Handbook

of Mathematics
Teaching Improvement:
Professional Practices
that Address PISA

Output of the Krygowska Project

“Professional Development of Teacher-Researchers” 2005-2008
Supported by a grant from Socrates Comenius 2.1 Program No.
226685-CP-1-2005-1-PL-COMENIUS-C21

Edited by Stefan Turnau

University of Rzeszów 2008

Handbook of Mathematics Teaching Improvement:
Professional Practices that Address PISA

This publication can be used, copied and reproduced in any form, and
translated, in whole or in part, for educational or research purposes.

Edited by Stefan Turnau

Typesetting: Magdalena Michniewicz
Proofreading: Agnieszka Legutko

ISBN 978-83-7338-394-4

___________________________________________________________
Printed in Poland by Drukarnia Cyfrowa KSERKOP, Kraków
 INTRODUCTION

This volume presents the results of the three-year long (2005-2008),

international Professional Development of Teacher-Researchers (PDTR) Project, bearing
the name of Anna Sophia Krygowska.1 The project was coordinated by the University of
Rzeszów (Poland), and supported by the grant from the Socrates Program of the
European Community (no. 226685-CP-1-2005-1-PL-COMENIUS-C21). There were six
teams of mathematics teachers, apprentices in the craft of teaching-research,
participating in the project: one team from Debrecen (Hungary); one team from Italy
including teachers from Modena and Naples; two Polish teams: one from Kraków and
Rzeszów; and one from Siedlce; one team from Barcelona (Spain); and one from Lisbon,
Portugal. They were supported in their work by teaching-research mentors, comprising
experienced teacher-researchers and academic researchers.

The central aim of the project has been to engage classroom teachers of mathematics in the process
of systematic, research-based transformation of their classroom practice while producing evidence-
based innovative instruction and contributing to research knowledge of the profession; it is to
initiate, using teaching-research as the leading methodological agent, the transformation of
mathematics education towards a system, which, while respecting the standards and contents of the
national curricula, would be more engaging and responsive to student’s intellectual needs, promoting
independence and creativity of thought, and realizing fully the intellectual capital and potential of
every student and teacher.2

An important incentive to create the project was the poor outcome of the PISA
international test. “All five countries represented in the project scored below average in
the recent PISA 2003 international test of mathematical and problem solving
competencies. There is urgency in the need to successfully address mathematics-learning
issues of expanded Europe.”3 For mathematics educators it was evident that there is a
need for a deep change of the very concept of learning mathematics in the classroom
with teacher‘s guidance: transmission of knowledge has to be replaced by facilitating
learning. For this teachers need to know and understand the students’ ways of reasoning
and errors made. The teaching-research methodology4 seems an ideal solution.
The teachers’ work in the first year addressed issues and problems of the
mathematical component of the PISA international test. Results of that aspect of the
work are presented in Part 2.
In the second phase the PDTR apprentices designed, with the help of their
mentors, classroom teaching experiments, collected data, observed their classrooms with
a new eye of an investigator, analyzed and discussed the data with their team members.
The experiments focused on the observed phenomena and problems in their classrooms
of mathematics; some issues for investigation were suggested by the academic
researchers, mentors of the teams. Reports of that work are gathered in Part 4.
The book opens with Part 1 devoted to two general issues of innovation of
mathematics pedagogy: communication in the classroom and assessment of students’
performance. It has been widely recognized that learning in the classroom takes place

1
Anna Sophia Krygowska (1904-1988), professor at the Pedagogical University of Krakow (Poland), was an
internationally recognized founder of the modern Didactics of Mathematics.
2
Comenius 2.1 Project Desciption, Section 4.
3
Ibidem.
4
See Handbook of Teaching-Research.
mainly during and through an interaction among students and between students and the
teacher. So the format of this interaction, or communication, is of utmost importance. On
the other hand, written tests, applied now much more extensively than half a century
ago, often as the unique tool of assessment of students’ performance, influence the
content and teaching proceedings. Without continuous improvement of those aspects of
the education system genuine changes in the teaching/learning of mathematics will not
be possible. Directions in which changes could go are proposed and illustrated.
Finally, Part 3 is devoted to what is in a sense a generalization of the direction
given by the PISA test: elementary applications of elementary mathematics. If the
principal objective of teaching the subject is to make students able to apply their
mathematical knowledge and skills to everyday problems, they must acquire the ability
of modeling the real problem in the abstract mathematical world, and demodeling the
found solution of the abstract problem, or interpreting it back in the reality of its origin.
This activity is elaborated and exemplified here.
I am due to express an admiration to all teachers participating in the three-year
activity, in particular to the authors of this volume, for their involvement, often
demanding a sacrifice of weekends with family or late night work. It is in them and their
followers that there is hope for essential improvement of the teaching of mathematics.

Stefan Turnau
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part 1. Communication and assessment
ƒ Communication, connection and reflection have to be learned by
students and their mathematics teachers .................................................7
N.C.Verhoef & H.G.B.Broekman
ƒ The development of mathematical literacy in OCSE-PISA view
through collective discussion: an example ............................................23
Roberta Fantini
ƒ Communication and group dynamics ...................................................29
Isilda Marques
ƒ Reflecting to improve the communication in the mathematics
classroom...............................................................................................39
Teresa Marques
ƒ Questions that teachers put…................................................................45
Elisa Mosquito
ƒ The role of parents in the assessment contract ......................................51
Cláudia Canha Nunes
ƒ Teaching and learning innovations in mathematics and
educational process. A teacher’s reflections .........................................55
Marco Pelillo
ƒ Mathematical competition in Siedlce aiming at skill to learn
mathematics...........................................................................................63
Alina Przychoda
ƒ The use of virtual environments for algebraic co-construction.............75
Pili Royo & Joaquin Gimenez

Part 2. Experiments using PISA sample questions

ƒ Mathematics tests .................................................................................85
Tünde Kántor
ƒ Students’ mathematical literacy in PISA assessment: samples of
PISA tasks in teacher-researchers’ work ...............................................89
Maria Legutko, Jerzy Migoń & Agata (Przężak) Białek
ƒ PISA and PISA-like problems.............................................................105
Tünde Kántor, Éva Balla & Anna Kozárné-Fazekas
ƒ A study on how Hungarian students solve problems that are
unusual for them..................................................................................119
Krisztina Barczi
ƒ RAGIOCNANDO: a teaching experiment on the search for
regularities through a collective construction of knowledge...............131
Roberta Fantini & Chiara Lugli
ƒ A PISA-like problem for 8-year-old-children: the teachers’
choices.................................................................................................141
Nicoletta Grasso & Maria Mellone
 ƒ …Can a seal sleep without breathing? ................................................147
Francesca Mondelli
ƒ The use of OECD/PISA model questions in didactic:
an innovative class experience ............................................................155
Roberta Raimondi

Part 3. Experiments using PISA sample questions

ƒ Always learning…...............................................................................163
Nuno Candeias
ƒ Case studies on demodeling activities.................................................169
Mariarosaria Camarda, Piera Romano & Mariarita Tammaro
ƒ Make your own problems....................................................................177
Truus Dekker & Monica Wijers
ƒ “Let’s pretend!”: Role-playing, drawing, class discussion at the
roots of modeling processes ................................................................187
Maria Pezzia, Brunella Romano & Marina Spadea
ƒ An idea about facilitating structural understanding of
trigonometric functions .......................................................................195
Włodzimierz Gadomski
ƒ Approaching linear optimization problems: an experience in
upper secondary school .......................................................................199
Elisa Quartieri
ƒ How to teach the trigonometric functions? .........................................209
István Takács
ƒ Interpretation of graphs by students in grade 7 and 8 .........................219
Federica Vecchiè

Part 4. Experiments on learning and using algebra

ƒ An experimental study to promote algebraic and graphical
presentations of functional relationships .............................................229
Marika Cavazzoni
ƒ Teaching experiment with algebraic proofs ........................................237
Béla Kallós
ƒ And when a student brings a rule to the classroom?... ........................251
Sandra Marques & Sara Cabral Costa
ƒ Equivalence of algebraic expressions..................................................257
Idália Pesquita
ƒ Teaching linear optimization at secondary level .................................263
Ildikó Pataki
ƒ The use of concrete and visual representation in teaching early
algebra in order to avoid basic difficulties ..........................................271
Gordana Stankov
 PART 1
COMMUNICATION
AND ASSESSMENT
 COMMUNICATION, CONNECTION AND
REFLECTION HAVE TO BE LEARNED BY STUDENTS
AND THEIR MATHEMATICS TEACHERS
N.C.Verhoef* & H.G.B.Broekman**
*University of Twente (Netherlands)
** Utrecht University (Netherlands)
*[email protected], **[email protected]

ABSTRACT
This contribution deals with the consequences of PISA results. The PISA results mention
lack of students’ communication skills. Authentic tasks are considered as an important
learning environment to solve problems by using communication skills. The PISA
category connection stresses the necessity of manipulations with representations of
mathematical concepts to construct, to understand and to use/communicate different
representations of mathematical concepts. Besides the PISA category reflection
indicates the necessity to learn how to look for and find information about different
ways of solving a problem and to communicate that to others. This contribution reports
Dutch teachers’ training research results with the focus on teachers’ support to
stimulate students (aged 12-15 as well as at upper secondary level) learning processes
considering the combination of communication and reflection activities.

KEY WORDS:
Communication, connection, reflection, teacher intervention, abstraction

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Problem definition and research questions
The problem is how to learn the connection between communication and
reflection skills to solve problems and how to understand mathematical concepts.

Research findings about communication and reflection skills accentuate

metacognitive instruction in solving mathematical authentic assignments. A
characteristic feature when solving metacognitive assignments is that the approach is not
immediately obvious (Darling-Hammond, 1992). In authentic assignments, students are
confronted with excess information so that they have to make choices in order to get
started (Cobb, 1994). The solution cannot be found through application of an algorithm
or a standard solution (Prawat, 1998). It is difficult to establish links with problems
already solved. Students find authentic assignments difficult (Kramarski, Mevarech &
Libermann, 2001; Verschaffel, Greer & de Corte, 2000). According to Verschaffel et al.,
weaker students in particular have difficulty with abstraction into sub-problems, as they
are unable to separate the information between relevant and irrelevant. They therefore
soon give up, also due to algorithms which do not offer a solution (Anderson, 1990).
These problems go beyond the skills of solving mathematical problems. They concern
the skills of solving problems together with others, for example Cardelle-Elawar (1995).

7
Based on these findings, teaching methodology research aims at developing instruction
methods to support teachers in training (TTs) in the activation of students’
metacognitive learning processes (Lester, Garofalo & Kroll, 1989; Mayer, 1987;
Schoenfeld, 1987). Basic elements in the development of instruction methods for
students are metacognitive questions put to small groups of students, such as: (1)
conceptual questions: What is it about? What is the question? What is the meaning of a
mathematical concept? (2) relational questions: Does the question resemble…? Does the
question differ from a problem already solved? Why? (3) strategic questions: What is
the solution strategy? Why this strategy? How does this strategy work? and (4)
reflective questions: What have I done? Was it purposeful?
These metacognitive questions which students ask each other and answer
jointly can be traced back to Polya's theories (1957). According to Polya, teachers gain
insight into the way in which problems can be solved but also into how students can be
supported, by analyzing various solution methods, communicating them to others, and
reflecting on their effect. Metacognitive instruction is strongly related to cognitive units,
connection and compression (Barnard & Tall, 1997). According to Pinto and Tall
(2002), students’ cognitive constructions occur through reflective abstraction, in which a
predicate with one or more variables is conceived as a mental process. Recent research
findings indicate teachers’ role to stimulate reflective abstraction (Simon et al., 2004).
The research study of Ainley and Lowe (1999) suggests different levels of
understanding related to teacher interventions:

Cognitive construction
The ability to conceive and to manipulate cognitive units is a vital facility for
mathematical thinking. Two complementary factors are important in building a powerful
thinking structure: (i) the ability to make connections between cognitive units so that
relevant information can be pulled in and out of the focus at will; and (ii) the ability to
compress information to fit into cognitive units by communication. Compressibility of
mathematical ideas relies on the nature of the connections from the focus of attention to
other parts of the cognitive structure (Barnard & Tall, 2001).

Reflective abstraction
Piaget (1972) emphasized the construction of meaning through different forms
of abstraction. One of them, reflective abstraction, is a process focusing on mental
actions and mental concepts in which the mental operations themselves become new
objects of thought (Pinto & Tall, 2002). Later on Piaget (2001) described reflective
abstraction as a process by which higher level mental structures could be developed
from lower level structures, consisting of two phases: (1) a projection phase in which the
actions at one level become the objects of reflection at the next level; and (2) a reflection
phase in which a reorganization takes place. Simon et al. (2004) elaborate on Piaget’s
reflective abstraction: (i) activity refers to a mental activity; (ii) activity sequence refers
to a set of activism in an attempt to meet a goal; (iii) learners’ goals are not necessarily
conscious; and (iv) effects are structured by assimilatory conceptions that learners bring
to the situation. Bereiter (1985) emphasizes that cognitive advance cannot be directly
brought about; rather, teachers promote specific experiences for the development of the
intended cognitive structure, a step-by-step outline of how to foster students’ reinvention
of a particular process of the learner. Underlying is the idea that learners impose

8
mathematical relationships on the situation based on their available conceptions.
Bereiter’s remarks indicate teachers’ role to stimulate reflective abstraction.
Teacher interventions
Ainley and Lowe (1999) defined four degrees of understanding: (1) no
apparent understanding, students cannot make a start, no understanding could be
identified; (2) procedural (instrumental) understanding, students know how to carry out
a mathematical procedure but lack the deeper understanding to recognize when an
algorithm had been misapplied or incorrectly remembered; (3) conceptual (relational)
understanding, students recognize the constraints of answers, are able to comment
constructively on their work; (4) proceptual understanding, students appreciate that the
symbol ambiguously represents both the concept and the procedure. Teachers’ help-
interventions shall be categorized within these levels of understanding. No
understanding (1) corresponds to teachers’ intervention: which concept to use (to find a
unit)? The procedural (instrumental) understanding (2) corresponds to teachers’
intervention: how to use this concept (to find a connection, an algorithm)? The
conceptual (relational) understanding (3) corresponds to teachers’ intervention: why to
use this concept (to find related units)? The proceptual understanding (4) corresponds to
teachers’ intervention: which choice of concepts is most effective to use (to find units
and connections)?
The hypothesis is that (i) metacognitive instruction has positive effects on
students’ learning results, rather than merely on the mathematical assignments; and (ii)
these teachers’ interventions at the actual level of understanding aimed at the next level
of understanding are effective (Mevarech & Kramarski, 1997).

RESEARCH METHOD
On the one hand, the research method to support students solving authentic
assignments by asking metacognitive questions can be typified as action research, the
teacher-as-researcher. This type of research assumes practical learning to be the basis for
theory formation (Wang, Haertel & Walberg, 1993). The criticism of this approach
confirmed the differences between teaching methodology research and educational
research (Kerdeman & Philips, 1993; Kliebard, 1993). In 2003, Wang countered the
criticism with convincing, evidence-based practical examples. On the other hand, a case-
study in which a TT taught a group of 30 students aged 16-18 in a year before their
school leaving exam. Almost at the end of that year the item taught was the concept
integral with – at the end of the textbook chapter – a specific problem concerned with an
arch of a graph. The TT questioned her students in her capacity as assistant teacher and
was focused on the highest level of understanding of the concept integral. She taped her
dialogues.

Material
There are two types of material: (1) an authentic task with the focus on
students’ communication, and (2) a dialogue with the focus on the connection between
communication and reflection. The first type of material comprised the theory of
metacognitive instruction. The material used by the TTs in their own teaching practice
comprised an authentic assignment of “Plusses and minuses” for students (aged 15
years). The instruction was: “Write down 15 plusses and minuses in a row, but make
sure that there are no more than two of the same symbols after each other. ++--++ is
allowed, but +---++ is not allowed for example. How many different rows can you

9
make?” The assignment was not part of the normal teaching material but was in keeping
with the subject taught. The second type of material consisted of the following task: the
TT presented her students with a graph and the question involved. The question
concerned the arch of the function y = x2 at the closed interval [0,1]. Students were
expected to use the concept integral to calculate the arch of the graph between 0 and 1.
They did not do that before, and it was a new phenomenon for them. They had to take a
lot of difficult steps, and some mathematical creativity was required.

Participants
Students are used to work independently in groups (3 or 4 students each).
Class A comprised 25 fourth year pre-university science and math stream students.
Class B comprised 17 fourth year pre-university science and math stream students.
Class C comprised 28 fourth year pre-higher-education students, in the Culture and
Society profile, who had difficulty with mathematics.
A TT questioned five students in the pre-latest school year. Arbitrarily, two of
them were chosen to be focused on and examined.

DATA COLLECTION AND RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The research instruments comprised logbook reports by A, B and C prior to,
during and after the research activities.

The data collection of A comprised a logbook report on:

(i) explanation on the board, writing out the possibilities for n=1 (2 possibilities), n=2 (4
possibilities), n=3 (6 possibilities), n=4 (10 possibilities), n=5 (16 possibilities);
(ii) groups of students puzzling out to find rows with 15 plusses and minuses in a row;
(iii) a number of students discovering regularity in the row of figures 2, 4, 6, 10, 16,
namely that the first two figures give the third figure and that the third and fourth figures
give the fifth figure. It then took very little effort for them to find the number of
possibilities for a row comprising 15 plusses and minuses. Two students arrived at the
answer 1974; they verified this solution and their method and therefore solved the
problem. There was no further puzzling;
(iv) analysis of the problem on the board as soon as the students solved the problem.
Rows of figures were used to show that the formula discovered was indeed the
correct one. The students were familiar with this subject, as it was the subject of the last
chapter. Two different formulas were presented, namely one for the rows in which the
final two symbols are the same, On, and one for the rows in which the final two symbols
are different Pn:
Pn = Pn-1 + On-1
On = Pn-1
The total formula was easy to deduct from these formulas, namely that the row
of figures is given by the formula Un = Un-1 + Un-2.

The data collection of B comprised a logbook report on:

(i) the explanation on the board on the basis of a photocopy of appendix 1. The problem
was soon understood. Students set to work in groups of four. They were promised a hint
after 10 minutes, if necessary. They were also tempted with the promise of a Snickers
bar if they found the right answer. After five minutes of puzzling, all the groups began
to call out solutions. When asked, they admitted that all the solutions were more or less a

10
guess and that a formula had been worked out which was associated with the problem,
such as for example 215. None of the groups actually thought the problem through. The
solutions called out were more or less guesswork. The class became quiet after about 10
minutes. A number of possibilities were written on the board (by A): a row with a length
of 1 (n=1): 2 possibilities, and then n=2 (4 possibilities) and n=3 (6 possibilities). Two
groups understood the approach and discovered the number of possibilities for n=4 (10
possibilities). The regularity in the rows 2, 4, 6 and 10 was then recognized and a group
produced the right answer after two minutes, i.e. 1974. Everyone stopped puzzling and
analyzing;
(ii) the proof of correctness of the result by means of the recursive rows approach. The
students were not really interested. They were then given a photocopy with the
presented solution and also a solution according to combinatorics.

The data collection of C comprised a logbook report on:

(i) the group size, sticking to the book because they were due for a test the following
week. C adapted the task slightly. The total task remained the same but a stencil was
provided with some sub-questions: What is the subject of the task? Explain the task in
your own words; What other tasks resemble this one? How did you solve the tasks in the
previous question? etc. In the end, half of them completed the tasks.
(ii) the overly difficult task, despite the sub-questions. They found it too difficult to
formulate the question. It was very difficult for them to recognize the difference between
a task from the book (in general that means that there was too large cognitive distance
between student knowledge and the level of the question). ZPD approach suggests
diminishing that distance in the process of questioning and this task, and the students
were very focused on finding a ready-made solution (which they could not because the
task was a bit too difficult for them => disappointment). They tried to apply the theories
they had recently learned to this task but that too proved to be very difficult.
(iii) the students who completed the task were those more willing and sometimes also
somewhat better at mathematics than the rest. In groups with consulted each other.
(iv) the sub-tasks referred to the approach taken by the students, they were not
accustomed to this in their textbook and therefore found it “strange.”

DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

Data processing and analysis of A:
A had probably already given too much information for the fourth year pre-
university science and math students by writing out the possibilities of n=1 to n=5 on the
board. They soon found a general formula without having to work out the problem for
too long. Moreover A’s approach led to a small number of students quickly finding the
answer, after which the remaining students soon adopted that solution. It might have
been more useful to have students search for the answer in small groups rather than
individually. The students now started working alone, in pairs and occasionally in
groups of four, but once they had found the solution, it was called out loud in the class.
Only a small number of students actually had the opportunity to understand the solution.
Shared knowledge became general knowledge, only for a small number of students.

Data processing and analysis of B:

These students showed little willingness to make an effort and think
analytically about a task which was not part of the curriculum. Communication was

11
spontaneous in the groups. The approach taken by one group had too much influence on
the other groups. It might possibly have been more useful if systematic problem solving
was part of the educational program, including instructions on how students can tackle a
problem. The expectation now was that students would find it challenging and fun to
work at solving such problems. That was an illusion in the case of this group. The
students were accustomed to undertaking tasks as part of the curriculum. By far the
largest group considered this adequate and had little need for anything extra.

Data processing and analysis of C:

C expected that this task would be too difficult for the students in this group
(and that they would not be interested in mathematics and solving puzzles to the same
extent as the 4th year pre-university groups). C adapted the task slightly. As expected,
many of the students were not interested in the task. C had indicated that she needed the
results for a research project at the university, and the students therefore filled it in for
her. In the end, half had actually completed the required tasks. The students found it
“strange” to answer sub-questions and especially to have to think about what they were
doing, because their standard textbook did not do so. They looked for quick and easy
answers, and once that proved difficult they soon gave up. They also started calculating
the first sub-questions (part c) instead of the question which really needed the solution....
(part f). That was not yet achievable: to first describe the approach and only then start
calculating. A number of students worked on the task in a group. That gave very
interesting results, they prompted each other and consulted on a possible solution, nice
to see, nice to hear, and useful for the students themselves as well... Such groups had
questions to ask and actually wanted to understand the task. The students who did not
work with others but rather completed the task individually had fewer questions and
were done sooner.

Experimental task see attachment (4)

RESULTS
The situation of A:
Too much pre-chewed information. Once the original task was structured for
the students beforehand and any uncertainties removed, it was no longer authentic. The
solution was soon passed around. The students did not start out in groups, so there was
no optimum communication between the students themselves.

The situation of B:
Too much information was ‘given away’ beforehand. The original task was no
longer authentic, the general solution too obvious. The division into groups had a
negative effect on the students’ learning processes. Communication was spontaneous
within the groups. Students were not voluntarily willing to look deeply into the context.

The situation of C:
This task was too difficult for this group. C hoped to make it simpler through
the use of sub-tasks but this might have made it even more difficult. The approach of
first solving sub-questions and only then writing down the solution was tricky. The
students were not yet too systematic in their approach and the text book (in use Modern
Mathematics) did not offer any support for that either. As a teacher, you obviously try to

12
stimulate your students to work that way, but the students generally did not appreciate
the approach, and instead began to calculate and write down solutions right away. Once
they started working in a particular direction, the students could not be diverted, unless
they (despite being split into groups) cooperated with others (or happened to find it
interesting). They were also not accustomed to reflection, or verification of their
solutions (Why should I? I already have an answer, don’t I? It was just difficult; etc., see
also appendix part g).

Comparison and analysis

The course of TT’s questions to K is as follows, the number indicates a level: 2
- no connection – 4 – 3 – 4 – 3 – connection – 3 – 2 – 3 – no connection – 4 – 3 – 3 – 4
– connection – reflection at a sequence of activities – reflection at effects and activities –
stop. Because of TT’s help at the current proceptual level, K ends with joyful feelings.
She attained the highest proceptual level of abstraction through TT’s help. K commands
a powerful cognitive structure with strong connection and compression.
Conversely the course of TT’s questions at L is as follows: 2 – 1 – 4 – 3 – 3 –
no connection – 2 – 1 – no connection – 1 – 2 – 1 – 2 – 2 – no connection – 3 – no
connection – 2 – 1 – no connection – 1 – no connection – 2 – connection – 2 – 2 – 2 –
no connection – 1 – connection – 1 – no connection – 1 – no connection – no connection
– stop. L ends without joyful feelings. In this case teachers’ help at the procedural level
is sometimes not appropriate (‘too high a level’). L attains a low level with weak
connections without compression. The only question at level 3 is answered by no
connection. L commands a weak cognitive structure without connection.

CONCLUSIONS
On the one hand, students have problems with (boring) authentic tasks; the
lower the level, the greater the difficulty they have. The goal of the task needs to be
meaningful for them. On the other hand, if group work is an accepted working method
for students for this type of questions, the effect of mutual communication is more
positive among lower level students than among higher level students. Communication
is spontaneous and is effective as long as it is structured. The TT learnt to focus on
metacognitive instruction as an adequate principle to activate effective communication
between mathematics students. They mentioned a focus on general instruction and
avoidance of personal help. The TT wanted to be students’ amicable coach, to stimulate
students’ mutual communication.

DISCUSSION
As indicated by critics, this type of research is methodically weak, crucial
conclusions are insufficiently precise, it produces contrary results, is reported in
incomprehensible jargon, does not lead to improved teaching results and must all take
place much more thoroughly (Slavin, 2000). While good practices can certainly be
identified and qualitatively described, the generalization questions (will it work for my
subject / with these students / in our context / with a different teacher?), the
reproducibility question (will it happen again tomorrow?) and the explanation question
(what is the underlying causal relationship between “treatment” and results?) are seldom
adequately answered (Van Keulen, 2006). Educational research in the form of action
research is difficult but is certainly recommended for professionalization of teachers.
The conclusions of the case study are challengeable because of the minimum of data.

13
Two arbitrarily cases have been analyzed. Therefore, the conclusions can not be
generalized. Besides, a TT fulfilled the role of the teacher. She was strongly influenced
by Tall’s theory of cognitive structures. She intended to attain mathematical concept
development by questions at the highest level of abstraction. Her approach resulted in
positive effects on high level students and negative results on low level students. She
assumed the existence of some basic proceptual views. It is recommended that this
approach to teachers’ intervention be repeated by questions in classroom practice at the
actual individual level of understanding in collaboration with other students at lower or
higher levels (Dekker & Elshout-Mohr, 2004). The results of this case study support the
intention of such a type of research activities to design teachers’ intervention aimed at
mathematical concept development. It also shows that despite the good results of Dutch
students in the PISA contests there is room for further development, by supporting
teachers with focused classroom research – focused on essential elements of
mathematics like communication and reflection.

REFERENCES
Ainley, J., & Lowe, A. (1999). “Can Written Questions Differentiate between Degrees
of Understanding?” Mathematics Teacher. 168, 32-35.
Anderson, J.R. (1990). Cognitive Psychology and its Implication. (3e ed.). New York:
Freeman.
Barnard, T., & Tall, D. (1997). “Cognitive Units, Connections and Mathematical Proof.”
Proceedings of PME 21. Finland. 2, 41-48.
Bereiter, C. (1985). “Towards a Solution to the Learning Paradigm.” Review of
Educational Research. 55, 201-226.
Cardelle-Elawar, M. (1995). “Effects of Metacognitive Instruction on Low Achievers in
Mathematics Problems.” Teaching and Teacher Education. 11(1), 81-95.
Cobb, P. (1994). “Where is the Mind? Constructivist and Socio-Cultural Perspectives on
Mathematical Development.” Educational Researcher. 23, 13-20.
Darling-Hammond, L. (1992). “Reframing the School Reform Agenda: Developing
Capacity for School Transformation.” Eric ED 347656.
Dekker, R., & Elshout-Mohr, M. (2004). “Teacher Interventions Aimed at Mathematical
Level Raising during Collaborative Learning.” Educational Studies in
Mathematics. 56 (1), 39-56.
Kerdeman, D., & Philips, D.C. (1983). “Empiricism and the Knowledge of Educational
Practices.” Review of Educational Research. 63(3), 305-313.
Keulen, van H. (2006). “Onderwijsontwikkeling en onderwijsonderzoek: relaties en
perspectieven.” Onderzoek van Onderwijs. 28(3), 50-55.
Kliebard, J.P.A. (1993). “What is a Knowledge Base and Who Would Use it if We Had
One?” Review of Educational Research. 63(3), 295-303.
Kramarski, B., Mavarech, Z., & Libermann, A. (2001). “The Effects of Multilevel –
versus Unilevel: Metacognitive Training in Mathematical Training.” Journal for
Educational Research. 94(5), 292-300.
Kramarski, B., Mavarech, Z., & Arami, M. (2002). “The Effects of Metacognitive
Instruction on Solving Mathematical Authentic Tasks.” Educational Studies in
Mathematics. 49, 225-250.

14
Lester, F.K., Garofalo, J. & Kroll, D.L. (1989). The Role of Metacognition in
Mathematical Problem Solving: A Study of Two Grade Seven Classes (Final
Report). Bloomington: Indiana University, Mathematics Education Development
Center.
Mevarech, Z.R., & Kramarski, B. (1997). “Improve: A Multidimensional Method for
Teaching Mathematics in Heterogeneous Classrooms.” American Educational
Research Journal. 34(2), 363-395.
Piaget, J. (1972). The Principles of Genetic Epistemology. London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul.
--- (2001). Studies in Reflecting Abstraction. Sussex, England: Psychology Press.
Pinto, M., & Tall, D. (2002). “Building Formal Mathematics on Visual Imagery: A Case
Study and a Theory.” For the Learning of Mathematics. 22, 1, 2-11.
Polya, G. (1957). How To Solve It. Princeton: University Press.
Prawat, R.S. (1998). “Current Self-Regulation Views of Learning and Motivation
Viewed through a Deweyan Lens: The Problems with Dualism.” American
Educational Research Journal. 35(2), 199-224.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1987). “What’s All the Fuss about Metacognition?” Cognitive
Science and Mathematics Education. A.H. Schoenfeld (ed.). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum. 19-216.
Simon, M. A., Tzur, R., Heinz, K., & Kinzel, M. (2004). “Explicating a Mechanism for
Conceptual Learning: Elaborating the Construct of Reflective Abstraction.”
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. 35, 5, 305-329.
Slavin, R.E. (2002). “Evidence-Based Education Policies: Transforming Educational
Practice and Research.” Educational Researcher. 3(7), 15-21.
Verschaffel, L., Greer, B., & De Corte, E. (2000). Making Sense of Word Problems.
Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger.
Wang, M.C., Haertel, G.D., & Walberg, H.J. (1993). “Toward a Knowledge Base for
School Learning.” Review of Educational Research. 63(3), 249-294.

15
 Appendix 1: Plusses and minuses
“Put fifteen plusses and minuses in a row, but make sure that there are no more than two
signs of the same kind next to each other. For instance ++--++ or
+-++-- is allowed, but ++---++ is not. How many different sequences can one make?”
Divide into groups of four to five students and ask yourself the questions. Suggestion:
First analyze the problem as if it where a row of one, two, three or four plusses and
minuses.

16
APPENDIX 2: TWO DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM
A mathematical solution of this task is that the next item of the sequence can be
found by adding the previous two items. The first item is equal to two, the second is
equal to four. In mathematical language this leads to: Un = Un-1 + Un-2 with U0 = 2 and
U1 = 4. Using this, one easily deduces that the solution to our problem should be 1974.
In order to come to this solution, it is useful to split the sequence in two separate
sequences: one sequence with the last two signs similar and one sequence with the last
two signs unequal. By taking this extra step and simplifying the required abstract
mathematization, students easier understand the way in which the general formula is
derived. There is also another way to come to the solution. A row of plusses and
minuses can be seen as a row with two types of elements. A single element (+ or -) and a
double element (++ or --). Because plusses and minuses have to alter, we only have to
look at the number of possibilities we can order single and double elements. Whether an
element is + or -, depends on its position. The number of single and double element is
not fixed. Therefore, the following sequences are possible: 15 elements containing 15
single-elements and 0 double-elements, 14 elements containing 13 single-elements and 1
double-element, 13 elements containing 11 single-elements and 2 double-elements, … 8
elements containing 1 single-element and 7 double elements.
The sum of all the possible sequences is equal to
⎛15 ⎞ ⎛14 ⎞ ⎛13 ⎞ ⎛12 ⎞ ⎛11⎞ ⎛10 ⎞ ⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ 8 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 987 The total number of different
⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠
sequences is equal to: 2 * 987 = 1974.

Attachment 3: Answers to the added subdivisions

a: What is the subject of the problem?
Answers:
Putting plusses and minuses in a row, trees, probabilities; calculating probabilities;
diagrams
b: Describe the problem in your own words.
Answers:
How many sequences are there? One has to make sequences and see where one needs to
put the plusses and minuses; I have to put plusses and minuses and a row, without
putting three of the same sign next to each other; How many different sequences can we
make if we put fifteen plusses and minuses in a row and no more than two signs of the
same kind next to each other; We have 15 places to put a plus or minus sign.
c: Do you know other problems that look like this problem? How did you solve these?
Answers:
Draw a grate and count; calculate probabilities with the help of trees or using the
function ‘NCR’ on the calculator; a problem with license numbers, but that was different
because these were in some order; A problem with red and white balls in a vase; 15 ncr
2
d: How do these problems differ from the problem with plusses and minuses?
Answers:
It is difficult to see; I don’t see any differences; In this problem, no more then two signs
are allowed to be next to each other; We deal with plusses and minuses now; The way I

17
solved these problems does not work for this problem; I have to do the subdivisions
first; I can’t solve this problem immediately.
e: How are you going to answer this question and why?
Answers:
I will use a tree, but I think that it will be a lot of work; I thought I had to use the
function ‘NCR’ on the calculator, but it doesn’t work. A grate also doesn’t work. Do we
have to write down all the possibilities?; Write everything out, because I can’t use
‘NCR’. I do not like that!; I’m going to use a grate and count the number of possibilities;
I will use a tree. It will cost a lot of time, but the answer is right; I’m going to use ‘NCR’
f: Calculate the solution of the problem.
Answers:
15 ncr 2 = 105 (I have seen some unfinished trees, but I haven’t seen any other solution)
g: Look at your answers from part E and G. Do you think you are on the right track? Do
you still miss some things and do you think you will have to do it some other way?”
Answers:
I don’t think I did it the right way, but I don’t know what else to do; I think you have to
write down all the probabilities; I think I’m on the right track, but it is too difficult for
me to solve; You can’t calculate this with a formula, because there isn’t one. And a tree
is too large to calculate by hand; Yes, it is very logical; It is easy to understand, but it
does cost a lot of time to calculate everything; I think that there are better ways, but I
don’t know them; It is possible but hard.

Attachment 4: Experimental task

Climmy presented her students with a graph and the question involved. The
question concerned the arch of the function y = x2 at the closed interval [0,1]. Students
were expected to use the concept integral to calculate the arch of the graph between 0
and 1. They did not do that before, it was a new phenomenon for them. They had to take
a lot of difficult steps, some mathematical creativity was required.

Climmy’s intended solving approach was as follows:

Start with a small piece of the graph. Taking dx very small, this piece will be approached
by a straight line. So the small piece of the graph is described as a function of dx and dy,
and by the Pythagorean Theorem dL = dx 2 + dy 2 .
By using the derivative function dy is described as dy = f ' ( x ) dx . By substituting this in
the equation of dL and taking similar factors out of the square root:
dL = dx 2 + f ' ( x) 2 dx 2 = 1 + f ' ( x ) 2 dx .
b
Result from the total arch at [a,b]: L = 1 + f ' ( x) 2 dx .
∫ a
1
In this case the total arch at [0,1]: L = 1 + 4 x 2 dx .
∫ 0

Students did not calculate further, it was enough to formulate the integral. In
the dialogues with Karin and Lotte separately, Climmy first asked them to formulate the
integral for y = x2. Afterwards, Climmy asked both girls to give a common formula.

18
Below are two of Climmy’s literal dialogues including some of her impressions during
these processes.

The dialogue between Climmy (C) and Karin (K)

First, I ask Karen’s estimation and she immediately asks, “will it be more than √2?”
Subsequently I say to her, “we shall calculate this precisely.” Promptly she guesses it
will be an integral. But she doesn’t know the first step. She doesn’t hit upon any idea.
C: What is an integral?
K: You are able to calculate an area with that.
C: Only areas?
K: Ehm. Oh no, also volumes!
C: Again, what is an integral?
K: [silence] No idea.
C: Could you estimate an area without using an integral?
K: Oh yes! Surely that’s possible with small pieces!
I sketch a number of small rectangles in the graph of y = x2. Clearly, Karin shows her
recognition. I ask her about some connection with an integral. She thinks for a while.
K: So an integral is the addition of the area, of all the pieces.
C: Or volume?
K: Oh yes!
C: So how we could use this remark?
K: By taking small pieces of that line?
C: Carry it out.
Karin carefully sketches a piece of a graph and she completes it with a triangle! What a
step! I ask her to name that horizontal small piece. Without any doubt she names this
horizontal small piece dx, and the vertical small piece dy. She spontaneously notices that
the small piece of the graph is approximately straight. She suggests that it is possible to
apply the Pythagorean Theorem. Nevertheless, the next step is too large to be taken
alone. I draw her attention again to the small triangle with the notations dx and dy and
ask her whether she recognizes anything. She almost immediately says:
K: The slope!
C: But what is the slope?
K: dy divided by dx.
C: How you can use that?
K: [silence] Ehm… No, I don’t see it.
C: What did you do?
K: We wanted to construct an integral of all small pieces of the line. All pieces
have a length of the square root of dx2 plus dy2. But, should you really place dx
after that? ….. Oh no, of course not. Eehm… [silence] Oh! The dy is the slope
times dx! So dy can be taken out of the square root!
C: Fantastic! But again what is the slope?
K: That is, ehm….. yes! 2x!
When the expressions are substituted in the square root, the common factor can be
placed after the square root. That does not happen without help. But when dx is
separated from the square root, she remarks, “I am ready.” I ask her to give a common
rule for the calculation of the arch of a graph. She returns a long way back into the
problem solving approach. She doesn’t identify the term 4x2 equals f’(x)2 here.

19
K: That term dy doesn’t change, and that term dx of course also not. Only the slope
depends on the graph. So the term 2x will be f’(x).
Subsequently she follows again all the steps of the problem solving approach, always
f’(x) instead of 2x. That’s why she also solves the problem finally. When she has
discovered the common formula, she recovers and says:
K: Ah! That is nice!

