BHARATA’S NATYASHASTRA

 Introduction
 Aesthetics in Indian and Western Context
 Bharata, the Author of the Natyashastra
 Commentators on the Natyashastra
 Aim of the Natyashastra
 Division of the Natyashastra
 Limitation of the Natyashastra
 The Origin of Drama
 Conclusion

Introduction
Poetics is one of the fields of knowledge in which Indian scholarship has made
significant contributions, the other being the Indian religion, philosophy, art and
literature. Unlike them, however, Indian poetics has not been properly
appreciated by scholars. It has not received the acclaim accorded to the other
fields of ancient Indian knowledge.
There is indeed a need to counter and correct the de-intellectualized mind by
arguing for and developing applicational model from Indian Sanskrit literary
theories to a wide variety of English texts. Despite favourable gesture of the
U.G.C. to promote Sanskrit literary theories within the existing thinking of Indian
academy, problems still persist in the mind of “the Educated Indian” who out
rightly rejects the Indian literary theories. The scholars of English, in the East and
in the West as well, teach the translated western classics Homer (Iliad), Virgil
(Aeneid) Plato (Republic), Aristotle ( Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts), Longinus
(On the Sublime), Horace ( Ars Poetica or Art of Poetry), Quintilian (Institutio
Oratoria or The Education of an Orator), Dante (Divine Comedy and De
VulgarioEloqioe or Of the Vulgar Tongue or Of Writing in Vernacular ) with a
kind of elevated feeling. Not only the Western classics, we teach even the
translated works of the Western modern writers Ferdinand de Saussure ( The
Course in General Linguistics) Roman Jakobson (articles on matters of grammar
and phonology in Slavonic languages), Jacques Lacan, psychoanalyst, Jacques
Derrida, Mikhail Bakhtin, Rolland Barthes, Michael Foucault and many others
with the same feelings of elevation. But when we turn to teach our own Sanskrit
literary theories, it is a matter of lamentation, we dismiss the same venture as
‘revivalism’.
Sanskrit theories are the result of tap or devotion of ancient Indian Acaryas from
Acarya Bharat to Panditraj Jagannath and deal with each part of the literary text
systematically. These theories have viability and validity in modern situation too.
They are not suited to Indian context only but are universally valid.
Unhesitatingly, it can be said that these theories can profitably be applied to
Western texts. But while applying them we should be very cautious. We should
not apply them blindly as it has been observed in the efforts made so far. In
general, these theories have been applied as patents. Such exercises can hardly
succeed, for they are based on false premises. If the applicational models are
developed from Sanskrit theories and are applied in right perspective, they can
help develop a genuine Indian literary criticism. These models shall offer
preferable alternatives of Western models. They will focus on the significant area
of intersection between the Indian and Western thinking i.e. their views on the
analysis and appreciation of literary expression. They will stimulate an inspiration
to examine English texts in the light of classical concepts.
Aesthetics in Indian and Western Context
The word “aesthetics” originally meant pertaining to things perceptible by senses,
things material, as opposed to things thinkable or immaterial. In western context,
particularly from Hegelian point of view, “aesthetics” means “the philosophy of
fine arts” which seems to mean “a theory of beautiful in general, whether in art
or in nature. Their beauty has been studied by different thinkers at different times
and accordingly there are different theories. The earliest theories are hedonistic,
rigoristic and moralistic or pedagogic which represent a study of the problem
from the point of view of the end of art. The theories of imitation, illusion, and
idealized representation represent a study from the point of view of the artist. The
theories of confused cognition, inference and mysticism represent a study of the
problem from the point of view of the spectator. All these theories have been
propounded on the basis of the architecture, sculpture, painting, music and drama.
In the context of India, aesthetics means “science and philosophy of fine art.” It
is science of fine art because the problem of art is originally a problem of
technique of art. The works, wherein the philosophy of art is discussed, are
primarily concerned with technique; and the philosophy is closely related to it. It
is philosophy of fine art is because the experience that a work of art arouses in an
aesthete is accounted for in terms of different schools of philosophic thought in
India and also because the authorities on three arts, poetry, music and
architecture, hold that art presents the Absolute as conceived by them. Thus there
are three schools of philosophy of art: i)Rasa-Brahma-vada (school dealing with
the experience of absolute in literature) ii).Nad-Brahma-vada(school dealing with
the experience of absolute in music. iii) Vastu-Brahma-vada(school dealing with
the experience of absolute in architecture). And fine art is the art which presents
the absolute in sensuous garb and aesthetical relation, as distinct from the
utilitarian, with a work of which gives rise or leads to experience of the absolute.
Like western theories, we have Indian theories also which have been propounded
primarily and mainly in relation to the product of the dramatic art. Bharata gives
all other arts subordinate position to the dramatic art because there is no such lore,
experience, spiritual discipline, science, art, craft and object as is not employed
on some occasion or the other in dramatic presentation. Bharata encounters all
issues related to dramaturgy in his treatise, Natyashastra.
Bharata, the Author of the Natyashastra
Bharata Muni, is acknowledged to be a legendary author of the Natyashastra, the
first Sanskrit work on dramaturgy. The treatise says that Bharata was the one who
popularized the Natyaveda, created by Brahm, on the earth. He is also said to
have collected all the material of earlier acharyas (ancient teachers) like
Tumburu, Narada and Nandi and gave the Nayashastra a complete coherence by
making additions, alterations and adaptations according to the requirements of
time and space. It is clear from the text that later it was the sons and the followers
of Bharata who transmitted the art of the theater to the world. Abhinava Gupta
uses the name ¸Adi-Bharata for Bharata as the sons and the followers of Bharata
were called Bharatas, the actors.
Commentators on the Natyashastra
There was quite a large number of commentaries on the Nayashastra of Bharata.
