A Survey of Indian Theories of Aesthetics PDF

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distinguished in the field of art. However, anything related to Art suggests the use of the word
‘Aesthetics’. In this context, let us see what the word ‘Aesthetics’ means. It is a Greek word
which means ‘sense-perception’. Anything that is given to the senses is known as ‘Aesthetics’
and later it was used in the plural as ‘Aesthetics’. In 1735, this word was for the first time
formally used by Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten in the sense of ‘Science of Sensitive
Cognition’ in the field of Arts. Later, this Science of Art, namely, Aesthetics came to be
recognized as a distinct branch of Philosophy under the head ‘Philosophy of Art’. In the Indian
context, we have simply borrowed the term ‘Aesthetics’ and broadly applied in the field of
Indian Art and thus we say ‘Indian Aesthetics’ generally refers to the art-appreciation and art-
experience of art forms. In order to understand the function of aesthetics in art, let us first survey
the classification of art forms.
Art forms
In the Indian context, the art forms like music, dance, architecture, painting etc., are found
mentioned in the earliest available works like the Vedas, Puranas, Itihasas etc. Thus, it is tedious
to place historically the advent of art forms, but, we have in a span of 100 years, (18th-19th cent
AD) located and arranged one of the earliest treatises dealing specifically with the art form and
the mechanism of art-experience known as Natya-Shastra attributed to Sage Bharata. The period
is roughly from 5th century BC to 3rd century AD. By this time, the art form is classified into
three arts, namely, Poetry (Kavya), Drama (or Theatre) (Natya) and Music (Gana). We find
classification of arts into 64 that includes stringing flowers, face-painting etc., but the
identification of the three arts seems to enhance the study of art-experience elevating it from the
physical plane to a spiritual plane. Even among these three, Bharata in the Natya-Shastra shows
that the highest form of art-experience is Poetry and it can be well brought out by acting. The
Natya-Shastra, deals with the three main arts and defines the art-experience as “Rasa” and
provides the mechanism of what came to be known later as rasa-experience. This word ‘Rasa’
though profound, reaching beyond the sensitive cognition, however over a period of time has
come to be identified with the word ‘Aesthetics’ of Western origin. Now, in the light of the three
main arts, we shall survey the literary development in these three art forms. We do have much
literature in the other art forms, here; we restrict to these three arts basically to understand the
evolution and development of Aesthetics in the Indian context.
4.2. A SURVEY OF AESTHETIC LITERATURE
We shall classify the Literature on Indian Aesthetics broadly into three based on the above
classification of three art forms, viz., Kavya, Natya and Gana. Firstly, we present the earliest
available treatise, that is, Natya-Shastra that commonly presents Rasa, the experience of any art
form and specifically the three mentioned art forms.
Natya-Shastra and Its Commentaries

The treatise Natya-Shastra attributed to Sage Bharata, deals with the Science of Dramaturgy and
we have at least three different editions with 36, 37 and 38 chapters. Considering the 36 chapters
work as the earliest, we find the description of characteristics of poetical works
(Kavyalakshanam) in the 17th chapter, different types of dramas (Natakas) also known as
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Rupakas, in the 20th chapter and music (dhruvas) in the 32nd chapter. The famous definition of
Rasa in the aphoristic (sutra) form is given in the 6th chapter of Natya-Shastra. This is later
referred to by the Aestheticians as ‘Rasa-Sutra’.
The available commentary to the NatyaShastra is that of Abhinavagupta (10th-11th cent. AD).
The commentary is known as Natyaveda-vivritti and most popularly as Abhinavabharati.
Abhinavagupta comments this treatise in the background of Pratyabhijna Shaiva system that is
said to have prevailed widely in Kashmir. From this available commentary, we come to know
that there had been several earlier commentators to NatyaShastra, like, Udbhata, Bhatta Lollata,
Shri Shankuka, Bhattanayaka, Kirtidhara, Rahula, Shri Harsha and others. Basically the
commentators differed in the interpretation of the Rasa-sutra and evolved their theories of Rasa.
We shall deal with the theories of Rasa in 1.3 of this unit. The other features of the commentaries
are the different viewpoints on the nature of drama (rupaka), dramatic presentation (vritti),
histrionics (abhinaya), and different aspects of music and poetical compositions. In the broad
platform of Rasa theory developed various views on “aesthetically sound” poetic compositions.
We shall now see some of the literary contributions in the field of poetry that took a prime place
in the gamut of Aesthetic study.
Works on Kavya (Poetry)