The dialogue between Climmy (C) and Lotte (L)

I also ask Lotte’s ideas to begin the problem solving process. Lotte immediately starts
with an integral. But she intends to calculate an area.
L: Yes, I really don’t know anything about this, but perhaps… To formulate an
integral or something like that, to calculate the underlying area and than the
area of this too [she indicates the whole “square” between x-axis, y-axis and the
point (1,1)] and yes, than you have.. eh...that doesn’t solve any problem.
C: No.
L: Also I remember a paragraph, and than you have to turn around that graph …
Perhaps.. no, this doesn’t solve my problem too.
C: What is an integral?
L: For example the area between the graph and the x-axis can be calculated.
C: An integral is always an area?
L: Yes, I think so.
C: And volume?
L: Oh, yes.
We consider the area underlying the graph again. I ask her to estimate this area. Directly
Lotte proposes to construct a triangle. I ask her another method to estimate the area more
precisely.
L: Certainly with all small triangles?
Lotte starts to sketch. Directly she remarks that the triangles are not successful. Now she
constructs rectangles, with a small triangle upon each small rectangle. Nevertheless, it is
not successful to describe the area of a small rectangle. Finally, I explain how to use the
integral to calculate areas and volumes. I demonstrate how to add small areas and small
volumes. I ask her to take a step and to calculate a length.
L: The highest point here has x-value ‘1’ and y-value ‘1’. And then ehm…. yes, if
you do the same with each small piece of line, then you take all y-values
together, you add them up, then do you get the length?
C: Let us try something. For example what is the y-value of this point? [I mark an
arbitrary point of the graph]
L: Standard x comma y?
C: Ok [I write that near the point….] and now?
L: Well, I take another point, and than that x, all the time that x has another value,
ehm…
C: Shall we name them x1 and x2?
L: Oh yes, and than these are y1 and y2. Well, and if you do that many times, with
many more points, you add up all the y-values.
C: And what do you calculate than?
L: Eh….yes, not the right one. [laughs] I don’t know!
C: Do you choose the right way?

20
But Lotte doesn’t see any solution. Once more, I indicate that we used the small areas to
calculate a total area, and small pieces of volume for constructing the total volume.
C: How can you apply that?
L: Yes, search for small pieces of length. But in that case I have to know that
length!
She doesn’t recognize a connection. I sketch a small triangle near the two points of the
graph. She realizes that there is a relation between y2 – y1 and the vertical small piece of
line.
L: You have to add something to get the length. Ehm… but yet this is still a
triangle? So this can be calculated [long silence]. With Pythagoras?
C: Very well.
Lotte maintains the notation x2 –x1 and can’t take the step to dx, also not after many
references to the calculation of the area. Ultimately I sketch the triangle again, but now
with dx and dy. She understands the convenience of this notation. I ask her any
recognition.
L: First, I think of Pythagoras, because of the triangle.
C: Try again to construct something in a total different way.
L: Ehm… because of dx and dy immediately I think about integrals.
C: Oh yes. Much more complete, other ideas?
L: No. [long silence]
C: The number of the slope?
L: Ehm, no, I don’t see anything.
C: How do you calculate the slope?
L: Yes, something like dx (dy) divided by dy (dx).

She doesn’t make any progress. Finally I ask her to substitute dy into dx and the slope.
She doesn’t succeed. When I prompt, she feels silly. Subsequently, we write the length
of the small piece of the graph as a function of dx and the slope using the Pythagorean
Theorem. Finally, I ask her about the meaning of the slope.

L: The velocity of that piece.

C: And how do you calculate that?
L: [laughs] dy divided by dx!
C: Ehm, yes. But for example how do you calculate the slope in the point x = 1/2
in this graph?
L: Ehm.. [silence] no.

She doesn’t succeed. My advice is to apply the derivative. She seems to understand, but
I feel that she doesn’t. Clearly, it is hard. She knows directly from being right here that
the derivative function is y = 2x. Currently, we have dy equals 2x times dx. She succeeds
in describing the small piece of line as the square root of dy2 plus dx2 and she changes dy
in 2x times dx. She realizes the notation of the total length of the graph at the interval
1
[0,1] as follows: L =
∫
0
dx 2 + 4 x 2 dx 2 . She doesn’t know how to make further

progress. For a moment she seems to ask herself whether she has finished, but she notes
from my reactions that she has not. What to do?

21
C: Do you recognize a standard integral being used to solve the task?
L: Ehm, no…do you have to write it backwards?
The answer “to write backwards” means a lot of different actions. She doesn’t succeed
to extract dx from the square root as preferred. First, she declares as follows:
dx 2 + 4 x 2 dx 2 = dx + 2 xdx . Subsequently she wants to write the square root as a
power. She quickly notices her mistake. But what to do now? I suggest she should
rewrite the first part under the square root. After a lot of inaccurate efforts she
concludes:
L: Collective factor?
She correctly takes dx2, puts the common term dx2 after the expression outside the
brackets. But the possibility to write a term out of the square root is hard and she does
not succeed without help. Finally when dx is out of the square root, we have finished.
Lotte is very relieved. She doesn’t have a real overview of the process. She is confused,
so I determine not to ask her to rewrite the process for the general formula. I tell her that.
She nods to me, but looks at me as if I did magic with a rabbit in a big hat.

22
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL
LITERACY IN OCSE-PISA VIEW THROUGH
COLLECTIVE DISCUSSION: AN EXAMPLE
Roberta Fantini
Scuola Media Statale “Toschi,” Baiso (Italy)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In a sixth grade of middle school, we realized an innovative methodological and didactic
path concerning generalization’s activities, investigation of regularities in arithmetical
and figural sequences. The aim of this work was to develop necessary mathematical
literacy to help students take a conscious and active responsibility in society.
Mathematical literacy is an individual’s capacity to identify and understand the role that
mathematics plays in the world, to make well-founded judgments, and to use and engage
with mathematics in ways that fulfill the needs of that individual’s life, as a constructive,
concerned and reflective citizen. Teachers’ didactic methodology is very important to for
promotion of such mathematical literacy. Teaching strategies must make students aware
of their own thinking processes, learning ways and methods and not only enforce
mathematical rules and properties. In our case class discussions about the solution of a
problem, after an individual or small group investigated it, were effective in this sense.

KEY WORDS:
Original mathematical approach, reflection and insight, participation, sharing,
awareness, collective construction of knowledge

In the assessment line of OCSE-PISA, in a first-year class of lower secondary

school (grade 6) a teaching and methodological sequence was structured, focusing on
activities of generalization and search for regularities within initially numerical and later
figural sequences, in order to develop those mathematical competencies that are viewed
as fundamental in enabling students to play an active and conscious role in society.
The development of these mathematical competencies, viewed as the capacity
of making evaluations on the basis of reflection, requires a metacognitive
methodological and teaching approach. It is necessary to identify methodologies and
strategies that lead students not to the mere application of properties and rules, but rather
to the conscious, critical and shared reflection upon the enacted logical mathematical
reasoning, upon strategies as well as learning methods. In this line, collective discussions
within the class group proved to be effective: they were preceded by the autonomous,
either individual or in-cooperation learning, analysis of the proposed problem situations.
The collective discussion turned out to be a particularly relevant teaching and
learning methodology for the construction of socially shared knowledge, due to its focus
on exchanges with peers. During the discussion, each student contributes with individual
information and reflections, which come to be part of the shared knowledge, through an
enchainment and adjustment of the different contributions, and which are elaborated

23
through collective reasoning, where thinking together does not correspond to a single
person’s thinking.
In other words, the discussion is not to be viewed as a moment when new
contents are learned, but rather as an opportunity for students to recover already acquired
knowledge, reflect upon it and use it again, in a new modality. The group discussion is
thus a learning situation, which recalls guided discovery, in many aspects: in both cases,
students are stimulated, by means of suitable problem solving situations, to recover old
knowledge and establish links between notions, discover new and different connections,
and draw personal inferences. In addition, in collective discussions, they are solicited to
compare their point of view to different ones, to find common elements, to find out new
criteria for classification, to draw inferences between ideas and contributions proposed
by others. The choice of methodologies and didactic strategies in the implementation of
the project was guided by our awareness of the effects they might have on both
achievement and affective and social development of the class as a group. The collective
discussion is an important phase of socialization for any class group: it stimulates
students to participate, to search for justifications or refutations and to perform a
productive cognitive exchange with classmates. Often in schools, mathematics and
geometry are reduced to the simple exposition or to the solution of exercises. Rather,
inducing students to express themselves both orally and in writing provides them with an
opportunity for linguistic enrichment, with an effective spin-off on other subject matters.
The type of scientific language used by students shows the acquired level of
competency. Paying attention to the language used by students is an important strategy
for teachers, who become able to follow, check and understand the process of knowledge
structuring. Moreover, language also sheds light on students’ mental representations and
might show misconceptions, preconceptions and alternative methods to represent reality,
which may interfere with learning. Collective discussion promotes autonomy and
capacity of critically reviewing one’s actions, together with capacity of collaborating.
This is why it is so important to create an atmosphere in which students feel free to
express their own ideas without fearing negative judgments by classmates, because of
the possible mistakes.
If the objective is to favor the construction of independent intelligence and
personality, we need to know students better, learn to value the diversities they bring to
the scene. Each student is original and distinguished from all others by the cognitive and
learning style through which he/she absorbs messages from reality, selects and links
them to one another in order to construct knowledge and mental competency. When a
cognitive style is valued, students trust more their capacities and use them at their best.
They must have the right to make mistakes, because a mistake solicits new mental
operations and new attempts to search for correctness. Their mistakes help them perform
a continuous restructuring of knowledge, disassemble and assemble again their mental
arrangements, the net of connections, in a continuous and dynamic process which makes
intelligence grow and multiply its potential.
In collective discussions teachers play a particularly significant role, due to the
variety of competencies they must be able to enact: they have to value students’
interventions and send them back to the class, they must not show explicit judgments, try
to keep consistency between verbal and non-verbal language, they must be able to leave
room for the group’s dialogues, while continuing to guide the lesson, they must be able
to provide students with the chance to reflect upon ideas, opinions, mistakes and
successful results obtained together.

24
 Collective discussions related to our teaching sequence were audio recorded,
with the families’ agreement. The subsequent transcribing phase allowed me to
appreciate interventions and linguistic mastery of individuals as well as to get to a self-
evaluation of the interventions I made in the classroom. Some a priori sketches were
elaborated in order to favor a conscious and consistent management of collective
discussions: they included objective, presumed duration of the discussion, stimulating
questions, formulation of the main question, identification of fundamental ideas for the
understanding and development of the topic, and description of the attitude the teacher
was supposed to have. The elaboration on the operative worksheets proposed to students
represented an important “script” for managing collective discussions and allowed me to
be consistent with the planned activities.
The problem situation in question, centered on the key mathematical idea
change and relations, whose fundamental objective is to foster thinking in functional
terms, is proposed by the PISA test as the “Apple trees” task. The task is characterized
by the opportunity to tackle the exploration either with iconic or with numerical
methods, or rather with the combination of both, to get to the actual algebraic
generalization of the relation existing between the quantity of apple trees and conifers
and the ranking number of the considered configuration. In particular, the worksheet was
enriched from the iconic and graphical point of view, in order to make it more attractive;
moreover, we simplified the problem situation by introducing tables aimed at guiding
students to an autonomous exploration through an explicit justification of the identified
relations.
The collective discussion starts with the teacher’s request to reproduce the
drawings from the blackboard.
T: Let’s see together how our farmer laid out apple trees and conifers. I present them on the
blackboard, I don’t make comments, and you are kindly requested to reproduce them in your
workbook. While I was drawing on the blackboard what did you check to exactly reproduce
the layout of apple trees and conifers?
Marika: How many conifers there are on each side.
Riccardo B: I checked how much the number of apple trees increases from one drawing to another
and how many conifers there are on each side.
Andrea: How many apple trees there are altogether.
Gianmaria: I checked the rows.
Khalid: In the first drawing there are 9 conifers.
T: In the first drawing there are 9 conifers. How did you determine the correct number of
conifers Khalid?
Khalid: I did 3... 3… I got wrong.
T: Try to explain that.
Khalid: They are 8. I considered 3 at the beginning, on the first side, then I added 2, then 2 on the
other side, and then 1.
T: 8. Good Khalid. How many apple trees are there Gessica?
Gessica: One!
The apparently simple request “what did you check to exactly reproduce the
layout of apple trees and conifers?” opens the way to a shared metacognitive reflection;
students participate and intervene in the discussion serenely, since everybody can
contribute and provide meaningful answers, regardless of the specific mathematical
competencies and not being afraid of making mistakes. Teachers must pay particular
attention to relations and communicative patterns in the class group, giving each student
the opportunity to correct a possible mistake without necessarily stressing it: this is what
happens in the case of Khalid, who immediately corrects his own mistake, after a
positive, immediate and consistent stimulus. In fact, the teacher recalls the student’s

25
words to guide him towards a constructive reflection. “In the first drawing there are 9
conifers. How did you determine the correct number of conifers, Khalid?”
Teachers must be able to grasp students’ proposals and send them back to the
class without making judgments but rather letting the group validate the shared
reflections through a clear and correct formulation.
T: So, let’s explore the other representations as well.
……
Marika: I noticed that the number of rows is the same as the number of apple trees in the rows.
T: What do you think about Marika’s remark?
Andrea: It’s correct for n = 2 there are 2 apple trees in each row.
Gianmaria: So, in order to calculate all the apple trees in a fence you must do the number of rows
times the number of trees in each row.
Khalid: I didn’t get it at all.
T: Yes, actually these remarks are all overlapping.
Gianmaria: I meant that in this case, Khalid, if you want to calculate the number of apples you must
do the number of apple trees times the number of rows in a fence and therefore 2 times 2.
Marika: Practically you must do the number of row times itself because the number of apple trees in
each row is the same as that of rows.
In this way the exploration of the problem situation progresses only when the
whole class group can actually share and master the reflections and remarks being made.
Nobody feels judged, since it is the teacher herself who asks for explanations, thus
reversing the classic role teacher-student, in which the former is generally giving
explanations, whereas the latter accepts them with respect.
T: So, let’s see if I get it. What do you mean by “the number of rows” and “the number of
apple trees in each row”?
Andrea: Those are rows…. (pointing to the drawing at the blackboard).. I mean the number of lines.
The lines that are there. The number of apple trees is how many apple trees there are in each
row.
T: Ah! I got it now. Thanks, Marika. So how can we write this 4 which indicates the number of
apple trees?
Class: 2 times 2!
Adem: For n = 3 then there are 24 conifers.
T: Are you really sure? How did you get that?
Adem: I’m sure. I did 8 times 3. Because the first number there, eight,… after that, in the second
place there was sixteen and you added eight, and the third you added 8 again, 24. I counted
them.
T: Well, I did not understand why eight times three.
Andrea: Every time you go on with the ranking number, you add eight. Eight is also the starting
number and the ranking number is the eight I add.
Giulia F.: I make eight, which is the starting number of conifers, times the number of rows.
Riccardo B.: Eight which is the starting number, times the number of rows, that is the number of
how many times eight is repeated.
Marika: So I must do eight, which is the starting number, times the ranking number.
T: Andrea earlier said that eight is the number you always add. How do we call this number we
always add?
Giulia P.: Step.
Jessica: Conifers have a step of eight.
Gessica: For n=4 therefore there are 32 conifers. Eight times four.
The teacher must be particularly careful to use a correct and suitable specific
language, without being “dragged” by the discussion’s evolution. Paraphrasing students,
the teacher gradually introduces specific and correct terms, such as “step,” for instance,
which are appropriated by the class group without feeling them as a senseless
imposition.

26
 In this way, students themselves drive observation; the teacher’s task is to keep
in sight the objective and direct reflections through effective and measured stimulating
questions.
T: What about apples?
Khalid: Sixteen. In number three there were 9… you must add 5 apple trees to get to sixteen.
Giulia P.: Can I say something? That 2 times 2, 3 times 3, 4 times 4 can be substituted for 2 to the
power of two, three to the power of two, four to the power of two.
Gianmaria: Can I make another one? There are two different ways to count the apple trees: the first
one is to multiply the ranking number by itself, the second one is to multiply the number of
rows times the apple trees in each row. That is the area of that square over there. After that,
to count how many conifers there are, we have two ways again. I mean to multiply the basic
number which is 8 in this case, times the ranking number or the row number. That is the
perimeter of the drawing.
T: Perfect. So, if I wanted to know for n = 10 how can I determine the number of conifers?
Jessica: Eight times ten.
T: What about the number of apples?
Jessica: Ten times ten.
T: Good. Suppose that I’m thinking of a number x.
Andrea: 8 times x to calculate the number of conifers.
Riccardo A.: x to the power of two to calculate apples.
Riccardo B.: I multiply x by itself.
Occasionally, the teacher must renew students’ interest and participation by
challenging them with little cognitive challenges “are you sure? are you tired?” that
students can easily accept, and stimulate the external attributive style, by proposing a
symbolic award, such as ten minutes of rest or relaxation at the end of the activity. In
view of a desired goal, everyone’s efforts and enthusiastic participation get twice as
strong.
T: We got there. Can we carry on or are you tired?
[All students want to carry on.]
T: Let’s write down this question now: Suppose that the farmer wants to enlarge his orchard
with many rows of trees. As the farmer enlarges his orchard, what increases more: the
number of apple trees or the number of conifers? Justify your answer.
Mirco: Well ... I wanted to say that conifers increase faster. It’s better to carry on with conifers,
because conifers start from 8 then become 16, 24, 32 et cetera. Apples start from 1 then
become 4 and then 9. The numbers are lower.
Andrea: I don’t agree with Mirco. Apples increase faster because it’s true, as Mirco says that at the
beginning apples go slowly, but then they go faster than conifers because you must do n
times n whereas there it’s just n times 8.
Riccardo B.: I agree with Andrea. The conifers’ growth is faster than that of apples, at the beginning,
but then at some point, for n = 8, apples go faster, because you increase faster by doing n
times n rather than n times 8.
T: How can we verify who’s right?
Mirco: Yes, they are right, I stopped too early. Anyway, we can see it if we write down both
sequences.
….
T: Let’s see. How do conifers grow?
Giulia P.: In the first one the step is always +8
Riccardo B.: In the second one (referred to apples) it always increases by an odd number: + 3, + 5, +
7, + 11,… So there is a point where the step of the second one becomes longer than the step
of the first one.
T: Let’s see whether I got it. For conifers the step is always the same, while for apples it
doesn’t seem to be the same.
Adem: It’s always longer than the previous, but the first three steps must be shorter than the first
three of the other one..
T: Ah! I see. I start little and then …
CL: You get longer!
Giulia P.: Yes, but we can carry on up to infinity … let’s put dots over there (at the blackboard)

27
 T: Good. Let’s make another effort and then we can relax a bit. When does the apples’ step
become longer than the conifers’ step?
Riccardo B.: The step which from n = 4 leads to n = 5. For conifers it’s eight, always. For apples it
becomes 11! Longer.
T: And when does the number of apples become the same as the number of conifers?
Gianmaria: n = 8. I must see when the two strategies can become the same and 8 times n can be
equal to n times n only if n = 8.
T: Good, guys! I thank you for your participation and for being so serious in managing the
discussion.
At the end of the teaching sequence we verified how, due to the collective
discussion, not only students developed those mathematical competencies that concern
students’ skills in analyzing, reasoning, communicating ideas effectively: they also
acquired transversal abilities and competencies, including flexibility, adaptability,
capacity of working in groups, evaluating and comparing possible alternatives, being
given a chance to experience different teaching sequences, autonomously, to get to a
goal, thus making conscious choices. The collective discussion allowed students to
develop and empower their participation, search for justifications or refutations and a
productive cognitive exchange with classmates. The creation of a good group
atmosphere favored shared learning, in which all subjects involved felt protagonists
independently on their knowledge or acquired mathematical competencies. Moreover,
students had the opportunity to develop linguistic competencies, with an effective spin-
off in other contexts, since they were requested to write down and carefully read their
own texts.
Transcription of the recorded collective discussions allowed the teacher to
evaluate her own work, appreciating everyone’s contribution and becoming aware of
relations within the class and, at the same time, reflecting upon her own role in the
group. In particular, a reflection upon the used language was carried out, with focus on
expressive clarity, effectiveness of interventions, paraphrases and cross-references.
Finally, the audio recording allowed me to emphasize students’ cognitive and
argumentative competencies, and therefore to formulate a more pertinent judgment on
the actual capacities of students.

REFERENCES
Caponi et al. (2006). Didattica metacognitiva della matematica. Trento: Erickson
Domenis, L.C. (2000). La discussione intelligente. Trento: Erickson
Johnson, D. et al. (1996). Apprendimento cooperativo in classe – Migliorare il clima
emotivo e il rendimento. Trento: Erickson.
Pesci, A. (2002). Lo sviluppo del pensiero proporzionale nella discussione di classe.
Bologna: Pitagora
Polito, M. (2000). Attivare le risorse del gruppo classe. Trento: Erickson.

28
 COMMUNICATION AND GROUP DYNAMICS
Isilda Marques
Escola EB 2,3 Piscinas, Lisboa (Portugal)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this article I present my investigation on how communication affects the group’s
dynamic, development of its work and, therefore, the students’ learning. I analyzed an
extract of a ninth-grade school lesson on systems of equations. From the analysis of that
episode we realize different communicational life of the two groups observed and how
that difference influenced their work.

KEY WORDS:
Communication, discussion, questioning

INTRODUCTION
Communication is present in every minute of our work and is the leitmotif of
the discourse that gives meaning to mathematics. Several times I have wondered if
communication that goes on in my classes is appropriated and if it is based on
mathematical evidence that leads to the development of my students’ learning. The
diversity of situations that may take place in a classroom over the established
communication between students is huge, unpredictable and challenging. It is impossible
for teachers to foresee the arguments’ sequence, and the students’ interventions, so it is
important to adapt the existing framework in order to improve the situation and extend it
conveniently. For students communication may mean a unique moment of sharing
knowledge, learning and intellectual growth especially when this dynamic is a product of
the interactions in small groups. So, students have several opportunities to explore ideas,
help each other, to discuss strategies and argue mathematical meanings. But what
happens when the group’s dynamic only develops around one member and if all the
work depends on the person? Will it be a productive work when that member is in the
role of a teacher, even though the person does not have the necessary experience in
managing communication? In this article I present my investigation on how
communication affects the group’s dynamic, development of its work and, therefore, the
students’ learning. Based on this issue, I analyzed an extract of a ninth-grade school
lesson on systems of equations. From the analysis of that episode we realize different
communicational life of the two groups observed and how that difference influenced
their work.

COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM

The Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM) notify that “in
the classroom where students are encouraged to think and reason about mathematics,
communication is an essential characteristic: at the same time they express orally and in
writing their reasoning” (NCTM, 2000, 318). Therefore, teachers must implement in
their classes a sense of community, so that students feel free to honestly and openly

29
express their ideas without fear of being ridiculed. So, teachers should promote a climate
of learning for all individual students to present and explain the strategy they used to
solve a problem. Teachers should also use significant mathematical tasks and should let
the students’ interventions to be evaluated through discussion in the class, thus enabling
students to develop mathematical skills at different levels.
Working in small groups (as we can verify in this article) is valued by Ponte
and Serrazina (1999) because it “enables students to expose their ideas, listen to their
colleagues, questioning, discuss strategies and solutions, argue and criticize other
arguments” (21). This type of work provides an opportunity for efficient mathematical
communication, as well as teachers have an important role in helping to further the
mathematicians objectives to all members of the group. According to the Principles and
Standards for School Mathematics, teachers must resist when students’ try to make
teachers think for them “and should” answer in a way that allows them to concentrate on
thinking and reasoning, rather then acquisition of the right answer” (NCTM, 2000, 323).
According to Ponte and Serrazina (1999), “students learn in consequence of the
activity that they develop and reflection on it” (3). Communication plays an important
part in reflection and learning development when arguments are shared and
mathematical concepts and processes discussed. The communication process generates
mathematical meanings through their trading and use in a social interaction. According
to the same authors, the three basic types of communication are exposition, questioning,
and discussion.
In the first type, communication consists in interlocutors’ exposition of an idea.
In the second one, the question presupposes that interlocutor put successive questions
with an objective for others. In the third, the discussion involves the communication
modes just mentioned, when it allows the interaction between different interlocutors,
sharing ideas and questioning each other and, therefore, it is considered the most
important mode of communication.
Ponte and Serrazina (1999) subdivided communication through questioning into
three types of questions posed by teachers: (i) focus, (ii) confirmation, and (iii) inquiry.
They considered focus questions “false” questions, with the aim of providing guidance
to students so that they can complete the task. Teachers use the confirmation questions to
make sure that students have got certain knowledge. The inquiry questions provide
teachers with information that they have not and the authors consider them as the only
real questions.

THE EPISODES
The class
The analyzed episode was observed in a ninth-grade class of a school in
Lisbon’s suburbs. The class consisted of 25 students aged 13-15 and characterized by
their main aim to obtain good results. The majority of students were dedicated and
responsible, although discreet and reserved. In general, these students preferred to work
individually or, sometimes, in pairs. Some of them expressed their dislike every time the
teacher proposed working in groups, and tried to accomplish the tasks alone. In class
they eagerly performed the tasks, but when they were confronted with a discussible
situation they preferred not to participate in discussion orally but rather submit a written
answer.

30
The lesson
The two episodes reviewed were conducted in a class on systems of equations.
The aim of this class was to mobilize students’ knowledge of linear functions and graphs
in real contexts and the capacity of development communication in the classroom. The
task consisted in the exploration of a closed situation in a real context, with which the
students could have some degree of familiarity. This presupposed that the activity could
be rewarding for all students in the use of both mathematical ideas and the potential for
presentation, discussion and sharing of their productions. The class was organized into
three distinct stages: the first was the presentation of the task by the teacher, the second
was working in groups, and the last was general discussion. The adoption of this
methodology of work aimed to raise the involvement of students’ activity in the
classroom through the presentation and discussion of ideas and to establish the teacher in
the role of mediator and moderator. The two episodes refer to question 1 of the task that
was already mentioned before.
1. While surfing in the Internet, Pedro found a very appealing site entitled “Always fit: the most
popular gym.” However, the website was not clear about the prices in the gym, providing only the
following information:
Package use of the gym
Time to use weekly (h)
1
2
3
Price of the package (€)
15
24
33
Help Pedro evaluate the offer of this gym.
1.1. Represent graphically the situation shown in the table.
1.2. Characterize the graph that you drew and write the corresponding analytical expression.
1.3. For the graph that you drew state:
1.3.1. the slope and its meaning in the context of this situation.
1.3.2. the passing through the origin and its meaning in the context of this situation.
Question 1 (incomplete)

The proposed task was designed considering the mathematical model for the
situation under study as a function of the type y = kx + b. The first episode refers to the
group that we will call A, consisting of the following students: Bruno, Cristina, Ruben,
and Susana. The second episode refers to group B, which was formed by Cátia, Luis,
Renato, Sara, and Tatiana.
Analysis of the episodes, both in Group A and in B, is focused on question 1.2.
The teacher wanted to find out if the students: (1) understood that the equation of the line
containing points given in the table is of the type y = kx + b; (2) managed to write –
from the table and the graph drawn – the analytical expression of the achieved “line;” (3)
identified the slope of the line and determined it (i) as the difference between prices of
consecutive packages, (ii) across the graph, by the difference between the coordinates of
the two points, or (iii) by analogy with the graph of direct proportionality.

Communication between students

The two groups observed had a dynamic of their own, including the fact that in
each group there was a student in each group (Bruno and Tatiana), who was recognized
as a leader by the other colleagues. Although this situation was acknowledged, each
leader’s attitude was different. Bruno took initiative to guide development of the work,

31
imposed his viewpoint, and liked to be identified by his colleagues as the one who had
the largest “mathematical learning” influence.
Susana: Bruno, you understand this, help us… Ah, sequences, right? So this is a sequence, 9, 9, 9,…
right?
Bruno: Direct proportionality is a sequence. This is a sequence 9 in 9. Someone has a ruler?
Bruno: That’s right, girl, you are doing very well.
Susana: And the analytical expression?
Bruno: The analytical expression is easy.

…
Bruno: This is done wrong.
Tatiana presented many capabilities for mathematics, revealed good
communication skills, and explained the work done. But she did not like to put emphasis
on herself. Nevertheless, the colleagues accepted her as the natural group leader.
Tatiana: It is 6. It is the entry…… [Laughs]…
Luis: I agree with what she [Tatiana] said. It is the entry in the gym.
Relatively speaking, in the work done in the observed groups there was a
participant in each one, who did not contribute to the development of the group’s work.
In group A the other participants contributed to a good performance in the work
produced because, as can be seen in the classroom’s transcript, there was a continuous
interaction between Susana, Cristina and Bruno. In this group Bruno tried to impose his
own ideas to resolve the tasks, whether Susana or Cristina did not move forward in the
activities’ development, when they did not understand infomation that they considered
necessary.
Cristina: The graph is very large. Why didn’t you put it down and to the side [negative number]?
Bruno: It isn’t. There are only positive numbers. There aren’t any negative numbers.
Cristina: So, now we have to mark these points, right? Show this part down. This is not like this,
the three isn’t here. The three is suppose to be there.
Bruno: I have outlined it here. 6 is the number for zero. Zero, six.
Cristina: The zero passes in 6, the 1 passes in 15, the 2 passes in the 24 and the 3 passes in 33.
I have already understood that. It’s not that difficult.

In group B, the interaction was more frequent between Tatiana and Sara while
the remaining participants expressed their opinions sporadically. These were the two

32
students who contributed most to the development of the activity although they had
different rhythms of work. While Tatiana did the activities quickly, to present a good
reasoning in numerical and algebraic calculations, Sara worked slower, due to her
perfectionism in the presentation of solutions.
Tatiana: This is wrong, [to Luis] but it isn’t necessary to rub it out.
Sara: So we write the independent variable here [pointing to time in hours] and dependent variable
[pointing to price in Euro] here.

Tatiana: Put only x and y.

…
Sara: We say that here is no direct proportionality and explain why.
Tatiana: Write only: There is no direct proportionality in the chart.
Sara: Why?
Tatiana: Because no. People will see that these are mathematical, so they will know…

The role of the teacher

The teacher used questioning to identify the difficulties experienced by students
and relied essentially on the pattern of confirmation and focused on them directly to
resolve the issues. In both groups the teacher did not answer questions but pointed to
guiding issues that once answered provided the students with a new runway that enabled
them to build mathematically significant knowledge. The questions that the teacher
asked were based on her knowledge in mathematics, teaching, and curriculum. She tried
to lead students to actively build their own knowledge.
The intervention of the teacher began in this episode when Bruno asked for her
support, because after several interactions with colleagues he could not get rid of his
doubts about the graph’s characterization.

Teacher: Characterize the graph. What is the chart designed?

Bruno: It is a graph.
Teacher: Yes, a graph. But what kind of graph?
Bruno: Of direct proportionality.
Teacher: Really?
Bruno: There is no direct proportionality, we have already seen it. It doesn’t pass in zero.
Teacher: So this graph is what?
Bruno: A graph that represents an analytical expression.
Teacher: A graph that represents the analytical expression, says Bruno. Yes but what kind of graph
is it? What type is it?
Cristina: It is a Cartesian graph.

33
 The interaction between the teacher and students in this fragment was
characterized by a series of confirmation questions so that the group made the graph
characterization corresponding to the situation under review and exactly described the
properties of the line found.
Bruno: Positive.
Teacher: It’s a Cartesian graph. But what is that of positive?
Students: [silence]
There appeared uttered by a student an expression “positive Cartesian graph.”
By placing the question “But what is that of positive?” the teacher intended Bruno to
clarify it and explain the meaning of that term because it was not mentioned before. The
students’ silence showed little confidence and conviction regarding the answer.
Teacher: You have done this [and, with a sign, she made a line]. What is this [pointing to the line]?
Cristina: It’s a line.
Teacher: It is a line, yes. It is a graph that represents a line. It is a graphic formed by a line that…
Passes there? [Pointing to the graph’s origin].
Cristina: No. It doesn’t pass the axes’ origin.

…
Teacher: What is the variable that is there?
Cristina: Oh, it’s h. [Replacing in the expression 6+9n, variable n by h]. So, it’s a graph
that is not passing by zero, which expression is y = kx +b,
Bruno: 9 is the k. y = 9x + 6
Cristina: So it’s y = 9x + 6, where the slope is k, that is 9, and 6 is the y-coordinate in the
origin. I agree.
Bruno: So it is a line of equation y = 9x + 6 doesn’t pass in the axis zero, zero.
Teacher: It doesn’t pass in the axis zero, zero, or point (0,0)?

34
 Although students managed to write the analytical expression of the graph, it
was only with the use of sign language used by the teacher that they managed to say that
it was a straight line. That situation showed that the students did not encounter
difficulties in mathematics activity, but encountered difficulties in the interpretation and
understanding of the question. It should be noted that the hierarchy of the issues must be
treated gradually, from the lower to the greatest degree of difficulty. In the last issue of
focus, the teacher paid attention to the language used by the student: “It doesn’t pass in
the axis zero, zero, or point (0,0)?”
In the second episode examined, the teacher’s intervention was requested when
the group B (like the other group) had doubts about the characterization of the graph. As
can be seen in the following transcript, students interacted, discussed reaching the value
of the slope among themselves and could easily write correctly the analytic expression.
Cátia: Look, here is 9. The difference between them is 9, isn’t it? Here is 6… [Looking and
pointing to the chart that Sara built].

Sara: The analytical expression. You see… it’s what Cátia said: y = 9x + 6.
Tatiana: Yes, I saw it, only that… all right. Then k is the 9. No, yes…
Luis: k is the 9.
Sara: Exactly, k is the 9 and b will be the 6 because it is under zero, isn’t it?
Tatiana: Eh, eh. Yes. And now, characterize the graph, how?
Sara: The analytic expression, it’s done. Characterize the graph… [Laugh]…
This group also revealed some difficulty in describing the properties of the
graph obtained:
Sara: What do you think of this characterization of the graph? … “The graph isn’t a direct
proportionality because the line passes through all points, but not passes by the origin.”

Teacher: All points?

Tatiana: Of these three [points to the table].
Sara: Teacher, how are these points called? These here [points to the table].

35
 Teacher: All points that are where?
Tatiana: In the graphic. In the table…
Teacher: Oh, ok…
Tatiana: They are in the table and we put them on the graph.
Teacher: Is there direct link between the graph and table?
Sara: So the graph characterization … can we also examine the table? Can we associate one
thing with the other?
Following the same way of questioning the teacher in this dialogue raised
several questions of focus and confirmation in order to navigate the group to the correct
answer. However, in the interactions observed two different ways of representing the
situation under study emerged: a graph and table. The students from the data in the table
managed to correctly do the graphic representation of the situation, but showed some
doubts about the answer concerning the characterization of the graph. In analogy with
group A, this seemed to have shown some difficulties in interpreting the issue and not
because of the mathematical concepts involved.

CONCLUSION
Students had some difficulty in the interpretation and understanding of the issue
concerning the interpretation of the graph of the task, much more than in pure
mathematical part of the activity. This raises the question of hierarchy of issues in terms
of difficulty, i.e., would it not be preferable to start with the simplest task and, gradually
make them more open and complex? In the classroom, the teacher led students through a
process of shared communication to build and consolidate their mathematical thinking.
She promoted a more detailed analysis of the issues and the formulation of explanations,
different kinds of argument, and the reflection on the knowledge of students and on the
ideas of others. The issues raised by the teacher were focus, confirmation and inquiry,
used in the type of guidance that she wanted to give students. During the episodes she
provided guidance to students so that they could reach certain knowledge; wanted to
make sure that students fully understood the knowledge and expresses their doubts.
Although the communication in the groups was dynamic, it was not shared by
all its members. Two students, Ruben in group A and Renato in group B did not
participate in the discussion. In subsequent conversation the teacher of the class
indicated that Ruben is a repetitive student, introverted, and that he still did not feel well
integrated in the classroom. Also Renato never participated in any activity; he was at risk
and worked only when the teacher, during class, sat beside him and motivated him to
work. Once the teacher finished individual support, he stopped working again.
In developing the work done by both groups a communication involvement
showed up, with the exception for these two students named before. However, in group

36
A all the suggestions/guidelines of Bruno, the leader of the group, were accepted thus
making communication poor; there was no sharing of reasoning, knowledge and
strategies. The communication in this group was basically unidirectional and Bruno,
which is understandable, did not care about developing the learning of his colleagues but
only wanted to transmit the knowledge he considered correct. In group B, it appeared
that despite Tatiana being regarded as the leader, the students were involved in sharing
strategies, questions and checking knowledge. Tatiana sought to promote dialogue in a
confrontation of ideas and went on building knowledge of the group from the
contributions of all. While no one can expect a student to have attained the required
competency level of communication to promote the learning of colleagues, let us note
that there were differences in dynamics in the groups resulting in a large part from
different communication formats between their members.
This diversity of environments, communication, and learning takes place
systematically in our classrooms. The way of talking and sensitivity of teachers is
fundamental to the process of communication between students and is rewarded by its
multiplicity. Teacher’s mediation is essential to develop work of a group in order to
homogenize the discrepancies that inevitably occur within them. The combination of
factors, such as knowledge that teachers have of their students, the activities they
propose, the questions they pose, and the debate they promote about strategies,
mathematical reasoning and meanings that favor building an effective and permanent
educational success.
Analysis of these situations can enrich our teaching. The position of an
“observer” allows a reflection on the different types of mathematical reasoning and
approach. Apparently, communication in the classroom develops intuitively and
spontaneously. But in reality there must be a coherent effort of teachers to enhance the
communication and engage all students taking into account their specific features and
characteristics.

REFERENCES
NCTM (2007). Princípios e normas para a Matemática escolar. [Translation of the
original document NCTM, 2000]. Lisboa: APM
Ponte, J. P. & Serrazina, L. (2000). Didáctica da Matemática do 1.º ciclo. Lisboa:
Universidade Aberta.

37
38
REFLECTING TO IMPROVE THE COMMUNICATION
IN THE MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM
Teresa Marques
Escola EB 2,3 Maria Alberta Meneres (Portugal)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this paper I intend to illustrate some moments of reflection, when trying to promote
the communication between students of a ninth-grade class who habitually resist
participation in whole-class discussions. The activity in this lesson elapsed from a semi-
reality task on functions, whose characteristics aimed to promote the debate in the class.
The students went through the task without great difficulties, but in my opinion the
objectives of discussion on their activity were not fulfilled. So I questioned myself about
my approach concerning the dynamics of the classroom.