But all of them are unfortunately lost, excepting the Abhinava Bharata of
Abhinavagupta. In fact, our only source of information about them and their
authors is the Abhinava- Bharata itself. The information available about them is
in the pages from 120 to 129 of “Abhinavagupta : An Historical and Philosophical
Study”. Besides Abhinavagupta, there are only three commentators. The earliest
commentator of the Natyashastra is Lolata who gives the theory of the aropevada
(attribution). Lolata has been said to subscribe to uttara- mimansa of Vedantic
philosophy which considers the world as mitthya (unreal). Shankuka happens to
be the second commentator of Bharata. Some scholars consider him to be the
supporter of prachya-nyaya (old system of logic)due to his employment of
citraturaganyaya (picture- horse-logic) while others hold that he was a supporter
of bauddha-nyaya ( bauddha- logic)in asmuch as the citra-nyaya (picture-logic).
Be that as it may this much is certain that he subscribed to the concept of nyaya
(logic). The third commentator of Bharat is Acharya Bhattanayayaka who gave
the theory of bhuktivada (theory of taste) based on sadharanikarana
(generalization). The next renowned exegete of Bharata is Abhinavagupta of
roughly later half of the 10th and first half of the 11th C.E. His concept of rasa
has a profoundly philosophical basis. His concept of atmaprakasha (self-
consciousness) is the expansion of Shaiva philosophy in which Paramashiva is
equated with atma (soul) equipped with prakasha (light).
There are post-Abhinava acaryas also who have dealt with rasa in their celebrated
works. Among them the most important is Mammat whose treatise
Kavyaprakasha has attracted a host of learned annotators. The next post-
Abhinava acarya is Bhanudatta who broadly supporting Bharat claims our
attention by his unambiguous enunciation of rasa (aesthetic sentiment) in his
Rasa-tarangini. Another post-Abhinava acarya is Vishwanath, widely known for
his famous definition of poetry: vakyam rasatmakam kavyam, defines rasa
((aesthetic sentiment) in his Sahityadarapana. The last distinguished name in the
history of rasa deliberation is Panditaraja Jagannath of the 17th century C.E.
whose celebrated treatise Rasagangadhar exercises the minds of readers today by
its complicated erudite style.
Aim of the Natyashastra
The Nayashastra known as Natyaveda or the fifth Veda, is a classical manual on
the theory and practice of Indian aesthetics— theatre, music, dance, poetics,
gestures and many other allied arts— given by Bharat Muni. The Nayashastra
primarily aims at giving the necessary directions to actors so as to enable them
creditably to acquit themselves in acting out their parts; and to the dramatists to
enable them to write flawless dramas. It also aims at helping the aesthete, who is
eager to enjoy the beautiful and afraid of the study of the Vedas and Puranas,
which show the ways of realization of the main objectives of human life.
Division of the Nayashastra
The available text, which is based on the manuscript of the Abhinavabharati, a
commentary of Abhinavagupta (11th century C.E.), is divided into thirty-six
chapters having the following major contents:
Origins of Natyaveda (science of dramatic performance), and the concept of
anukarana (imitation)of life for dramatic presentation. Three kinds of theatre
buildings and their ritual consecration by the sponsor, a rich person or a king.
Purvaranga (preliminary performance) in nineteen parts to please the gods and
the audience, definition of eight rasas (aesthetic sentiments) — shrigara (erotic
love), vira (heroism), karuna (pathos), hasya (laughter), bibhatsa (disgust,
bhayanaka (fear), raudra (wrath), and adbhuta (wonder), sthayi bhavas (basic
sentiments), vibhavas (causes and determinants of the rise of an emotion) and
anubhavas (gestures) and sanchari bhavas (transitory emotions) as crucial
elements of the emotional experience in theatre.
Four kinds of abhinayas (acting/expression)— angika abhinaya (bodily
expression) to depict emotions/feelings of a character being played by the actor,
vacika abhinaya (linguistic expression) to express emotions/feelings, tone,
diction, pitch of a particular character, aharya abhinaya (costumes of the
characters and stage decoration) to enhance expression, sattvika abhinaya
(voluntary changes expressed by the presence of tears, mark of horripilation,
change of facial color, trembling of lips, enhancing of nostrils) to express the
deepest emotions of a character. It is the highest kind of acting; two kinds of
dharmis (theatrical representations)—lokadharmi (artistic representation of the
ordinary world or the real life) and natyadharmi (artistic representation of the
imaginary worlds like svarga (heavens), patala (underworld); four kinds of vrittis
(modes of productions)—bharati (dominance of spoken contents) kaishiki
(dominance of dance and music) sattvati (dominance of elevated and heroic
feelings) and arabhati (dominance of violent and conflictual actions, and the four
pravrittis—avanti, dakshinatya, panchali and magadhi (the tastes of audiences in
various parts of India); four kinds of atodyas (musical instruments used on the
stage); ganam or dhruvas (songs sung in the course of dramatic action at five
junctures— praveshiki (song sung before the entry of a character), naishkramiki
(song sung to sooth emotions of the audience after a very moving or shocking
scene), akshepiki (song sung to create an intervention) and antara (song sung in
between episodes to entertain the audience); and finally ranga (theatre house)
(chapter 2).
Dasarupakas (the ten types of plays extending from one act play to ten act plays.)
Itivritta (structure of the dramatic plot), the stages of action, the nature of episodes
and the interconnected emotional states of the hero .
Nayakas (heroes) and nayikas (heroines).
Svaras (musical notes) gramas (musical scales) and atodyavidhi (ways of playing
musical instruments like the strings, flutes, drums and cymbals).
Limitation of Natyashastra
Bharata wrote his work with a view to giving necessary instructions to dramatists
and actors. Larger portion of the work is devoted to the four types of acting
(Abhinaya). For the present we shall restrict ourselves to expounding his view
from the point of view of the dramatist. We shall, therefore, attempt to state : (i)
What is it that the dramatist presents in the drama?, (ii) What are its consti-tuents
and how are they related?, (iii) What is the method of dramatising an imaginary
or historical plot?, (iv) What are the subjective conditions, necessary in the
spectator, for getting aesthetic experience from dramatic presentation?