Bharata describes alamkaaras literally known as embellishments that which gives rise to a
beautiful poetry. Based on this later Aestheticians built up theories on producing a beautiful
poetry by refining and re-defining the alamkaras. In that order, we enumerate here some of the
important works in the Alamkara literature, that fall under the Aesthetic Theory of Poetry. The
Bhamaha’s Kavyaalankaara describes Kavya and divides it into three based on the language as
Samskrita, Prakrita and Apabhramsha. Bhamaha is considered as the oldest extant exponent of
the Alamkara School of Poetics. By this time, alamkara has evolved as a distinct school of
Aesthetics in par with Rasa. Dandin, in his Kavyadarsha divides Kavya as gadya (prose), padya
(poetry) and mishra (both prose and poetry). In the work Alamkara-sara-sangraha, the author
Udbhata deals with 41 alamkaras with 90 illustrations. The author Vamana in his work Kavya-
alamkara-sutra, declares riti or the special arrangement or combination of words, as the soul of
poetry. The Kavya-alamkara is an extensive work of Rudrata. It consists of 16 chapters and
reviews the whole field of poetics. He was the first to attempt a scientific classification of the
figures as based on certain definite principles. In about, 9th-10th cent AD, the famous work
Dhvanyaloka of Anandavardhana took a new form which settled the principles to be followed in
poetics. It is considered as the epoch-making work in the history of poetic literature. He
introduced the two senses in poetry, viz., expressed and implied. The term he uses is ‘dhvani’
that brings out the poetic beauty in a suggestive language. Rajashekhara’s Kavya-meemaamsa
serves more as a practical handbook for poets. Kuntaka in his Vakroti-jivita, is said to have
elevated poetic expression with extra-ordinary charm known as vakroti. In the late 14th to 16th
centuries we find standard works like Sahityadarpana of Vishvanatha and works of Jagannatha
and others that seem to embellish further the theories of poetic compositions. We shall deal with
the theories of Aesthetics in the light of poetry in 4.4 of this unit.
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Works on Natya (Dramaturgy)

Some of the independent works on Dramaturgy is traced to the early 10th cent.CE, the famous
work being Dasharupaka of Dhananjaya, commented by his brother Dhanika. It deals with the
ten main types of rupaka as found in NatyaShastra. Another work is the Nataka-lakshana-ratna-
kosha of Sagaranandin which also deals with dramatic elements. The Natyadarpana of
Ramachandra and Gunachandra of early 12 cent AD also focuses on the elements of acting. We
find a mention of Natakamimamsa by Ruyyaka, a Kashmiri Pandit but so far this work is not
traced. The Bhavaprakasha of Sharadatanaya highlights the bhava or the emotion at the mental
level. The Rasarnava-sudhakara of Simhabhupala treats dramatic elements in the closing section
of the work. Vishvanatha in his Sahityadarpana, 6th chapter deals with acting and other dramatic
elements.
Works on Gana (Music)

The work on music is traced to Pre-Bharata period. Dattila, a Pre-Bharata Aesthetician, seems to
have recorded about 18 jatis (species of melodies) while dealing with music. Bharata, in the
NatyaShastra, deals with 18 jatis in connection with rasa and bhava. The work ‘Brihaddeshi’ of
Matanga is considered as the forerunner of works on music. Matanga for the first time introduces
the term “raga” from the root ranj to please. He defines raga technically and assigns the role of
deshi music. Another important work on music is ‘Sangeeta-Makaranda’ of Narada. Here, based
on emotional feeling or rasa, the ragas are divided as masculine (raga) and feminine (raginis).
In this background, as theories of Aesthetics we shall deal with the following important Schools:
Rasa, Alamkara, Riti, Vakroti, and Dhvani. Though mostly, they deal with the aesthetic sense in
poetry, to some extent the mechanism of aesthetic pleasure can be extended to other art forms. A
distinct Aesthetic theory representing every art form is yet to develop.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) Define Aesthetics. What are the three major art-forms?

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2) Survey the development of Literature of Indian Aesthetics.
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4.2. A SURVEY OF AESTHETIC LITERATURE

Natya-Shastra and Its Commentaries

Works on Kavya (Poetry)

Works on Natya (Dramaturgy)

Works on Gana (Music)

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1) Define Aesthetics. What are the three major art-forms?

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