KEY WORDS:
Communication, whole-class discussion, reflection about the practice

For twenty years as a mathematics teacher I have encountered many classes,

each one with their own characteristics. The class that I will talk about in this paper
stands out because of being – according to the teachers’ council – a class, whose main
objective is to get good marks. Most of these students are very studious and responsible,
though discreet and reserved. At the end of the second term, 18 out of 25 students of this
ninth-grade class had positive marks in all school subjects. On the whole, they preferred
to work individually or in pairs. For instance, some students, when it was suggested that
they work in group, showed their displeasure and tried to carry out the task individually.
Usually, these students got involved in the purposeful tasks, but when they were
confronted with situations of a whole-class discussion they preferred not to join in and to
present their answers in writing rather than orally.
Wondering about this attitude, I suggested that the students do a task in a small
group, which at the end should be discussed in the whole class. As I started to work with
them on systems of linear equations, I chose a situation connected with functions, taught
in the previous year, in which these students had been very successful (Picture 1). Since
it was a situation of semi-reality (Skovsmose, 2000), I thought it might be a good
starting point to promote a whole-class discussion, because it demanded interpretation
and critical spirit. It also seemed that it could be challenging enough for me, which
indeed happened.
The situation intended to stimulate the students to analyze the possibilities of
using a gym in connection with the price to pay, what I considered could cause the
discussion between the students. Taking into account that the main goal of this lesson
was to promote the development of communication in the classroom, I chose to present
here only the first part of the task, which corresponds with the analyzed episodes.

39
The task (1st part)
While surfing the net, Pedro found a very interesting site: “Always fit: the most popular gym.”
However, the website was not explicit about the prices, giving only the following information:

Types of gym’s use1

Uses per week (h) 1 2 3

Price to pay (€) 15 24 33

1) Draw a graphic representation about the situation described in the table.

2) Characterize the graphic and write the correspondent analytical expression.
3) Concerning the graphic drawn, point out:

The slope and its meaning in the context of the problem

Thinking initially about the exploration of this task with the group, I
conjectured that students would use their knowledge from the previous year to reach the
analytical expression of the function (defined in R0+) and to identify the slope of the
straight line. In the previous year, in similar situations, the students drew a graphic
representation of a linear function through a translation from the graphic representation
of direct proportionality with the same slope. The question that I asked myself was to
what extent they understood the meaning of the slope in this context. So, during the class
that preceded the proposal of this task, I suggested generalizing linear patterns (kn+b,
with n natural), so that it would be obvious that the coefficient corresponds with the
difference between consecutive terms. My expectation was now that the students would
develop different strategies and reasoning: referring to the previous class or to the way
they had solved these situations in the previous year. The expected diversity of students’
products could be a very positive contribution to promote a whole-class discussion.

Work in small groups

Most of the groups did not get involved in the interpretation of the situation, as
they immediately started to answer question 1: they marked the three points mentioned
in the table in a Cartesian referential system and drew a straight semi-line contained in
the first quadrant, with its origin in the point (0,6). There was, however, a group that
interpreted this situation as if it was a relation of direct proportionality, which caused
them difficulties. Therefore, they asked me to help them.
Andreia: Teacher, this is not supposed to join? [Pointing out to the points marked].
Teacher: What is it supposed to?
Andreia: Join. It is not right.
Teacher: What is wrong?
Andreia: If I wanted to draw a direct proportionality straight line… I can’t. It does not go through
the zero.
Teacher: And do you think it is a direct proportionality?
Andreia. No, it is not. There isn’t a constant. But I can’t join it.
Teacher: Is it not possible to define a straight line with these three points?
Andreia: Yes. But it doesn’t go through the zero.
Teacher: But, who tells you that it has to go through the zero? Is this what we want?
Andreia: OK, teacher, we have already understood…

1
This situation can be interpreted in several ways, depending on whether or not the possibility of using the
gym is considered in fractions of an hour, and the mode of payment during these periods. Note that the task
mentions that “the website is not explicit concerning the prices.”

40
 I got a bit surprised by the doubts of these students. Why did they have doubts
about the straight line they drew if the points they got from the table were correctly
marked in the referential system? Why were the students taken to think that the graphic
representation of the situation should be of direct proportionality, when they had already
noted that there was no “constant”? During this academic year I still did not work with
them on functions. Therefore, my perception was that though in the previous academic
year we worked with representations of different linear functions, those that constituted a
more outstanding practice for these students were those of direct proportionality.
To my surprise, in question 2 the students generally did not encounter
difficulties in writing an analytical expression but they did not understand the meaning
of “characterize the graphic.” An example illustrating this situation is the dialogue
between students in a group who, after some time of interaction and discussion, asked
for my intervention.
Susana: And the analytical expression?
Bruno: The analytical expression is easy.
Cristina: And characterizing the graphic?
Bruno: This I can’t understand so easily.
Cristina: It isn’t direct proportionality because the straight line doesn’t go through zero. But I
found the analytical expression.
Susana: Which is it?
Cristina: 6 + 9n.
Susana: And to characterize the graphic?
Bruno: … I don’t know…. Teacher?
…
Teacher: You have done this [with a sign]. What is it? [pointing out to the line]
Cristina: It’s a straight line.
Teacher: Yes, it’s a straight line. It’s a graphic that represents one straight line … And passes
through here [pointing out to the origin)
Cristina: No. It doesn’t go through the origin.
Teacher: And, what is it the analytical expression?
Cristina: So, the analytical expression is this one [pointing out to 6+9n]
Teacher: Ah! You have already written the analytical expression. Right. What is the meaning of
this n?
Cristina: It’s this. [pointing out to the Ox axis]
Teacher: And, what is it? Which is the variable?
Cristina: Ah! It’s h. [replacing on the expression 6+9n the variable n by h]. So the graphic doesn’t
go through zero, which expression is y = kx+b.
Bruno: 9 is the k. y = 9x + 6
Cristina: Therefore it is y = 9x +6, where k is the slope, which is 9, and the 6 is the y-intercept.
Once again the concept of direct proportionality was present when students
tried to interpret the situation, stressing that it was not a direct proportionality’s situation.
They characterized the function by its analytic expression, since they were not able to
identify something in the graphic that in their perspective could characterize it. They
only explained that the graphic was “a straight line” when I used a gesture (a straight
line). Since students did not understand the questions’ aim, I tried to guide them to the
right answer, through questioning.
In a similar way, another group found the slope value and the y-intercept of the
line correctly, but they associated the graphic with the fact that it is or not a direct
proportionality situation.
Sara: The “analytical expression,” is that what Cátia said: “y = 9x+6”?
Tatiana: Yes, I saw that, but….ok. So, k is 9. No,…yes…
Luís: k is 9.
Sara: Exactly, k is 9 and b is going to be 6 because it is below zero, isn’t it?
Tatiana: Eh, eh. Now, “characterize the graphic,” what is it supposed to do?

41
 Sara: The analytical expression is done. “Characterize the graphic”…[laughing]
Tatiana: Supposedly it is the direct proportionality, isn’t it?
Sara: Yes, (to know) if there exists or not a direct proportionality.
Tatiana. So, there isn’t.
Sara: We’ll say that there isn’t direct proportionality and we’ll explain why.
Tatiana: We only write this: there isn’t a direct proportionality in the graphic.
Sara: Because…
Tatiana: “Because,” no…Because 1 to divide ….
Sara: Because the line, the straight line which intersects three points doesn’t intersect the point
(0,0), does it?
Cátia: It was what I was going to say…
…
Sara: Teacher, what is your opinion about our graphic characterizing: “The graphic doesn’t
represent a direct proportionality because the straight line intersect all points but not the
point (0,0).”
In this group, the students seem to identify two reasons for non-direct
proportionality. In the first one, they used the table data, and in the second one they did a
graphic representation. In these two episodes it is very clear that the students associate
the task with the topic of direct proportionality and graphic representations of functions,
and that their difficulties are connected with problem’s interpretation, as we can see on
the second question in the task.
For me, another goal in this task was that students could identify the slope of
the straight line that they drew, as well as they understood its meaning, as asked in
question 3. Apparently, the students also solved this question without difficulties. The
slope’s meaning was not so different between the groups. The majority of the groups
stressed that the slope “was 9 and it is the difference of the prices between consecutive
packages” (Tatiana). However, it is interesting to note that in Bruno’s group emerged a
different answer:
Cristina: Bruno, the slope is 9, right?
Bruno: Right
Cristina: So, in context of that situation…
Bruno: It is the difference between the points. In Oy axis the difference between the numbers is
3.
Cristina: 9.
Bruno: Yes, 9.
Cristina: So, the slope is 9 and it means the difference, the variation, how can I explain this? [For]
1h [you] have [to pay] 15 Euro, 2h have [to pay] 24 and 3h have [to pay] 33 Euro. So, it
is the increase of price by hour.
Bruno: Yes, it has to do with the points’ variation in Oy axis. Between the points the difference
in y is 9.
In the written strategies of this group (as well as other groups) it was evident
that the slope’s computation was done by the difference of prices between consecutive
packages from data in tables. This comes, probably, from influence of the work carried
out previously with the numerical sequences. However, it was interesting to note that
one student connected the straight line slope with the difference between the ordinates of
the points that he represented, which was correct in this situation due to the fact that the
difference between the abscissa of the represented points is always a unit.

Whole-class discussion
According to Ponte and Serrazina (2000), the work in a whole-group “is
appropriate … to discuss the finished tasks” (127), while the work in small groups
enables the discussion of different points of view. Nevertheless, both kinds of works
allow the communication between students. Although lack of students’ willingness to

42
communicate in the whole group was a very persistent aspect in the course of the time,
as I saw that they were very devoted to the work on the task – I developed the
expectation that this time it would be different. But it was not… The students went to the
blackboard to write the correct answer and they explained what they had done only when
I questioned them. When I asked if there was anyone who would like to add a different
strategy, the majority persisted in silence. Only with some insistence on my behalf did
they describe what they had done. But as a matter of effect, as all of them answered the
questions more or less in the same way, there was not much to discuss.
This lesson could have been different if I realized that there is a strong
conditioning for the students’ activity: the point that I wanted students to reach so that I
could begin solving equations system in the next lesson. As the departure point for the
task was not completely clear (it said that “the website is not clear as for the prices
practiced in the gym”), it would have made it possible to promote a true discussion with
the students on the nature of that situation. If students, before solving the problem,
thought of its interpretation, being critical to this situation, and if different solving
strategies appeared, the discussion moment could have been much more fruitful.
Sharing and confronting ideas with others would have been a very important
aspect in increasing classroom communication. In that circumstance, my intervention
could be crucial: to change the lesson’s path and to manage the discourse involving the
class in mathematics communication (NCTM, 1994). Thus, when students wanted to do
a certain characterization (“Is it or not a direct proportionality graphic?”), they would
have found unexpected answers and at the same time it would have been an opportunity
for them to go to unfamiliar paths.

CONCLUDING REFLECTION
The reported episodes constitute part of a moment of my professional life, in
which I had the opportunity of thinking about my practice and questioning it. By
definition, classroom is a learning place for students, but it can be also for teachers. So
that learning takes places, it is essential for teachers to reflect on their practice. I usually
identify students’ characteristics and lack of time to focus on all points of the syllabus as
constraints to my practice. The exploration of this task with these students made me
reflect on other aspects, namely, the type of questions to pose to the students, how to
sequence them and their subordination to the mathematical topics that I intend to
approach.
The purpose of this lesson was to promote students’ mathematical
communication. I still want to go towards this aim. In this sense, as a teacher, I need to
create mathematical tasks that potentially promote classroom communication, but most
importantly, I need to be more attentive and ready to change the discourse in the
classroom at the turning point of the discussion (or at any other point). I need to create a
new environment of learning, asking questions like “what happens if …” (Skovsmose,
2000, 18). Being able to change my teaching style and strategies daily and being flexible
to take decisions in the course of a classroom, constitutes challenges that I propose for
myself, as a teacher. It means to develop new perspectives on students’ difficulties,
looking at these not necessarily like intrinsic characteristics but somehow as a reflex of
theirs and my own activity.

43
REFERENCES

NCTM (1994). Princípios e Normas para a Matemática. Lisboa: APM.

Ponte, J. P., & Serrazina, L. (2000). Didáctica da matemática do 1.º ciclo. Lisboa:
Universidade Aberta.
Skovsmose,O. (2000).Cenários para Investigação. Bolema – Boletim de Educação
Matemática, 14, 66-91.

44
 QUESTIONS THAT TEACHERS PUT…
Elisa Mosquito
School 2, 3 D. José I, Lisboa (Portugal)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
This article analyzes classroom communication, particularly the types of questions that
teachers pose to students during a group discussion. The analyzed episode appears in
the context of the study of sequences in grade 8, when the teacher faces the students’
difficulty to find the general term of a numeric sequence. The data were collected by
video recording of the class. The questions that the teacher posed along the discussion
played a decisive part in the construction and sharing of knowledge among students.

KEY WORDS:
Communication, communication styles, questioning

INTRODUCTION
Communication is a fundamental process underlying the activities that take
place in the mathematics classroom involving teachers and students. It has a major
influence on the nature of teaching and learning. In spite of my reading of several
theoretical papers about the way teachers can promote the discussion among students,
for me, this is a complicated moment, during which I feel some insecurity. Therefore, I
found important for my professional development to analyze the way a colleague,
confronted with a difficulty shared by all students, promoted the construction and
sharing of knowledge during a group discussion.
During the study of sequences the teacher proposed to students to carry out in
group a task with three questions. In the first 90 minutes class the students solved a
worksheet and discussed with their colleagues the first two questions; in the second class
they discussed question 3. In the first two questions the sequence was presented as a
figurative pattern. In the third question, in contrast, the students were presented a
numeric pattern (see Figure 1), with a non-usual aspect, as the first term is a negative
number.
The episode that I describe happened during the discussion of the task by the
group after the students identified, without difficulty, the next term of the sequence
presented. During the discussion on generating expression the students presented some
incorrect expressions and they were not able to move forward. As they were thinking
about this problem, the teacher made a parallel with question 1, in which they had
identified the general term, n×3+1 that originated the formulation of new suggestions,
such as: n × 3 + 1, n × 5 + 1 and n × 3 − 1 .

45
 3. Here are the first five terms of a sequence that follows a certain law:
-2 ; 1 ; 4 ; 7 ; 10 ; …
a) What is the next term of this sequence?
b) Write a generating expression for this sequence.
c) Determine the 100th term of this sequence.
d) Is the number 994 a term of this sequence? If not, justify the reason; if yes, indicate its
order.

Figure 1. Task proposed to the students.

This episode begins with a student introducing the expression n × 3 − 1 which,

although incorrect, includes the addition of a negative constant – a feature that later
played a fundamental role. In a second moment, the episode shows how starting from
this generating expression students discovered the general term of the sequence. And,
finally, the episode ends with the explanation of the general term, in the context of the
questions put by some students. Data was collected by video recording. Later, the
discourse was transcribed, this episode selected and the communication analyzed.

ASPECTS OF THE CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION

Classroom communication depends on the way teachers regulate and promote
it. According to Ponte et al. (2007), learning constitutes a process of interaction and
reflection. Teachers need to propose tasks “that promote a variety of strategies of
problem solving for the students and to take them to share their ideas, aiming at
negotiating mathematical concepts and constructing new knowledge” (43).
Concerning the classroom discourse, the NCTM (1994) refers that an aspect of
teachers’ role is to raise students’ reasoning. Teachers may request students to write
explanations for their solutions and justifications for their ideas. Another aspect of
teachers’ role concerns the mediation of the classroom discourse, posing explanatory or
provocative questions, giving information and direction to students in their thinking
process. The last aspect is related to the control and organization of students’
participation. Teachers have to make decisions about each student’s participation so that
all contribute to work of the group and enforce the rule that each one has to justify their
ideas; that is, “although teachers may appear sometimes more inactive and silent, their
role is fundamental when creating a positive discourse in the classroom” (NCTM, 1994,
57).
According to Ponte and Serrazina (2000), there are three different ways of
communication: exposition, questioning and discussion. Usually, teachers use exposition
when they intend to introduce information, to explain a procedure or to systematize a
certain idea.
In questioning, we may consider three types of questions: focalization, inquiry
and confirmation. Focalization questions aim at helping students follow a determined
thinking path. Teachers seek to help students when they are lost, focusing their attention
on a specific aspect and providing orientation for the next step. Confirmation questions
are used by teachers to become certain of students’ knowledge and generally they lead to
just one answer. Despite the fact that this type of questions constitutes a good way to
internalize mathematical ideas, often students do not understand them this way and
regard them as a test of their knowledge. Inquiry questions aim at helping teachers get
information on students’ work and, at the same time, at bringing to the surface
information that students were not aware of. Because of that they are called “true
questions.”

46
 At last, discussion is characterized by the interaction between students and
between students and the teacher, during which the teacher may assume the role of
moderator or guide. In the perspective of Matos and Serrazina (1996) the discussion is a
very important part of the mathematical activity, because this is the moment, during
which students present their results and the teacher clarifies ideas and addresses possible
questions.

QUESTIONS POSED BY THE TEACHER

This episode can be divided in two parts: the first concerns the suggestion of an
expression for the general term, and the second contains the explanation of the general
term that is given based on the questions of some students. In the first part of the episode
the thinking process is presented (attempt-mistake) by two students to find the general
term of the sequence:
Ana Catarina: Teacher, is n x 3-1!
Teacher: You have a suggestion. Let’s try. Shall we? It’s not a
big trouble! Let’s go.
Vanessa: The result will be 2 in the first.
Teacher: The first term… “how will it go?”
Joana P: 1x3 -1.
Teacher: 1x3.
[Ana Cristina interrupts the teacher.]
Ana Cristina: It’s 2. [Picture 3-1=2]
Teacher: She has already fallen from 4 to 2. Will we be able to reduce it more?
[In the first expression n × 3 + 1 the first term was 4 and in the expression n × 3 + 1 the first term is
already 2]
The discovery of the expression for the general term was not easy. Ana
Catarina’s intervention was fundamental, when referring to an expression that involved a
negative constant. In the discussion around the thinking process attempt-mistake to
arrive to the general term, the teacher posed different focalization questions (“how will
that go? She has already fallen from 4 to 2. Will we be able to reduce it more?”) with the
objective of drawing students’ attention to obtaining the first term of the sequence
starting from the general term.
Meanwhile, students suggested other values for the constant to put in the
general term of this sequence:

Joana P: -3.
Teacher: Will we put -3 there?
Joana P: Yes.
Teacher: Second experience.
Ana Catarina: It’s zero, teacher.
Catarina: -4.
Joana P: -5.
Ana Catarina: Yes -5.
Teacher: How much will it be in 3xn?
Ana Catarina: -5.
Teacher: Why -5?
Ana Catarina: Because that’s the result.
Joana P: It’s -2.

47
 The teacher asked confirmation questions, “Will we put -3 there?” seeking to
confirm if students knew where they should put the value -3. Later, the teacher felt the
need to make a summary of what happened up to that moment (“Second experience”) so
that all of students may follow the next thinking step, during which she continued to
pose focalization questions (“How much will it be in 3×n?”) and inquiry questions
(“Why -5?”). In this last case she tried to understand what made Joana substitute -3 for -
5.
The second part of the episode is based on a dialogue between the teacher and
some students, around the understanding of the general term that appeared in the context
of the questions asked by some students.
Patrícia A: I didn’t understand very well -5.
Teacher: Ana Catarina, can you explain why it is -5?
Vanessa: Because the result is -2.
Teacher: Ana Catarina, start to explain.
Vanessa: To arrive to the -2.
Patrícia A: It was for attempts.
Teacher: In this case it was for attempts.
Patrícia A: OK, but what if it was for instance -20, I would never discover the answer.
Facing the question put by Patrícia A., the teacher asked Ana Catarina to
explain to her colleague her thinking process, to help her understand. The teacher
answered a new question of Patrícia with a focalization question “Imagine the following:
imagine that we didn’t have that sequence on the right side, how would we do it?”
intending to take the students to elaborate a new thinking process.
Teacher: Imagine the following: imagine that we didn't have
that sequence on the right side, how would we do it?
Ana Cristina: n×3-5.
Teacher: The expression will be n×3-5. Let’s see.
Ana Cristina: 6-5 equals 1.
Teacher: And it makes sense. Doesn’t it?
Patrícia A: Why 2?
Teacher: Because it is an illustration number 2. An illustration,
not the order. The term order 2. And now the third,
does it make sense or not?
Ana Cristina: Yes, teacher!
Along the discussion the teacher wanted to assure herself that the students
understood what was being discussed and continued to put confirmation questions “Isn’t
it? And now the third, does it make sense or not?” However, there were some students
that continued asking questions.
Teacher: Yes... Say what you haven’t understood!
Mónica: Is the 1 the illustration?
Teacher: The 1 is the order.
Mónica: 3 is the +3 of the illustration.
Teacher: Yes!
Vanessa: It is what is constant.
Teacher: The 5 was the number about which Catarina (Ana) began, more or less, giving some
clues there. She began to give some clues because she… O (Ana) Catarina why have you
begun to say n×3 - 1?
Joana P: I said that!
Ana Catarina: Smaller, OK.
[Ana Catarina explains that she tried the expression n×3 -1 for the first term to be smaller.]
Teacher: What was your idea?
Ana Catarina: It came to my head.

48
 One notes that the teacher posed inquiry questions: “Say what you haven’t
understood! What was your idea?” in order to understand students’ questions and to
make them clarify their thinking process.
Teacher: It came to your head! But explain it a little bit better.
Why has it come to your head? Explain that better.
Student: It starts in -2.
Teacher: Yes! Look there. This here, the first, in what does it
begin? In 4 that it is very high. If you wanted it to
begin in a lower number, instead of putting +1, what
did you think …?. -1. But still it wasn’t enough.
Then it was: second experience.
Joana: It was…
Joana P: Ah!!!!
Teacher: What was the second hypothesis? It was n×3.
Joana P: -3.
Teacher: But this, it has also revealed…
Joana P: It was the 0.
In the intervention “It came to your head! But explain it a little bit better. Why
has it come to your head? Explain that better” the teacher enquired into the way the
student reached the presented conclusion. The dialogue continued with the teacher
putting focalization questions that sought to help in understanding of the several attempts
that were made until the generating expression of the sequence was discovered.
Finally, the teacher continued making a series of confirmation questions, trying
to verify that all the students understood the thinking process:
Teacher: The first result was 0. That wasn’t the answer also! [To Ana Cristina:] Don’t erase
anything… Then … conclusion: This [hypothesis] wasn’t good enough, it didn't work,
we had to go down. OK? What do you want to understand?
Mónica: I’ve already understood.
Teacher: Have you already understood?
[Mónica nods her head.]
Teacher: Are there any doubts?
Hugo: I haven’t heard a thing of what the teacher said.
Teacher: What haven’t you heard? You were playing with that
small piece of paper. What haven’t you understood,
Hugo?
Hugo: I haven’t understood what you want me to do.
Teacher: I ask for an expression with the letter n, which is to
indicate all the terms of my sequence.
Hugo: n×3-5.

CONCLUDING REFLECTION
In the discussion with the group, the teacher aimed at sharing with all students
the thinking process that led to the discovery of the general term of the sequence. The
students posed a lot of questions that mainly sought to understand the thinking of their
colleagues. During the discussion of this task, and taking into account the students’
difficulties, the teacher tried to mediate the dialogue among the students and to promote
the participation of all of them. The teacher’s questions alternated – confirmation,
focalization and inquiry. With focalization questions the teacher wanted to draw the
students’ attention to the key aspects of the thinking process. In the course of the
discussion, she felt the need to put confirmation questions to realize if students were
following and understood the reasoning. The inquiry questions that the teacher put aimed
essentially at understanding the questions of some students or at driving them to clarify
their thinking.

49
 In my teaching practice I have come across some difficult situations, in which
students have difficulties in moving forward with the work. The analysis of this episode
allowed me to realize that a possible strategy that I, as a teacher, can use, is formulating
questions. It is possible to forward the answers to the students’ questions to their
colleagues and make new questions in order to make students focus their attention on the
main aspects of the reasoning. This strategy, besides helping students to overcome their
difficulties, also promotes sharing knowledge and helps us understand the students’
questions.

REFERENCES
Matos, J. M., & Serrazina, M. L. (1996). Didáctica da Matemática. Lisboa:
Universidade Aberta.
NCTM (1994). Normas profissionais para o ensino da Matemática. Lisboa: APM/IIE.
Pesquita, I. (2008). Analysis of Classroom Communication – Idália’s class. (retrieved on
May 11th, 2008)
http://meduc.fc.ul.pt/file.php?file=/30/IP-Analise-episodio_2_11_Mai_2008_.doc,
Ponte, J. P., & Serrazina, L. (2000). Didáctica da matemática do 1.º ciclo. Lisboa:
Universidade Aberta.
Ponte, J. P., Guerreiro, A., Cunha, H., et al. (2007). “A comunicação nas práticas de
jovens professores de Matemática.” Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 20(2), 39-74.
(retrieved on February 8th, 2008)
http://www.scielo.oces.mctes.pt/pdf/rpe/v20n2/v20n2a03.pdf,).

50
 THE ROLE OF PARENTS IN THE ASSESSMENT
CONTRACT1
Cláudia Canha Nunes
Escola EB 2/3 de Marvila, Lisbon, (Portugal)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
This article presents my experience during a school year with the parents of seventh-
grade students. This involved an assessment contract and different activities developed
with their parents. The partnership that I established with parents was fundamental and
went far beyond my initial expectations and contributed much to the communication and
cooperation between me and the students, between me and their parents, and also
between students and parents.

KEY WORDS:
Assessment, didactical contract, parents’ involvement

School is a complex world that consists of people, all of them with important
roles and duties. It is fundamental for the success that teachers, students and parents
undertake their roles with confidence. It is a process of joint actions and shared
reflections in which the assessment is the integral part. This means emphasizing the
formative function of the assessment, oriented at students’ improvement. Defining an
assessment system with strict criteria and implementing it in a careful and reflective
manner, is one of the most important tasks that teachers have to do right at the beginning
of school year. This implies not only great care for the criteria but also explanations to
students and parents, assuring assessment transparency and clarity. It demands a strong
and coherent behavior of teachers, so that learning assessment is compatible with
teaching and learning practices.
I think that if parents collaborate in the entire teaching and learning process,
then it is easier for students to meet the expectations. In this paper, I present my
experience from the school year 2002/03 with the parents of seventh-grade students.

THE ASSESSMENT CONTRACT

Once my work with the students began in the second term, I had a meeting with
the teacher that would teach them during the first term. The agenda was the following: to
program the topics to be taught for me and her, to fix the assessment forms and
instruments that she would use in her working methodology. I decided to attend the
assessment meeting at the end of the first term. At this meeting I found out that: (1)
students’ performance during the first term did not meet the expectations, not only in
mathematics, but also in other subjects; (2) there were disciplinary problems in
mathematics that were not solved; (3) there were diagnosed difficulties in this group of

1 Part of this work was based on C. C. Nunes (2004). Assessment as Control Process for Mathematics
Teaching and Learning: A Study with Students of the Third Cycle of Basic School (Master Thesis in
Education, University of Lisbon). Lisbon: APM.

51
students, essentially related to writing and argumentation capacity; (4) the assessment
forms and instruments used by my colleague comprised two written tests and five
problems as housework. Their marks from zero to five points were added to the
arithmetic average from the tests; (5) she students had essentially two kinds of classes –
exposition and solving exercises from the adopted manual.
With this information, I decided that on the first day of classes in the second
term (beginning in January), I would present to students my assessment proposal for the
period until the end of the school year, with a detailed explanation of the methodology.
The following table presents the assessment plan and tasks for the students:

Written Written/oral Oral

Portfolio
Auto-assessment
Individual Two phases test
(oral)
Synthesis
Investigations tasks report
Group (open problems)
Work project

As to my proposal, I could see that comparatively to the first term, there would
be significant changes in the work and assessment methodology. Students should
experience new kinds of teaching and learning, with transversal curricular aspects, like
reasoning, communication, formulation and verification of conjectures and presentation
of the results. I wanted profound and revolutionary changes in assessment, comparing
with what it was like in the first term and in the previous years, not only in mathematics,
but also in other subjects.
Since the first day of classes, when I presented my proposal, the students'
reactions were immediate, “Are we going to do only two tests until the end of the year?
So, if we have a negative grade in one of them, we are going to fail the year!” The same
reaction was from their parents, so that in the first meeting in the second term, when they
saw the students’ grades from the first term, they showed serious doubts regarding my
decisions and consequently regarding students’ final assessment. It became difficult!
Without a doubt it provoked a great impact. After all, the tests were used only
as the assessment of current practice in all subjects taught in school. Therefore, it
became evident that it was necessary to meet with parents and to explain it to them, so as
to involve them in the teaching and learning process and in assessment.

TASKS DONE WITH PARENTS

The implementation and success of an assessment proposal and instruments as
the one presented here, involves not only the teacher and students, but also, not less
important, the parents. Because of the anxiety showed by parents, I decided to meet with
them at least twice, once in the third week of the second term, to address the confusion,
and for the second time at the end of the third term to talk about the activities done.
The first meeting took place on January 22nd, 2003 and was attended by
seventeen parents. I considered parents’ high interest as a sign of the impact made by my
assessment proposal presented to students. There were moments that I felt a mixture of
anxiety, determination, fear, and blew it hot and cold in turns. But, keeping to my
convictions, I began to explain the reason why I summoned that meeting: to clarify the
assessment criteria and instruments that were going to be used in mathematics.
I informed the parents about assessment criteria approved by school
mathematics teachers and I explained each one of the assessment tasks and how I was

52
going to implement them. I pointed out that in the “students’ portfolio” there were
documents that explained how each one of the tasks was going to be used. I asked
parents to collaborate and to participate actively in this process, suggesting that they
should also periodically appreciate students’ work. I pointed out their importance in
evolution of students’ learning style. I mentioned also that this work was going to be
included in my master thesis and that the collected data were to be analyzed by me. I
informed them that I would make two interviews with each student and make them fill in
a questionnaire. The authorization request was delivered to students to be signed by their
parents.
I was anxious about their reactions, and I let parents express their doubts,
opinions and fears. For example, Francisco’s parent said:
I listened to you with attention and should tell you that I am happy with the enthusiasm and the
energy that you have demonstrated in your explanation. I agree with the assessment proposal that
you made and I think it is important to change and to do something different. It is sure that the
traditional methods (using just tests) do not produce good result. The evidence is the results that
our children had and in the general panorama of aversion to mathematics. But, as a father, I have a
strong fear: what about the next year? Is this work going to continue? Are we going back to the
system that has been being used so far? And what with the work and effort made by students to get
used to this new process?
I could understand perfectly the fear of this parent and answered him that I
could just assure this style of work for the whole school year. I added, however, that a lot
of the work that I proposed to develop could be used in subsequent years, regardless of
who would become their teacher. For example, students could continue to build their
portfolio and reflect about their development and evolution. I pointed out that parents
had a very important role and could help students in this process. Tomás’s mother, who
was present at the meeting agreed with me and wanted to express herself. Her
intervention provoked an intense reaction among parents supporting her:
I agree with you. And we, the parents, can also suggest that some of these assessment “elements” be
implemented and kept in the future. This process should be implemented also in the other subjects.
After this first meeting, I felt that it was possible to work together: teacher-
student-parent. The first effect of this partnership was very positive. Right after the
meeting with parents, all the students whose parents were present brought a portfolio for
me to evaluate. I was very satisfied with this surprise. It showed that my message was
understood.
I should confess that initially, when I talked with the parents and involved them
in the whole process, I had no idea about all the benefits. In fact, parents were pleased by
the close communication between them and the teacher, and that they knew the diversity
of tasks done and the evolution of students learning. During six months it was possible
to see that the working habits and their vision of mathematics were evolving. We can see
that in Francisco’s own words:
I did not study less but I did not make a big effort for tests and for mathematics investigation tasks.
... I have done homework and improved my portfolio. ... To fill in a test, I only copied ready
examples from my notebook! ... But even when I copied, I studied mathematics and was learning. ...
I was accustomed to doing exercises for the test, and we only made tests, practically that was what
counted in mathematics, because the rest was always exercises and more exercises; and when it was
some new given matter, we just copied to notebook and studied for the tests. But, this year with the
portfolio, it was very different. ... Also there were other things: investigative tasks.
My comments helped students to realize what the strengths and weaknesses of
their work were and consequently helped them improve their work and learning using
my suggestions. As Sara stated, “When the teacher says something I try to improve ...
and I try to answer her comments.” Without doubt students tried hard to satisfy my

53
expectations and it also was obvious that they were supported by their parents, as it was
related by Francisco:
I have many things to do, go to the computer and write an auto-assessment, answer questions, and a
lot to do. ... It is a more demanding system. ... I feel that I am being evaluated daily. ... And my
parents are always asking how it is going in my work in mathematics: if there is news. Now, it is a
topic of conversation at dinnertime.
The second meeting was held on June 11th, 2003. There were 20 parents. This
time, my state of mind was completely different – a much larger participation of parents
made me feel good and happy. For me, this mobilization was the effect of the work with
students in the last six months and improved communication. The objective of this
meeting was to reflect on the work developed and students’ learning evolution. I started
to do a brief summary of the process evolution: the way students were involved and
reacted to the different tasks proposed to them and to the way they were evaluated; the
difficulties felt by both parts (teacher and students) and the way how it was overcome;
the importance of my feedback on learning evolution and the work of the students, that
helped them realize what the strengths and weaknesses of their work were, enabling the
evolution of their learning; the positive influence of students’ working together with
their parents, although in most cases this had been done casually. Students were satisfied
by the new style of assessment. There was unanimity by parents in their satisfaction.
Parents formulated the wish that this style of work should be extended to all subjects.
They expressed their regret concerning the following school year, when they learned that
I would not be able to assure the continuity of this kind of work, because I was placed in
a school in Lisbon.

CONCLUDING REFLECTIONS
The development of this project revealed an excellent opportunity for me to
learn. To manage the curriculum and to use assessment as a way of learning was very
enriching and gratifying to me, in particular, for my own learning and students’ learning
evolution. However, it was not easy to select the different tasks and work proposals and
to do, in real time, the necessary changes, as a result of the joint reflections and/or
individual with students, and to give an answer to students’ different questions; to
evaluate and to give feedback to students on their learning evolution; comment on
students’ work; to control and to manage the volume of information that resulted from
the different assessment events; to reflect and to write about my practices and then make
decisions about curriculum and assessment management. I learned a lot about my
students and their learning process.
This experience was more than simply six assessment forms and instruments.
This study evidenced the importance of a specific culture and a practice of consistent,
diversified and transparent assessment, in which there is real intervention of the several
factors in the assessment process. Because of this, I consider the partnership that I
established with parents as fundamental and that it transgressed my initial expectations.
Communication that was established between me and the students, between me and their
parents, and also between students and parents was essential.
The results of this experience will be useful to motivate teachers to use one or
more assessment manners and instruments to contribute to the diversification of their
assessment practices. They also will be useful for students’ and their parents’ larger
involvement in the assessment process, so that a new assessment culture emerges,
having the informal communication between teacher and student as the pivotal
instrument.

54
 TEACHING AND LEARNING INNOVATIONS IN
MATHEMATICS AND EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES:
A TEACHER’S REFLECTIONS
Marco Pelillo
Postgraduate School of Teacher Training (SSIS), Modena, (Italy)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
This contribution presents the reflection of a teacher about his experiences while
participating in the design and implementation of the teaching intervention called
algebraic modeling and solution of choice and optimization problems with a group of
mathematics teachers in secondary schools of Modena. The chosen problems of the
instructional intervention were above all focused on the development of techniques for
representation, starting from the use of arithmetic and algebraic symbols, to end up with
the graphical representation on the Cartesian plane, going through the organization of
numerical data in tabular and set forms. As a result of the intervention, the
communication processes in the class showed that satisfactory results were achieved in
terms of the relational objectives.

MY EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
My experience in teaching mathematics in lower secondary school (students
aged 10-14) started recently (in 2005) and up to now I have always been offered
temporary teaching jobs and mainly aimed at supporting students with learning problems
and at the recovery of students with difficulties working in small groups. When in 2006 I
had the opportunity to attend courses in mathematics education offered by the
Postgraduate School of Teacher Training (SSIS) at Modena to carry out an educational
training within the specialization program and finally to participate in the European
“Professional Development of Teacher-Researchers (PDTR)” Project, novelties I met in
these contexts contributed to making me question the idea of mathematics teaching I
developed in the past.
I must point out that the Italian school system entails a common teaching for
mathematics and physics, chemistry and natural sciences in lower secondary school. For
this reason teachers come from different undergraduate courses and careers. I graduated
in chemistry and initially undertook mathematics teaching without a specific training.
However, some didactical experiences at university level in the chemical-agricultural
area, before going into mathematics teaching, allowed me to realize how even students
with a high level of education in the scientific field often lack basic mathematical
notions. These problems are particularly evident in abilities linked to the interpretation
and elaboration of data, to the construction of graphs and tables, to the capacity of
identifying regularities and making predictions, to the manipulation of numerical results
and the conversion of different measurement units and orders of magnitude, or even to
the capacity of making estimations and approximations. A dramatically relevant problem
is the limited use of logical-argumentative inferences, which involves parts of the social
life that go beyond the technical aspects mentioned here.