The Origin of Drama
As has already been told the first chapter deals with the origin of drama or
Natyaveda (science of dramatic performance). This chapter has answers to the
questions raised by the pupils of Bharata. The pupils asked Bharata questions
after they had witnessed the first drama staged by him. The first question was:
what were the circumstances, which led to the creation of the fifth Veda; and for
whom was it created? The reason why they put this question may be stated as
follows:
The pupils had witnessed the drama and they had analysed the effect that it had
on them. They had realised that it brings about identification with the focus of the
dramatic situation, to the effect that the audience realise through experience
(because of identification) that the four recognised objects or goals of humanity,
(1) Dharma (2) Artha (3) Kama and (4) Moksa, ought to be pursued. Thus, they
had known that it instructs and, therefore, admitted that the work, dealing with
the ways and means of presenting it, was rightly called the Veda. Hence the
question arose in their minds “Why has the Natya Veda been created ?” For, its
purpose to instruct people as regards the desirability of pursuing the well
recognised goals of human life was already served by the existing four Vedas.
Creation, of the fifth Veda, therefore, seemed to them unnecessary. Therefore,
they asked the question: “Why was the fifth Veda created ?”. But if there be some,
who cannot be instructed through the Veda, “who are they ?”. Hence the
subsidiary question : “For whom was it created ?”. The other questions raised by
the pupils of Bharata were:
Into how many parts is this Natya Veda divided? Are there so many parts that it
cannot be fully grasped ?
 What are the various arts, necessary for the presentation of drama? Of how
many parts is drama made? Is it an organic whole or merely a jumble?
 What are the various means of knowledge, necessary for knowing the
different parts of drama ? And if drama is an organic whole and not a mere
jumble, “Is there any special means of knowing the inter-connection of
parts ?” And if so “What is it ?”
 How are the different parts of drama to be presented ?
These and allied questions Bharata attempts in his Natyashaastra or Natyaveda.
The answers to first three questions are given in the very first chapter. The answer
to the first question may be stated as follows:
The circumstances, which led to the creation of Drama-turgy, were the products
of time. During Treta Yuga, when Vaivasvata Manvantara was running, the gods,
headed by Indra, approached Brahma with a request to him to create a play-thing,
which may be pleasing to both the eye and the ear and lead people automatically
to follow the path of duty, without the need of any external compulsion, such as
the order of a king. The reason why there arose the necessity for such a play-thing
was that Treta Yuga is domineered over by Rajas, the quality of action, prompted
by selfish desires and emotions and, therefore, the common experience is a
mixture of pleasure and pain, during this Yuga. The need for a play-thing arises
only among those, whose experience is a mixture of pleasure and pain, the latter
being proportionately more than the former. For, play-thing is for diversion. And
one desires to divert the mind only from what is painful.
Such a diversion was necessary for humanity. For, humanity, being under the
influence of Rajas, was deviating from the right path, pointed out by the Vedas,
and was ignoring the rites due to gods. They, therefore, felt the necessity of
bringing humanity to the right path. This could not be achieved through Vedic
instruction; because the Shudras were excluded from the circle of Vedic study.
The gods, therefore, wanted an instrument of instruction such as could be utilised
for instructing all, irrespective of caste. They thought that it would be different in
form from that of categorical imperative. They also thought that it would not be
a mere command, which is unpleasant to hear and equally unpleasant to carry out.
Rather it would delightfully instruct, would cover the undesirable tone of
command under pleasant sights and sounds; it would administer the, bitter pill of
instruction under the sweet coating of sugar; it would mix the bitter medicine of
instruction with sweet milk so as to make it palatable.
These were the circumstances, which led to the creation of the fifth Veda by
Brahma at the request of gods. It was created for those, who did not readily follow
the path, pointed out by the Vedas, or the Shudras, who were debarred from
reading and hearing the Vedas.
The reply to the second question : “Into how many parts is the Natya Veda divided
‘?” is that primarily there are four parts, dealing with the following topics : (1)
Art of effective speech or recitation (2) Art of music, (3) Art of acting and (4)
Rasas. And reply to the third question, “How are the various parts connected ?”
is that drama, with the science or theory of which, the Natya Veda is concerned,
primarily presents Rasa, and the three arts are the means of its effective
presentation. Thus, it is an organic whole.The reply to the fourth question is that
it is apprehended directly ‘through eyes and ears. And the reply to the last
question covers the whole work.
If we look at the traditional account of the origin of the Natyashastra from modern
point of view, we find that it contains relevant answers to some pertinent
questions that arise in modern minds as they approach the problem of aesthetics.
1. The first question, that is answered here, is “What are the aesthetic senses
?” And Bharata declares that aesthetic senses are only two (i) eye and (ii)
ear. He excludes touch, taste and smell from aesthetic senses, operating in
getting aesthetic experience from dramatic presentation. For, the former
are the only senses, which can operate in relation to an object that is
common to many. What is the object of touch or taste of one cannot be the
object of the same senses of other persons. But whole audience can have
in common what is addressed to eyes or ears.
2. Another question, that is answered here, is “What is the end of dramatic art
?’And the reply is that the end of dramatic art is instruction, not directly,
but indirectly, through presentation of what is pleasing to eyes and ears. It
does not directly command, but it makes the audience experience the
goodness of virtuous path, through identification with the focus of the
dramatic situation. It administers the medicine of instruction, but it either
coats it with sugar or mixes it up with the milk of pleasant sight and sound
so that bitterness of medicine is not experienced.
3. Bharata maintains that the aspect of sensuous pleasure is undeniable in the
experience from dramatic presentation. But it constitutes only the starting
point. Thus he gives right place to both (i) Hedonistic and (ii) Pedagogic
theories of art in his aesthetics.
