the input voltage

 The limits to output voltage are often called saturation levels:

Now superimpose this equation onto the op amp characteristic

 The standard solution

 The standard solution corresponds to solutions with vd = 0 V.

 When the op amp operates with vd = 0, the op amp is said to

If there is no feedback, then any small difference across the input

Consider the circuit on the right:

This circuit can be used to

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