55
 Being aware that basic mathematical culture is fragile in our society, and
realizing that a mathematical-scientific background is considered of little importance in
the wider Italian cultural panorama I decided to approach mathematics teaching
enthusiastically. As a “non-mathematician,” I have always tried to investigate my
students’ difficulties, proposing a strict comparison between possible solution strategies
for problems and trying to suggest stimuli that might empower students’ motivation
towards a subject, which is often perceived as “mechanistic” and, therefore,
“unquestionable” and substantially distant from reality. It was relatively easy to break
students’ hostility, through the promotion of the “playful” dimension of mathematics,
focusing on the “amusement” implicit in the solution of problems – viewed as riddles –
and on the actual solution of exercises through the correct application of the “rules of the
game.”
A critical moment for me, due to my fragile background in mathematics, was
when some students spontaneously asked me: “What is this for?” A naïve and
“utilitarian” answer, which highlights future implications of a mathematical content, is
also an inadequate answer; students with preconceptions, or hostile towards the subject,
will not be more motivated by the awareness that they will have to keep on studying
mathematics for the next few years, nor will they be attracted by professional openings,
in which mathematical competencies turn out to be inevitable. At most, they will submit
to study the subject uncritically. A pertinent answer to the previous question requires a
relevant effort and commitment by teachers: they must reconstruct a context rich of
meaning in which any curricular topic might be included. Contextualization might be of
a historical-epistemological type, where the emergence of interest in a given aspect of
the subject with respect to the evolution of human thought may be traced; more often, a
reflection on intra-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary connections will be needed: they
will allow teachers to locate a curricular content within a net-like system of relations.
The latter will permit the promotion of the development of students’ logical-
mathematical abilities, through a comparison to situations experienced as intellectual
challenges by students themselves, and therefore as possible answers to real learning
needs.
Teachers are thus in charge of hard and complex work and many of the current
teachers are not inclined to do that. It is enough to enter an Italian school and exchange
ideas with colleagues or rather, and this is my case, to have a privileged observational
point of view on their teaching activity as a special needs teacher working in the class
jointly with the mathematics teacher, to verify easily how mathematics is often imposed
through an old traditional scheme, through a sequence of algorithmic procedures, aimed
at getting a numeric result and completely out of context. A clear example of this is the
request to solve problems by listing numeric data and ordered calculations to get to the
desired answer. The problem’s text, either arithmetical or geometrical, is viewed as a
container from which numbers can be extracted to perform operations, and the scarce
fantasy showed by many textbooks is certainly not helpful in suggesting alternative
routes. A global view of the whole route is missing and, even though teachers might
have this view, it is not made explicit enough to the class or discussed with students.
In my opinion, what is missing is the discussion on what is actually being done,
possibly to consider alternatives to the mechanical solutions of problems or simply to
clarify why one should prefer a blind procedure rather than a thoughtful one. Working
on a non-understandable “unsaid” is a habit which becomes dramatically problematic in
the approach to algebraic calculus, usually undertaken in an advanced phase of
mathematics teaching (students aged 13-14). The traditional approach proposes late

56
introduction of negative numbers and the introduction to literal calculus through the
study of monomials and polynomials and related operations.
It is easy to realize how, even for stronger students, this route is deprived of any
reflection on the sense of these operations, on the huge implications of algebraic
calculus, on the development of mathematical thought, and on the possibilities of
generalization and application, which pertain to it. As for weaker students, who meet
enormous difficulties with this type of mechanistic approach to algebra, the solution
adopted by many teachers is to impoverish the sense of the activity, only expecting of
them memorization of a series of rules and definitions.

SSIS COURSES AND PDTR

SSIS courses in mathematics education and then PDTR certainly were to me the
first chances to get away from widespread stereotypes related to mathematics teaching
and interiorized, if not during my limited professional experience, then during a long
scholastic career as a student. In these courses I was solicited to critically think over
objectives and modalities of mathematics teaching in compulsory school and this
constituted a basis for the construction of my professionalism in this field. However, this
is a still fragile basis for me, which needs suitable time to be consolidated, time for an
individual reflection and, above all, working opportunities in the mid and long term,
which might enable me to construct a continuous teaching plan with classes of students.
Methodological inputs suggested by this training and educational process systematically
included in a theoretical framework which highlighted the need to adopt teaching
strategies that favor a shared and social construction of learning in the classroom. Those
strategies will have to be implemented in real situations and deepened within a life-long
continuing education, which only can guarantee results in the long term.
One of the first aspects highlighted by PDTR is the need for an international
observatory on mathematics teaching practice. Recent surveys carried out by the PISA
program worldwide point to the need of a common ground of mathematical and
scientific competencies on which our students will have to exchange experiences in the
future, to get prepared to a type of society characterized by global communication and
by cultural and professional exchanges that go beyond national frontiers. The first results
from the PISA test in recent years show how students from countries with a rich cultural
tradition, like Italy, hardly prove to have a sufficient level of performance in
mathematics and science. These alarming data might be partly explained by the distance
between traditional educational models and the new standardized and globalized
knowledge, and partly by the ghost of an actual involution in the levels of basic
mathematical and scientific instruction.
At the national level recent reforms of the school system as well as of the
curricula of compulsory school only partially meet the needs emerging from a
comparison at international level; in-service teacher training only involves a marginal
part of the teaching staff and it is almost exclusively carried out on a volunteer basis.
There are still limited opportunities for cultural exchanges. One of the main vehicles to
actually realize these kinds of exchanges, both among teachers and among students, is
the linguistic one. In this sense the use of English as an active language in schooled
population in Italy clearly shows the existence of a cultural gap with other European
countries. In this sense, the new teachers’ generation currently entering Italian schools is
not generally able to have direct exchanges with European colleagues using a common
language. The desired political process, which will tend to uniform European Union’s
educational systems in the next few years, thus providing opportunities for a wide

57
mobility of both teachers and students, will be a further deepened challenge for Italian
teachers.
Another fundamental aspect in mathematics teaching practice, correctly
emphasized by PDTR, is the importance of giving a laboratory-like structure to teaching
activities. The school is a laboratory itself and it is possible and dutiful to favor moments
of sharing and elaboration of educational experiences in it. The model characterized by
the mere transmission of contents from teacher to students was harshly questioned in the
last decades and, in particular, it is going to lose its effectiveness in compulsory school
teaching, especially in a society which goes through radical changes in its connective
tissue, and in which the very social perception of school is going through a crisis. On the
contrary, leaving aside traditional frontal lessons, viewed as an inevitable step by most
teachers, does not always leave room to effective teaching and learning activities. The
barriers between mental models teachers would transmit and conceptual net that students
should construct remain there and are consolidated where the misconception elaborated
by students in the adjustment of their own knowledge are not appropriately identified
and questioned.
It is exactly by letting the learning subjects express themselves that teachers
will easily manage to possibly detect rooted misconceptions through a teaching and
learning action. It can not be reduced to a simple request to students of reproducing what
teacher anticipated. It will rather be necessary to set up learning situations, in which one
single concept may be tackled from different points of view, letting students “enter the
situation,” express their own doubts, make hypotheses about the solution process and
above all, have a constructive exchange with other actors of the teaching and learning
scene, not being afraid of an immediate judgment. The discussion in the classroom is
thus a central moment of any teaching and learning activity, and it is effectively
performed when it is characterized by a real exchange among peers. In order to achieve
this, a long process needs to take place within a class, allowing students to work in an
atmosphere characterized by respect and collaboration, as opposed to an environment
based on antagonism, and leading to a gradual breaking down of the communicative
barriers between teachers and students.
It is clear that, in this kind of class-based processes the very role of the teacher
undergoes a transformation: the teacher drops the role of judge or censor and gets closer
to the role of a team coach. In this view, complex teaching and learning activities will be
favored in order to raise students’ interest and challenge them: students thus become
actors with reference to the proposed themes. Time scheduling of this type of teaching
and learning activities will necessarily envisage a phase of individual reflection on the
problem situations shown by teachers: this phase will end when each single student will
reach a partial elaboration. After this phase, the actual discussion will follow and it will
enable students to compare their solution strategies and consequently construct shared
conclusions. Sharing conclusions through teachers’ mediation will require students to be
able to exchange their ideas, test correctness of classmates’ suggestions and finally
converge to an agreement on fundamental aspects. It is a route full of obstacles, which
requires full control of the process by teacher, but most of all a prior work of reflection
upon the potential development and possible expansion of the proposed activity, which
might arise spontaneously during the class.

58
THE TEACHER TRAINING PROJECT AND THE ROLE OF MENTORS
The aspects described above were the basis for the design and planning of a
teaching intervention carried out, with reference to PDTR, as training activity within a
school where I am not a teacher. This project, entitled “Algebraic modeling and
representation of problem situations” is adapted from the first part of a wider project
outlined by a group of secondary teachers in schools based at Modena (Roberta Fiorini,
Sandra Marchi, Romano Nasi and Paola Stefani) and called as a whole, “Algebraic
modeling and solution of choice and optimization problems.”
The whole sequence, structured through the proposal of a series of problem
situations, is split into phases following the scheme:
Phase 1: Problems with 1 and 2 variables, aimed at the translation from natural language
to symbolic and algebraic language; tabular representation and introduction to
graphical representation.
Phase 2: Problems aimed at a merged use of algebraic, tabular and Cartesian
representation forms.
Phase 3: Problems of choice with organization of data and collection of information.
Phase 4: Optimization problems.
My teaching intervention proposed in a seventh-grade class of a lower
secondary school (students aged 12-13) was elaborated in collaboration with two
colleagues (Patrizia Dodi and Maria Rizzo), who implemented their activity with eighth-
grade students (aged 13-14), and was based on the design and administration of
worksheets related to 5 problem situations drawn from phases 1 and 2 of the above
mentioned teaching sequence. The teachers who designed this route formed the group of
mentors who followed the development of the teaching activity over a series of 12
sessions. It was possible to have a constant exchange with them, both in the planning
phase and in the phase of the teaching activity in the classroom.
Problems were adapted and enriched with respect to the initial proposal, so that
they might meet the educational needs of the project. In particular, we meant to propose
problems with an increasing degree of complexity and stimulate students to use
gradually higher knowledge and abilities. The chosen problems are focused, above all,
on the development of techniques for representation, starting from the use of arithmetic
and algebraic symbols, to end up with the graphical representation on the Cartesian
plane, going through the organization of numerical data in tabular and set form.
At the end of the first phase of the project familiarity with merged
representation forms might enable teachers to provide the instruments needed to tackle
real choice problems (choice between complex alternative possibilities) and optimization
(management of variable parameters in a complex situation to get the best advantages,
higher savings or any other benefit). At the very beginning of the teaching sequence I
found necessary to propose an introductory problem, aimed at testing some pre-
requisites entitled “Not much more than that.” One out of the 5 subsequent problems was
rejected during the sequence, because, together with the group of mentors, we noticed
that it did not give enough space for a spontaneous graphical representation of the
situation and privileged algebraic representations; the last problem was not tackled by
students due to time-related issues. In the frame at the end of the paper, I report the texts
of the problem I actually tackled in class.
Among the pre-requisites needed to undertake the sequence the following were
identified: (1) numerical field: familiarity with the possible extensions of the numerical
field from natural numbers to integers and rational numbers, and possibly to real
numbers; (2) operations in N and Q, operations with fractions, percentages; (3)

59
representation of numbers on the oriented line; (4) representation of points in the
Cartesian plane; and (5) inequalities and Order relations.
It is important to mention that the class I worked with had already carried out
early algebra activities within the ArAl project (Arithmetic-Algebra), based on the
introduction of equations and on the literal representation of variables (naming). This
preliminary sequence tackled by the class proved to be extremely important for the
success of my own teaching intervention.
It is nevertheless necessary to point out that among the pre-requisites that I
considered as fundamental to set up the activity within the ordinary teaching and
learning practice of the class there are competencies not strictly linked to curricular areas
of the subject: metacognitive, linguistic and relational pre-requisites, linked to students’
capacity of reflecting upon their own learning processes, expressing verbally their ideas
and comparing them constructively with their classmates’ ones. It is a very high-level
request, which was nevertheless appropriate in that context thanks to the class
mathematics teacher’s (Romano Nasi) habit to favor an exchange and collective
reflection on the themes dealt with.

RESULTS AND PERSPECTIVES

During my work the communication processes in the class showed that
satisfactory results were achieved in terms of relational objectives. The mediatory role
played by the teacher was almost always necessary to allow for a clear and logical
development of discussions, but in some moments students were able to raise
constructive exchanges among peers, being completely autonomous. High achievers
often played a leading role during the discussion, but there were no juxtaposed groups
and many of them showed they were able to change their own beliefs, after accepting
others’ argumentation. Low achievers were able to gradually overcome their shyness
and, in the last lessons, they intervened more actively and spontaneously in the
discussion, showing involvement in and attention to the teaching sequence.
As to the contents, I can point out that aspects related to graphical
representation were potentially the most motivating ones for students of all levels; in
particular, they refer to experiences already made by students and can be widely used to
introduce problem situations rather than as consequences of the latter. Spontaneous
graphical representations are not only Cartesian ones; therefore, it is possible to open up
a comparison between the different types of graphs and on the adequacy of each one to
represent different problem situations. On the contrary, formal aspects that characterize
the problems chosen in the sequence (use of symbolic language, naming, order relations,
inequalities), also with reference to students’ age, caused the main difficulties and would
require parallel supporting activities involving simple exercises of construction of
numerical intervals, representation on the oriented line, identification of variables and
constants, translation from verbal to symbolic language.
As to the latter aspect, I would underline that the relevance of linguistic aspects
of mathematics was to me one of the main discoveries during the PDTR meetings.
Through the training activity I actually saw the relevance of linguistic obstacles, which
make the interpretation of texts with a mathematical content problematic well before
their translation into the most typical languages of this discipline (numerical, algebraic,
tabular and graphical). For many students this process implies an extremely hard move
from a narrative context to a logical-relational one. This aspect is often neglected in the
ordinary mathematics teaching activity, whereas it would require an in-depth reflection
by teachers, especially in our Italian society, in which the number of foreign students

60
poses problems about the use of language in all the subject matters.

OBSERVING, OBSERVING ONESELF, BEING OBSERVED

One last reflection I consider relevant as to the teaching intervention I described
relates to a methodological aspect inherent in the observation of the activity I carried out.
I worked with a class of which I am not a teacher and therefore I could avail myself of a
constant support by the class teacher, who regularly pointed out the weaknesses of my
own teaching approach: scarce communicative clarity in some moments, excessively
repeated requests to students, slow rhythms in the class-based processes, etc. This
precious contribution was further enriched by the opportunity of a mutual observation of
each other’s intervention carried out by myself and colleague Patrizia Dodi in our
respective classes. This opportunity allowed for an ongoing evaluation of the quality of
the project proposed in different contexts, besides helping me to compare my own style
to that of another teacher involved in the same activities. It is an experience which
convinced me about the validity of activities carried out jointly by two teachers, with the
aim of improving one’s professional performances.
Finally, since the whole teaching sequence was video recorded, the careful
analysis of the recordings strongly highlighted the main features of my own modus
operandi in the classroom. It is embarrassing and instructive at the same time to see
yourself during a class, to find out that in different moments you were not clear enough,
that you did not grasp immediately the opportunities offered by students to guide the
lesson towards fertile grounds for a discussion. Moreover, video recordings were
precious instruments for a posterior study of the discussion process, as well as for
grasping different aspects of each single student’s participation in the activities.

PROPOSED PROBLEM SITUATIONS

1. Not much more than that
On a shelf we put some flour and some sugar, as long as we get to 10 kg. How much sugar and how
much flour can I put?
Would 2 kg of flour and 5 kg of sugar be ok?
Yes, together they are 7 kg, less than 10.
Would 7 kg of flour and 7 of sugar be ok?
No, because the sum is greater than 10.
Would 6 kg of sugar and 4 of flour be ok?
No, because we must not get to 10 kg.
Let’s represent these cases in a Cartesian graph.
a) - Would 7 kg of sugar and 2 of flour be ok?
- Would 6 kg of flour and 10 of sugar be ok?
- Would 9 kg of flour be ok?
- What about 9 kg of sugar?
b) – Suggest other quantities of sugar and flour and decide whether they fit with the request not to
get to 10 kg.
c) – Now that you inserted many points in the plane, can you say in what position are the points
which refer to acceptable quantities of flour and sugar?
And where are the points to throw away?
– Did you identify the two regions which indicate acceptable points and non-acceptable points?
How are they separated?

2. The illustrated book

A book for children features 25 fairy-tales and it is richly illustrated; each fairy-tale is illustrated
with a number of images ranging from 8 to 15.
a) What are the minimum and maximum values for the illustrations included in the book?
The book illustrator received from the publisher 30 Euros for each illustration.
b) What is the range of values for the illustrator’s pay?

61
 The second edition of the fairy-tales book will prospectively have 300 illustrations altogether; the
publisher enters into a new contract with the illustrator, agreeing on a variable pay, depending on the
complexity of the illustrations, ranging from 20 to 45 Euros.
c) How much might the illustrator get?
Represent the situations using the language of mathematics in the form you see as more appropriate.

3. Big feed with cream puffs

Some cream and chocolate puffs are displayed in a confectioner’s window.
The former cost 0.60 Euros, the latter 0.90 Euros.
Pietro buys 8 puffs, we don’t know which type though.
Marco, instead, buys 8 to 12 puffs, all of the cheapest type.
Represent the situation using the language of mathematics in the form you see as more appropriate.
In your opinion, which boy might have spent more money?
If only 3 out of the puffs bought by Pietro are filled with chocolate, how many puffs can Marco buy
at most, in order to spend less money than his friend?
If Marco buys 10 puffs and Pietro spends more money, how many chocolate puffs can Pietro buy?

4. The cake
Marco’s mum wants to bake a cake with a new recipe. She needs butter and margarine in quantities
that may vary within certain limits.
She has small 25 grams butter and margarine packets. Butter ones are not more than 8 and margarine
ones are not more than 7.
For the cake she needs 5 to 10 small packets altogether, and she’d better use more butter than
margarine.
Represent the situation using mathematical language and ask yourself how many butter packets and
how many margarine packets that mum can choose for her cake.

REFERENCES
Anichini G., Arzarello F., Ciarrapico l., Robutti O. (2001). “Matematica 2001.” La
matematica per il cittadino, attività didattiche e prove di verifica per un nuovo
curricolo di matematica - ciclo secondario, liceo scientifico Vallisneri. Lucca:
Matteoni stampatore.
OCSE. (2002). Sample Tasks from the Pisa Assessment: Reading, Mathematical and
Scientific Literacy. Paris.
--- (2003). Assessment Framework: Mathematics, Reading, Science and Problem
Solving. Paris. [Italian translation: Pisa 2003: valutazione dei quindicenni,
Armando, Roma).
Iaderosa R. (2003). Grafici e funzioni: aspetti algebrici, geometrici e di modellizzazione
del reale. Bologna: Pitagora.
Prodi G. (1975-79). Matematica come scoperta. Firenze: D’Anna.
Speranza F., Rossi Dall’Acqua A. (1979). Il linguaggio della matematica. Bologna:
Zanichelli.

62
 MATHEMATICAL COMPETITION IN SIEDLCE
AIMING AT SKILL TO LEARN MATHEMATICS
Alina Przychoda
Complex of Secondary Schools no. 3 with Integration Units, Siedlce
(Poland)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In order to arouse interest in learning mathematics as a language to communicate, to
predict, and to explain, i.e. in PISA style mathematics, each year a competition is
organized in Siedlce, a small town, 100 kilometers east of Warsaw. Each year the
competition focuses on a chosen topic outside of the obligatory school curriculum. Two
groups of students, juniors and seniors listen to an inaugural lecture on that chosen
topic and are given some problems to study and presentation by mail and e-mail. The
competition has three stages and the study goes deeper at every stage, up to the final
sitting session. It seems that this way special ethos for independent learning of
mathematics as a language is aroused in the community and vicinity. A large number of
participants every year means that mathematical topics that are left outside of
obligatory curriculum and studied as a choice by free will might be attractive for young
people and give them satisfaction.

KEY WORDS:
Competition, problems solving, PISA style mathematics, mathematics as a language

The basic document indicating main goals of general education in Poland is a

legal act voted by the Polish Parliament (Sejm), and it is called Program Basis (Podstawa
Programowa). It is stated there that the main aim of mathematical education is
developing of mathematical perceptibility, intellectual skills and attitudes, reasoning, and
analyzing.
In spite of that strong intent, there were in recent years sharp topic cuts in
external mathematical exams, and as a result, sharp programmatic cuts in schools. In
middle school (gimnazjum, students aged 13-16), both trigonometric proportions and
functions are now absent, in high school (lyceum, students aged 17-19), there were sharp
cuts in geometry, there are no vectors, and only a few spatial shapes, no exponential or
logarithmic functions, no steps into direction of calculus, not even derivatives. In spite of
declarations about developing spatial imagination, there is practically no motivation for
it, as it is absent at the exams.
As a consequence school mathematics has become boring rather than luring
students into studying of that subject. The main aim of activity at a typical mathematical
lesson is preparation for exams which are narrow topic-wise but very strict in traditional
grading in a preconceived system of allocation of scoring points.
Three years ago, together with a group of friends, members of the Polish
Association of Teachers of Mathematics in Siedlce, I decided to counteract this
tendency. Since that time, we organize a mathematical competition each year, called

63
“Turniej Wiedzy Matematycznej,” TWM, (Tournament of Mathematical Knowledge and
Skills) which is different from other such initiatives since it aims at topic broadening of
mathematical skills and competency, and encouraging skill learning in topics outside of
obligatory curriculum. The start of PDTR was an additional incentive for this activity.
The TWM Competition is for students aged 14-19 and it is divided into two
categories: junior (students aged 14-16) and senior (16-19). Participation is voluntary.
TWM is held annually, and it has three stages every year. It directs students’ attention to
the topics outside of school curriculum, to independent learning and studying, and
building independent inquisitive attitudes toward mathematics in broad semantical
context, so as to stimulate mathematical development in both categories of students. This
way of formulating the goal of the TWM was chosen in order to take advantage of the
young age expressed in the concept of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development and our
belief that if not used at the proper time in the process of development of young students,
then the opportunity given by that zone may not return. By analogy, everybody knows
that foreign languages should be taught and learned early in life with good semantic
rooting, developing meaning rather than abstract formal structures. Mathematics in the
style promoted by PISA is less formal than in traditional style and it is much more like a
language used to communicate, to explain, and to predict. Such style is appealing not
only to the able and motivated but also to average students.
The idea of TWM was also to probe the feasibility of introducing by another
channel, for those who wish, the important topic areas of mathematics that were
practically cancelled out from the school mathematical curriculum in Poland. Each year,
we focus our attention at one topic area. The topics chosen in the past years were the
following: (i) complex numbers (school year 2005/6); (ii) vectors (school year 2006/7);
(iii) geometry and visualizing in the problem solving PISA style (school year 2007/8).
Each year the TWM is opened by a lecture, explaining the topic area to the
participants, followed by distribution of some written materials for further study and
problem solving. After collecting the papers from participants, directly or via e-mail, the
next round follows. Those who pass this stage are invited to the sitting session at the
local university, the papers are assessed with comments, and those who are successful
are invited to the final session for a short lecture, diplomas, and modest prizes.
Every year evaluation is oriented toward checking the validity of our claims that
we stimulate interest in mathematics and independent study of it. It helped to introduce
some improvements in the management of the competition. We clearly noticed the
increase in ethos for independent study. There were motivated participants not only from
Siedlce but also from distant areas. The contact was not only with participant students
but also with their teachers, and in many cases with parents. From the first year on, the
number of participants exceeded our expectations. In 2005/6 – the first year of TWM –
there were over 800 applications. Because there was no lecture hall of that size, we were
forced to accept only 8-10 students from each school. Still, there were too many
students, around 400, and we had to hold the initial session twice, since the biggest
lecture hall could accommodate not more than 180.
In the consecutive years the numbers were at the same level. The initial topic
lecture and other materials were put on the web in the consecutive years, so that we do
not have to deny participation to too many students.
We adopted PISA style grading system and it was much to satisfaction of the
participants and their teachers. Visual argumentation was encouraged. Mathematics as a
language is visual, not only geometry is visual, even algebraic formulas are perceived
visually. Visual communication was encouraged and it was accepted. Students used

64
graphs and sketches freely, more frequently than usual. Evaluation of the TWM
competition was by questionnaires and interviews. Also the number of participants was
to some extent a significant indication. Here are some positive observations from
questionnaires and interviews: (1) Does interest in mathematics grow among students?
Yes, it seems so; there are frequent enquiries for more details about the topic of the year.
A frequent demand is that the initial lecture should elaborate deeper on the topic chosen;
(2) Does it stimulate teachers? Yes, many students at the initial lectures are accompanied
by their teachers, which initially was a problem because of the size of the lecture hall.
There are also growing contacts with teachers of the participants; (3) Is the specific
mathematical ethos growing? It seems so. Anyway, communication between participants
and their teachers increases, also communication and relationships between participants;
(4) Is social acceptance in the community positive? Among parents? Local authorities?
The material gathered by means of questionnaires each year is positive, and
each year a little different. For instance, communication by the web increases, and
broader questions emerge, much more specific than before. There was a strong interest
in the topic area for the following year. The questions about it are more specific and
deeper. Parents that come to the final session with the students tell interesting stories
about growing interests of their offspring. There are interesting differences among
participants from different schools.
Differences in style between argumentation and visual communication of the
students of the two age groups of participants are interesting, especially when they
approach the same mathematical problem. Here is one of the problems:

Chessboard
How many squares are there on this picture?
Five!
Can you see it?
How many squares are there on 3 × 3?
And on 4 × 4?
How many squares are there on the chessboard?
And how many on n × n board?

And here are two examples of how it was approached in the two groups, junior and
senior:

65
 A junior aged 14

He notices the number of squares and gives their sizes. He also notices the
number of components of the sum. The smallest squares are unit squares. In case of the
chessboard 8 × 8, he remarks that the drawing is on the scale given by the ratio 1:0.75

66
and ends up giving an algebraic expression for the number of all squares at the
chessboard n × n.

67
A senior aged 17
He begins in a similar way, looking visually for pattern, which would give him
a hint.

68
 He graphically expresses how he enumerates all the squares, which are seen on
the chessboard. He shows some regularity in this activity.

He explains these observations by some arithmetical formulas and finally, he

writes the general algebraic formula for any number n:

69
 In spite of a three-year age difference between them, both students are
reasoning in a similar way and arrive at the same conclusion. The senior only explains
his formula but he does not try to prove it, as a sentence with the general quantifier: “For
every natural n, etc.” It seems that he considers n in his formula as an arbitrary constant,
not as a variable under the quantifier. At this stage of mathematical development, it is
mathematically correct. It would be interesting to see how these two will develop, and if
they show up the next year. The TWM Competition gives us a lot of such comparative
data.
At the first stage of the TWM in 2007/8, one of the problems given to
participants for explanation was called “Żaby” [Frogs, sometimes also called in English
“Leapfrogs”]. This is a well-known problem for people in Polish Association of
Teachers of Mathematics (Zawadowski, 1997; Mostowski, 1999; Mason, 2005). The
problem was included in the collection of problems Ziarenka [Seed Problems]. All
members of Polish ATM know the collection. These problems are sometimes called
“Starting Points” to express the idea that they are only starting problems and all possible
generalizations and extensions in the mathematical style are welcome. The problem is
the following:
There are seven places in a row and six counters: three white, and three black counters, called
“frogs” and a free place in the middle. White and black frog should exchange places, like that:

You may shift a frog to a neighboring free place

or leap over a frog to land at an empty place

Using only these two kinds of moves, you should change the places of white and black frogs. Which
is the smallest possible number of moves to this aim? Investigate the problem for different number
of counters.

We noticed that both junior and senior students started their investigation by
considering concrete cases. Students represented visually the frog movements, and
considered cases with two, three or four frog of the same color:

70
 Then, they completed a table for these cases showing the smallest number of
moves for a given number of frogs of a given color, using ad hoc symbols like 3 × 3 with
obvious metonymical shift of meaning.

Then, they looked for regularities and tried to find a pattern and fit in a formula.

71
 No junior student considered types of frog movements. It was enough for them
to discover the formula. The senior students did. Seniors gave not only the number of
moves required but also how many of each kind.

One of the students noticed separately the number of shifts and of leaps.
Another student noticed the symmetry of the situation and used it in a reasonable way.

72
 The TWM continues to be interesting for students. The number of participants
grows, so that we have to repeat the inauguration lecture twice and have to use the web
for continuation and topic refinement. There are students who are “veteran participants”
and some that are new. All of them know that they will not meet the kind of problems
from TWM at exams, or at traditional lessons. They know that participation in TWM is
time consuming and needs a lot of work. So perhaps our dream that the mathematical
ethos of PISA style problem solving will increase in our community slowly comes true.

REFERENCES
Lockhart, P. (2008). “A Mathematician’s Lament.” MAA online.
http://www.maa.org/devlin/devlin_03_08.html
Mason, J., Burton, L., Stacey, K. (2005). Matematyczne myślenie. [Thinking
Mathematically]. Warszawa: WSIP. 60-65.
Mostowski, K. (1999). “Magia Liczb.” NiM 31/32, 32-33.
Points of Departure: An Activity Book. (1990). Association of Teachers of Mathematics.
Przychoda, A. (2006). “Turniej matematyczny na temat liczb zespolonych w Siedlcach i
okolicy.” NiM 55.
Ziarenka 1-4. (2005). [Seed Problems 1-4]. Polish Association of Teachers of
Mathematics SNM 1991-1992.
Zawadowski, W. (1997) “Edukacja matematyczna.” NiM 22, 7-8.

73
74
 THE USE OF VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS FOR
ALGEBRAIC CO-CONSTRUCTION
Pili Royo* & Joaquin Gimenez**
*IES Montilivi, Girona (Spain)
**Barcelona University (Spain)
*[email protected], **[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to present conversation forums in a virtual environment, as
a preliminary study exploring the possibilities that they offer as mediators on the co-
construction of learning algebra for students aged 13-14. Co-construction is observed
and analyzed.

KEY WORDS:
Algebra, conversation, electronic environments

INTRODUCTION
Traditional instruction begins with the syntactic rules of algebra. Students are
expected to master the skills of symbolic manipulation. The mathematical context is
taken as the starting-point while the applications of algebra (like problem solving or
generalizing relations) come in the second place. It leads to the following four problems:
(a) problems related to the content, like the general tendency to consider algebra as part
of the curriculum devoted to the development of techniques; (b) problem of lack of
motivation among the students (Kaput, 2000, 2); (c) problem of management of the time
that usually is granted to students to mature and to express their mathematical ideas; (d)
problem of students aged 13-14 who are not used to solving problems using strategies, in
which algebraic language and tools are involved.
The purpose of this paper is to encourage teachers to guide students to find out
the powers and possibilities of algebra for themselves. In order to achieve it we raise the
possibility of using conversation forums to discuss and to look for strategies of solving
problems in a collaborative environment. Using forums allows students to become the
center of their own learning. Teachers should change their role from control and
infallible source of information to the designer and moderator facilitating discourse and
scaffolding by providing direct instruction (Anderson, 2001). In this experience
knowledge is accepted as constructed through interactions between and among teachers
and students. We will see some examples of tasks and tools used as mediators in order to
improve the teaching and learning of algebra from the use of natural language to a
progressive co-construction of algebraic language. Our purpose is not the analysis of
these difficulties, but exploration of possibilities that conversation forums offer as
mediators in the co-construction of learning (Mueller, Maher and Powell, 2007).
Mathematical tasks determine the behavior of students grappling with them. But tasks
are always tasks-in-some-context and the nature of the context also becomes a
component of the determining matrix.

75
FRAMEWORK
Three general aspects are included as framework for this research: algebraic
perspective, socio-constructive approach of teaching and learning, and shared meanings
using ICT. The co-construction of solutions is to be an interactive process, by which
questions and challenges to individual ideas yield responses that produce greater detail
and refinement of arguments. The understanding of algebra is a set of affirmations, in
which it is possible to produce meaning in terms of numbers and arithmetical operations
(Lins & Giménez, 1997, 137). They possibly include equality or inequality, in which six
forms of algebraic reasoning are involved: (i) generalizing and formalizing, (ii) algebra
as syntactically-guided manipulation, (iii) algebra as the study of structures, (iv) algebra
as the study of functions, (v) relations and joint variation, (vi) and algebra as a modeling
language (Kaput, 1998).
But we also take into account different ways present in algebraic thinking in
early grades: (i) analyzing relationships between quantities, (ii) noticing structure, (iii)
studying change, (iv) generalizing, (v) problem solving, (vi) modeling, (vii) justifying,
(viii) proving, and (ix) predicting, (Kieran, 2004, 149)
According to Boaler (2003), teachers in traditional classes give a lot of
information, while teachers in the reformed classes chose to draw information out of
students by presenting problems and asking questions. Our main hypothesis is that the
forum of conversation, as a CMO form, can turn out to be a useful instrument to solve or
discuss problems jointly. It allows for reflection during the necessary time to have access
to different points of view or contributions, to review what is attempted to be
communicated before sending it. It combines characteristics of the spoken and written
speech that can facilitate collective learning (Balacheff, 1998).
According to Weimar (1998), the nature of the mathematics classroom can be
changed through the use of linked technology. This work is a small sample of changes
that can take place in the classroom when students can hold conversations about
mathematics, receive individualized and personal support, and participate in
collaborative problem solving with other partners (Bairral & Gimenez, 2004). The
condition of transformation agents assigned to the ICT is worth to be taken into account
for conceiving deliberate interventions to change the pedagogical models, the practices
in the classroom, and the curricular contents in educative systems in order to lead the
students towards a significant and satisfactory learning (Rojano, 2003, 138). Our general
project aims to ensure teachers that technology is actually an efficient learning resource,
a means to acquire technical attitude and skill required to tackle a problem successfully,
not just an optional software module.

METHODOLOGY
An experiment was conducted to recognize, which types of conversation about
the developing strategies of resolution of algebraic problems are influenced by such a
collaborative environment. The population for the study were three groups of students
aged 13-14 from a public secondary school in Girona (Spain). The experiment was
developed during two months. The whole class attended the computer classroom once a
week during the year 2006/07. This paper analyzes three problems and their
conversation forums on the virtual environment Moodle, which is new, both for teacher
and students. Moodle is a course management system, a software package designed to
help educators create quality online courses and manage learner outcomes. The design
and development of Moodle are based upon a particular philosophy of learning, a way of
thinking that is referred to in shorthand as “socio-constructive pedagogy.” The problems

76
have been presented in order to solve them after arguing and discussion through the
conversation forums designed for it. At the end each student had to present an individual
task.

Figure 1. Scheme of empirical experiment as a Design based Research

The general course comprises a combination of learning activities for students,

such as Assignment, Chat, Choice, Forum, Glossary, Journal, Lesson, Wiki, and
Workshop. The data consists of the dialogues on the forums, the results of a written
individual test responded by the students at the end of the experience, a survey written
after the experience, and teacher’s observations during the process. In this experiment
the classroom teacher performed the role of teacher investigating about her own
professional practice following a cyclic process. As the diagram shows, it implies an
iterative and evolutionary process that requires a series of experimentation, evaluations
and readjustments. Let us see the problems used in our analysis.

A ping-pong match
If in a ping-pong championship n players play. What is the total number of parties that will gamble?
Hens and pigs
In a farm there are 18 animals, hens and pigs all together. The number of legs is 50. How many hens
and how many pigs are there?
Divisions
Which is the smallest number such that when divided by 4, 5, and 6 always returns 3 as the
remainder?

All the conversations were observed (Figure 1) and codified in terms of

considering types of reasoning, use of concepts, procedures and representations. They
are analyzed according to arguments (Mueller, Maher & Powell, 2007).

Re: hens and pigs

from Natàlia - Friday, 31 March , 11:52
Merce, I don’t understand what you did.

77
 Re: hens and pigs
from Mercè - Friday, 31 March, 12:01
I have found the number of pigs by chance. But when you have already found the pigs, you find the hens.
It seems difficult but it is not it as much. Try it!!
Re: hens and pigs
from Natàlia - Friday, 31 March, 12:05
Anyway, I believe we could put “n” instead of finding the number by chance. Thus, it would be like an
equation… is it ok?
Figure 2: A fragment of conversation from the forum belonging to the “Hens
and pigs” problem.

DISCUSSION
Some children’s remarks are important to understand their attitude. Children did
not perceive seven weeks (once a week) as a long time for doing the task. As they say, it
allows you “to take your time.” After this consideration and after the experience the
teacher even considers that this time has not been sufficient enough. They also think this
way is better than others because they have access to more “opinions.” The coexistence
of both types, actual and online interventions, is perceived by students as a better way
than only one of them.
Observing the forum conversations we found several important issues. Children
read the interventions of their partners much more often than they write in the forum.
This can be associated with more reflexive interventions when they do them. Interactions
between students of similar and different cognitive levels take place. In the design of
these forums teachers have to consider the difficulty of some mathematical expressions.
Significant learning is produced by seeing the evolution of writings. The ICT tool is not
an obstacle to express arithmetic relations (Fig. 3) even using emoticons.

Figure 3. Juli and Javi writings

Some explicit generalizations were found, even without a good symbolic

manipulation. We can see some examples in Figure 4 and 5.

78
 Figure 4.1 Explaining a generalization

Moodle resources seemed not to generate specific difficulties for using

particular strategies, because people can attach scanned documents with their comments.
Regular writings are used as artifacts to communicate mathematical ideas.

Figure 5: Explaining a particular strategy

Many relations were found and expressed in different languages and

representations, even without good final results. Some examples are showed in Figures
6, 7 and 8.

1
We noticed that 3 small sticks are needed in order to make the first triangle. Afterwards, it is only necessary
to add two sticks every time. So, we take 2x+1 sticks to have x triangles, because we suppose 2 sticks for each
triangle, and 1 more at the begining.

79
 Figure 6. Figure 7. Figure 8.2

Students achieve self-confidence in their own strategies, as shown by the

examples in Figures 9, 10 and 11. It also means that there is a need for including
traditional writings to explicit their personal comments.

Figure 9 and 10.

In our preliminary results, we found that many students move from re-iterating
ideas of others to expanding on ideas and finally to jointly co-constructing solutions.

2
Solve the equation 2n+14=6n+2 ; n.2=x ; x+14= just like to multiply the number by 6 + 2
R) Eg) 3 . 2 =6 ; 6+ 14 = 20; 3 . 6 = 18; 18 + 2 = 20
R) The number is 3

80
 Figure 11.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
A reflection on the process and the results of this study brings to consider that
on this level the conversation about mathematics through electronic forums can both
affect the motivation of the students and act like mediators in the construction of
algebraic knowledge. In addition, the characteristics of their repercussions in the
learning and in the role of the teacher deserve to be taken in consideration. Our
experiment is one component in a much wider learning setting, which encompasses
Moodle lessons conveying the theoretical concepts and self-assessment tools,
Teachers need to guide the pedagogical setting towards situations in which
relevant aspects are discussed, such as posing questions related to the critical analysis of
contexts or the necessity for the generation of new and useful information to promote
attention (Ainley & Luntley, 2007). According to the reflection inspired by this study,
the roles of the teacher using Moodle environment that must be taken in consideration
are: (a) design and organization of the learning experience, (b) maintaining proper
articulation of activities and conceptual matters by selecting representative algebraic
problems to encourage discourse, (c) detection of possibilities, difficulties, etc. (d) guide
and scaffolding when necessary, (e) promoting participation of all the students, (f)
promoting a progressive way of abstraction and generalization processes, (g) promoting
reflection, conjecture and experimentation, (h) legitimize students’ directions of inquiry,
redirect their attention, encourage certain initiatives and discourage others, (i)
assessment and evaluation of the activity.
We found that critical thinking (Bairral & Giménez, 2004) and the increasing
use of argumentation through online interactions to develop metacognitive ability are
closely aligned with the aims of progressive inquiry. Online asynchronous interaction is
not a problem for constituting a community of practice, in which remote experimentation
provides a simple way to consolidate knowledge. Furthermore, as Heids (1998) points
out, collaborative work with the help of the technological tools can help to increase
students’ autonomy. This methodology aids students in gaining competence in working
both independently and in team, managing time effectively and using computer
resources appropriately. The implementation and research experience also act as a
technological professional development for the teacher as teacher-researcher but also for

81
the experienced mathematics education researcher. To understand the classroom as a
learning community is also to notice observation that improves students’ capabilities in
mathematical activities. The action-research process acts as a new consideration for
artifacts never imagined by the teacher as researcher.