4. He holds that drama is simply a play or play-thing, which is meant for
diverting the mind from what worries or troubles it.
5. The most essential subjective condition for aesthetic experience, according
to him, is that the mind of the spectator should not be occupied with
excessive personal pleasure or pain.
6. He recognises the importance of women on the stage. For, the correct
expression of emotion, for instance, blush at the sight of the object of love,
is not possible unless the emotion, from which such a physical change
proceeds, be actually present in the heart. But there are certainfeelings,
which are peculiar to fair sex only. Hence for their accurate and life-like
presentation women are necessary for stage.
Conclusion
The broad division of the subject-matter is into (i) what drama presents i.e. Rasa
and
(ii) the means of its presenta-tion. The latter is technically called abhinaya
(acting). It brings what is intended to be presented, as if it were, face to face with
the spectator. It leads to as certain a knowledge which is divided into four types :
(i) Angika i.e. acting, consisting in the movement of the parts of body. iii)
Vachika i.e. acting, consisting in the appropriate movement of speech-organs,
involved in effective recitation. (iii) Sattvika i.e. acting, consisting in the action
of mind, involved in the various emotive states, which find expression in
involuntary physical changes, such as change of colour, tremor, horripilation etc.
(iv) Aharya i.e. all the means of presentation other than those belonging to the
psycho-physical constituents of the actors themselves. It includes (i) all that is
used for giving appropriate look of the characters of a drama to individual actors,
such as paints, dress, ornaments etc. : (ii) all that is necessary for presenting scene
of action : (iii) all the mecha-nical contrivances to present such means of transport
arid communication as Vimana (Aeroplane) etc. It also deals with construction of
the stage and method of its management. There is considerable space given to
sections on dance and music, both instrumental and vocal. Necessary
qualifications of actors and the stage-manager are also given at some length. It
discusses ten types of drama, extending from one act plays to ten act plays. It
deals with the method of dramatisation and types of hero, heroine and adversary.
It also states the recognised types of aesthetic experience, different persisting and
transitory emotions and psycho-physical movements and situations, necessary to
arouse them.
RASADHYAYAS OF NATYASHASTRA
 Introduction
 Constituents of rasa
o Sthayi bhavas (basic mental states)
o Vibhavas
o Anubhavas ( voluntary gestures)
o Sattvikas (Involuntary gestures)
o Vyabhicharibhavas (transient emotions)
 Number of Rasas
 Illustration of the constituents of rasas
 Bhava or abhasas (semblance of rasa)
 Rasa as an objective entity
 Kavya prayojana ( purpose of poetry).
o States of the Mind
o Rasadasha (relishable state)
o Nature of rasa
o Four kinds of ( jnana) knowledge
o Sadharanikarana (Generalization)
o Factors of rasavighna (obstructions to rasa experience)
 Conclusion

Introduction
The main topics, dealt with in the Natya-shastra, are four only, acting, dance,
music and rasa (aesthetic sentiment) where rasa is the central subject, the first
three being the means of presentation of rasa . In the Natyashastra , rasa (aesthetic
sentiment) has been elevated to a full-fledged theory called rasa siddhanta. The
greatest merit of this theory consists in the fact that it has erected its magnificent
edifice on the solid foundation of the commonalty of bhava (human feelings and
emotions) classified into two, sthayi bhava (basic mental states) and vyabhicari
bhava (transitory emotion).
Like the first chapter which is an answer to the questions raised by the pupils of
Bharata, the Rasadhyayas (sixth and seventh chapters) also deal with the inquiries
made by them. These inquiries are about bhavas (the sentiments), sthayi bhavas
(basic sentiments) and abhinaya (the histrionic representation), rasa (aesthetic
pleasure) etc.
Constituents of rasa
Sthayi bhavas (basic mental states)
Bharata holds that each one of us is fitted with a built-in structure of sthayi bhavas
(basic sentiments) which are the modified forms of basic drives or instincts as a
result of centuries of evolutionary process of humanization and social living.
These sthayi bhavas (basic mental states), which are chiefly eight in number—
rati (erotic love), shoka (grief), krodha (wrath), utsaha (energy), bhaya (fear),
hasya (humour), jugupsa (disgust)—are heightened to rasadasha (a relishable
state) by the poet so that we have one rasa (aesthetic sentiment) corresponding to
each of them. The corresponding rasas (aesthetic sentiments)of the sthayi bhavas
( basic sentiments) are shrangar (erotic), karuna (pathetic), raudra (anger), vira
(heroic), bhayanaka (fear),hasya (laughter), bibhatsa (disgust), adbhuta (wonder)
The poet succeeds in doing this by resorting to the devices of concretization.
Vibhavas
Bharata has put it in his Natya-shastra : “vibhavanubhavavyabhicharisamyogata
rasanishapattih” (the savouring of the emotion is possible through the
combination or integration of these elements: vibhava (causes and determinants
of the rise of an emotion) anubhava (gestures expressive of what is going on in
the heart or the mind of main characters, like casting a terrified glance, heaving a
sigh or involuntarily shedding a tear) and vyabhicharibhavas (transitory emotions
which go along with and consequently reinforce prevailing mood or emotional
disposition). The vibhavas (causes and determinants of the rise of an emotion)are
of two kinds: alamban and uddipan (features or circumstances that accentuate the
feelings of alamban ( hero or heroine). The alamban (supporting causes, usually
the hero or the heroine or such objects) are again of two types—vishaylamban
(person or object of the rise of an emotion or the person or object for whom the
emotion is awakened) and ashramban (person in whom the emotion is
awakened).Through the conjunction of these elements the poet activates, with
some kind of empathetic induction, the propensity of sthayi bhavas (basic
sentiments) in the reader and the movement it is consummated, the sahridaya
(sensitive reader) experiences an afflatus or transport which is designed as rasa
(aesthetic sentiment).