REFERENCES
Ainley, J., & Luntley, M. (2007). “The Role of Attention in Expert Classroom Practice.”
Journal of Mathematical Teacher Education. 10, 3-22.
Anderson, T. (2001). Theory and Practice of Online Learning. T. Anderson & F.
Elloumi (eds.). Athabasca University. Retrieved March 14th, 2006. 11, 273-294.
http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/index.html
Bairral, M. & Giménez, J. (2004). “Diversity of Geometric Practices in Virtual
Discussion Groups.” Proceedings of PME 28. Bergen. 1, 281.
Boaler, J. (2003). “Studying and Capturing the Complexity of Practice: The Case of
Dance of Agency.” Proceedings of the 27th PME Int. Conference. 1, 3-16.
Computer Support for Collaborative Learning (Bergen Norway 2003, Taipei Taiwan
2005, Computer Supported Cooperative Work Chicago USA 2004). Retrieved on
July 19th, 2007 http://www.acm.org/cscw2004/.
Heid, M. K. (1998). The Impact of Computing Technology on the Teaching and
Learning of Mathematics at the Secondary Level: Implications for Standards 2000.
The Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved on July 20th, 2006.
http://mathforum.org/technology/papers/papers/heid/heid.html
Kaput, J. (2000). Teaching and Learning a New Algebra with Understanding. University
of Massachusetts–Dartmouth. Retrieved on January 12th, 2006
http://www.simcalc.umassd.edu/downloads/KaputAlgUnd.pdf
Lins, R., & Giménez, J. (1997). Perspectivas em Aritmética e Álgebra para o século
XXI. São Paulo: Papirus.
Moodle For Teachers, Trainers And Administrators. GNU General Public License
Version 2, June 1991.
Mueller, M., Maher, C., Powell, A (2007) “The Co-Construction of Arguments by
Middle School Students.” Proceedings of the 29th Annual Meeting of the North
American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics
Education, Stateline (Lake Tahoe). T. Lamberg & L.R. Wiest. (eds.). NV:
University of Nevada, Reno.
Rojano, T. (2003). “Incorporación de entornos tecnológicos de aprendizaje a la cultura
escolar: proyecto de innovación educativa en matemáticas y ciencias en escuelas
secundarias públicas de México.” Revista Ibeoramericana de Educación. 33, 135-
165
Weimar, S. (1998). Using the Internet for Mathematics Education.” Retrieved on July
19th, 2006 http://mathforum.org/technology/papers/papers/weimar.html

82
 PART 2
EXPERIMENTS
USING PISA
SAMPLE
QUESTIONS
 MATHEMATICS TESTS
Tünde Kántor
University of Debrecen, Debrecen (Hungary)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The paper presents condensed information on mathematics tests and ways of solving
them. This is followed by an analysis of the relation of students’ mathematical knowledge
and PISA test. Finally, the use of tests as school assessment tool in Hungary is shown.

TESTS
A test is a systematic procedure for comparing two or more persons. There are
many different types: (i) intelligence test, (ii) assessment test, (iii) competence test, (iv)
neuro-psychological test, (v) behavioral test, (vi) educational test, (vii) mathematics
competitions. In mathematical tests there are a variety of forms: (1) alternative choice
(false or true); (2) multiple choice: (a) one right answer (for example out of five
answers), (b) more right answers, (c) searching for the best answer, (d) searching for the
wrong answer; (3) connection of answers and facts; (4) choice of response: (a) open
constructed response, (b) short response, (c) long response, and (d) essays.

Standardized tests
Standardized test is a test administered and scored in a standard manner. These
tests are designed so that the questions, the conditions for scoring procedures are
predetermined. There are two types of standardized tests: (1) norm-referenced tests,
which are associated with traditional education and knowledge; and (2) criterion-
referenced tests, which are associated with competencies.

Advantages and disadvantages of the tests

A well-designed standardized test provides an assessment of students’
knowledge, skills or competencies, and it gives useful information. We have to mention
the problems of students’ and teachers’ attitude to tests. Many students occasionally
guess. They choose their answer by chance. They mark their answers on the answer
sheet without thinking, without knowing anything about the content. We have to pay
attention to students’ conduct when selecting tests. It is better to choose the multiple-
choice form with five answers; here the score does not depend so much on luck. For
teachers a test is a model. They teach the subject matter the way it is tested. We have to
know that tests are not valid as evaluative tool near the bottom of the score’s range.

Characteristics of tests: (a) reliability (b) validity (c) effectiveness.

METHODS OF SOLVING TESTS

Students like to solve tests. Competitors told us that it is a joy, a challenge, a
focus on mathematical experiment. The methods and tactics of solving test problems are
different: from the typical mathematical problem solving methods through clever
guessing and systematic trials, up to guessing, the role of which is growing. The written

85
solutions, where reasoning from the assumptions to the answer is important, are not
required. Competitors can work forward and backward, too. They have to make
decisions quickly and relatively well. It is important to make computations without
mistakes. The knowledge of general mathematical theorems and the exploitation of the
symmetry principle are useful. We found another problem in filling the answer sheets:
students make mistakes because they have to pay more attention to right marking.
The method of substitution of the choices is a special method to solve multiple-
choice test problems. We shall present and compare two different methods for solving a
test problem, a traditional method and the above-mentioned substitution method.

Problem
2
For which k are the roots of the equation x + 2 (k + 2) x + 9 k = 0 equal?
(A) 4 (B) 1 or 4 (C) 0 or 4 (D) -1 or 4 (E) 2 or - 4

Solutions
1. Standard method. First, we calculate the value of the discriminant: D= 4(k+2)2- 36k.
The roots are equal if D = 0, i.e. k1= 1, k2 = 4. Answer B is right.
2. Method of substitution
It seems best to try at first the value k = 4. Then the equation becomes (x + 6)2 = 0.
Possible answers could be: A, B, C. We have to check another value too. We can easily
recognize that k = 0 is a wrong and drop answer C. For k = 1 we get again (x + 3)2 = 0.
So we got the proper answer: B.

ABOUT THE PISA ASSESSMENT

PISA presents students with problems set in real-world situations. The goal of
the PISA assessment is to obtain results about how students can apply their mathematical
knowledge and competencies to solve such a kind of problems successfully. In
traditional mathematics education students learn arithmetical techniques, completing an
arithmetic computation and solving different types of equations, equation-systems,
inequalities; geometric properties and relationships; combinatorics, probability and
statistics; some relevant concepts, skills; and methods of proving theorems.

How is mathematics competency measured in PISA?

PISA measures mathematics performance in three dimensions: (1) mathematical
content, (2) the processes involved, and (3) the situations in which problems are posed.

Mathematical content
The different problems and questions are related to the following four areas: (1)
space and shape, (2) change and relationships, (3) quantity, and (4) uncertainty.
Traditionally, this content covers the knowledge of algebra, arithmetic, geometry,
functions and probability.

Processes
The processes involved need to connect the observed phenomena with
mathematics. Beginning with real world problem students have to organize it according
to mathematical concepts. They have to transform it into a mathematical form by making
simplifying assumptions. They need to identify the relevant mathematical concepts, then
perform mathematical operations, make a mathematical model, and re-translate the result

86
into the original problem, into the real world. In this process various competencies are
required: (i) thinking and reasoning, (ii) argumentation, (iii) communication, (iv)
modeling, (v) problem posing and solving, (vi) representing, and (v) using symbolic,
formal and technical language and operations.
PISA distinguishes three competency clusters: (1) reproduction cluster, (2)
connections cluster, and (3) reflection cluster.
The items of the reproduction clusters are relatively familiar and essentially
require the reproduction of practiced knowledge, such as knowledge of facts and
common problem representations, recognition of equivalencies, recollection of familiar
mathematical objects and properties, performance of routine procedures, application of
standard algorithms and technical skills, manipulation of expressions containing symbols
and formulas in familiar and standard form, and carrying out straight-forward
computations. The connections cluster builds on solving problems that are not simply
routine, but still involve somewhat familiar settings or slightly extend and develop
beyond the familiar. Problems used here typically involve greater interpretation
demands, and require making links between different representations of the situation, or
linking different aspects of the problem situation in order to develop a solution. The
problems addressed using the competencies in the reflection cluster involve more
elements than the others, and additional demands typically arise for students to
generalize and to explain their results.

Situations
There are four types of situations: (1) personal situations, which directly relate
to students’ personal daily activities; (2) educational or occupational situations, which
appear in a student’s life at school, or in a work situation; (4) public situations relating to
the local and broader community. They require students to observe some aspects of their
broader surroundings; (5) scientific situations, more abstract, involving the
understanding of a technological process, a theoretical situation, or an explicit
mathematical problem (“intra- mathematical” context).
The PISA assessment items were constructed to cover these different
dimensions.

MATHEMATICS TESTS IN HUNGARY

In the years of the PISA tests (2000, 2003) in Hungarian schools tests were not
used for assessment in mathematics. In other subjects (foreign languages or biology) the
teachers used that form, so tests were not unknown to students, but they were not expert
at filling and solving mathematics tests. In this subject only highly able students
encountered tests used in some competitions: American Mathematical Competitions
(AHSME, AIME, AMC 10, AMC 12 grade 9-12), Zrínyi Competitions (grade 1-8),
Kangaroo Competitions (grade 9-12), Gordiusz Competitions (grade 9-12) (from the
1990s). We found correlation between the traditional competencies and competitor’s
competencies of this kind of mathematics. Since 2005 some parts of the mathematical
final examination assumed the test format (grade 12). So our students were not
accustomed to solving test problems, they did not know the methods of solving tests. If
we look at the history of Hungarian education we find that some educators applied tests
in mathematics since World War I (Éltes) and at some schools in physics in the 1930s (in
Debrecen: Barra and Tóth). Barra wanted to introduce the test assessment at university
entrance examinations too (1948), but at that time it was impossible. As a consequence
of the Hungarian state politics his ideas were refused.

87
 Preparing our students for the AMC we solved with them tests of the previous
years and drew their attention to these methods. We discussed guessing, too. We advised
them to at first read the text of the problem attentively. It is necessary to solve the
problem carefully if there are wrong answers between the offered answers. There is a
penalty for wrong answers! Sometimes we can find among answers possible mistakes
(for example confusing the concepts of perimeter and area).
“Distractor” is a test-makers’ term for a wrong answer. The use of this word
suggests that the answers are there to trick students. Suppose they are asked to find the
diameter of a circle meeting some condition. Now we suppose that the answers include
both 5 and 10. The problem asked for the size in terms of diameter, but they figured it
out in terms of radius. Students did a lot of good thinking and hard work to prove that
the radius is 5. If after all their work they made the small slip of forgetting to convert,
they got the answer wrong. Another example: students are asked for the percentage
change if a price increases by 20 % and then by 20% again. Suppose both 40% and 44%
are among the answers. Students reason that percents add and choose 40%.
In both cases students have been distracted by a “distractor” but the situations
were very different. In the first case students were mostly right. In the second case
students used a completely wrong approach.
It is important to determine, which aids students could use in solving test
problems. At the competitions it was allowed to use ruler and compass. We observed that
the competitors made scaled figures, determined the necessary measures, and in this way
they could guess the right result.

REFERENCES
Berzsenyi G., Maurer S.B. The Contest Problem Book V. The Mathematical Association
of America, New Mathematical Library.
Kántor, T. (2002). About Our Experiences in AMC and AIME Tests. [in Hungarian].
Matematika tanárképzés- Matematika-tanártovábbképzés.
--- (2005). “Anatomy of a Contest Problem.” Problem Solving in Mathematics
Education, ed. by T. Kántor. Proceedings of the ProMath 6 Meeting 39-47. Debrecen.

88
 STUDENTS’ MATHEMATICAL LITERACY
IN PISA ASSESSMENT:
SAMPLES OF PISA TASKS
IN TEACHER-RESEARCHERS’ WORK
Maria Legutko*, Jerzy Migoń**, Agata (Przężak) Białek***
*Pedagogical University of Kraków (Poland)
**Public Middle School no. 3 in Trzebunia (Poland)
***Secondary School no. 12 in Kraków (Poland)
*[email protected], **[email protected], ***[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Teachers, members of the Rzeszów/Kraków team used PISA 2000 and 2003 sample tasks
“Apple trees,” “Continental area,” and “Carpenter” to assess students’ mathematical
competency in their classrooms, at the same time learning how to conduct research
according to the “teaching-research – one task” procedure. Difficulties and errors of
students from various schools, various levels and various locations are presented, and
also their team analyses and attempts to find corrective methods.

KEY WORDS:
PISA, mathematical competency, mathematical literacy

1. MATHEMATICAL LITERACY IN PISA ASSESSMENT

Program for International Student Assessment Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development PISA OECD conducts assessment of how young people
aged 15 are prepared to meet the challenges of life in the contemporary world regardless
of the education systems they went through. The assessment is carried out cyclically
every 3 years; so far it was conducted in the years 2000 and 2003 in 41 countries and in
2006 in 57 countries.
Elementary literacy that enables the employment of knowledge and reasoning in
solving every day problems consists of: (i) reading literacy; (ii) mathematical literacy,
and (iii) scientific literacy. Mathematical literacy in general refers to such a level of
individual comprehension of mathematics and of the role mathematics plays in the
contemporary world (in formulating opinions based on mathematical reasoning) and the
command of basic mathematical skills that an individual can efficiently and with
satisfaction apply them in a variety of situations created by everyday, social, professional
and political life. (Pisa 2000 Report, 24; Pisa Report 2003, 6)
In selection of tasks that are used to assess mathematical literacy the following
criteria are considered: (1) mathematical content: (a) space and shape (geometric
situations and spatial relations between objects); (b) numbers (numerical values in real
situations, calculations, estimates and approximation); (c) change and relationships
(changes and relationships between variables represented in a symbolic, algebraic,
graphic and tabular manner); and (d) uncertainty (probability and statistics). (2)
mathematical reasoning processes: (a) reproduction (trained skills and very simple

89
objects used in typical problems); (b) connections (association of mathematical concepts
in less typical problems, a solution of which requires a few steps or a justification of an
answer); and (c) reasoning (includes a creative approach to a problem, original
mathematization, generalization and such an analysis of a situation that enables students
to pose a mathematical problem, enables its solution, interpretation, explanation and
justification of its solution). (3) situation context: (a) personal (associated with students’
every day life); (b) educational/occupational (associated with teaching other subjects/
with professional work of people from students’ environment); (c) public (associated
with communication, banking and environment protection); and (d) scientific (pure
mathematical situations, physical and technical contexts that require mathematics).
These skills are assessed by means of tests – questions and problems associated
with real-world contexts, which are solved by randomly selected students within 120
minutes. Data about learning conditions and methods are collected by means of 30-
minute-questionnaires for students participating in the assessment and headmasters of
their schools. Only some of the test contents are revealed, the so-called “anchoring
problems” which are used for result comparison in the subsequent editions of the
research are not revealed.
Scores for each of the assessed skill are presented on a scale calibrated in such a
way that mean score for OECD countries is 500 and 2/3 of the scores are placed within
the range of 400-600. The procedure of scaling the test scores takes into consideration
the number of tasks solved by students, the level of task difficulty and the number of
students in the population of a country the students represent. As a result of this
procedure a given number is allocated to students of a given country in each assessed
skill. As an outcome of the research conducted in 2003 the scale of proficiency in
mathematical literacy was divided into 6 Levels and typical students’ skills were
specified for each of these levels. The highest Level is 6 and the lowest is 1.
General assessment of mathematical literacy in a form of mean score for each
country participating in the 2006 research is presented in Table 1. Scores above 504
points are considered higher than average, scores in the range 495-504 points as not
significantly different than average, while scores lower than 495 points as lower than
average.
Number, country, mean score of proficiency in mathematical literacy
1. Taiwan 549 20. Germany 504 39. Greece 459
2. Finland 548 21. Sweden 502 40. Israel 442
3. Hong Kong (China) 547 22. Ireland 501 41. Serbia 435
4. South Korea 547 23. France 496 42. Uruguay 427
5. Netherlands 531 24. Great Britain 495 43.Turkey 424
6. Switzerland 530 25. Poland 495 44. Thailand 417
7. Canada 527 26. Slovak Republic 492 45. Romania 415
8. Macao (China) 525 27. Hungary 491 46. Bulgaria 413
9. Lichtenstein 525 28. Luxembourg 490 47. Chile 411
10. Japan 523 29. Norway 490 48. Mexico 406
11. New Zealand 522 30. Lithuania 486 49. Montenegro 399
12. Belgium 520 31. Latvia 486 50. Indonesia 391
13. Australia 520 32. Spain 480 51. Jordan 384
14. Estonia 515 33. Azerbaijan 476 52. Argentina 381
15. Denmark 513 34. Russian Federation 476 53. Columbia 370
16. Czech Republic 510 35. USA 474 54. Brazil 370
17. Iceland 506 36. Croatia 467 55.Tunisia 365
18. Austria 505 37. Portugal 466 56.Qatar 318
19. Slovenia 504 38. Italy 462 57. Kyrgyzstan 311
Table 1. Mean score in students’ proficiency in mathematical literacy in 2006

90
 Students’ mathematical attainments in a given country are also manifested by
the percentage of students of a given country placed in higher Levels 5 and 6 and
percentage of students placed on Level 1 and below. The graph below presents the
percentage distribution of students on levels of mathematical literacy scale in 2006 for
selected countries.

Country (mean score) Levels (L) on the mathematical literacy scale:

<L1 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
Poland (495) 5.7 14.2 24.7 26.2 18.6 8.6 2.0
Hungary (491) 6.7 14.5 25.1 26.5 16.9 7.7 2.6
Spain (480) 8.6 16.1 25.2 26.2 16.8 6.1 1.2
Portugal (466) 12.0 18.7 25.1 24.0 14.4 4.9 0.8
Italy (462) 13.5 19.3 25.5 22.1 13.3 5.0 1.3
Average for OECD
countries (498) 7.7 13.5 21.9 24.3 19.1 10.1 3.4
Taiwan (594) 3.6 8.3 14.3 19.4 22.4 20.1 11.8
Finland (548) 1.1 4.8 14.4 27.2 28.1 18.1 6.3
Netherlands (531) 2.4 9.1 18.9 24.3 24.1 15.8 5.4
Table 2. Percentage of students on the levels of mathematical literacy scale in 2006 in
selected countries. Source: OECD PISA database 2006.

Mean scores of students in Poland and Hungary indicate that literacy of the
assessed students reaches Level 3 of the mathematical literacy scale. Mean scores of
students in Spain, Portugal, and Italy reach Level 2 on the scale. In all countries
participating in the PDTR Project (Professional Development of Teacher Researchers,
the grant of the Program Socrates of the European Commission) a large percentage of
students with low mathematical literacy rank at Level 1 and below Level 1, and a small
percentage of students have high mathematical literacy rates at Levels 5 and 6.
Mean scores in countries like Taiwan, Finland or Netherlands show that it is
possible that almost ¼ of students in total reach proficiency Levels 5 and 6 and fewer
than 10 percent of students rank at Level 1 or below.

2. SELECTED PISA TASKS IN RESEARCH OF THE RZESZÓW/KRAKÓW1

PDTR TEAM
The PISA assessment results provided us with information about the Polish
students’ literacy as compared with students in other countries. This information forced a
reflection. What factors contribute to such results? How mathematics education can be
changed so that students attain high scores? What is the impact of problem selection in
the process of mathematics teaching, teachers’ work style, students’ attitude to learning
mathematics and the belief that mathematical literacy is useful in one’s life – on
students’ skills to apply mathematics in solving problems?
We used the revealed PISA tasks of 2000 and 2003, among others: “Apple
trees,” “Continental area,” and “Carpenter” in our classrooms. First, we solved the tasks
ourselves and discussed what mathematical activities as defined by Krygowska (1986)
and Niss (2002) are developed by these tasks. We agreed that Polish students aged 16-17
possess sufficient mathematical knowledge to solve these tasks; however, the

1
Ewa Szczerba , middle school in Radecznica, Agnieszka Drąg, middle school in Boguchwała, Grażyna Cyran
middle school no. 11 in Rzeszów, Jerzy Migoń middle school in Trzebunia; Katarzyna Sasor-Dyrda School
Complex in Łańcut, Katarzyna Radoń high school in Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, Katarzyna Dymek-Nowak high
school in Kraków, and Agata Przężak-Bielak high school in Kraków.

91
formulation of these tasks may be untypical for them. Then, each of the teachers used
these tasks in their assessed classrooms at the same time learning how to conduct
research as part of the project according to the “teaching-research – diagnostic-test
instruction” procedure.2

2.1 The “Continent Area” Task (Antarctica) (PISA 2000)

Estimate the area of Antarctica using the map scale. Show your working out and explain how you
made your estimate. (You can draw over the map if it helps you with your estimation).

Figure 1. A map of Antarctica

In PISA task typology this task’s mathematical content is associated with space
and shape; mathematical competencies refer to relationships and situation context is
personal. Mathematical activities assessed by this task include: estimating the area of a
figure with irregular shape via its approximation to a sum of regular geometric figures;
using a map scale to estimate the area of a figure in reality and calculation of length units
or area units. In an attempt to employ mathematical activities as defined by Krygowska
(1989) we decided that in solving that task we use: analogy observation, schematization,
coding and algorithm application. Taking into consideration mathematical competencies
defined by Niss (2002), we deal with posing and solving mathematical problems,
building mathematical models and communication about a situation that contains
mathematical content when solving this task.
PISA Scoring
Full credit - 2 points
These scores are for answers that use a correct method AND give a correct result. The second digit
indicates different approaches.
Code 21: Answers which are estimated by drawing a square or rectangle: between 12 000 000 sq km
and 18 000 000sq km (units not required)
Code 22: Answers which are estimated by drawing a circle: between 12 000 000 sq km and
18 000 000sq km
Code 23: Answers which are estimated by adding areas of several regular geometric figures:
between 12 000 000 sq km and 18 000 000sq km
Code 24: Answers which are estimated by other correct methods: between 12 000 000 sq km and
18 000 000sq km (draws a large rectangle and subtracts the area of the parts outside the map)

2
The procedure is described in “Mathematical Tests” by Katarzyna Sasor-Dyrda, Ewa Szczerba, and Grażyna
Cyran in the Handbook of Teaching Research.

92
 Code 25: Answers which are correct (between 12 000 000 sq km and 18 000 000sq km) but no
working out is shown
Partial credit - 1 point
These scores are for answers that use a correct method BUT give an incorrect or incomplete result.
The second digit in parentheses indicates different approaches, matching the second digit in
parentheses of the full credit scores.
Code 11: Answers which are estimated by drawing a square or rectangle – a correct method but an
incorrect or incomplete result: (i) Draws a rectangle and multiplies width by length, but the answer is
an overestimate or underestimate (e.g. 18 200 000); (ii) Draws a rectangle and multiplies width by
length but the number of zeros is incorrect, (e.g. 4000 x 3500 = 140000); (iii) Draws a rectangle and
multiplies width by length but forgets to use the scale to convert to square kilometers (e.g. 12 cm x
15 cm = 180); (iv) Draws a rectangle and states the area is 4000 km x 3500 km. No further working
out.
Code 12: Answers which are estimated by drawing a circle – a correct method but an incorrect or
incomplete result
Code 13: Answers which are estimated by adding the areas of regular geometric figures – a correct
method but an incorrect or incomplete result
Code 14: Answers which are estimated by a correct method – but an incorrect or incomplete result,
e.g. draws a large rectangle and subtracts the area of various parts outside the map
No score
Code 01: Calculation of the perimeter instead of the area: e.g. 16 000 km as the scale of 1 000 km
would go around the map 16 times.
Code 02: Other incorrect answers: e.g. 16 000 km (no working out is shown, and the result is
incorrect.)
Code 99: No answer

Results
This task was solved by third-grade students in middle school and first-grade
students in high school. The students were taught by the teachers who were members of
the team.

Coding evaluation and estimation method Percentage (%) Percentage (%)

(correct or not) of the middle of the high school
school students students
No.=89 No.=138
(C21, C11) draws a square or rectangle 30 28
(C22, C12) draws a circle 8 4
(C23, C12) draws and adds the areas of regular geometric figures 18 14
(C24, C14) draws a large rectangle and subtracts the areas of figures 11 7
(C25) correct result, other method (remembers from geography) 0 3
(C01) calculation of perimeter instead of the area 4 4
(C02) other incorrect answers 15 16
(C99) no answers (attempts) 14 24
Table 3. Estimation methods selected by students solving the “Continent area” task

Number of students Full credit 2p Partial credit 1p No answer or 0 p

solving the task Correct method and result Correct method, errors
2 2
12mln km -18mln km
Middle school No.=89 16% 52% 32%
High school No.=138 16% 40% 44%
Table 4. The percentage of correct, partially correct and incorrect results in the task by
our middle and high school students

93
Difficulties
(1) The task was not typical for students for two reasons: very rarely in
mathematics class do they encounter an instruction “estimate,” or figures of irregular
shapes when asked to calculate the area of figures. Therefore, most likely, such a large
percentage of students did not even attempt to solve the problem.
(2) A greater variety of estimation methods and more correct answers were
given by middle school students than by high school students. (In high school the subject
of the area of figures is not reviewed and most likely students did not remember much
from middle school.)
(3) Even a correct estimation method was often realized irrationally due to: (a)
drawing to many figures (squares), which required a calculation of many areas; (b) lack
of calculation planning and making many operations on large numbers; (c)
understanding the instruction “estimate” as “estimate as precisely as you can.”
(4) On both levels there were students who had difficulties with: (a) calculation
of the length in scale; (b) calculation of the area of a figure in scale; (c) carrying out
correct calculations.
Examples of these difficulties are illustrated by the solutions presented in
Figures 2, 3 and 4.

A solution by a 17-year-old student of third

grade in middle school.

Estimation methods C11 – draws a square.

Process: using proportions when calculating

length units in reality.
Area of the drawn square is 144cm2
Difficulties with calculating the area in real life
144cm2 = ???

Eventually, the student did not give a result of

the estimation.

Figure 2. A solution of the “Continent area” task by a 17-year-old student

94
 A middle school student used
estimation method C24; he
subtracted the area of
triangles from the area of
rectangles. Using proportions
he calculated the length unit.
He subtracted the area P6
while he should have added
it. He conducted calculations
in an irrational way. He
attained a correct result.

Figure 3. A solution of the “Continent area” task by a 16-year-old student

A solution by a third-grade
middle school student.

She used estimation method C12

of adding the areas of rectangles.

She made calculation errors in

multiplying by the 10th power as a
result of these errors the areas of
P4 and P5 were 10 times smaller.

The result was not between

12 000 000 and 18 000 000 sq
km.

Reflection: Despite a good idea,

the correct estimation of the
continent area was not possible
due to low calculation
competency and errors.

Figure 4. A solution of the “Continent area” by a 16-year-old student

2.2 The “Carpenter” Task (PISA 2003)

Question 1: A carpenter has 32 meters of timber and wants to make a border around a garden bed.
He is considering the following designs for the garden bed.

95
Figure 5. Shapes of the garden beds in the “Carpenter” task

Circle either “Yes” or “No” for each design to indicate whether the garden bed can be
made with 32 meters of timber.

Garden bed design Using this design, can the garden bed be made with 32 meters of
timber?
Design A Yes / No
Design B Yes / No
Design C Yes / No
Design D Yes / No
Table 5. Answer table in the “Carpenter” task

We added an instruction to this task: “justify your choice in each case.”

In the PISA task typology the mathematical content of this task refers to space
and shape; mathematical competencies refer to connections, and situation context was
described as professional. Mathematical literacy as used in solution of this task includes
estimation of the perimeter of polygons and their comparison and understanding that
there is no relationship between the area and the perimeter of a polygon. In an attempt to
define these activities in Krygowska’s language we decided that this task gives an
opportunity to use analogies and to deduce (justify decisions that were made), while in
Niss’s terminology this task can be described as a solution of closed tasks, mathematical
reasoning and the employment of a mathematical symbolic and formal language.
PISA Scoring “Carpenter”
Full Credit
Code 2: Exactly four correct:
Design A: Yes; Design B: No; Design C: Yes; Design D: Yes
Partial Credit
Code 1: Exactly three correct.
No Credit
Code 0: Two or fewer correct
Code 9: Missing

Results
Number of students solving Full credit 2p Partial credit 1p No answer or 0p
the task
Middle school No.=88 44% 28% 28%
High school No.=104 37% 28% 35%
Table 6. The results percentage in the “Carpenter” task

96
 The assessed group of our students attained more correct results (full credit 2
points) than in the 2003 PISA assessment – then only 22 % of Polish students attained
full credit, while 30 % of students attained partial credit 1 point. Correct answers for the
flower bed in shape A – were chosen by 76 % of students; for shape B – 59 %, for C –
69 % and for D – 92 % of students.
For figures in shapes A and C the following justifications were given. Some
students: (i) allocated proportionally lengths of the polygon sides and justified their
choice by calculations on concrete numbers 1m+2m+4m+2m+1m=10m (not always
written down); (ii) allocated and marked the side lengths with letters and used algebraic
expression, e.g. a+b+c+b+a=10m d+e+f=6m; (iii) used geometric transformations
(parallel shift or rectangular projection) to justify the equal length of particular segments.
Such approaches are presented in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Justification methods for the A and C shapes in the “Carpenter” task

Figure 7. A polygon inscribed into a rectangle

Students inscribed figures of shape A and C into a rectangle (see Figure 7) and
drew various conclusions: (a) some stated that perimeter A would be smaller than the
perimeter of the rectangle (because A is encompassed by the rectangle) and though they
reasoned erroneously they chose a correct answer; (b) others stated that the perimeter
will be larger because the length of the ‘cut’ segments is greater than the corresponding
parts of the rectangle sides and they chose an incorrect answer; and (c) the remainder
demonstrated that the perimeter of figure A and C are equal to the perimeter of the
rectangle.

97
 Students had the largest difficulty with the estimation of the perimeter of the
parallelogram. The justification that the length of the shorter side of the parallelogram is
greater than 6 meters was given in the following manner. Some students: (a) stated that
“you can see on a figure that the shorter side is longer than 6m;” (b) used a symbolic
expression “b>6” (15 % of students – 15 % SS); (c) drew a right triangle whose longer
leg was a height of the parallelogram and used the triangle properties (hypotenuse has
longer length than the legs or that the longest side in triangle is opposite the largest
angle) (23 % SS); (d) applied the Pythagorean Theorem in order to calculate the length
of a side (13% SS); (e) referred to the properties of parallel segments in a parallelogram
which is not a rectangle that “the height is the shortest segment (distance) between the
parallel segments” (10 % SS); (f) used the fact that “a diagonal of a rectangle is longer
than its sides” (having drawn a rectangle whose diagonal was the shorter side of the
parallelogram (1% SS); and (g) even gave a non-constructive proof: “If the perimeter of
the parallelogram (as shown in a figure) was equal 32 m, then it would have to be a
rectangle, and since it is not, then its perimeter must be greater than 32 m. It cannot be
smaller since the height in the parallelogram is 6 m and it is the shortest segment
between the parallel sides.”
Errors that appeared in the justifications might originate from the
misapprehension of the concept of the area and the perimeter of a polygon, or in
schematic actions in a typical task, like “calculate the area and the perimeter of a given
figure.” When solving this task, 10 % of students calculated the area of a parallelogram
or rectangle, (it happened a few times that when calculating mentally they wrote down
32 instead of 60 as the perimeter).
Another kind of erroneous reasoning by analogy and erroneous conception that
“figures with equal areas have equal perimeters” is revealed by the following
conversation with the author of such a solution:

We can make a rectangle with dimensions 6m x

10m (rectangle ABCD) out of a parallelogram and
analogically to shape D the perimeter will be 32m.

Figure 8. An erroneous solution of the “Carpenter” task

When asked to clarify her reasoning, she answered: “I checked it for the
rectangle, it was easy. I only needed to calculate the perimeter. When I saw the
parallelogram I associated it with the area, and I obtained a rectangle for which I already
knew that there would be enough timber.”
Incorrect answers for the rectangle were a result of random choices (“I picked
randomly – every other yes, every other no”) or of calculating the area instead of the
perimeter (60>32).

2.3 The “Apple trees” task (PISA 2000)

A farmer plants apple trees in a square pattern. In order to protect the trees against the wind he plants
conifers all around the orchard. Here you see a diagram of this situation where you can see the
pattern of apple trees and conifers for any number (n) of rows of apple trees:

98
 n=1 n=2 n=3
= apple trees
= conifers
Figure 9. Apple and conifers in an orchard
Question 1. Complete the table:

n Number of apple trees Number of conifers

1 1 8
2 4
3
4
5
Table 7. A table from the “Apple trees” task

Question 2.
There are two formulae you can use to calculate the number of apple trees and the number of
conifers for the pattern described above:
Number of apple trees = n2
Number of conifers = 8n
Where n is the number of rows of apple trees.
There is a value of n for which the number of apple trees equals the number of conifers. Find the
value of n and show your method of working this out.

Question 3.
Suppose the farmer wants to make a much lager orchard with many rows of trees. As the farmer
makes the orchard bigger, which increase more quickly; the number of apple trees or the number of
conifers? Explain how you found your answer.

In the PISA task typology in terms of mathematical content question 1 refers to

observing change and relationships between the values given in a geometric situation; in
terms of mathematical competencies it refers to connections, and mathematical situation
is educational. Questions 2 and 3 refer to the estimation and approximation of values
described by means of algebraic expressions, equations and inequalities or relationships
between variables, which require generalizations from a concrete situation to an abstract
mathematical model. In Krygowska’s terminology the activities used in this situation are
associated with observing a structural analogy and recurrence, and a rational usage of a
symbolic language. In Niss’s terminology the competencies needed in this task include
appropriate object representation, mathematical modeling and mathematical reasoning
that refer to proposing formal or informal arguments in proving the posed hypotheses.

99
 PISA “Apple trees” scoring
Question 1.

N Number of apple trees Number of conifers

1 1 8
2 4 16
3 9 24
4 16 32
5 25 40
Table 8. Answers to question 1 in “Apple trees”
Full credit (2 points)
Code 21: All 7 answers are correct.
Partial credit (1 point)
These scores are for only ONE incorrect or missing number in table. Code 11 is for only ONE error
in row n=5. Code 12 is for only ONE error in row n= 2 or 3 or 4
Code 11: Answers which give correct numbers in rows n = 2, 3, or 4, but in row n = 5 only ONE
answer is incorrect or missing: (i) last answer ‘40’ is incorrect, all other answers are correct; (ii)
Answer ‘25’ is incorrect, all other answers are correct
Code 12: Numbers in row n = 5 are correct but ONE answer in rows n = 2, 3, or 4 is incorrect or
missing
No credit
These scores are for TWO or more errors or no answer.
Code 01: Correct values in rows n = 2, 3, 4, but BOTH numbers for row n = 5 are incorrect;
Both answer ‘25’ and ‘40’ are incorrect, all other answers are correct.
Code 02: Other incorrect answers
Code 99: No answer

Question 2.
Full credit (1 point)
These scores are for the correct answer n=8, using different approaches.
Code 11: Answers which give n = 8, with the algebraic method explicitly shown, e.g.
n2 = 8n, n2 – 8n = 0, n(n – 8) = 0, n = 0 and n = 8, so n = 8
Code 12: Answers which give n = 8, but no clear algebra is presented, or no work shown.
e.g.: n2 = 82 = 64, 8n = 8 · 8 = 64; n2 = 8n. This gives n = 8; 8 · 8 = 64, n = 8; n = 8; 8 · 8 = 82
Code 13: Answers which give n = 8 using other methods e.g. using pattern expansion or drawing
These scores are for the correct answer, n=8 PLUS the answer n = 0, with a given justification.
Code 14: Answers which are similar to those given under score 11 (clear algebraic method) but give
both answers n=8 AND n=0
Code 15: Answer which are similar to those given under score 12 (no clear algebraic method) but
give both answers n=8 AND n=0
No credit (0 points)
Code 00: Other answers, including the answer n=0, for example: (a) n2 = 8n (a repeat of the
statement from the question); (b) n2 = 8; (c) n = 0. You cannot have the same number because for
every apple tree there are 8 conifers.
Code 99: No answer

Question 3:
Full credit (2 points)
Code 21: Answers which are correct (apple trees) AND which give some algebraic explanations
based on the formulae n2 and 8n; e.g.: (i) Numbers of apple trees = n · n and conifers = 8 · n. Both
formulas have a factor n, but apple trees have another n, which will get larger while factor 8 stays
the same. The number of apple trees increases more quickly; (ii) the number of apple trees increases
faster because that number is being squared instead of multiplied by 8; (iii) number of apple trees is
quadratic. Number of conifers is linear. So apple trees will increase faster. Answers which use
graphs to demonstrate that n2 exceeds 8n after n = 8.
These scores are for answers when students present algebraic expression based on n2 and 8n.
Partial credit (1 point)
Code 11: Answers which are correct (apple trees) AND are based on specific examples or on
extending the table: (a) number of apple trees will increase more quickly because if we use the table
(question 1) we find that the number of apple trees increases faster than the number of conifers. This

100
 happens especially after the number of apple trees and number of conifers are the same. (b) The table
shows that the number of apple trees increases faster.
OR answers which are correct (apple trees) and show SOME evidence that the relationship between
n2 and 8n is understood but not so clearly expressed as in Code 21, e.g.: (i) Apple trees after n > 8;
(ii) After 8 rows the number of apple trees will increase more quickly than conifers; (iii) Conifers
until you get to 8 rows then there will be more apple trees.
No credit ( 0 points)
Code 01: Answers which are correct (apple trees) but give an insufficient or wrong explanation, or
no explanation; for example: (a) Apple trees; (b) Apple trees because they populate the inside which
is bigger than just the perimeter; (c) Apple trees because they are surrounded by conifers.
Code 02: Other incorrect answers: (a) Conifers; (b) Conifers because for every additional row of
apple trees, you need lots of conifers; (c) Conifers. Because for every apple tree there are 8 conifers;
(d) I don’t know.
Code 99: No answer.

Results
Codes according to evaluation, estimation method percentage percentage
correct or not of middle of high
school school
students students
No. =72 No. =140
Question 1
(C21) all numbers correct 90 76
(C11) one error for n=5 others correct 0 10
(C01) two errors for n=5, others correct 4 6
(C02) other answers 6 4
(C99) no attempts 0 4
Question 2
(C11) algebraic method, equation and answer n=8 3 11
(C12) no clear method (equation n2 = 8n divided by n 58 47
or guessed number 8 and checked)
(C13) table expansion, graphs, n=8 3 4
(C14) algebraic method, equation, answers n=0 and 4 0
n=8
(C00) other answers 14 24
(C99) no attempts 18 22
Question 3
(C21) correct answers (number of apple trees) and 15 17
justification
(C11) correct answers, justification by examples 17 19
(C01) correct answers, incorrect justification or no 42 12
justification
(C02) incorrect answers (number of conifers 19 46
increases more quickly)
(C99) no attempts 7 8
Table 9. The “Apple trees” task results

(1) A correct completion of a table in question 1 shows that an overwhelming

majority of students noticed a relationship between the number of apple trees in the
orchard and the number of conifers in a concrete situation for small numbers. (2) The
algebraic formulae given in question 2 describing the number of apple trees and the
number of conifers in relationship with n were used by about only 35 % of students (C11
and C14 and almost half of the students who chose C12). Despite the fact that the task
content contained information about the existence of n number of apple trees in an
orchard, for which the number of apple trees and the number of conifers are equal,
almost half of the students were unable to create an equation 8n=n2 and solve it. About
25 % of students managed to give a correct answer by guessing number 8 and checking

101
that 8·8 = 82 or by using the table expansion from question 1. (3) It was much more
difficult for students to pose a hypothesis in question 3. High school students often posed
an incorrect hypothesis (there will be more conifers). About 40 % of middle school
students posed a correct hypothesis but gave an incorrect justification by: (a) imprecise
description of the observed relationships in the mathematical language e.g. “the number
of apple tree will increase more quickly since it is increased by a square of a subsequent
number of apple trees in a row;” “the number of conifers increases by 8 each time, while
the number of apple trees increases constantly;” (b) usage of examples as general
arguments, e.g. 102=100 and 8· 10 =80 or 202 = 400 and 8·20=160;
(c) an imprecise interpretation of observed mathematical relationships in reality
(confusing the mathematical language with the natural language), e.g.:
Apple trees will increase more quickly when n>8, and the conifers will increase more quickly than
apple trees when n<8. They will increase equally when he plants 8 of each; The number of conifers
will increase faster since they surround the apple trees. They grow on the perimeter;
(d) confusing the biological growth of the trees with the increase of the number of the
trees (in incorrect statements by high school students) e.g.:
conifers – because there are more of them and they grow faster; conifers will increase faster because
there will be more trees surrounding the orchard and the apple trees; depending on what we plant
first.
There was also another way of understanding question 3: “which number will
increase faster when the orchard expands – the number of apple trees or the number of
conifers?” In an attempt to answer the question students analyzed when the increase of
the apple trees in the orchard will be larger than the increase of conifers and attained an
answer that already for n=5. Such reasoning is illustrated by Figure 10.

Assuming that the

number of apple trees
equals n2 and the
number of conifers is
8n, with small numbers
the number of conifers
will increase faster,
whereas with larger
numbers the number of
apple trees will increase
faster and faster.
Here (circle) the
number of apple trees
will increase faster than
the number of conifers.

Figure 10. A sample solution of the “Apple trees” task

3. CONCLUSION AND A FEW REFLECTIONS

We were able to view the official PISA assessment results differently after our
students solved the PISA tasks. We realized that we can see more clearly in untypical
tasks how our students are able (or not) to use their knowledge and mathematical
literacy.
The team work in the project enabled us to discuss the difficulties and errors of
students from various schools, various levels and various locations, to reflect together on
the origins of these difficulties, to make a common attempt to find corrective methods. It
was an interesting experience for the teachers because in the majority of Polish schools

102
there is no tradition of systematic cooperation between teachers of the same subject (in
small schools with one mathematics teacher, such cooperation is not even possible).
For the majority of teachers the assessment of the results according to the
scoring criteria given for each task was an encounter with a new way of assessment.
Assessment according to the evaluation code requires a certain discipline in practice.
Regardless of very detailed instructions there were doubts about choosing the
appropriate code for a given result. We had an opportunity to get acquainted with codes
that considered the number of points and kinds of reasoning. We realized that this new
assessment method that was created as a result of standardization is not entirely perfect.
We are not able to predict all the possible solutions that students can come up with.
An analysis of the “Carpenter” and “Continent area” tasks revealed students’
difficulties in employment of their knowledge and skills concerning the perimeter and
area of figures. These concepts have been part of school curriculum for years and one
would think that such methods had already been created and applied that each student
after 8-9 years of mathematics education should be able to use them even in a new,
untypical situation. We had an opportunity to see that this is not the case. Another
difficulty which appeared in these tasks was an instruction “to estimate.” It is not clearly
specified what this instruction really means: “estimate approximately,” “give more or
less how many,” “without performing any complicated calculations give a result, which
is not much different from an actual (correct) result,” or “give a numerical range of the
result.” A result estimation skill can be a simple and easy didactic strategy used by
teachers to motivate students in order to verify the predicted result, or a posed
hypothesis. Satisfaction students feel when they manage to predict a result with a high
precision motivates them to further education. Result estimation can also be an element
of self-control.
An analysis of the “Apple trees” task drew our attention to equations, the usage
of letters in recurrence generalizations in order to write down observed regularities and
the argumentation with the usage of number properties. Our team’s work concentrated
on equations. We attempted to understand students’ difficulties with equations. We
wanted to learn how students comprehend equations, how they solve them, how they
interpret the equation results in the context of the task content, what relationship they see
between the formulae and equations, between equations and variables, which kinds of
equations cause more difficulties. We decided to explore these difficulties while
conducting teaching-research in a normal process of mathematics education. We created
a series of tasks-tests, which students solved and then we analyzed their results at the
team meetings. We were astonished to realize that when students are given two algebraic
expressions, almost half of students were unable to create an equation (they calculated
on concrete numbers or substituted numbers in algebraic expressions). What is more,
when they had an equation they desperately tried to find an algorithm matching the
equation (e.g. they tried to transform a square equation into linear equation while making
errors in algebraic transformations – by substituting x2 with 2x), or they created a new
algorithm themselves. There were also students who faced a quadratic equation x(x-3) =
0 and immediately stated that they were not taught such equations and they did not even
attempt to solve them, when in fact they could try to guess numbers and check or apply
the theorem on numbers. More information about this team work can be found in the
article “Mathematical Tests” by Sasor-Dyrda, Szczerba, and Cyran (2008). Teachers
explored the usage of letters in generalizations and argumentation in individual research.
All in all, the PISA task solving shared by teachers and students and the
teaching-research process contributed to numerous passionate discussions about

103
mathematics teaching and learning; evoked a deeply felt need to exchange experiences
between teachers, between teachers and students; and, finally, created a new and positive
atmosphere in the classroom. It was a unique learning experience for the teachers who
turned into teacher-researchers.

REFERENCES
Białecki, I., Blumsztajn, A., Cyngot, D. (2003). PISA- Program Międzynarodowej
Oceny Umiejętności Uczniów. Warszawa: Ośrodek Usług Pedagogicznych i
Socjalnych ZNP.
Fedorowicz, M. (ed.) (2007). Umiejętności polskich gimnazjalistów. Warszawa:
Wydawnictwo IFiS PAN.
Krygowska, A.Z. (1986). “Elementy aktywności matematycznej, które powinny
odgrywać znaczącą rolę w matematyce dla wszystkich.” Roczniki Polskiego
Towarzystwa Matematycznego, Seria V, Dydaktyka Matematyki. 6, 25-41.
Niss, M. (2002). “Mathematical Competencies and the Learning of Mathematics.”
www.wsp.krakow.pl/kdm/ MNiss.pdf.
--- (2002). “Quantitative Literacy and Mathematical Competencies.”
http://www.maa.org/Ql/pgs215-220.pdf.
OECD PISA. Programme for International Student Assessment. PISA 2000, PISA 2003,
PISA 2006. www.pisa.oecd.org.
Sasor-Dyrda, K., Szczerba, E., Cyran, G. (2008) “Mathematical Tests.” Handbook of
Teaching-Research. B. Czarnocha (ed.) Projekt PDTR Sokrates Comenius.
MENiS. (2004). Program Międzynarodowej Oceny Umiejętności Uczniów OECD PISA.
Wyniki badania 2003 w Polsce. Warszawa.
MEN.(2007). Program Międzynarodowej Oceny Umiejętności Uczniów OECD
PISA.Wyniki badania 2006 w Polsce. Warszawa.

104
 PISA AND PISA-LIKE PROBLEMS
Tünde Kántor*, Éva Balla**, Anna Kozárné-Fazekas***
*University of Debrecen, Debrecen (Hungary)
**Hőgyes Ferenc Gymnasium, Hajdúszoboszló (Hungary)
***Kossuth Gymnasium, Debrecen (Hungary)
*[email protected], **[email protected],
***[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this survey we shall analyze our investigation on solving PISA and PISA-like
problems at four Hungarian high schools. 167 students and 30 teachers-in-training took
part in our assessment. We posed original and modified PISA problems to students. With
the help of these PISA-like problems we wanted to confirm the supposed beliefs of
mathematics teachers and clarify the problem of confusing the concepts of area and
perimeter. Also, we assessed student’s competency in the application of individual
models.

KEY WORDS:
PISA assessment, PISA problems, PISA-like problems, measurement of competencies,
application of oriented problems, gender problem

INTRODUCTION
For the teachers participating in the Krygowska PDTR Project, the TR Seminar
was the first opportunity to get acquainted with PISA problems, among them the
“Carpenter” and “Apple trees.” We tried to identify the difficulties that students might
have in solving these PISA problems. Our group suggested that we should change the
problems to make them more challenging for our students. We wanted to clarify the
problem of confusing the concepts of area and perimeter, which students exhibited when
solving the “Carpenter” problem. We modified the PISA problem “Apples, too: we
changed the values in the table and did not give the formulas. It is worth saying that real
life problems or quasi-realistic problems (like PISA problems) have been playing greater
role in the last few years in the Hungarian mathematics teaching, parallel to the
introduction of the new graduating system.

The investigated classes

We observed and assessed the work of 167 students and 30 teachers-in-training
in the following schools: Svetits High School (Debrecen): 40 students of grade 9
(modified “Apple I” and “Carpenter I”); Dóczy High School (Debrecen): 20 students of
grade 8, and 20 students of grade 10 (modified “Apple I” and “Carpenter I”); Kossuth
High School (Debrecen): 65 students of grade 9 (modified “Apple I” and “Carpenter I”);
Hőgyes High School (Hajdúszoboszló): 13 students of grade 7 (modified “Apple II”), 9
students of grade 11 (“Carpenter”); 30 teachers-in-training of upper secondary schools
(University of Debrecen).

105
 Svetits High School is a Catholic School without mathematical orientation. In
the observed classes there were only girls. Dóczy High School is a Calvinist School.
Kossuth High School is the Teacher Training Practice School of Debrecen University. It
is a school with a double function: educational duties and teacher training. The school
has a good selection of students, a large number of them participate in contests, and 80-
85% of them are going to study at universities or colleges after finishing their secondary
school studies. This school is one of the best schools in the country. The tested classes
were: class 9D with orientation towards mathematics and sciences, class 9E with general
interest. Hőgyes High School is situated in a well-known little town near Debrecen, with
a famous spa and health centre. The students of this secondary school are good at
mathematics. There are classes with mathematical orientation (grades 7-12). For us, it
was an opportunity to compare the results of younger and talented students with the
results of older and weaker students.

OUR EXPERIENCE IN SOLVING PISA AND PISA-LIKE PROBLEMS

Apple trees (PISA 2000)
Content: Change and relationship. Context: educational. In Question 1 students
had to complete the given table, in Question 2 there were connections and integration for
problem solving. Question 3 was connected with mathematization, mathematical
thinking and generalization.

Apple trees (the original problem)

A farmer plants apple trees in a square pattern. In order to protect the trees against the wind he plants
conifers all around the orchard.
Here you see a diagram of this situation where you can see the pattern of apple trees and conifers for
any number (n) of rows of apple trees:

n=1n=2n=3n=4

XXX XXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX

X●X X ● ● X X ● ● ● X X ● ● ● ● X
XXX X X X X X X
X ● ●X X ● ● ● X X ● ● ● ● X
XXXXX X X X X
X ● ● ● X X ● ● ● ● X
XXXXXXX X X
X ● ● ● ● X
XXXXXXXXX
X = conifer, ● = apple tree

Question 1 (548 scores, competency class: 2):

Complete the table
n Number of apple trees Number of conifers
1 1 8
2 4
3
4
5

Question 2 (655 scores, competency class: 2):

106
 There are two formulae you can use to calculate the number of apple trees and the number of conifers
for the pattern described opposite:
Number of apple trees = n2,
number of conifers = 8 n,
where n is the number of rows of apple trees. There is a value of n for which the number of apple
trees equals the number of conifers. Find the value of n and show your method of calculating this.

Question 3 (723 scores, competency class: 3):

Suppose the farmer wants to make a much larger orchard with many rows of trees. As the farmer
makes the orchard bigger, which will increase more quickly: the number of apple trees or the number
of conifers? Explain how you found your answer.

The official results:

60

50

40

Hungary
30
OECD
20

10

0
Question1 Question 2 Question3

Apples I (modified problem)

At first we changed the table. In the original table were the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in
succession. In our table we gave more numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 15. These numbers
were not consecutive numbers. Some of the students (5%) did not recognize this fact and
counted the values in order.
This is the modified table:
n Number of apple Number of
trees conifers
1 1 8
2 4
3
4
5
7
9
11
15

In solving Question a) we expected not only visual solution but calculations too.
We also opened the problem. We asked students to find the two formulae to
calculate the number of apple trees and the number of conifers as a function of n, where
n is the number of rows of the apples trees (Question b). We left Question c) and
Question d) in the original form of Question 2 and Question 3. Aim of the change in the
table of Question 1 was that we wanted to know how students were thinking, what way
they followed for greater numbers n, whether they worked visually with the help of
concrete drawings and counting or they could recognize the hidden rules. We did not

107
give the number n=8, for which the number of apple trees equals the number of conifers,
but we gave numbers 7 and 9, which closed the case of the equation.
Our hypothesis was that for the younger or weaker students it would be easier
to find out the place of the equation with the help of the table. This hypothesis became
true, we verified it. We found that the first 7 answers, the original wish, were good,
because students could count them in a concrete way from the figures, the bigger values
were more difficult to find. It was necessary to conjecture the general form to count the
case n= 15, but it was easier to find the value n for which the number of apple trees and
the number of conifers is equal or to answer question d). 60.5% of students and teachers
used the table in their argumentation.
For us the answer to Question 2 in the original “Apple trees” problem was not
obvious. We had a problem with “the number n.” What is the meaning of “any number
n”? Which kind of number is n? At the diagram n=1, 2, 3, 4; we do not find n=0. Should
we think that n is necessarily a positive integer; that n≠0? Why do we need to accept that
in a garden there are no trees? Is it a garden at all? I did not agree with the answer n=0
nor did a lot of students (80%) and teachers (80%). n=0 is only a formal mathematical
answer! Only one student wrote as a result n=0.
The wrong answers to question d) were very interesting. Students used
everyday life language (65%). These answers were like those in PISA 2000 results. They
were affected by the confusion between the concepts of perimeter and area.

About the results

Question a)
Most students had no difficulty in solving this part of the problem. We
compared the results in the original and modified tables. The “completing part is wrong”
means that the students filled the original table correctly, but they made mistakes in
filling the extended table. The “other mistakes” means that they were absent-minded,
they failed to notice that after the consecutive numbers 1 to 5 there came number 7
instead of 6, and they used in the whole table the rule which worked for the first five
numbers.
Svetits 9. Dóczy 8. Dóczy 10. Kossuth 9.D Kossuth 9.E teachers-in- solutions
training
55% 35% 50% 79% 71% 100% correct
18% 60% 40% 21% 17% 0% completing
part is wrong
27% 5% 10% 0% 12% 0% other mistakes

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
S9 D8. D10 K9.D K9.E T

108
Question b)
It seemed to be problematic. Half or less than half of the students could find
both formulae. It was interesting that the younger students (Dóczy, grade 8) had a
problem in finding the formulae. Later we will see that all of the youngest students
(Hőgyes, grade 7) with mathematics orientation were successful in solving part b).
Svetits 9. Dóczy 8. Dóczy 10. Kossuth 9.D Kossuth 9.E teachers-in- solutions
training
50% 35% 50% 41% 46% 100% 2 of the
formulae are
good
0% 0% 0% 24% 14% 0% 1 of the
formulae is
good
50% 65% 50% 35% 40% 0% Formulae are
missing, or
there are no
good formulae

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
S9. D8. D10. K9.D K9.E T

Question c)
Less than one third of the students gave a correct solution to the equation. They
chose another correct solution. They compared the two qualities with the help of the
table since they could not solve quadratic equations. They will learn it in grade 10. But
in grade 10 (Dóczy) 30% of the students chose the two possible ways.
Svetits 9. Dóczy 8. Dóczy 10. Kossuth 9.D Kossuth 9.E teachers-in- solutions
training
0% 0% 30% 28% 14% 100% correct with
equation
55% 45% 30% 44% 23% 0% other correct
45% 55% 45% 28% 63% 0% incorrect or
missing

109
 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
S9. D8. D10. K9.D K9.E T

Question d)
More than a half of the students gave the correct answer. The explanations were
acceptable, but sometimes they could not express their ideas precisely. Their
argumentation was based upon the values of the modified tables, as we expected it in our
hypothesis.
In the correct answers they wrote:
(a) the number of the apple trees increases more quickly as we can see it from the table; (b) the
number of apple trees is n × n, the number of conifers is 8 × n, and if n >8 then their number will get
larger; (c) At first the number of conifers is greater than the number of apples trees, later (after n = 8)
the number of the apples trees will be greater than the number of the conifers, because the square of a
number, bigger than 8, is bigger then eight times this number. For example: If n = 9, 92 = 81, but 9 · 8
= 72 and 81 > 72.
We found correct answers with an insufficient or wrong explanation:
(a) Apple trees because they are surrounded by conifers; (b) Apple trees are planted inside, and the
inside is bigger than the perimeter.
We found wrong answers too. Sometime the cause was that the students
confused the concepts/terms of area and perimeter. We noticed that in Hungarian the
words perimeter (kerület) and area (terület) differ only in one letter. Their answers were:
(a) The area is bigger than the perimeter; (b) The apple trees are planted scattered. (c) Conifers grow
more quickly than the apple trees; (d) We need more conifers for enclosing the apple trees.

Svetits Dóczy Dóczy Kossuth Kossuth Teacher- solutions

9. 8. 10. 9.D 9.E students
correct answers
with
65% 50% 55% 83% 60% 60% argumentation
no
12,5% 10% 10% 0% 0% 0% argumentation
2,5% 40% 35% 17% 40% 40% wrong answers

110
 90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
S9. D8. D10. K9.D K.9.E T

Selections from the works of the students

1. Grade 9 (Svetits High School): correct answers, use of the table
2. Grade 8 (Dóczy High School): absent-minded

Apples I (modified problem)

In the Hőgyes High School (Hajdúszoboszló) the modified problem of “Apple
trees” was a little bit different. It was investigated by their teacher, Éva Balla. Questions
1, and 3 were the same as in the original problem, Question 2 was formulated in the
above-mentioned open form with no formulae given. Students’ task was to find the
formulae for the connection between the number of the apple trees and conifers.
The students were only 13 years old. Our hypothesis was that they would solve
the problem visually, they would make further diagrams to count the number of the trees,
after that, they would start to fill the table and give the observed rules. But in spite of our
expectations these students filled the tables with the help of numerical calculations. They
realized the rules of the sequences and used it in those cases when the numbers were
bigger. Only one student made a drawing for n = 5. 100 % of the students could fill the
original table. In Question 2 all the students could give the formulae, and 72% solved the
equation. 100% gave correct formulae; 1 student gave it in a different way. 72% of them
could calculate the value of n in the case when the number of the trees equals the number
of conifers. It was interesting how some students guessed the solution of quadratic
equation: n 2 = 8n, n · n = 8·n, that is, n = 8.
Over 54% of the students gave a correct answer to question 3. They observed
the difference between consecutive numbers of trees and conifers. We got insufficient
answers in 9%, incorrect or no answer in 36.5 % cases. Question 3 was more difficult
because at grade 7 they learnt only about linear functions. Their task was to solve a
quadratic inequation. In their argumentation they often used the data or their own
completed table. Two of the students completed the table with number n = 8, too. This
problem was complex. The students had to connect different mathematical areas, write
and solve a quadratic equation and an equation, to compare the growth of a linear and a
quadratic function. We did not expect that about half of them could answer question 3.
Student 3, Grade 7 (M.O.) Hőgyes High School: another strategy for the
counting of apple trees. This student was the only one who made a drawing for n = 5,
and followed another strategy of counting the numbers of conifers. His rule was: n α (n
·2 - 1) · 4 + 4. We need to mention that this expression is equal to 8 n. He was one of the
students who completed the given table with the number n = 8.

111
Carpenter (PISA 2003)
Content: area, space, and shape. Difficulty: 687 score points. Level: 6. Context:
educational. OECD percentage of correct answers: 20.2 %.

Comment: It was a complex multiple choice item, a quasi-realistic problem. The

students needed the competence to recognize that the shapes A, C and D have the same
perimeter. They had to decode the visual information and see similarities and
differences. They needed to see that in Design B the border shape was a parallelogram
and its perimeter was longer than 32 m. But the “distractor” was that its area is equal to
the area of the rectangle. This problem fits the connections competency cluster, as the
problem was not a routine one.
Carpenter
A carpenter has 32 metres of timber and wants to make a border around a garden bed. He is
considering the following designs for the garden bed:

Carpenter I (modified problem)

In the modified problem we wanted it to conform to the students’ mathematical
literacy. We changed the order of the figures A and C. We left the Design D, the shape
of the rectangle. Our order was: C, B, A from the original form. We thought that at this
level students could work with geometrical models. They could select and compare
forms, formulate and precisely communicate their action, their interpretations, interpret
their thoughts and their findings. We opened up the problem. We constructed a new
question, Question b). The task of the students was to plan a garden bed with 32 meters
of timber. So the problem of the carpenter became more realistic. In Hungary a carpenter
makes roofs of houses and uses timber for this work. The gardener makes flower beds;
he makes their wooden bordering, too, but it is not of timber.

112
Our hypotheses
(1) Original Design A (modified Design C) is more complicated than the
original Design C (modified Design A) because the original Design C is more
symmetric; (2) original Design D, the shape of the rectangle, is the easiest one; (3) the
task of planning the form of our own garden is more realistic and solvable for the
students as a “prefabricated” realistic mathematical task; (4) the cause of the incorrect
solution would be misunderstanding and confusing the concepts of perimeter and area.

Our experiences
(i) Our first hypothesis did not prove true in all cases; (ii) the second
hypothesis proved true. We could see it from the realization of the planning of the
garden bed. Almost all of the students chose rectangle or square; (iii) the third
hypothesis brought surprising results: there were students, who solved the mathematical
problems (Design A, B, C) incorrectly or gave no solutions, but they could make their
own and right garden bed plans. Some of their plans were witty. The students were very
creative. A student’s explanation was: “It is easy to make the plans. I chose the form of
rectangle (the length of its side were: 10 meters and 6 meters), and the form of a triangle
(the length of its sides were: 15 meters, 10 meters and 7 meters);” (iv) our fourth
hypothesis proved true, too. Even one of the teachers-in-training confused these
concepts. She calculated the area of the parallelogram and considered that Design B is
convenient, and that the answer was yes! Their method was to transfer a right-angled
triangle and proving that the parallelogram has the same area as the rectangle, in which
they could transform the Designs A and C.

The results
Part a) students had to reason in a similar way in the cases of Designs A and C,
although in some classes (Dóczy grade 10, Kossuth grade 9) students had more problems
with Design C. This may suggest that students either did not care enough or
misunderstood the question word “which;” they thought that there was only one correct
solution, so after finding A to be correct, they did not bother to go on and check the other
two designs.

Svetits Dóczy Dóczy Kossuth Kossuth Teachers-in-

answers
9. 8. 10. 9.D 9. E training
22.5% 38% 85% 97% 63% 90% A yes
45 % 75% 95% 86% 37% 90% B no
27.5% 45% 45% 75% 37% 100% C yes

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
S.9 D8. D10. K9.D K9.E T

113
 Part b): At the Kossuth School a relatively large number of students indicated
only one garden bed. I do not consider this to be a sign of being unable to design one
more, but rather as a kind of carelessness and indifference on behalf of the students. In
most cases they did not give any reasons for their answers. When they did, their
explanation or mathematical reasoning was merely giving a formula for the perimeter or
extending the sides of the Designs A and C to transform the polygon into a rectangle.
At the other schools, with lower mathematical levels, as Svetits, and Dóczy,
their behavior was quite different. They liked this kind of work and they were creative.
They drew a lot of different and various forms. We shall show some of their designs.

Svetits 9. Dóczy 8. Dóczy 10. Kossuth 9.D Kossuth 9.E teachers-in- answers
training
75% 60% 65% 76% 32% 100% 2 good plans
0% 0% 0% 17% 32% 0% 1 good plan
25% 40% 35% 17% 36% 0% no plan or bad
plan
60% 55% 45% - - 33% rectangular,
square
17.5% 20% 5% - - 10% other forms

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
S9. D8. D10. K9.D K9.E T

At the Hőgyes High School the students solved the original problem. We will
compare the results of the students of grade 7 and grade 11. We can see that in choosing
the correct answer of Designs B and C the older students’ results were better.
Hőgyes A B C D
Grade 7 61.5% 69.2% 76.7% 100%
Grade 11 63.6% 90.9% 100% 100%

114
 100
90
80
70
60
50 Grade 7
40 Grade 11
30
20
10
0
A B C D

In grade 7 class (Hőgyes) there were some students, who had difficulties with
interpretation: “How can we enclose a garden with timber? Is the thickness of the timber
important? How do the beams fit at the corners?” These practical questions were brought
up by boys with good practical sense. They tried to imagine the making of the border.
But everyone recognized quickly that the task is – from a mathematical view – to
determine the perimeter.
There were 8 students who gave correct answers, 3 students gave wrong
answers, and 2 could not answer, they said there were not enough data. The question on
Design C was answered correctly; it was easier to determine the perimeter of Design C.
They said it was easier because the lengths of the little stair-lines were equal in Design
C, but not in A. Since they gave concrete values for the lengths of these lines, this kind
of solution was really easier in case C. Among the eleventh-grade students there were
only 3 students thinking similarly; they solved the question in C, but only one could
solve one in A. One of the seventh-grade students measured the length of each line on
the figures, and then enlarged it to the given scale. The others – in both classes – thought
the following way: they moved away the little pieces, as one student wrote: “projecting
the pushed lines - the perimeter is invariable. So the perimeters of A, C and D are equal.”
In this case our first hypothesis was true.
Design C was a parallelogram. In grade 11 everybody knew what to do: they
referred to the right angled triangle drawn, recognized that the longest side is more than
6 meters, so the perimeter is more than 32 meters. Design D caused no problem.
To solve the “Carpenter” problem the students needed only elementary
geometrical considerations, less syllabus, that is why the lower and the upper grade
students solved it in the same or a similar way.

Some opinions from the interviews with students:

Design A: (i) I could not answer the question because there were not sufficient data; (ii) I placed the
stair-sides outside. I saw that there is no difference between the perimeters of Designs A and C; (iii)
The perimeter of Design A is exactly 32 meters.

Design B: (i) Its base is as long as the base of Design A, but the length of the oblique side is greater
than 6 meters. The perimeters of C and D are the same, 32 meters; (ii) In this form we cannot
surround the garden bed, but if we replace the little right-angled triangle than we get a rectangular
form; in this case we could surround it.

115
Selection from the student works
1. Grade 8 (Dóczy High School): forms of different “stairs” (similar to the given
designs)
2. Grade 9 (Svetits High School): forms of different “stairs” (similar to the given
designs)
3. Grade 8 (Dóczy High School): only 3 plans are correct
4. Grade 10 (Dóczy High School): two plans, the easiest and a witty one.

SUMMARY
In the 21st century it is necessary, for students too, to know the applications of
mathematics. The Hungarian students do not realize the importance and applicability of
what they learnt beyond the school walls. They have probably much wider mathematical
knowledge, but in new situations they cannot apply it. In a lot of our schools the
instruction is traditional. The students reproduce only what they learned. They do not
have a close connection with the real world. They are not accustomed to making
independent decisions. If they face an unusual problem that does not fit into the category
of mathematical problems known to them, they do not know what to do, they are not
able to understand and solve the unknown problem.
Our education does not make them ready for real world problems. We should
rather say that we do not represent the level that is measured by international PISA tests.
The problem is that in many cases students are unable to apply their knowledge for
solving everyday problems, or they cannot see the mathematical meaning behind
everyday problems. They must be taught how to see mathematics in everyday life; they
have to learn how to look for the relationships between mathematics and the problems
piling up in front of them.
Teachers have to help students develop these competencies and provide them
with guidance. Teachers have to share these new goals with the parents. Schools must be
environments that reinforce intelligent student life developing the supports of learning.
The teachers’ task is to prepare their students for the challenges. It is important that the
assessments are going in that direction. It is necessary to deal with PISA and PISA-like
problems. Without knowing this kind of problems students will not be able to solve
them. We have to change the students’ attitude, their education and training if we want
to increase their motivation and results in solving application-oriented problems. We
have to inform the teachers about PISA problems and methods of solving such tests.

REFERENCES
Berzsenyi G., Maurer S. B. The Contest Problem Book V. The Mathematical Association
of America New Mathematical Library.
Clarke, D. & Wilson, L. “Valuing What We See.” The Mathematical Teacher. 87, 7,
542-545.
Kagan, S. (2004). Cooperative Learning. [Hungarian] Ökonet Kft.
Kántor, T. and Kovács, A. (2007). “One Problem - More Solutions: An Experiment for
the Application of Cooperative Learning.” ProMath 2006: Problem Solving in
Mathematics Education. T. Berta (ed.). Slovakia: Komarno. 79-93.
--- (2008). “First Steps in Introducing Cooperative Learning.” Matematika v skole.
Ružemberok. 31-38.

116
Kántor, T. (2008). “Kooperative Unterrichtsmethoden für den Mathematikunterricht in
Ungarn.” (GDM Konferenz, Budapest) Beiträge zur MU.
--- (2008). “About Experiences in PISA and PISA-like Problems.” [Hungarian]
Matematika tanítása. 1, 3-12.
Koss, R. & Marks, R. “The Teacher and Evaluation.” The Mathematics Teacher. 87, 8,
614-617.
Leuders, T. & Prediger, S. (2005). Funktioniert’s? Denken in Funktionen, Praxis der
Mathematik in der Schule. 47, 1-7.
Malara, N. A. “Promoting Teachers’ Changes: Examples from an Educational Process in
Early Algebra.” Proceedings of the International Conference: The Mathematics
Education into the 21st Century. University of Brno. 5-16.
Niss, M. (2007). “Quantitative Literacy and Mathematical Competencies.” OECD
Briefing Note for Hungary 2007.
OECD PISA (2007). Science Competencies for Tomorrow’s World. PISA 2006. 1-2.
OECD PISA (2007). Összefoglaló jelentés: A ma oktatása és a jövő társadalma.
Budapest: Oktatási Hivatal.
OECD PISA (2004). “Profile of Student Performance in Mathematics.” Learning for
Tomorrow’s World: First Results from PISA 2003.
Vári, P. (2003). PISA vizsgálat 2000. Műszaki Kiadó.
Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
www.OECD-PISA.hu
www.pisa.oecd.org

117
118
 A STUDY ON HOW HUNGARIAN STUDENTS
SOLVE PROBLEMS THAT ARE UNUSUAL FOR
THEM
Krisztina Barczi
Kossuth Gymnasium, Debrecen (Hungary)
[email protected]
“[The role of teaching of mathematics] is to demonstrate different aspects of
mathematics, such as ...[that it is] a tool used in daily life and in a number of
occupations.”(Hungarian National Core Curriculum)

ABSTRACT
Three PISA problems (“Carpenter,” “Walking” and “Growing up”) were analyzed
from various points of view and thence students’ difficulties were hypothesized. Then the
problems were solved by Hungarian students aged 12-15, who afterwards were asked to
express their opinion on the context and difficulty of the problems. In the article, both
solutions and opinions of the students are discussed and contrasted (students were from
different age groups).

KEY WORDS:
PISA, context, typical problems, curriculum

INTRODUCTION
Although our National Curriculum says that one of the main aims of teaching
mathematics is to show how it can be applied in everyday life, in Hungarian
mathematics education the emphasis is often on the abstract and not on the practical
aspects of mathematics. In Hungarian secondary mathematics education all students
usually have to cope with quite high level mathematics. They have to understand and
learn abstract rules and theorems and they have to solve problems using these rules. The
problems are usually close-ended. Even if they are in a real life context it is often hard
for students to see how it really relates to real life.
In Hungary there is more emphasis on improving the more able students’
achievement in mathematics than helping the less able ones to catch up. There are extra
lessons and lots of after school clubs available for those who are talented in mathematics
and want to practice and learn more about the subject. There is a tradition of
mathematics competitions at different levels and our students usually have good results
in them.
While some students struggle even with the multiplication table or with solving
simple equations they still have to learn higher level mathematics. The question is: Do
students with average ability need to learn about abstract mathematics like, for example,
logarithm? I think in real life they need logical thinking, basic numeracy skills, problem
posing and solving skills, some knowledge of basic geometry, e.g.: measuring length,
finding area and perimeter.

119
 The following example shows teaching the same topic from two different points
of view. In Hungary we teach percentages by teaching a formula. Solving percentage
problems means that students have to find a missing number with the help of a formula.
This way of teaching percentages results in the fact that a lot of students do not
understand the concept of percentage at all. On the other hand, in the UK we start
teaching percentages wit 0%, 25% and 75% of a number. At this point the majority of
students already know that 50% means a half and 25% means a quarter. This step is
followed by finding 10% of numbers without using a calculator. It is now easier for the
students to find 20%, 5%, 15% ... etc. without a calculator. First, students do not really
work with percentages as such. They rather do basic number work like halving numbers
or dividing numbers by 10, then doubling them. Doing this simple number work helps to
introduce the concept of percentage.
In this study I would like to talk about how Hungarian students aged 12-15
solve mathematical problems that are a bit different from the ones they are used to. The
context of the problems is different; the way questions are asked is different. Students
were asked to solve and to comment on three PISA problems. I will start with analyzing
the problems and then discussing the results and opinion of students. Currently I am
teaching at a British secondary school so I can look at the problems from a different
point of view, too.

A PRIORI ANALYSIS OF THE “CARPENTER” PROBLEM

The problem:
A carpenter has 32 meters of timber and wants to make a border around a garden bed. He is
considering the following designs for the garden bed.

Circle either “Yes” or “No” for each design to indicate whether the garden bed can be made with 32
meters of timber.
Using this design, can the garden bed be made with 32
Garden bed design meters of timber?
A Yes / No
B Yes / No
C Yes / No
D Yes / No

120
 The “Carpenter” problem is an open problem. To solve it students need to use
different mathematical competencies. These competencies were defined by Niss as:
mathematical thinking, problem handling, modeling, reasoning, representation,
communication, symbol and formalism, aids and tools. In this problem mathematical
thinking, mathematical argumentation, modeling representation and problem solving
skills are essential. To be able to make the right decision students need to have a clear
understanding of the concept perimeter – all the way around a 2D-shape. Perimeter is
introduced in primary school at the age of 10-11. It is usually demonstrated by finding
the area of rectangles and squares. In Hungary, students have to learn the formula for the
perimeter of a rectangle: P=2 (a + b) or P=4a for a square, where a and b are the length
and the width of the rectangle / sides of the square. Furthermore, to solve the
“Carpenter” problem students have to see the connection between the perimeters of the
different shapes given in the problems.
A general difficulty with this question can be caused by mixing up the concept
of perimeter and area. The Hungarian words terület ‘area’ and kerület ‘perimeter’ differ
only in one letter. Hungarian students often use one instead of the other which shows
that they are not clear with the difference between area and perimeter and they do not
always realize, which one needs to be used. However, I face the problem again and again
with English students as well. In English the two words, area and perimeter, are clearly
different. But students still get confused with these concepts and sometimes they find the
perimeter instead of area.
Another difficulty might be that Hungarian students usually have to work out
the area or perimeter of ordinary shape e.g. rectangles, squares, triangles and they rarely
have to work with shapes like the ones given in the “Carpenter” problem part A, and C.
Probably, it is hard for them to recognize that while the area of the shape is changing,
the perimeter still can remain same. To help students to solve this problem the order of
the shapes could be changed. If they are in order of difficulty that suggests that they
need more and more complex thinking to answer the question. The majority of the
students would start with part D, as this is a rectangle and they well know that
P=2(a+b). The following order would be really helpful for the students:
If they see shape D and A next to each other that might realize that their width
is the same, and that might help them to see that their perimeter is the same. To see that
the perimeter of shape B is bigger than 32 m they need to recognize that cutting along
the perpendicular height of the parallelogram we get a right-angled triangle as shown in
the figure below. Furthermore, they need to know that in a right-angled triangle the
hypotenuse is always the longest side; therefore it must be longer than 6 m, which means
that the perimeter of the parallelogram is longer than 32 m. This step requires the
knowledge of the properties of right-angled triangles and parallelograms.

6m <
6m

121
A PRIORI ANALYSIS OF THE “WALKING” PROBLEM
The problem:
The picture shows the footprints of a man walking. The pace length P is the distance between the
rear of two consecutive footprints.