Anubhavas ( voluntary gestures)
Anubhavas (gestures expressive of what is going on in the heart or the mind of
main characters) are the physical changes due to the rise of an emotion. In actual
life they are known as effect of emotion.. These changes are voluntary as they
can be produced by an effort of the will. They are called anubhavas because:
i) they communicate the basic emotion to the characters, present on the stage
ii) they make known the nature of emotion in the hero
iii) they make the spectator experience an identical emotion .
Sattvikas (Involuntary gestures)
Like anubhavas there are sattvikas which are nothing more than anubhavas. But
while anubhavas are voluntary, sattvikas are involuntary as they can take place
only when the concerned emotion is actually present in the heart. They are
unmistakable reflections of inner emotive state. They are eight in number:
 ‘sveda’ or perspiration ‘stambha’ or stupefection ‘kumpa’ or tremor
‘ashru’ or tears
 ‘romancha’ or horripilation ‘pralaya’ or swoon ‘vaivanya’ or pallor
 ‘svarabhanga’ or change of voice
Vyabhicharibhavas (transient emotions)
Bharata has used bhavas or bhavanas in a technical sense from the point of view
of the spectator. They are called mental states which pervade the mind of the
spectator as a perfume does with the cloth. They are of two types:
vyabhicharibhavas (transient emotions) and sthayibhavas (basic mental
states).Vyabhicharibhavas are transient emotions. They are like waves, which rise
from the ocean of the basic mental state and subside into the same. Though they
are mental states, they appear as it were embodied. These supporting feelings are
short lived and they can enter into alliance with a number of sthayi bhavas. There
are thirty three vyabhicharibhavas:
 ‘nirveda’ or discouragement indicated by tears, sighs, pensiveness, etc
 ‘glani’ or internal weakness by weak voice, lusterless eyes, sleeplessness,
gait
 ‘shanka’ or apprehension by unsteady looks, hesitating movements
 ‘asuya’ or jealousy by decrying others’ merits
 ‘mada’ or intoxication by laughing, singing, sneezing, hiccough
 ‘srama’ or exhaustion by heavy breaths, twisting of limbs
 ‘alasya’ or sloth by moroseness, sleeplessness, disinterest in work
 ‘dianya’ depression by dullness, absentmindedness, negligence of
cleanliness
 ‘chinta’ or anxiety by deep breathing, meditation, sighing, agony ‘moha’
or distraction by reeling sensations and staggering looks ‘smrti’ or
remembrance by knitting of eyebrows , nodding of head ‘dhrti’ or
composure by general indifference to grief or passion etc. ‘vridness’ of a
or bashfulness by dullness of eyes, scratching of nails ‘chapalata’ or
 inconstancy by harsh words. rebuke, vapulation ‘harsha or joy by
brightness of looks, horripilation
 ‘avega’ or agitation by distress in limbs, tightening of clothes
 ‘jadata’ or stupor by loss of movement and energy, blank gazes ‘garva or
pride by irresponsiveness, haughty manners. Sarcastic smiles ‘vishada or
dismay by deep breathing, loss of energy
 ‘autsukya’ or eagerness by sighs, drowsiness, thinking ‘nirada’ or sleep by
obvious gestures
 ‘apasamara’ or catalepsy by throbbing , tremor , perspiration
 ‘supta’ or dreaming by obvious ensuants ‘vibodha’ or wakefulness by
yawning ‘amarsha’ or anger by evident gestures
 ‘avahittaha, or dissimulation by break in speech, feigned patience
 ‘ugrata or vehemence by acrimony, scolding, threatening
 ‘mati or rationality by coolness of behaviour, ascertaining meaning
‘vyadhi’ or sickness by evident symptoms
 ‘unmada or insanity by evident behaviour ‘marana or death by evident
symptoms ‘trasa or terror by evident symptoms ‘vitarka’ or reasoning by
evident symptoms
Number of Rasas
Since it is the sthayi which attains to rasahood, the number of rasas corresponds
to the number of the sthayis. Below is furnished a table, demonstrating the sthayis
and their corresponding rasas. Bharata considers eight rasas to which three more
rasas have been added by Udabhta and Abhinavagupta as given below:
 ‘rati’ or love giving rise to ‘shringar’ or the erotic ‘shoka’ or grief to
‘karuna’ or the pathetic ‘krodha’or wrath to ‘raudra’ or the furious
 ‘utsaha or energy to ‘vira’ the heroic Bharata
 ‘bhaya’ fear to ‘bhayanaka’ or the terrible ‘hasa’ or humour to ‘hasya’ or
the comic ‘jugupsa’ or disgust to ‘bibhatsa’ or loathsome
 ‘vishamaya’ or wonder to ‘adbhuta’ or the marvellous
 ‘sama’ or to ‘shanta’ or the mental tranquillity Udabhata & Abhinavagupta
 ‘bhagavadarati’ or to ‘bhakti’ or love towards God later
 ‘apatyarati’ or to ‘vatsalya love towards children acaryas
Illustration Of The Constituents Of Rasas
In technical language all the constituents of rasa are known as rasa prapanca
(paraphernalia of rasa). These constituents are illustrated in the following lines of
the poem, “The Eve of St. Agnes”:
Thus whispering, his warm, unnerved arm Sank in her pillow. Shaded was her
dream By the dusk curtains: ‘twas a midnight charm Impossible to melt as iced
stream;
The lustrous salvers in the moonlight gleam Broad golden fringe upon the carpet
lies:
It seem’d he never could redeem his lady’s eyes; So mused a while, entoil’d in
woofed fantasies.
In terms of rasa formulation, Alambana vibhava: Madeline and Porphyro i)
Visayalambana or the object of the emotion: Madeline ii)Asralambana or the
subject or person in whom the emotion resides: Porphyro Uddipan vibhavas or
stimulating factors or determinants : azure-lidded sleep, the shining salvers, the
falling of the silver light, of the moon on her bed through the window, the broad
golden fringes, adorning the carpet Anubhavas or the visible effects, indicative
of the rise of emotion: sinking of Porphyro’s unnerved arms in Madeline’s pillow
and his gaze on her slumbering charms Vyabhicharis or transitory emotions: can
be recognized as despair, weakness, anxiety, apprehension, agitation, eagerness,
reasoning, dreaming etc arising in the lover’s heart.
Sattavikas or dispositional reactions or physical changes: perspiration, tremor can
be visualized
Bhava or Abhasas (Semblance Of Rasa)
When the sanchari/s is/are delineated principally rather than temporarily, the
sthayi is merely awakened failing to reach the magnitude of rasa due to not being
nourished by vibhavas etc., we have bhavas. For example, the love or rati towards
gods or preceptor.
Abhasas are associated with rasa and bhava and so are they called rasabhasa and
bhavabhasa. When the concerned emotions are delineated in respect of persons
who are normally not regarded as appropriate objects of those emotion, we have
rasabhasas. Example- when nayika is in love with many persons simultaneously.
Different rasas and sthayis have their own abhasas allied to concerned vibhavas.
It can also be said that when an emotion or feeling is delineated in persons who
are not usually considered repository of that emotion, we have rasabhasas.
Emotion like bashfulness depicted in a prostitute is an example of rasabhasas.
Rasa formula and Eliot’s Objective Correlative
Eliot’s objective correlative appears to be a direct modern version of the rasa
formula of Bharata. The entire poetic mechanism, as stressed in the rasa-sutra, is
oriented towards enabling the emotional content to be realized and recaptured by
the sahradaya or a gifted reader. This is also the purpose of Eliot in formulating
the concept of objective correlative. In his essay on “Hamlet”, Eliot formulates a
canon of the portrayal of an emotion in poetry. He states: “The only way of
expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding an “objective correlative”, in
other words, a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events , which shall be the
formula of that particular emotion, such that when the external facts, which must
terminate in sensory experience, are given, the emotion is immediately evoked.”
An example from the play, Macbeth can be seen here. In order to convey the full
sense of Lady Macbeth’s mental malady in the last Act of Macbeth, Shakespeare
merely makes her do over again what she had done before. This unconscious
repetition of her past actions is the objective correlative, the objective equivalent
of her present agony in the heart. Her dark luster eyes and the burning taper in
her hand aid the effect of this objectification. In other words the agony expressed
as such is made so objective here that it can be as well seen by the eyes as felt by
the heart.
Kavya Prayojana ( Purpose Of Poetry)
Since the very beginning, the Indian acaryas (scholars) have examined and
enunciated this experience of the absolute in terms of kavya prayojana (the
purpose of poetry). To them, kavya prayojana is to impart this experience. Bharat
in his answer to the question, “what is the end of dramatic art” includes this
experience. He holds that dramatic presentation primarily aims at giving rise to
aesthetic experience in the aesthete and later this experience is followed by moral
improvement. He further says that dramatic presentation imparts pleasure to all
who are unhappy, tired, bereaved and ascetic. This account shows that poetry
helps in promoting all the good ends of life, both mundane and supramundane
and imparts anand (immediate pleasure) to sahrdaya. Indian tradition of critical
appreciation has crystallized ultimately in the acceptance of anand as the function
and purpose of poetry.
Abhinavagupa divides anand into three classes: vishayanand, kavyanand and
paramanand. Of these, first is related to the satisfaction of the material appetites
and stands at the lowermost rung of the ladder. The third is related to the
attainment of Communion with the Brahma (the Absolute Being) and occupies
the topmost status. The second kavyanand or rasanand or brahmanandsahodara
falls intermediate between the two. It is for common people. Now the word
powers—abhida, laksna and vyanjana and the word itself becomes Brahma. It
creates a state of bliss in the reader/ spectator and helps in having an
impersonalized and ineffable judgment. This experience is both a means of
achieving perfect mental balance and ultimate salvation. Bhattanayaka,
Abhinavagupta and Vishwanath consider this anand in close connection with
rasa. Abhinavagupta declares rasa as akin to the experience of divinity.
Vishwanath agrees with Abhinavagupta, by calling kavyarasa as
brahmasvadasahodara.( In Indian aesthetics this rasa or anand has been
understood as kavyanand or rasanand or brahmanandsahodara which can be
translated as art experience. Anand is closely associated with rasa which is the
soul of Kavypurusha. It crumbles down discrimination.
It is because of this rasa or anand, kavya is different from jagat(world) . It is again
because of this rasa or anand Acarya Mammat holds Kavi’s creation to be greater
than that of God. Unlike Kavya, jagat lacks this rasa or anand. There is only either
pleasure or pain in jagat. This kavi has extraordinary or say superhuman power.
In this regard he is said to be greater than a yogi even in relation to their respective
states and approaches to this world. To know this one needs to know the process
of the composition of the kavya.
States of the Mind
There are five aspects—srasti (creation), stithi (preservation), samhar
(transformation), tirobhava (diffusion) and anugraha (grace)— involved in the
composition of a poem. Here srasti is aesthetic intuition that charges the poet;
stithi denotes objects of inspiration which captivate the mind of the poet; samhar
is indication of expression which is the depth of the poet; tirobhava is resulting
stimulation which diffuses illusion and finally anugraha is the manifestation of
the universal rhythm. All these aspects are not found in every poem. Kavya which
has these aspects offers truth, meaning and knowledge; kavya lacking them is not
a poem but merely a verse. The ability of recognizing the universal rhythm takes
place in a particular state of mind of a poet. There are five states of the mind and
the mind changes over from one state to another at a fast speed. Sometimes it is
kshipt (sensitive and agitative), sometimes moodh (insensitive and dull),
sometimes vikshipt (interruptive and disturbed), sometimes ekagra (concentrative
and pointed) and sometimes niruddha (meditative i.e. a state of total stillness). Of
the five, niruddha is the highest. It can further be divided into two sub-states:
samprajnata (conscious) and asamprajnata (trans-conscious). The second state is
concerned, it is the final state of yogis. In this state a yogi becomes thoughtless.