For men, the formula n / P = 140 gives an approximate relationship between n and P where:
n = number of steps per minute, and P = pace length in meters.
a) Bernard knows his pace length is 0.80 meters. The formula applies to Bernard's walking. Calculate
Bernard's walking speed in meters per minute and in kilometers per hour. Show your working out.
b) If the formula applies to Heiko's walking and Heiko takes 70 steps per minute, what is Heiko's pace
length?
The “Walking” problem is another open question. To solve it mathematical
thinking, modeling, problem posing and solving, representation, symbolic, formal and
technical skills are needed. The question consists of two parts. In part a) students have to
find the walking speed on the basis of the given formula and in part b) they have to find
the pace length.
The first step in solving part a) is to recognize that 0.80 is the value of P in the
formula, so all what needs to done is to substitute 0.80 in the formula and to work
out the value of n, which is the number of steps per minute: n=140×0.80=112. The next
step, which might be hard for some students, is to see that n is not the same as the sought
speed. Knowing that Bernard takes 112 steps per minute they have to find the distance
he can walk in a minute. For this, students have to notice that the distance can be
calculated from the pace length and the number of steps per minute: 112×0.80=6. To see
that this is the speed in m/min students have to know the relation between time, distance
and speed. The majority of students will stop here. Either because they do not read the
question properly and they forget about changing the speed into km/h or because they
have difficulty with converting m/min to km/h. However, even if they do not remember
that this is how you convert m/min to km/h: 89.6×0.06=5.4, they could use the following
reasoning to find the right answer:
1 meter per minute
60 meters per hour
0.06 kilometers per hour
Part b) is less difficult. We have to start with a substitution: n=70, which gives
us a simple equation: . Solving this type of equations is introduced in grade 6 or 7
(students aged 11-13). If students are not confident in solving equations of this type then
finding the value of P might be a bit tricky for them as students usually understand
division as the number we divide gets smaller by the division. While here we have the
opposite. So, they have to realize that we need to divide by a number, which is smaller
than one.

122
 Although this problem was put into real-life context it is worth considering how
realistic the given formula was. means that there is a direct proportional
relationship between the pace length and the number of steps per minute i.e. the more
steps someone takes in a minute the bigger the pace length is or the other way round, the
bigger someone's pace length is the more steps they take in a minute. These, of course,
are not necessarily true in real life.

A PRIORI ANALYSIS OF THE “GROWING UP” PROBLEM

The problem:
In 1998 the average height of both young males and females in the Netherlands is represented in this
graph.

a) Explain how the graph shows that on average the growth rate for girls slows down after 12
years of age.
b) According to this graph, on average, during which period in their life are females taller than
males of the same age?
c) Since 1980 the average height of 20-year-old females has increased by 2.3cm, to 170.6cm.
What was the average height of a 20-year-old female in 1980?
The “Growing up” problem is an open problem, too. The competencies needed
are the following: mathematical thinking, mathematical argumentation and problem
solving skills. It has three parts.
To answer part a) students need to interpret the graphs and translate their
meaning into words. They have to understand what the axes represent. They have to see
how the curve shows the relationship between age and height and they have to know that
the steepness of the curve shows the growth rate. In general, students feel that if the
curve gets “flatter” it means that e.g. girls do not grow that fast. However, the majority
of the students would find the “explain” part hard because it means that they have to
translate their mathematical thinking into language. They have to use mathematical
expressions and reasoning. Hungarian students are not used to giving mathematical
explanations or to talk about their way of thinking.
In part b) students have to compare the two curves. They have to realize that
where one curve is above the other it means that the height at that age is bigger.
Basically here they just have to find the right interval where the dashed curve goes above

123
the other curve and read the correct values for age. A mistake could be made if they gave
only a single value instead of an interval.
In part c) only a basic calculation needs to be done: 170.6−2.3=168.3 This is a
simple primary school task. Students do not even have to pay attention to metric
conversion since both measurements are given in cm.
However, the way the question is asked might be confusing. After the first
reading students have to stop and think about what they know and what the question
wants to know. In reading questions students usually look for keywords. This question
has the word increase in it, which suggests that they have to add. But, they have to
realize that although the date given is 1980, the height mentioned is the height of women
now. This might be hard to notice for a lot of students. If they can connect the given
height to the right date then it is easy to find out that they have to do the opposite of
increase, which is subtracting 2.3 from 170.6.
At the age of 12 Hungarian students should have the mathematical knowledge
required to solve these 3 questions. However, the way these questions are set up is rather
unfamiliar for the majority of them. These questions are not in line with the traditional
Hungarian mathematics questions and we hardly ever meet this type in traditional
mathematics learning and teaching.

ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' SOLUTIONS AND OPINIONS

It is always interesting to see how students try to solve problems that are a little
bit different from the ones they are used to. The method they use, the notes they make
and the opinions they give tells us a lot about what is going on in their heads. In this
investigation I worked with three different age groups who had to solve three well
known PISA-problems.
The three groups of students were the following: students in grade 7 (aged 12-
13), 12 students in grade 8 (aged 13-14) and 33 in grade 9 (aged 14-15). Students aged
12-14 (grade 7 and 8) were from an average primary school, while ninth-grade students
were from a selective secondary school. In Hungary children start primary school at the
age of 6. Primary schools are usually 8 years long, so students in grade 7 and 8 were at
the end of their primary school studies. After finishing primary school they take the so-
called entrance exam and enter a secondary school of their choice. Secondary school is 4
years long; students finish it at the age of 18. So the ninth-grade group was in their first
year of secondary school.
I was interested not only in the results – whether the students could find the
correct solution or not – and in the competency and skills they used, but in the way they
tried to solve the problems and in their opinion about the tasks. That is why I asked the
students to write down in a few words how they felt about the different problems. Here, I
would like to compare and contrast both the opinions of the students from different age
groups and their mathematical results.

The “Carpenter” problem

The majority of students thought that this was quite an easy problem and it was
clearly understandable what they had to do. Approximately one quarter of the students
from all age groups thought that a good idea was needed to find the solution but a few of
them said that the problem was a routine task. Only one seventh-grade student wrote that
the problem was difficult to solve and its text was not really understandable. None of the
eighth-grade students found the text either ambiguous or not understandable and only

124
two of the ninth-year students said that they were not sure what to do.1 Some students
said that you only had to think logically and it was easy to find the right answer.2
Half of the seventh-grade students were able to find the right answer for each
part. In grade 3 this ratio was 2/3 and in grade 9 it was about 3/4. One seventh-grade
student did not even try to solve the problem. In other age groups all students attempted
the question.3
The methods they used were different. First of all, students had to realize that
they have to work out the perimeter of the shapes and they should use the relationship
between the shapes. Obviously, the easiest to solve was part D – there is only one
incorrect answer from grade 7 and one from grade 9 – as it is a rectangle with 6 m and
10 m long sides. Students only had to calculate the perimeter of the rectangle. The
majority of them, especially students from lower age groups, tended to use the earlier
mentioned formula for finding the perimeter of the rectangle. In this part they had to use
recalling skills, they had to recall the definition of perimeter and carry out basic
calculation. Although part A and C looked similar more students gave correct answer for
part C than for part A – especially in grade 8. Students usually tried to complete the
drawings to get a rectangle. This method helped them realize that the perimeters of the
shapes in part A and C are equal to the perimeter of the rectangle. However, there were a
few examples where students chose the correct method but arrived to the wrong
conclusion. The solution of this problem required the application of more complex
mathematical thinking and reasoning skills.
Part B seemed less straightforward than the other three. However, especially in
grade 7, the number of wrong solutions is not significantly higher than in part A and C.
The reason might be that for the younger students part A, B and C were equally
challenging. To be able to answer these questions correctly students had to know how to
apply their geometrical knowledge and this part required the use of a more advanced
technical skill, too. The fact that the younger students had difficulties with solving the
three harder parts suggests that their mathematical reasoning skills, modeling skills,
geometrical technical skills are not so well-developed yet and it is more difficult for
them to apply their knowledge in an unusual situation.
As predicted, a lot of mistakes occurred as a result of mixing up the concept of
perimeter and area, and this led students to the wrong conclusion. In teaching, the
difference should be emphasized and teachers could use more visual tasks to make the
difference clear.

Figure 1. Correct solutions from different age groups

1
The text of the questions was translated into Hungarian.
2
Appendix I.
3
Appendix II.

125
Figure 2. Incorrect solutions from different age groups – using area instead of perimeter

The “Walking” problem

When talking about the “Walking” problem there is a difference between the
opinions of the seventh- and eighth-grade students and that of the ninth-grade students.
Most of students in grade 7 and 8 consider this problem as a difficult one (67% and
91%). They had difficulties with understanding the text because it was not clear and was
often ambiguous for them. None of the seventh-grade students said that this was an easy
task and only 16% of students in grade 8 found it easy. They wrote that the walking
problem is not a routine task. On the other hand, the ninth-grade students could easily
understand the text. They knew exactly what they had to do. Only ¼ of the students
thought that the problem was difficult and even if they said so they usually managed to
solve it or at least they found the first step. Even fewer ninth-grade students thought that
it was hard to understand (13%) or ambiguous (9%).4
Some students said that the picture helped them understand the formula and the
text of the problem. Others were surprised that they had to calculate the speed not only
in km/h but also in m/min. This was a bit unusual for them and many students had
difficulty with converting km/h to m/min.
The older students found the task easier and their results were better than that of
the younger ones, however, in general the number of good solutions was quite low. In
part a), where 17% of students in grade 7, 8% in grade 8 and 38% students in grade 9
could work out the problem5. The most typical wrong solution was: V = 0.8×140 = 112
m/min (They calculated the pace length correctly, but they thought that the pace length
equals the unknown speed.) The percent of incorrect solutions is the following: 44% of
students in grade 7, 42% in grade 8 and 62% students in grade 9 made a mistake or
followed a wrong plan. Quite a lot of students in grade 7 and 8 did not even try to solve
part a), but all of the students in grade 9 had some idea to begin with.
In solving part b) the ninth-grade students were more successful. 84% have
found the correct pace length, while in grade 7 only 22% and in grade 8 only 25% had
the right solution. Many younger students had an incorrect answer and most of grade 7
did not even solve this part (67%). The seventh- and eighth-grade students’ opinions
correspond to their result. It means that all students – except for one in grade 7, who said
that this is a difficult question – gave wrong answers or had no solution at all. This
shows that students are aware of what they are capable of.
Summing up, part b) was easier for all age groups and we have more correct
answers here than for part a). The fact that the majority of the seventh-grade students did
not deal with the problem suggests that students from this age group have less developed
interpretation skills, i.e. it is hard for them to understand complex word problems.
4
Appendix I
5
Appendix II

126
The “Growing up” problem
The “Growing up” problem was easy, clearly understandable and a routine task
for most of the students6. Some of them said that it was easy because the answers were
on the diagram; they just had to read them from the graph. Only a minority – one student
in grade 7, one in grade 8 and two students in grade 9 – said that it was difficult to solve.
It is interesting that a lot of students in grade 8 wrote that to solve this task you need a
good idea. For the younger students its text was not ambiguous, but one student in grade
8 and three students in grade 9 found that the text is not always straightforward –
especially in part a).
The students’ results show that the easiest for them was part b), where students
had to define the correct interval. Those who failed to give the right answer wrote only
one number and not an interval, but they searched for the answer in the right place. Part
c) was also quite easy but in this part there were more incorrect answers. Part a) seems to
be the most difficult, especially for the younger students. Only 17% of students in grade
7 gave the correct answer. The eight-grade students were more successful, 58% managed
to answer correctly. And 75% students in grade 9 could also work out this problem.7
All of the students tried to solve part b) and only a few students had no idea
what to do with part a) and c). Furthermore, more than the half the seventh-grade
students did not write anything to part a).
As we can see, there is a difference between the achievement and opinion of
students in grade 7, 8, and students in grade 9. The latter use their knowledge more
confidently and they are aware of their knowledge and skills. The reason for this can be
the one- or two-year difference in age and in education, which means more problem
solving experience and more mature thinking. Whereas, we have to take into
consideration the fact that the younger students were from an average primary school.

CONCLUSION
The aim of this study was to investigate how students can cope with solving
problems which are slightly different from the ones they are used to and what they think
about them. In theory, they know everything to solve these problems. The interesting
thing was to see how they reacted when they first saw them.
The “Carpenter” problem suggests that the difference between area and
perimeter should be more emphasized. Teachers have to make sure that students
understand what perimeter and area are right from introducing the concepts. Our
students are usually good at finding formulas or theorems that can be applied to solve a
given problem. But they need to practice rewording either the question or the definition
so that it fits to the current problem. They need to practice applying what they know in a
different context. For this students need to meet open problems regularly.
The “Growing up” problem shows that although reading information from
graphs looks easy it is not always straightforward for students. Therefore, it is important
for them to practice it. These types of questions appear more often in exam questions and
in textbooks now. Students have to practice understanding questions and they have to
make sure that they answer what it asks for. This seems to be a general problem that
students do not read questions properly. They just have a quick look, see some numbers,
but skip over the important details, which results in them answering a wrong question.
Translating between mathematics or mathematical language and their own
6
Appendix I.
7
Appendix II

127
language is also an issue. Students should practice explaining things, talking about their
thinking and changing mathematical information into language. This investigation
showed me that students, even those who struggled with finding the right answers,
enjoyed doing something different. In my own practice I have to make sure that I
provide interesting and challenging questions to my students so they do not lose their
interest in the subject. The above study shows that we can make questions challenging
just by changing the usual format. I also learned that students appreciate if they can share
their views about a task with their teacher.
I mentioned that currently I am a mathematics teacher at a British secondary
school, so I have some experience about the types of questions students usually have to
solve. Here, their Standard Assessment Tests (SATs) contain a lot of questions which are
similar to the three analyzed PISA problems. Students are trained right from the
beginning to solve problems like these. One of the aims of teaching mathematics is to
teach logical way of thinking. Furthermore, students should be prepared for unexpected
problems – unexpected means asking for something they know but applying it in a
different context, with different wording... etc. Teachers should equip their students with
a wide range of problem solving strategies and make sure that students gain enough
experience in choosing the most appropriate strategy in a given problem situation.

REFERENCES
Vári Péter. (2003). PISA-vizsgálat 2000. Mûszaki Könyvkiadó.
PISA OECD (2004). Learning for Tomorrow’s World: First Results from PISA 2003.
OECD Publishing.
Niss, M. (2003). “Quantitative Literacy and Mathematical Competencies.” Quantitative
Literacy: Why Numeracy Matters for Schools and Colleges. B. L. Madison & L.
Arthur Steen (eds.). National Council on Education and the Disciplines, New
Jersey: Princeton.
http://www.okm.gov.hu/main.php?folderID=137&articleID=6985&ctag=
articlelist&iid=1 (05/02/2008)

128
Appendix I.
Students’ comments on the three problems

The “Carpenter” problem – comments

The “Walking” problem – comments

The “Growing up” problem - comments

129
Appendix II
Percentage of correct, incorrect and missing answers

The “Carpenter” problem – solutions

“Walking” problem – solutions

“Growing up” problem – solutions

130
RAGIOCNANDO: A TEACHING EXPERIMENT ON THE
SEARCH FOR REGULARITIES THROUGH
A COLLECTIVE CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE
Roberta Fantini* & Chiara Lugli**
*Scuola Media Statale “Toschi,” Baiso (Italy)
**I.P.S.I.A. “G. Vallauri,” Carpi (Italy)
* [email protected], **[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this article we give details of the work we carried out between 2006 and 2008 within a
wider research project aimed at the introduction of both methodological and curricular
innovation in the classroom, as well as at our own professional development through the
methods of educational research. The project involved both design and experimental
setting of a constructive teaching sequence, based on the identification of regularities in
the exploration of numerical and figural sequences. At the same time, the project
entailed the actual use of methodology for studying and critically analyzing the enacted
classroom-based processes. In the article we describe: the main features of this
sequence, some of the experimented activities, students’ behaviors with respect to a task
drawn from the PISA test and included in the teaching sequence, the general results
obtained in the classes. The methodology used to analyze classroom-based processes is
then illustrated. Finally, a reflection is made upon the value of the activities, of critical
comment and reflection, the awareness we reached and the possible spin-off for our
teaching activity.

INTRODUCTION
The work we present here is meant to illustrate how the development of an
autonomous and creative form of thinking in students requires a constant spirit of
methodological and educational research by teachers, leading them to reflect upon their
own professionalism and competencies, for a continuous improvement.
In particular, we present some aspects and results of an innovative teaching
experiment, aimed at sixth-grade students and based on the study of sequences for an
introduction to generalization and algebraic modeling. Effective teaching and
methodological strategies that promoted a critical and research-directed attitude in
students are illustrated: these strategies also allowed students to develop divergent
thinking, which helped them grasp regularities in an autonomous way, make conjectures
and translate them into algebraic language.

THE SEQUENCE
The teaching sequence – jointly developed by trainee teachers-researchers and
researchers from the University of Modena and Reggio E. – was named “Ragiocnando,” a
word which combines playing, meant as pleasure in investigation and discovery, and
reasoning, meant as pleasure in thinking, reflecting upon and arguing about one’s ideas.
It was designed and implemented with modalities that point to an improvement and
empowerment of students’ skills in argumentation and communication on mathematical

131
issues, both in written and in oral form. It was started in the school year 2005/06 and,
after initial pilot studies, it was implemented in the school years 2006/07 and 2007/08
with a careful monitoring of the classroom-based teaching and learning processes.
At the basis of the sequence’s design were: an accurate study of some
problem situations proposed by the PISA test (OCSE 2003) as well as some research
papers (Orton & Orton 1994, 1996; Frielander & Tabach, 2001; Malara, 2003; Navarra,
2000; Sasman et al., 1999; Taplin, 1995); a discussion – within the PDTR seminars –
about the mathematical value of the examined activities, their consistency with the
national curriculum and the modalities to be implemented in the classes.
Our objective was to construct an innovative teaching sequence within the
current curricular programs and, at the same time, to make the related assessment
consistent with both context and teaching practice related to mathematics. The
sequences’ contents are not generally included in the traditional mathematics teaching in
Italy and this is the reason why teachers had to tackle the topic with the aim to explore it,
evaluate its feasibility, study the problems related to its didactical transposition, with the
global aim of including it into curricular programs in the future.
General objectives for students are basically set at cognitive and metacognitive
level, with social implications, as summarized in the following table:

cognitive level metacognitive and social level

to search for regularities in a sequence of
to listen, grasping others’ resources
numbers and/or figures
to manage the situation in a collective
to find a functional link between two sets
discussion
to develop divergent, critical and creative
to formulate and test hypotheses
thinking
to argue from one’s point of view, reflect
to generalize upon and make thinking processes
explicit
to favor a constructive dialogical
to make abstractions
exchange
to acknowledge the importance of a
to understand and use specific language
collective construction of knowledge

In the next sections we present the main activities of the sequence and deal with
modalities and issues which emerged from the experimental setting: our aim is to
stimulate a reflection on the purposes and difficulties of some exploratory contexts we
proposed, on their consequences from a pedagogical and disciplinary point of view for
students.

THE WORKSHEETS
The activities we selected in the phases of study and discussion were
preliminarily analyzed and structured in worksheets with the aim to construct a gradual
sequence that would enable students to acquire those competencies promoted by the
PISA test, so that they might explore some situations as a preparation to tackle questions
taken from the test itself calmly. Some particular numerical sequences were initially
proposed (arithmetic progressions), followed by figural sequences, with the aim of
comparing the effects of different visualizations in generating a given sequence (some
examples are reported in the Appendix). Two particular numerical sequences (one of
these was assigned as homework) and two figural ones were proposed to get to the PISA
task called “Apple trees” given as final assessment test.

132
 In formulating the worksheets we paid attention to: the context, linguistic
aspects in wording questions, numerical aspects and graphical appearance (which was
made as much attractive as possible). We were particularly careful to guide the
progressive transition from natural language to arithmetical language, by enacting
numerical representations that functioned as expressions of the link between the
positional index and the related term in a sequence, to end up with a representation in
general terms by means of algebraic language.
We then outlined sketches for carrying out mathematical discussions as a
support to keep under control some key points of arrival, effective stimulus-questions to
prevent students from taking ambiguous or dispersive routes or routes that are little
consistent with the main aim to be reached.
The worksheets we outlined led students in the exploration and search for
regularities in numerical sequences with an increasingly higher degree of difficulty. In
particular, while they are observing the recursive nature of a sequence, students must
predict how the sequence continues, thus identifying its generation through the
application of the same operator, until the functional link between the positional index
and the term of the sequence is made explicit. The analysis of numerical data
progressively leads to a relational analysis of the tables containing results from the
exploration of the examined cases and later to complete them with the explicit inclusion
of the identified relations. Numerical data are always reported in tables that favor the
identification and formalization of relations. Students are gradually led to generalization
by means of algebraic language. In particular, students are initially guided in the search
for a rule that enables them to express a term of the examined sequence not as a function
of the previous one, but rather as a function of the first term. The final step is then to
lead students to translate the rule that expresses this functional link in formal terms.
Exploration and search for regularities in geometric sequences favors different
learning styles and, at the same time, is meant to make students more autonomous in the
exploratory activity, since the sequence’s terms are not immediately given, but rather
they are deduced from techniques for counting the represented elements. Focus is thus
on the enactment of visualization skills, and specifically of skills of analysis and
decomposition of graphical configurations characterizing the sequence’s elements, with
the aim of identifying strategies for counting that may be generalized to determine the
total number of elements that generate them. Students are later led to reflect upon their
own thinking strategies when they are asked to explain how they got to realize the
graphical terms in the sequence or rather their counting strategies.

EXPERIMENTAL SETTING AND WORK METHODOLOGY IN THE

CLASSROOM
After the pilot studies carried out in the first year of affiliation to the PDTR
project, in the following year (2006/07) the teaching sequence was implemented within
the curricular programs. This required a careful scheduling of the proposed activities,
since the latter were not included in the ‘minimum curriculum’ (as concerns both
contents and aims) that teacher are supposed to complete, in order to offer educational
continuity, especially when they are assigned a temporary school.
The teaching and learning methodology was characterized by a strong
metacognitive and socio-constructive approach: individual exploratory phases alternated
with collective discussions, centered on exchanges and reflections upon both enacted
strategies and mistakes made. Work in the classroom was supported and strengthened by
a fruitful work at home, which provided a chance for a formative assessment to both

133
teachers and students. The teaching and learning activities were sometimes presented as
a challenge or a game, in the attempt to overcome a didactical contract centered on the
mere application of rules and mathematical procedures, in which students might get
involved if they are not given the chance to become aware of the processes underlying
their own and others’ rational thinking. We attempted to overcome possible blocks, both
cognitive and psychological, that might have discouraged weaker students and prevented
them from learning even strictly disciplinary topics.
In the second year of the teaching experiment (2007/08) the sequence focused
on the study of figural sequences, with the aim of leading students to identify and
represent the joint variation of the pair <place-term> in a sequence, to get to the general
representation. Students were thus led to compare strategies for constructing the
sequences under exam, to reflect upon their own thinking strategies for counting as well
as on their efficacy and validity, to predict either the presence or the absence of a certain
term in a sequence. In particular, the last proposed activity, taken from Friedlander &
Tabach (2001), was meant to make students tackle a more difficult task: given the figural
representation of a term of a sequence at a given place, represent immediately preceding
and subsequent terms, deduce the underlying regularity and see the sequence in
functional terms, making the generating rule explicit and, finally, compare and verify,
with an appropriate argumentation, strategies for counting the elements that constitute
the terms of the sequence, on the basis of algebraic modeling of the rule.

BEHAVIOURS OF STUDENTS TACKLING THE STUDY OF THE PISA TASK

“APPLE TREES”
The theoretical framework of the PISA test assessment centers around four
particular content areas: space and shape (including geometrical and spatial problems),
change and relations (mathematical representations of change, functional relations and
interdependence of variable quantities), quantity (quantitative representation of
phenomena, relations and schemes), uncertainty (study of combinatorial, probabilistic
and statistical phenomena and related representations).
The “Apple trees” task is placed in the PDTR’s key idea “change and relations”
as it develops specific skills referred to connections through a coding of identified
relations in functional terms. The task’s problem situation is centered on the
identification of relations between the involved data, by means of open-ended questions:
the data are apple trees and conifers scattered around squared fields, with variable side,
apple trees being at the center, and conifers along the border, following one single
figural scheme (see picture).
The task is clear and split into a series of questions. The first two are quite
simple, as they are limited to the study of figural representations of the examined
situation; it is with the third question that students are introduced and gradually guided
towards generalization and algebraic representation. In particular, they are invited to
search for a functional relation for the distribution of apple trees with respect to the
field’s index and later for another relation in the distribution of conifers. The last part of
the task is the most complex: students are asked to investigate on whether there is a case,
in which the two identified relations allow them to predict if there is the same number of
apple trees and conifers for one same field.

134
 Among the different possible strategies we distinguish relational and recursive
ones. In the exploration of the numerousness of apple trees, in the very first cases the
simplest strategy is based on counting the single dots and later an additive strategy will
be considered. The latter will then be substituted by the multiplicative strategy in the
subsequent, more complex cases. Several routes might be followed in reasoning about
how to count the distribution of apple trees when n=5. A relational type of
argumentation can be produced, by generalizing from previous cases: the field with
index 2 has 4 apple trees, the field with index 3 has 9 apple trees, that with index 4 has
16 apple trees and then the field with index 5 has 25 apple trees. A second way might be
the recursive one: on the basis of the previous case 4, a row might be added horizontally
and a line vertically with 5 apple trees, but taking out one because otherwise the tree at
the intersection would be counted twice. A third way might be to add an apple tree for
each of the 4 rows horizontally and vertically and add an apple tree to complete the
square. Counting conifers implies a subtle analysis of the regularities characterizing the
configurations. Recursive strategies for counting seem to be more immediate: one of
these is based on the addition of two conifers at each side with respect to the previous
configuration. The other strategy is based on the addition of one conifer at each vertex of
the square.
There are two relational strategies. One of these is based on the remark that in
each configuration, if we exclude the four vertexes in each side, the number of conifers
is twice the number of the configuration minus one: in case 2 there are 3 conifers, in case
3 there are 5 conifers, in case 4 there are 7 conifers, so in case 5 there must be 9 and in
the general case n conifers are 4(2n-1)+4.
Another strategy stems from the remark that in each configuration the number
of conifers is 4 times twice the number of the index: it is enough to go along the
perimeter clockwise, starting from top left, and count the conifers in groups of as many
trees as the number that follows the index. The comparison between the quantity of
apple trees and conifers as n varies is particularly interesting: the square of a number is
to be compared to its multiple by 8. If the concepts of square and multiple are clear

135
enough, it is obvious that the multiple by 8 of a number equals the square of that number
only when this is exactly 8.
The analysis of answers provided by students in their individual work, shows
that in the search for regularities in the apple trees’ configuration, the strategies enacted
are substantially: a) counting dots; b) counting by row or column and subsequent
discovery that n corresponds to the number of apple trees in each row (or column); c)
counting by reducing to the previous case. As concerns strategy b),
some students express themselves with statements like “multiplying it
by itself,” referred to the configuration number and to the concept of
multiplication; some other students use graphical representations like
that illustrated above. As concerns strategy c), students suggest that
one dot more might be added to each row and column of the previous configuration. The
following is an example of an argumentation they provided to support the given
numerical result: “It turns out like this because looking at the drawings you always add 1
in each row.” Then they add 1 to complete the square. Only one student uses both
strategies and writes: “In order to draw the apple trees you must take the number of the
figure, for instance 3, and multiply it by itself. Or rather you need to put one column
more and one dot more in each column, which is the same as the previous strategy.”
When the numerousness of conifers is to be determined, the iconic
representation becomes more difficult: some students realize the configuration for n=5,
focusing on apple trees only, without considering the relation linking this number with
that of conifers. An example of this is given in the representation aside.
For others, the exploration is more systematic and precise than at the very beginning. In
particular, some of these students highlight the relation between the conifers distributed
along one side of a generic configuration (index n) and those
situated along the same side in the previous configuration,
thus pointing out the need for adding 2 “I did so because in
n. 1 there are 3 conifers per side, in 2 there are 5 per side,
therefore conifers will have to proceed by two.”
Only one student remarks that the total number of
conifers increases by 8 moving from one configuration to the
next and argues by saying “making plus eight” to determine
the total number of conifers. Students then get to the
generalization, with the aid of tables: some make horizontal
and vertical relations explicit and formalize the number of
apple trees with n×n, or n2 and the number of conifers with
n×8. Some difficulties have emerged in the answers to the last
question: some students equal the two relations without actually realizing that, others
proceed by trial and error. In the justification they either use or not the graphical
representation to support their argumentation.
A student only analyses the first cases and, generalizing wrongly, gets to say:
“There isn’t– a number n for which the number of conifers is equal to the number of
apple trees – because there are always more conifers.”
Finally, one student shows his divergent mathematical thinking, looking at the
case with index 0 and answering the last question “0, because there are no trees to be
protected” thus showing a creative use of his own knowledge and skills.

136
COMMENTS ON RESULTS OBTAINED IN THE CLASSES
Generally speaking, by exploring sequences linked to a certain rule, students are
led to acquire a capacity of generalization and representation through algebraic language.
These activities, although requiring a lengthy time to be implemented (together with
curricular ones), seem to favor the development of divergent, creative and critical
thinking, which enables students to tackle strictly disciplinary topics being more serene
and open to exchanges with others. The activities we implemented have a metacognitive
value: they ask students to make their reasoning explicit, thus encouraging them to
reflect upon their own mental procedures, besides favoring a development of
argumentative skills and a refinement of specific language. In particular, students in the
classes we examined, learn to manage their own participation in collective discussions,
refining their listening skills and becoming able to grasp everyone’s resources: this
favors a constructive dialogic exchange that leads to an aware collective construction of
knowledge. The chosen methodology entails everyone’s active participation,
independently on one’s knowledge or disciplinary competencies. The sense of self-
efficacy is thus favored and students are likely to overcome their fear of making
mistakes.
The teaching experiments we implemented suggest that the explored situation
might be a stimulus for students, even if they are carried out sporadically, because they
show the actual potential of arithmetic, the richness of problems, numbers’ “own life”
and nets of mutual relations.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND REFLECTIONS UPON ITS

PRODUCTIVENESS
Our research methodology focused on the analysis of classroom-based
processes, and was supported by audio recordings of collective discussions, their
transcription commented by teachers, the enrichment of comments at various levels and
the analysis of students’ productions, in order to have an overall definition of the
Project’s educational and disciplinary spin-off. In the next paragraphs, we will reflect
upon the productiveness of the chosen methodology, by drawing a distinction between
effects on students and effects on teachers.

Students’ side
Transcribing collective discussions allowed us to constantly monitor what we
planned in order to make the subsequent activities more suitable, to check, in each
situation, the actual mastering of both concepts and instruments by students and to
follow their cognitive and argumentative evolution in view of the assessment. Audio
recording allowed us to carry out an analytical observation and, in particular, to pay
higher attention to those relational, communicative and argumentative processes of the
class as a group that cannot always be grasped immediately during the activity, but
which might nevertheless enable teachers to manage students’ answers more effectively
and thus modify the teaching sequence accordingly.
The exchanges among teachers who shared the same project was a moment of
professional development: it widened the range of possible future projects, of possible,
even alternative, answers by students, of possible and not foreseen difficulties they might
meet, as they depend on the class context.

137
Teachers’ side
Process-related protocols we edited as teachers were the basis of an exchange
between us, our mentors and the research head. These protocols, enriched with
comments jointly added by the mentioned subjects, were discussed initially in working
sessions with the mentor and later in specific collective sessions (Malara, in this
volume). This led to the constitution and sharing of a set of observations, reflections,
methodological and operative guidelines that allowed for a widening and deepening of
points of view, a wide open exchange not only related to methodological issues, but also
to knowledge about the discipline. At the end of the first year of the teaching experiment
some meaningful follow-ups on our teaching professionalism emerged. This favored an
in-depth reflection upon methodological and disciplinary skills to be refined, as well as
on the pedagogical sensitiveness that needs to be used in order to be able to carry out an
authentically constructive teaching activity.
Our repeated reading and thinking over commented transcripts allowed for a
self-evaluation of our own professionalism, a critical metareflection on our own way of
managing collective discussions, on our way to send students’ suggestions back to the
class, to intervene and direct, sometimes categorically, the discussion itself. After this
process we got to a higher professional awareness: in particular we became aware of the
need to refine our capacity of grasping immediate feedback by students in a meaningful
way, always keeping in mind the aims of the route we undertook. We also reached a
higher awareness of our own capacity of mediating in teaching situations as well as of
the need for a careful control over a clear distinction and coordination of natural
language and specific language. The role of teachers and the variety of competencies
they have to be able to enact in a collective discussion emerged clearly: teachers should
be able to value students’ interventions and send them back to the class, must not make
explicit judgments, trying to keep a consistency between verbal and non verbal language,
must be able to direct the lesson, giving space to the groups’ dialectics, must be able to
give students the chance to reflect upon ideas, opinions, mistakes and successful results
obtained together.

There is a long way to go

This experience led us to a different view on our profession, as open to study,
analysis and exchanges, and also instilled the idea that our professional life will
continuously develop for the whole productive time.

REFERENCES
OCSE (eds.). (2002). Sample Tasks from the PISA Assessment: Reading, Mathematical
and Scientific Literacy. Paris
OCSE (eds.). (2003). Assessment Framework: Mathematics, Reading, Science and
Problem Solving. Paris, [Italian Translation.: PISA 2003: Valutazione dei
quindicenni, Armando, Roma].
Orton, J., Orton, A. (1994). “Students’ Perception and Use of Pattern and
Generalization.” Proc. PME 18. Lisbona. 3. 407-414.
--- (1996) “Making Sense of Children’s Patterning.” Proc. PME 20. 4, 83-90.
Friedlander, A., Tabach, M. (2001). “Developing a Curriculum of Beginning Algebra in
a Spreadsheet Environment.” The Future of Teaching and Learning Algebra. Cick,
H. et al. (eds.). University of Melbourne. 1, 252-257.

138
Harper, E. (1987) NMP: Mathematics for Secondary School. Essex: Longman.
Malara, N.A. (2003). “L’esplorazione di situazioni come modalità da privilegiare sin
dalla scuola primaria per dare significato allo studio dell’algebra.” La Didattica
della Matematica in aula. B. D’Amore (ed.). Bologna: Pitagora. 71-86.
--- (2008). “Methods and Tools to Promote in Teachers a Socio-Constructive Approach
to Mathematics Teaching.” Handbook of Teaching-Research. B. Czarnocha (ed.)
Projekt PDTR Sokrates Comenius.
Malara, N.A., Navarra, G. (2003). Progetto ArAl: Quadro teorico e Glossario. Bologna:
Pitagora.
Malara, N.A, Zan, R. (2002). “The Problematic Relationship between Theory and
Practice.” Handbook of International Research in Mathematics Education. L.
English (eds.). NJ: LEA. 553-580.
Navarra, G. (2000). “Una questione di stuzzicadenti, riflessioni sul linguaggio naturale e
sul linguaggio algebrico.” Italiano & oltre. 2, 90-96.
Sasman, M. C., Olivier, A., Linchevski, L. (1999). Factors Influencing Student’s
Generalization Thinking Processes. Proc. PME 23. Haifa. 4, 161-168.
Taplin, M. (1995). “Social Patterning: A Pilot Study of Pattern Formation and
Generalization.” Proc. PME 19. Recife. 3, 42-49.

139
APPENDIX

Example of an arithmetic sequence

Continue the sequence
4 11 18 __ __ __ __ __ __
From 4 the rule is ________________________________________
Complete the table
Operation to jump from Mathematical recipe to
Ranking number Number
the first number build the number
1° 4
2° 11 4 + ___ 4 + ( __ x 1)
3° 4 + ___ + ___
4°

Example of a figural sequence

We construct with matches!!!!!!

Lorenzo is constructing some skyscrapers with matches in this way:

______
1° 2° 3° 4° 5°

1. Try to realize the skyscraper that would occupy the sixth place.
2. Explain the procedure that you have adopted in order to realize the sixth skyscraper.

140
 A PISA-LIKE PROBLEM FOR 8-YEAR-OLD
CHILDREN: TEACHERS' CHOICES
Nicoletta Grasso* & Maria Mellone**
*Istituto “Adelante,” Giugliano in Campania, Naples (Italy)
**Dipartimento di Matematica e Applicazioni – Università degli Studi di
Napoli Federico II (Italy)
* [email protected] ** [email protected]

ABSTRACT
According to the main cultural aim of the PISA project, mathematics should be used as a
tool to model reality and to make inferences. In this work we present an activity based
on this cultural idea of mathematics and finalized in the acquisition of the general
concept of proportionality in primary schools. In particular, we will analyze the
teachers’ role in managing activity through the theoretical lens of Bruner’s dichotomy
between narrative and paradigmatic thought.

INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL REMARKS

This paper is about an experimental path on proportionality conducted in a
third-grade class. The main aim of the experience was to analyze the teacher’s role in
promoting students’ knowledge reconstruction. Here, we focus our attention on the
teacher’s choices in planning and conducting the activity and on the theoretical
framework that supports them. We start from the strong assumption that “knowledge
construction is the result of a process of resonance between individual cognition, social
culture and reality structures, along cognitive paths efficiently addressed and controlled
in their meaning-driven dynamics. It requires, at any level, also resonance between
various “dimensions” of natural thinking: perception, language, action, representation,
planning, interpretation” (Guidoni et al., 2005). So, we focus our attention on children’s
natural thinking, taking into account just two variables among others: the way children
naturally acquire information from the external world and the way they organize such
information. With regard to the first variable, we recognize that all children possess a
basic network of biological/cultural cognitive strategies through which they become able
to see/look at the various sides of reality. In particular, children use mostly their senses
to know the external reality so that first knowledge of the properties of the surrounding
environment comes from their feelings (Gardner, 1982; Quaglia, 2003). With respect to
the strategies devoted to organization of knowledge, we refer to Bruner’s hypothesis that
there are two kinds of cognitive working, two ways of thinking: each of them provides its particular
method of organizing the experience and building the reality. These two ways of thinking are
irreducible to one another, though complementary. Every attempt to reduce them to just one or to
ignore one favoring the other one unavoidably produces the effect of losing sight of richness and
variety of thought.1
Moreover, Bruner introduces the duality between “paradigmatic” thought and
“narrative” thought, the first being

1
This quotation and the following one are translated by the authors from the Italian version of (Bruner, 1986).

141
 devoted to the search of the causes of general order ... it makes use of procedures able to ensure the
referential truthfulness ... its language is regulated by the principles of consistency and of non
contradiction ... the creative use of paradigmatic thought produces good theories, rigorous analyses,
correct argumentation and empiric discoveries that lean on reasoned hypotheses.
On the contrary, the narrative thought deals with the typical human intentions
and actions, and its organization is based on time-space coordinates and on casual links
rooted in experience.