As far as the first state is concerned, it is the state of the poet as he is able to
concentrate his mind on gross as well as the subtle elements of nature (earth,
water, light etc.) He can know the real nature and character of various objects and
materials of nature and achieve his purpose for himself and society. In Indian
aesthetics he has been considered as kranta darsinaha (capable of looking both
into the past and the future. Bhattanayaka, Abhinavagupta’s teacher considers
him as a rishi who had darshana (inner view of Invisible Truths).
Rasadasha (Relishable State)
How is rasa produced? According to the ancient theorists each of us is fitted with
a built-in structure of ‘sthayi bhavas’ or basic mental states which are the
modified forms of basic drives or instincts as a result of centuries of evolutionary
process of humanization and social living. These sthayibhavas (permanent
emotions)’, which are chiefly eight in number, are heightened to a relishable state
called ‘rasadasha’ by the poet so that we have one rasa or emotion corresponding
to each of them. It is the sthayi bhava which is the basis of rasa. Vibhava,
anubhava and vyabhicharibhava awaken this innate emotion bringing it into a
relishable flavour called rasa. This flavour or state remains subjective unless it is
delineated by the poet in kavya where he objectifies his experience. S K De,
defining this state, holds:
It is practically admitted on all hands, on semi-psychological considerations of
poetry, that the rasa is a state of relish in the reader, of the principal sentiment in
the composition, a subjective condition of his mind, which is brought about when
the principal or permanent mood (sthayibhava) is brought into a relishable
condition through the three elements vibhava, anubhava and vyabhicharibhava
exhibited in the drama.
The poet succeeds in doing this by resorting to the devices of concretization as
has already been discussed.
Nature of Rasa
Now the question arises whether the rasa is produced or illuminated by the
vibhavas etc. The answer is in negative. They are neither rasa producers nor
illuminator. They are just the awakeners of the sthayi and help in the relishability
of rasa. Rasa generated and manifested through them. It is alaukika. Now the
second question arises whether rasa depends on sabda and artha (word and
meaning). The answer is in negative as rasa is not sabdartha based. It is based on
four kinds of expression: aharya (expression through costume), satvika
(expression through voluntary emotional changes), angika ( expression through
body), vachika (verbal expression).
In this process the spectator changes from laukik (worldly)into alaukik (super-
human) and hence now the spectator gets anand even in weeping. Here it is
noteworthy that the spectator transcends the world but does not enter into a divine
a world. Here citta has two states: dipti (state of luminosity) and pighalana (state
of liquefaction)18. The former state arouses the rasas of bhayanaka, vira, hasya
etc while the latter arouses the rasas of karuna, shringara etc.Citta is like sealing
wax which melts in the company of heat. Like sealing wax, citta also melts and
converts into a liquid form.
Rasa melts itself and liquefies rajas and tamas and now reader’s chitta
experiences rasa. It is because rajas and tamas that the citta have different
experiences of life. In fact, rajas and tamas limit one’s realization but the moment
these gunas are melted, the limitations of citta are removed and we have rasa. The
liquefaction of chitta takes place due to the mixture of rajas and tamas which get
subdued for the time being, affording scope for the sattva to inundate the inner
consciousness.
Four Kinds Of (Jnana) Knowledge
There are four kinds of (jnana) knowledge familiar in worldly experience.20 The
first is samyaka jnana(exact knowledge) in which there is absolute certainty as to
the object of knowledge. The second is mitthya jnana (false knowledge) in the
actual object of knowledge is repudiated. The third is samshaya jnana (doubtful
knowledge) in which there is no definite apprehension of the object of knowledge.
The fourth is sadrashya jnana (resemblant knowledge) in which resemblance of
the object of knowledge is recognized in another object. In kavya, these four kinds
of knowledge familiar in worldly experience fail to explain the nature of
rasaubhuti or anand. In order to explain the nature of rasaubhuti or anand,
Shankuka has pressed into service the analogy of the chitraturanganyaya (logic
of the picture- horse).21 It is extraordinary, forming a distinct species in itself.
Looking at the picture of a horse, one does not assume that it is a real horse; one
does not fail to understand that it is a horse; one does not, further, harbour any
doubt whether it is a horse; and likewise, one does not think that it resembles a
horse. All that suggests that the despite the perception of the picture –horse not
confronting to any of the four types of knowledge, it strikes as real or living
creates delight in us. Accordingly, the samajika comes to regard the nata as the
real hero and associates the rasa with him on the line of picture-horse logic. That
is the secret of his dramatic enjoyment.
Sadharanikarana (Generalization)
When the vibhavas, the anubhavas, the vyabhicharis and the sthayi, all abandon
their local, individual, or temporal association or limitations and acquire a sort of
generality, rather than universality, we have sadharanikarana or generalization.
This suggests that the hero and the heroine cease to be particular individuals,
confined within particular intervals of time and space and appears before us as
ordinary lover and beloved. Accordingly their rati or love becomes the love of
ordinary man and woman. It is after this generalization has taken place in the
mind of the sahrdaya that the rasa is tasted. The process, connected with the three
word functions—abidha, bhavana or bhavakatva and bhog or bhojkatva is internal
and imperceptible, without letting the sahrdaya realize or perceive the stages of
transition from the first to the second and from the second to the third.
Accordingly rasanubhuti is a cumulative psychic experience, impregnated with
anand.
Now we are away from the world where we are either subjective, objective or
neutral. Now we transcend these states—subjective, objective, neutral—and have
ekakibhava(single emotion). Now vibhava, anubhava, vyabhicari and the sthayi,
all abandon their local, individual or temporal associations or limitations and
acquire a sort of generality, rather universality. Accordingly, the sthayi becomes
the respected emotion of ordinary men and women. It is after this generalization
has taken in the mind of the sahradaya that rasa is tasted, giving rise to psychic
repose. According to Battanayaka this process is connected with the three word-
function—abhidha (primary meaning), bhavana or bhavakatva and bhoga or
bhojakatva. Bhavana or bhavakatva, which liquefies rajas and tamas, adds
uniqueness to abhidha and generalization of vibhavas and sthayi take place and
internal crisis due to selfish interests, is dissipated. Now the third function of word
liquefies the psyche. All these processes, connected with three word-functions,
happen internally, imperceptibly, without letting the sahrdaya realize the subtle
stages of the transition from the first to the second and from the second to the
third. Accordingly, rasa realization is a cumulative psychic experience,
impregnated with anand. This state of the samajika is bhagnavaranacitavastha.
Now let us know who experiences rasa. It is sahrdaya who shares “the sad lucidity
of soul” which Arnold speaks of. Unless the reader has an adequate degree of
intellectual and emotional equipment, he may not be able to establish that rapport
with the poet which is essential for the realization of rasa. Thus he must be
samanadharma i.e. of the nature of the poet himself. There may be a difference
of degree, but not of kind, in sensitivity and capacity for imaginative
contemplation. Explaining to sahradaya, Abhinavagupta remarks that those, who
by constant reading of practice of reading poetry have acquired in their cleansed
mirror- like minds, the capacity to identify themselves with the poet and are thus
attuned to the poet’s heart, are sahradaya. But it is again impossible for a reader
to attune to the heart of the poet if he is not to savasana i.e. one who has vasana
(desires) which are of two types—idantini (desires related to the past lives and
praptakalik (desires of the present life). Abhinavagupta holds that sthayibhavas
reside inherently in the human chitta (psyche) in the shape of vasanas (desires)
and transmit from generation to generation of mankind. He adds that they are
evoked under the impact of art or poetry in such a manner as to be animatedly felt
and experienced. A child has the desires related to the past lives but the desires
of this life have not developed in him fully so far. Hence he cannot experience
rasa.
Rasa is associated with atma while riti, alamkara, vakroktidharanikarana takes
place and aucitya are associated with body. Rasanubhuti takes place in a
generalized sense, rather than universalized way. . At the time of rasanubhuti,
sadharanikarana takes place. Now there is a progression from laukika (worldly)
to alaukika (super-human). Let it be stated here that rasanubhuti is alaukika
expeience. It is different from the experience of a yogi. During this progression
sabda itself becomes Brahma. But it is not Brahmanand, rather it is kavyanand
because this state of anand is temporary unlike that of Brahmanand.
All the sthayibhavas are not pleasurable, soka, bhaya, and jugupsa etc are
unpleasant emotions in practical life, then how their depiction in poetry be
regarded as pleasant. Vishwanath holds that the depiction of these emotions may
produce grief due to lokasamsrayat that is association with material world, but
they become alaukik (unworldly) as a result of kavyasamsrayat. In kavya the
subjects acquire the complexion vibhavas and afford anand, leaving their original
material flavour. It is further to say that situations of life and situation as
delineated in poetry fundamentally differ in taste and complexion. Poetry has its
own culture and its characteristics. The emotions of life undergo a type of
processing in poetry, resulting in sublimity. And in asmuch as kavya is manas
vyapara (a mental business), the sahradaya is is moved by poetic portrayals in a
manner and depth as seldom characterizes life’s practical experiences. It is this
speciality of the poetic culture that absorbs and overwhelms the sahrdaya’s mind
or inner self for the time being. He might become forgetful, as well, of all the
exterior objects or concerns of life. This is the state of rasanubhuti , this is the
state of sattvodreka and also of internal luminosity.
Factors Of Rasavighna (Obstructions To Rasa Experience)
In Abhinavabharati, Abhinavagupta locates seven factors:
i) refusal by the spectator or reader to concede the existence of the rasa
ii) his getting overpowered by feelings of pain and pleasure
iii) engrossment in personal pleasures or afflictions
iv) absence of the means of perfections
v) absence of animated perfections
vi) delineation of non sentient objects or of vyabhicharis which depend upon
sthayi
vii) spectator’s incertitude as to the rasa purposed by the poet
Conclusion
Bharata holds that rasa is an objective entity, tasted and enjoyed by the beholders
on the stage. It is the transformation of the sthayi bhava (basic mental state) but
whose sthayi bhava( basic mental state)? —the hero’s, the poet’s, the actor’s, the
spectator’s. The poet comes to acquire or imbibe the sthayi bhava (basic
sentiment) from the story selected, which means the hero’s sthayi bhava (basic
sentiment) becomes the poet’s sthayi bhava (basic mental state) during creation.
The actor evokes this sthayi bhava of the hero by anusandhan (quest) for
herohood in or arope (attribution) of herohood to himself or abhimana
(considering himself ) as hero on the stage. Now the samajik (spectator) relishes
this emotion. This means that the rasa (aesthetic sentiment) resides not in them
rather in the specatator who has rasanubhuti (an aesthetic experience)
impregnated with anand (pleasure) through sadharanikaran (generalization) when
the vibhavas (dramatic situations), anubhavas (gestures) and vyabhicharis
(transitory emotions)and sthayi bhava (basic mental state), all abandon their local,
individual, or temporal association or limitations and acquire a sort of generality,
rather than universality. This realization takes deep roots in the spectator, because
he objectively views the actions and emotions of the adversary, who is necessarily
a man of no principle, and sees how lack of adherence to moral principles
inevitably leads to suffering and destruction, irrespective of the power and
position of the man and, therefore, is dissuaded from the path of sin.