THE CLASS EXPERIENCE

The following experimental path has been proposed in a third-grade class to
children that for the first time approached a mathematical laboratory.
Firstly, we proposed the problem in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Is it sweeter: the water in the glass or the one in the carafe? If they're not equally sweet, what can we do to
make them equally sweet?

We chose this context for many reasons: (1) it is strongly rooted in everyday
experience, so that a lot of pertinent thought-action-wording-representation aspects are
actually available to support knowledge construction; (2) it can be approached by means

142
of several strategies, from bodily to formal, crossing through different kinds of
representations; (3) it is at the same time complex enough to demand a careful previous
individuation of pertinent variables, and simple enough to allow for an exploration not
too rigidly guided. The third condition, in our opinion, is the crucial one in bridging
narrative to paradigmatic thinking, in both directions.
The children’s request of concretely realizing the described experiment comes
up immediately, confirming one of our hypotheses: in problem solving situation they
trust their perceptive/motor strategies. Then we arranged the experiment. Soon, a
difficulty arose in looking for a glass and a carafe corresponding to those in the problem,
but this allowed a rich discussion about what is important in order to answer the first
question and what can be neglected. We suggest that all these collective reflections
promote awareness of the dialectic between narrative and paradigmatic thought.
Stefania: I see there’s more sugar at the bottom of the carafe, isn’t there?
Martina: I want to mix it with the teaspoon, so I can look at the sugar again and then I’ll be able to
decide.
Giuliano: Let’s try to color the sugar so that we can say where there is more sugar.
Joseila: Can I taste the water once again?… I did not feel well… From my point of view the
water in the glass is sweeter.
We note that children activate perceptual strategies: to see, to taste, to color, to
mix. In this phase the mathematical data are used only to realize the two solutions, not as
reasoning tools: in their reasoning children completely forget the “quantities” introduced
by the problem.
In order to draw children’s attention to numerical aspects, we introduced a
space visualization of the sugar/water rate. For us, this representation had to act as a
semiotic mediator toward a paradigmatic organization of their observations. We supplied
children with some blue squares in order to represent water and with some smaller
yellow squares to represent sugar. Students proposed their own representations sticking
the colored squares to a sheet of paper. Many students distributed the sugar pieces at the
bottom of the containers revealing again a perceptual reasoning (Figure 2); others
distributed the same pieces in a scattered way. Only 3 students out of 18 produced a
representation like that in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Figure 3.

We want to emphasize the fact that the choice of measure units for sugar and
for water was the result of a negotiation in a collective discussion. A further discussion
on the features of the various representations allowed us to choose the distribution in
Figure 3 as the most effective.
Salvatore: It is clear! The water in the glass is sweeter because in every piece of water there are two
pieces of sugar, while in the carafe in every piece of water there is only one piece of sugar.

143
 Salvatore’s words “in every piece there is” later shared by the whole class,
show that children's attention focuses now on sugar/water rate.
Children’s goal was to “discover” the answer, while for us the problematic
situation was just a pretext to induce children to use a more effective and technical
linguistic tool that could put better linkages in evidence, that is, the tables. According to
Vygotsky, we believe that language is a social tool that drives the thought: in this sense,
a two-column table, being a translation of Salvatore’s “natural” words in an
iconic/symbolic language, can shift the focus from the particular situation to the more
general proportionality relation between two variables.

Figure 4.

As usual, children accepted teacher’s proposal for a new representation very

well. They invented many types of tables like that in Figure 4 in order to discover the
answer to the second question. This table shows and clarifies the relationship between
sugar in the glass and sugar in the carafe, when we have the same quantity of water. At
this point the teacher suggested to construct two tables (see Figure 5), in order to
underline the relationships between water and sugar in the two containers.

Figure 5.

144
 Through the use of these tables children explored many regularities, for
example, the way to move between the two columns by the same factor of
multiplication.
Moreover, children’s tables were not “closed” at the bottom like in Figure 5.
Once they discovered the proportionality factor, they also realized that the tables could
go on. So, through a visual perception, they were becoming aware of the generality of
the two proportionality relations. The students still needed to see that not always a result
obtained by working with numbers can be transposed without restrictions into a real
world situation. Therefore, the next step was to try to translate the mathematical
knowledge so hardly acquired back to the side of the perceived reality.
Adriana: We know that the two relationships can go on forever, but the tables have an end.
Teacher: So, how can we continue them?
Lucia: I tried to do it in my notebook and I arrived to 144 and I could still continue. It can be
continued up to infinity: if you think to glass and sugar, you can’t continue because water
comes out. But with numbers you can arrive even to thousands!
Finally, using their tables, children tried to solve the last part of the problem:
Lucia: I think you can add sugar into the carafe…precisely twenty pieces of sugar.
Antonio: Yes, but you can also take off the sugar from the glass.
Lucia: No, you can’t, because in the glass water is mixed with sugar, so you can’t take sugar off.
The only allowed action is to add, so you can also add water into the glass.
It is very interesting to note how Lucia activates both kinds of reasoning in
looking for a solution to the new question: this is the starting point of the process toward
the ability of selecting a way of reasoning on the basis of the actual goal.
Of course, the path did not stop here: the exigency of comparing different
answers to the second question lead us to introduce a Cartesian representation. Our aim
was to exploit this new tool in order to allow children to use again perceptual strategies
for reasoning about sugar concentration at a different and higher level. In fact, reflecting
on the picture in Figure 6 they discovered that each line corresponds to a different
“sweetness” of the sugar/water solution, that the sweeter is a solution, the closer to the
“sugar axis” is the corresponding line, and so on.

Figure 6.

CONCLUSIONS
The awareness of the complementary roles of paradigmatic and narrative kinds
of reasoning is a powerful tool in teacher’s hands in promoting knowledge construction.
As we have tried to show, it guides both teachers conduct and their interpretation of
children’s cognitive behavior. This is particularly important if we look at mathematics

145
education in the sense of the PISA project: in fact, using mathematics as a tool to model
reality requires awareness of the potentiality and of the limits of a mathematical model.
This is the reason why the experimental path we have presented was not imagined as a
one-way path from the concrete level to the formal one, but rather as a cyclic path that,
starting from the real world problem, goes to the formal level and then back again to the
concrete context. In these back and forth dynamics the synergy of two kinds of reasoning
plays crucial role.

REFERENCES
Bruner, J. (1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. [Italian ed.: La mente a più
dimensioni. Bari: Laterza, 2005.]
Dehaene, S., (1997). La bosse des maths. [Italian ed.: Il pallino della matematica.
Milano: Mondadori.]
Iannece, D. & Tortora, R. (2003). “The Evolution of Graphic Representations in a
Vygotsky Perspective.” Proc. of CERME 3.
Iannece, D., Mellone, M. & Tortora, R. (2006). “New Insights into Learning Processes
from some Neuroscience Issues.” Proc. of the 30th Conf. of the Intern. Group for
the PME. Prague. 3, 321-328.
Gardner, H. (1982). Art, Mind and Brain. [Italian ed.: Il bambino come artista. Saggi
sulla creatività e l’educazione. Piacenza: Anabasi, 1993.]
Guidoni, P. (1985). “On Natural Thinking.” European Journal of Science Education. 7,
133-140.
Guidoni, P., Iannece, D. & Tortora, R. (2005). “Forming Teachers as Resonance
Mediators.” Proc. of the 29th Conf. of the Intern Group for the PME. Melbourne. 3,
73-88.
Piaget, J. (1964). Six études de Psychologie. Paris: Gonthier. [Italian ed.: Lo sviluppo
mentale del bambino. Torino: Einaudi, 1967.]
Quaglia, R. (2003). Manuale del disegno infantile. Storia, sviluppo, significati. Torino:
UTET.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1931). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological
Processes. [Italian critical ed.: Il processo cognitivo. Torino: Bollati-Boringheri,
1987.]
--- (1934). Myshlenie I rech´. Psihologicheskie issledovanija. [Italian critical ed. by
Mecacci, L.: Pensiero e Linguaggio. Bari: Laterza, 1990.]

146
 …CAN A SEAL SLEEP WITHOUT BREATHING?
Francesca Mondelli
Istituto Comprensivo Pier Luigi Belloni, Colorno (Italy)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The PISA 2003 problem the “Seal” is analyzed and criticized from various points of
view: language, information provided, biological and physical realism, solving
difficulties. Then students’ solutions are quoted, which confirm the criticism.

KEY WORDS:
PISA, translation, cross-disciplinary

THE PISA TEST

The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) is an internationally
standardized assessment administered to 15-year-olds in schools. The PISA test tries to
assess how far students near the end of compulsory education have acquired some of the
knowledge and skills that are essential in adult life and for full participation in society.
Skills and knowledge, such as reading, mathematical and scientific literacy and problem
solving are investigated. In particular, “problem solving is an individual’s capacity to use
cognitive processes to confront and resolve real, cross-disciplinary situations where the
solution path is not immediately obvious and where the literacy domains or curricular
areas that might be applicable are not within a single domain of mathematics, science or
reading” (www.pisa.oecd.org).

THE EXPERIMENTAL CLASS

During the school year 2005/06, I taught in two different secondary schools in
two small towns 15 km and 30 km away from a bigger city, Parma (Italy). I submitted
my second-grade (secondary school) students to one of the problems from the 2003
PISA test, the “Seal.” Both classes were average classes, with some good pupils and
some others showing logic difficulties.

THE PROBLEM
The PISA test was first formulated in English and then translated into the other
languages. The Italian version is slightly different from the English one. Version that
follows is my re-translation from Italian.
A seal has to breathe even if it is asleep. Martin observed a seal for one hour. At the start of his
observation the seal dove to the bottom of the sea and started to sleep. During the following 8
minutes the seal swam to the surface and took a breath. After 3 minutes it was back at the bottom of
the sea again. This whole process was a very regular one.
After one hour the seal was:
a. at the bottom
b. on its way up
c. breathing
d. on its way down

147
 The text begins with information that a seal has to breathe even if it is asleep in
the water. The question that solvers probably ask themselves is this: Is there a living
organism that does not need to breathe while asleep? The answer is obviously no, but
this useless piece of information makes the readers put to it an importance, which it does
not have. It is misleading information.
The original English version says that “At the start of the observation the seal
was at the surface and took a breath. It then dove to the bottom of the sea and started to
sleep.” This difference with the Italian text gives rise to a slight phase displacement. It
looks like in the English version there is a zero time, identified with the seal being at the
surface and taking a breath. Taking a breath is like the beginning of the process. The
Italian version says that “during the following 8 minutes the seal swam to the surface
and took a breath.” The English version says instead that “from the bottom it slowly
floated to the surface in 8 minutes and took a breath.” It makes an obvious difference in
meaning. The Italian version tells a story of a seal that actively swims to the surface and
takes a breath, whereas in the English version the seal passively floats to the surface. The
two versions justifiably take to different conclusions. On the one hand, there is a seal
that wakes up, swims to the surface and breaths; on the other, there’s a seal that floats to
the surface still sleeping.
Beyond these differences in meaning that the translation caused, analysis of the
Italian version raises many doubts: (i) How long does the seal take to get to the bottom
the first time? (ii) Does the seal start sleeping as soon as it reaches the bottom? (iii) Does
the seal sleep on the bottom for some time before going up again? If yes, for how long?
(iv) Is the seal asleep or awake when it goes up? (v)When the seal reaches the surface to
take breath, does is stay there for a while or does it plunge in immediately?
The Italian text turns out to be unclear and difficult to be interpreted, because
the reader does not know how to arrange the various actions the seal does. Moreover, the
most important information is not given: seals can sleep both on land and in the water,
making the water surface to rock them; they can rest alternating diving (during which
they can lay at the bottom) and slow going up to breath. This information is anything but
useless and it cannot be known to people who are not seal fans or researchers. This lack
of information makes readers guess and, above all, it gives the text poor reliability. The
text also looks artificial and unnatural since it does not even say which instruments
Martino uses to exactly measure how much time the seal needs to get to the bottom and
how he knows when and if the seal falls asleep.
Beside, some terms used in the text do not help readers understand: “during,”
“following,” “very regular” are misleading words that lead more to a personal
interpretation than to an objective reading.
It’s also important to consider the key answers’ sequence. One of the potential
answers gives chance that the seal might stay on the bottom. This answer is misleading
for the entire understanding process because it suggests that the seal effectively stays on
the bottom for some time. But for how long?

SOLVING WAYS
When the time variable appears in a problem, the attention is necessarily drawn
to the process. The problem can be modeled through different solving strategies: (i) 11
minute modeling: the seals needs 3 minutes to reach the bottom and 8 minutes to go up
to the surface; the entire cycle lasts 3+8=11 minutes; (ii) 8 minute modeling: at the
beginning the seal dives to the bottom and it falls asleep; it seems that all that happened
at time zero (T0) and that the entire process up & down lasts 8 minutes; (iii) modeling

148
with a starting point at the bottom of the sea: at the beginning, the seal dives to the
bottom and it looks like this situation (the seal at the bottom of the sea) is observed on
T0; (iv) modeling with a starting point at the surface: the seal needs 3 minutes to get to
the bottom of the sea. It is right to think that it needs the same time the first time it dives
to the bottom at the beginning of the observation and that the observation T0 should be
when the seal is still at the surface.
Any of the above models take to the B key answer (the seal is on its way up).

ANALYSIS OF SOLUTIONS OF SEVENTH-GRADE STUDENTS (aged 13)

Many students in the process of solving the problem expressed some doubts:
Salma: But how can he see it if it’s at the bottom of the sea?
Lucrezia: During the 8 minutes, how long does it take to go up and to breathe?
Barbara: Is 8 minutes after the observation hour or during it? How long does it sleep? How long
does it take to go to the bottom the first time?
Alessandra: How can it stay on the bottom in a continuous way? But does it go up by itself or
because of the water reaction?
Federica: But how long does it sleep?
Clarissa: But is breathing the same thing as taking a breath?
Valentina: But was it taking a breath at the surface or at the bottom?
Giorgio: But if it takes 8 minutes to go up and 3 to go down, what does it do during that time?
Maria: But when does it sleep?
Chiara: But when and how long does it sleep?
Roberta: But what came after the 8 minutes? The diving?
The students tried to solve the problem using different types of modeling, as
seen in the following chart:

No. of students
11-minute modeling 12
8-minute modeling 5
11-minute and 8-minute modeling 2
other modeling 8
answer with no modeling 11
no answer 12

11-minute modeling
Some students solved the problem, more or less correctly, using the 11-minute
modeling. All of them incorrectly fixed the starting point at the bottom of the sea, since
they did not consider the time needed for the first diving.
Maddalena: To solve the problem would be enough repetitiously adding 8 and 3 minutes till 60
minutes, and then check, which the last number to be added is. In this case it’s 8; thus,
after one hour, the seal would be under water.

149
 Francesca: The seal is on its way down. If it gets to the bottom in 3 minutes and it goes back up in 3
minutes, it means that it stays at the bottom for 5 minutes. Going up and down is 6 minutes,
plus the 5 minutes at the bottom. It makes the same up and down 5 times, 55 minutes total,
when the seal is at the bottom. It goes up in 3 minutes and down in 3 minutes. While it’s
going down, it’s 60 minutes. But I’m not sure we need any calculation to solve it.
Francesco: It was at the bottom because at 55 minutes it was breathing, but it stays in water 8
minutes and it takes 3 minutes to go down and 3 minutes to go up. If we count to 60 with 8
and 3, we get to 55, plus 8 it’s 63. I then understood that it’s at the bottom and that it’s there
for 2 minutes, at 59th and 60th one.
Anita: The seal goes up and down 5 times in 55 minutes. If we add 8 minutes during which it’s
under water, we get to 63 minutes. Since it’s over 10 minutes, it means that the seal is still at
the bottom of the sea. The right answer is then A (at the bottom).

Pasquale: The seal is at the bottom because it stays 8 minutes there and then goes up to take a breath
and after 3 minutes is at the bottom again and it takes 11 minutes to do so. If every 8
minutes goes up and after 3 minutes is at the bottom again, after 55 minutes it did it 5 times.
But it’s not one hour yet, there are 5 minutes more. But if it takes 8 minutes to go up, at 60
minutes the seal is still under water.
Federica: It sleeps 8 minutes, goes up and goes back down after 3 minutes. It sleeps 8 minutes, goes
up and goes back down after 3 minutes and so on. According to my construction, after one
hour the seal is at the bottom because at the hour it’s in the 3 minute period it spends at the
bottom.
Giorgio: I made a cycle reproducing one hour and all the minutes needed to breathe. Making a
calculation, I get to 60 minutes. Deleting 3 minutes to go down and deleting 3 minutes from
the 8 it needs to go up and breathe. I obtain 60 minutes. Thus, after one hour, it’s breathing.
Mattia: The trial lasts 11 minutes. Five times this period makes almost one hour (60 minutes). The
text says that the first 8 minutes he dives back up. But there are 5 minutes left to the hour.
It’s then going up.
Martina: The seal is going up because, counting up to 60 minutes from 11 (8+3=11) we add 8 and
then 3. When we get to 60 the seal is still in the 8 minutes it spends going up.
Lucrezia: Taking a breath takes less than a minute. Going up takes 7 or 8 minutes. Doing all the up-
and-downs takes 11 minutes. 11 minutes five times is 55 minutes. There are 5 minutes left
to the hour. It takes 7 or 8 minutes to go up. During that remaining 5 minutes, it’s then going
up.
Giulia: The seal needs 3 minutes to go down, 5 minutes stays at the bottom, and it needs 3 minutes
to go up. After 8 minutes it goes up. In the 11 minute period it goes down stays there and
goes back up. But we don’t know how much time it needs to breathe.
Jessica: The seal is going up because if it’s at the bottom and it goes up after 8 minutes, and then it
goes down after 3 minutes, we understand that, after one hour, it’s going up breathing.

150
8-minute modeling
Some students solved, more or less positively, the problem using the 8-minute
modeling.
Angelica: The seal stays at the bottom for 8 minutes, it then goes up, breathes. But if it takes 3
minutes to go up, it stays at the bottom only 8-3=5 minutes. After one hour it will be at
the bottom.

Giulia: The seal spends 3 minutes going down, 2 minutes at the bottom and 3 going up. After 8
minutes the seal is at the surface but we don’t know how much time it needs to breath.
Beatrice: But there are still 4 minutes to the hour. It spends 3 minutes to go down. Thereby, it’s at
the bottom at the 4th minute.

Marco: 8=going up; 8+8=16 going down; 16+8=24 going up; 24+8=32 going down; 32+8=40 going
up; 40+8=48 going down; 48+8=56 going up; 56+8=64 going down. 1 hour=60 minutes.
64-4=60. 1 action=4 minutes=breathing.
Simone: 60=1 hour. 8=minutes spent by the seal to perform its cycle. It is impossible that the seal
perform its cycle in 8 minutes, but if one hour is 60 minutes, the seal is at the bottom around
the 63rd minute.

151
 Chiara: 4 minutes to go up, 1 minute to breathe and 3 minutes to go down. I couldn’t do it very well.

Other modeling
Some students try to solve the problem using modeling different from the above
ones.
Barbara: The seal sleeps for one minute, it goes up for 8 minutes and after 3 minutes is back to the
bottom. It sleeps for one minute, it goes up for 8 minutes and after 3 minutes is back to the
bottom. It sleeps for one minute, it goes up for 8 minutes and after 3 minutes is back to the
bottom. It sleeps for one minute, it goes up for 8 minutes and after 3 minutes is back to the
bottom. It sleeps for one minute, it goes up for 8 minutes and after 3 minutes is back to the
bottom.
Antonietta: It goes up after 8 minutes and breaths, it goes down after 3 minutes. It keeps doing it.
8x7=56+3=1h. After one hour, I think it’s going down, but actually I didn’t understand
much…
Davide: It dives and sleeps: 20 minutes. It slowly goes up and breaths: 8 minutes. It goes back to the
bottom: 3 minutes.
Alessandra: I think the seal stays at the bottom 2 minutes because if it goes up every 8 minutes and it
takes 3 minutes to go down, it would 3 minutes to go up again: 8-(3+3)=2 min.
Maria: During this hour the seal repeatedly goes up and down. During these 8 minutes the seal goes
up and breaths and after 3 minutes it’s at the bottom. Then, after one hour it’s at the bottom.
Lorenzo: 8+3+8+3+8+3+8+3+8+3=60. The seal is breathing for sure, because last number is a 3 that
matches with breathing. But I have some doubts about how to solve the problem.
Paolo: Martino watches the seal for an hour. The seal stays at the bottom for 19 minutes, it goes up
in 8 minutes and after 3 minutes is under water again. Then, after one hour, it’s going down.
And then it repeats it regularly.
Emanuele: 8 and 3 are exactly right for an hour. Thus, it doesn’t take a breath or stay at the bottom.
It’s then going up or down. But since the hour is passed with the 8 minutes, the seal is going
up.

Answer with no modeling

Some students try to solve the problem with no modeling, but with other kinds
of motivations.
Noemi: Martino could see what the seal was doing because it couldn’t stay at the bottom without
breathing. It was then taking a breath.
Valentina: I chose answer C “taking a breath” because, even if it breaths while it’s sleeping, is under
water and thus, after it slept, it has to breath and it has, I think, to go to the surface.
Clarissa: If breathing and taking a breath is the same thing, the correct answer is then “taking a
breath” because the problem says that it breaths while sleeping.
Stefano: It’s taking a breath because, while sleeping, it’s a dead weight and it keeps afloat and takes
a breath.
Zorana: The seal is taking a breath because after one hour it’s not at the bottom: it was at the bottom
after 3 minutes, not after one hour! And it’s not going up because it goes up during the
following 8 minutes. Moreover, a seal cannot sleep without taking a breath.

152
 Nicolas: It’s taking a breath because it goes to the surface to breathe every hour.
Samir: It’s going up because after one hour it needs to breath and goes to the surface.
Marta: The seal is a mammal and it’s obvious that after 8 minutes it goes up because it cannot
breathe under water.
Marina: Solving the problem is not possible because the action is always performed in a regular way
and the seal uses all the time to do as many actions as it can.

No answer
Some students face the difficulties in the text comprehension and they cannot
find a solution.
Riccardo: 1h sleeps 8m takes a breath 3m goes down. I cannot do it because I cannot
understand what happens after one hour. If there was only one hour, it would sleep. But since
there are those 3 and 8 minutes, everything is turn up down, because it would be I hour and 11
minutes.
Alessandro: To 8 min – 3 min down = 5. We cannot find out if the seal goes up or down because we
don’t know how much time it needs to go up. I don’t understand what those 8 minutes are.
Federica: If the seal takes 8 minutes to go up and breathe and 3 minutes to go down, it will need 8-
3=5 minutes to breath and 3+3=6 minutes to go up and down. The problem doesn’t say how
long it slept. Without this information, we cannot find a solution.
Giuliano: The text doesn’t clearly say what the seal does in those 8 minutes but it says the seal goes
to the bottom. It gives importance to the action it’s doing.

CONCLUSIONS
The difficult text analysis entwines with psychological aspects and with an
inevitable personal resolution. Making the text more clearly readable, adding clue
information and deleting misleading and pointless ones could help eliminate difficulties.
The subject makes the problem suitable for all ages and grades. Its solution, though, is
difficult for everybody. If all the useful and necessary data were given, it would be a
suitable problem for the first grade of secondary school.

REFERENCES
OCSE (ed.). (2002). Sample Tasks from the PISA Assessment: Reading, Mathematical
and Scientific Literacy. Parigi.
OCSE (ed.). (2003). Assessment Framework: Mathematics, Reading, Science and
Problem Solving. Parigi. [Italian translation PISA 2003: Valutazione dei
quindicenni. Roma: Armando]

153
154
 THE USE OF OECD/PISA MODEL QUESTIONS IN
DIDACTICS: AN INNOVATIVE CLASS EXPERIENCE
Roberta Raimondi
GREM – Department of Mathematics, University of Modena & Reggio
Emilia (Italy)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Five questions addressing the area/perimeter confusion, similar to the PISA
“Carpenter” problem, were posed to students aged 12-13, attending the second grade of
lower secondary school. A metacognitive approach to the questions helped students
reflect on the proposed tasks, favoring a critical and non-passive approach. In the
discussion on students’ solutions their dramatic difficulties were shown in reporting
their own thinking processes and facing the metacognitive aspects of the questions,
aspects they usually considered secondary in mathematics.

KEY WORDS:
Area, perimeter, metacognitive, language

INTRODUCTION
As indicated in many reports, Italian students have poor knowledge of
mathematics and approach the subject with evident difficulties (Bolletta, 2005).
Although everybody is equally able to understand the world through numbers
(Lucangeli et al., 2007) some students feel absolutely unable to face mathematics tasks
and they develop a negative feeling about this subject. Difficulties connected with
mathematics learning are related to many factors and heterogeneous aspects such as
basic abilities, practice of strategies, metacognitive abilities, beliefs, environment
support, cultural conditioning and willingness to learn (Lucangeli et al., 2007).
According to PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) data, only
7% of Italian students reach the upper levels on the mathematical competency scale,
against OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) data of 16%,
with excellence level attained by 20% in some countries. On average, the mathematics
competency scores registered by students from the best countries (Hong Kong, Finland,
Korea, Belgium and Netherlands) are 70 points higher than those scored by Italian
students. Indeed, for many Italian students mathematics represents the most difficult
subject due to the fact that it involves lots of social-cultural factors such as didactic,
cognitive and metacognitive abilities, social behaviors, cultural approaches to success,
and other. Moreover, while proceeding in this subject, the increase of its complexity
associated with mistakes learned during the earlier scholastic years, and bad feeling
toward the subject, make many students to definitely lose any interest in the subject. It
has been proved that poor mathematics performance observed in adults could be related
to the above mentioned causes as well. Furthermore, the higher the mathematics level
becomes the less the topics seem related to reality. Because of this apparent lack of
connection with the real life many people consider mathematics useless.

155
 For these reasons I decided to “make mathematics a living thing” to Italian
students through presenting it in a realistic and successful way, with the aim of having
students experience the subject first-hand. Moreover, I aimed at developing in students a
right and positive approach to study through transforming the learning experience into a
positive one that gives them a measure and a value of their own knowledge.

ADDRESSES AND METHODOLOGY

Questions were proposed to students aged 12-13 who attended the second grade
of lower secondary school. I did not know the group very well. It was composed of 28
students before this experience; hence I decided to test students approach to
mathematics, in particular to problems, covered during the previous years. The questions
proposed to the class group, based on PISA model involved knowledge normally learned
at school but applied in different environments. With reference to the theoretical ideas of
the PISA project, questions can be sorted into reproduction and connections clusters.
Questions were formulated as open questions and students had to describe their own
working out the results (see table below). In this way it was possible to evaluate
students’ thinking processes, aspect that is lost when the answer has to be chosen on a
multiple choice test. No time restrictions were given to avoid excuses related to pressure
and anxiety. In these friendly conditions students were mentally relaxed and reflective.
After this first phase of individual work answers were discussed in the
classroom and, through the comparison of different strategies used by the students, a
constructive and meaningful cognitive conflict spontaneously arose among them. This
metacognitive approach to the questions helped students reflect on the proposed task,
favoring a critical and non-passive approach.
The teacher’s role was to orchestrate students’ interventions and to mediate the
discussion, without playing down utterances but, on the contrary, with throwing back to
the student questions raised by others. The teacher’s competence involved not only the
specific subject knowledge but also the ability to listen to students and guide their
cognitive processes.
Class discussions were recorded in order to enable each student to make a
personal evaluation based on individual work and level of participation. Recordings were
also used to evaluate the quality of the teacher's work.

THE DIDACTIC PATH

The Italian teaching approach to geometry is based on conceptual aspects,
which are built on an abstract level, while in England and in other countries geometry is
more based on figural aspects that concern images as sensor representations of objects.
Since with the Italian approach many students feel geometry as a subject very distant
from reality, through this didactic path I tried to expose students to a more concrete
geometry, based on operative problem solving that would integrate figural and
conceptual aspects of geometry (Fischbein, 1992). Questions were not posed in a casual
way but followed a pre-conceived path and incorporated in the curriculum. In particular,
the didactic path on geometry intended to give space to the empiric-inductive study of
space and objects, rather than focus on axiomatic and deductive aspects. Specifically, the
didactic path used in this study involved the concepts of “isoperimetrical figures”1 and

1
Relationship among the polygons of a plane which have the same perimeter

156
“equidistant figures,”2 and focused on the conflict between perceptible and cognitive
aspects.
Questions were adapted from PISA tests, from tests by the national mathematics
Kangaroo competition for non-university students (2007 edition), from NMP English
project (Harper ed., 1988) or from the text books. The first question (see table below)
evaluated students’ thinking processes, events that can not be evaluated with multiple
choice test. Using this approach I had the opportunity to discuss with them the
importance of the procedure beyond the result in itself. The second question (see table
below) focuses on the conflict between perceptible and cognitive aspects of reality.
Some of the aspects of this conflict were deeply analyzed with the third question (see
table below), which had a strengthening function on the topic. With the fourth question
(see table below) we came back to numeric data and to a simple mathematical operation,
which, however, was derived from the integration between conceptual and figural
aspects of the geometry. On the other hand, the fifth question (see table below)
concerned the abilities of exploring possible different solutions of the proposed question.
Again the geometric problem involved areas and perimeters; students were asked to
discuss their own reasoning. Students’ habit of generalizing evidences and thinking
approaches was noticed.

Table:
Question 1:
• First version: “a square tablecloth has got an area of 4 m2; can it cover a rectangular square measuring
180 cm by 150 cm? Explain your answer.”
• Second version: “a square tablecloth has got an area of 4 m2; can it cover a rectangular square measuring
210 cm by 180 cm? Explain your answer.”

Question 2: “A carpenter has got 32 meters of wooden planks and wants to build a fence. He considers
different projects but doesn’t know if they are realizable. Help him, showing for each project if it is realizable
with the 32 meters of wooden planks available and explain your reasons.”

Projects:
1st project: 2nd project: 3rd project:

4th project:

2
Relationship among the polygons of a plane which have the same extent

157
Question 3: “A parallelogram is divided into two parts P1 and P2 as shown in the figure. Which is the right
assertion?”
•P1 and P2 have the same area
•P1 and P2 have the same perimeter
•P2 has a smaller area than P1
•P2 has a larger perimeter than P1
•None of the above
Question 4: “Squares in the figure result of, first, drawing the segment AP, 24 cm long, then a broken line
ABC.....OP, which crosses the segment. How long is the broken line ABC.....OP?
Data are not sufficient to answer
•72 cm
•96 cm
•56 cm
•106 cm

Question 5: 12 squares with an area of 1cm2 are placed as shown below

• How could you place the 12 squares to obtain a figure with a smaller perimeter?
• How could you place the 12 squares to obtain a figure with a bigger perimeter?
• Try with a different number of squares. What did you observe?
• One of your best friends wants to replace his carpet and cover the floor with square tiles. Assuming that
no tile will be broken during the transport, how could he arrange them if he wants to obtain a bigger
perimeter? and smaller?

ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ PROTOCOLS AND OF EXCERPTS OF

CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
Question 1
The problem concerned the comparison between the side of a square tablecloth
(2 meters) and the longer side of a table (1.8 meters by 1.5 meters). Almost all students
did not compare these lengths but solved the question finding the area of the rectangle
(1.8 meters x 1.5 meters = 2.7 m2) and comparing it with the area of the square (4 m2).
Two thinking approaches are possible: comparing tablecloth with table side length and
comparing tablecloth and table areas. Even though both approaches give the same
solution, the second procedure is conceptually wrong.
From the analysis of the results I realized that even those who solved the
question comparing the table and tablecloth side length thought that it was necessary to
compare also the areas. Nobody solved the question comparing only the lengths of
tablecloth and table size. These observations indicate the importance of assessing
students’ thinking processes through open questions. To better analyze the process
beyond the final result it was useful to reformulate the question with different data. In
the second version side and area's comparison drives the students to different results and
to solve correctly the problem the student has to compare table and tablecloth’s sides
only.

158
Question 2 (Carpenter PISA question)
For many students two polygons “equally divided”3 have the same area and the
same perimeters and, on the contrary, two polygons not “equally divided” do not. Since
the question asks to motivate their own conclusion, students had to invent a way to
explain their assertions and, doing that, they demonstrated great creativity. Some of them
attempted to measure each segment of the polygon, ending in being imprecise; some
invented data and tried to work applying useless mathematics formulas; some attempted
obstinately to divide not equivalent figures into parts of the same area; some others
established relationship in the projects by using letters, numbers or symbols. I will
discuss the Carpenter PISA question’s protocols in the next paragraph.

Question 3 (Kangaroo question)

Even students on a middle-upper grade level did not give the correct answer.
Since they could not use mathematical formulas to calculate the two perimeters
including a curved line, they based their answer on their own perceptions, concluding
that bigger area always corresponds with bigger perimeter.

Question 4 (Kangaroo question)

Every student found this question exceptionally difficult and they thought they
had not enough data to solve the problem. Facing numbers lead them to think: “which is
the formula I should apply?”, “If I can’t find the formula I won’t be able to solve the
question!” These thinking approaches blocked the students and they were not able to
solve the question. Even though previously we had worked on figural aspects of
geometry, this approach was completely forgotten when students faced a numbers
related problem. According to Mariotti (1992), the harmonization between conceptual
and figural aspects of geometry should not to be taken for granted.

Question 5 (NMP question)

Students had many problems in finding different figures with the same
perimeters built of a fixed numbers of squares. Generally, students found just one
arrangement of squares that satisfied the first and the second part of the question. Few
students replayed the third point, and, even understanding that this point asked
something different from the first two was a challenge for many of them. Among the
students who tried to answer this third point nobody found any regularity and their
conclusions were wrong. Similarly, nobody was able to infer the generalization
requested in the fourth point.

DISCUSSION
In the discussion on students’ solutions I pointed out the dramatic difficulties
that student had in reporting their own thinking processes and facing the metacognitive
aspects of the questions, aspects they usually consider secondary in mathematics. As far
as the Carpenter PISA question was concerned, at first the students commented that the
question was easy, probably because it did not include numeric data, while later they saw
some difficulties. Everybody tried to describe and defend their own process and
conclusion, even thought poor and inexact language was used. Often the arguments were
directed just to demonstrate what they intuitively asserted, but most conclusions were

3
That is ‘split’ polygons where we can put a 1-1 correspondence between the parts of one polygon and the
parts of the other polygon and each pair of parts in correspondence is constituted by congruent polygons.

159
wrong. This shows that at this age intuitive thinking is significantly conditioned by
perceptive aspect of reality.
The language used by students showed a great confusion among different
registers of representation (verbal, symbolic and graphic), and they were not able to
clearly express their thoughts in any of them. According to Malara (1996), when
teaching geometry it is necessary to promote in the students two skills: using different
systems of representation and coordinating the tree different registers of representation.
During group discussion that followed the individual thinking phase I was
surprised by the obstinacy that some students showed on defending their results. In fact,
even though they could be correct from the multiple choice point of view (yes/no), they
were not able to justify their conclusions on an effective manner. Clearly, mathematics
should not to be seen and experienced as a quiz with final awards and students should
get used to give importance to the whole thinking process and not only to the final result.
Concluding, I would like to emphasize how many study-oriented students
obtained poor results because of their dependence to the mechanical use of mathematical
formulas.

SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

This didactic path showed students a new approach to mathematics, which at
first surprised then fascinated them. Students aged 12-13 need to test and to start
knowing themselves, and certainly this kind of approach to mathematics can lead them
to discover and love the constructive side of this subject. Some students defined the
given questions as mathematical games and they were pleasantly involved in them, in
spite of the poor results obtained. This playful experience clearly clashed with their idea
of mathematics as a boring and difficult subject.

REFERENCES
Bolletta, R. (2005). “L’indagine PISA 2003.” Archimede. 2, 59-66.
Fishbein, E. (1993). “The Theory of Figural Concepts.” Educational Studies in
Mathematics. 24, 139-162.
Harper, E. (ed.). (1987-88). NMP Mathematics for Secondary School. Essex, England:
Longman.
Lucangeli, D., Iannitti, A., Vettore, M., (2007). Lo sviluppo dell’intelligenza numerica.
Ed. Carrocci.
Malara, N.A. (1996). “L’insegnamento della geometria nella scuola media: questioni
teoriche e didattico metodologiche.” L’Insegnamento della Geometria: seminario
di formazione per docenti della istruzione secondaria di primo grado. Quaderno n.
19/1 del Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione. 13-76.
Mariotti, M.A. (1992). “Immagini e concetti in geometria.” Insegnamento della
Matematica e delle Scienze Integrate. 15 A,9, 863-885.
PISA (2003). Valutazione dei quindicenni. Quadri di riferimento: conoscenze ed abilità
in matematica, lettura, scienze e problem solving, Armando (ed.). [Edizione
italiana del documento: The PISA 2003 Assessment Framework: Mathematics,
Reading, Science and Problem Solving Knowledge and Skills].
Tests from Kangaroo Math Competition. (15/03/07). Dip. di Matematica dell’Università
degli Studi di Milano: Ed. Kangourou Italia.

160
 PART 3
CONTEXTS,
MODELING,
DEMODELING
 ALWAYS LEARNING...
Nuno Candeias
Escola Vasco Santana, Odivelas (Portugal)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT:
This article presents three moments in which students and teacher learnt. These
moments took place with eighth-grade students during the teaching of geometry topics
with dynamic geometry software. While students built figures and solved investigation
activities, the teacher reflected on students’ learning and the way he was being
influenced.

KEY WORDS:
Exploration, investigation, triangle, tesselation

Since the day I decided to become a teacher, I committed myself to study to be

the best teacher I can. It did not occur to me that I would learn so much with my
students. This has been happening during my ten years of teaching and, in particular,
occurred with a set of students whom I will never forget.
The next three episodes occurred during an educational investigation that I
carried out with a group of eighth-grade students, when I taught them an extended
geometry unit. For four months, the students solved 26 tasks using dynamic geometry
software in a classroom equipped with 14 computers and a multimedia projector. There
were essentially three kinds of tasks: explorations, investigations (open problems) and
problems (Ponte, 2003). The students worked in pairs. I learnt from all of them, but here
I just mention a pair of students, André and José, who had a notable performance in this
teaching unit.
André was 13 years old and was very reserved. He was born in Guinea, an
African country, and came to Portugal when he was 8 years old. He lived with relatives,
since his parents stayed in his homeland. His expressive look, last generation mobile
phone and cap were his trade image. Inside the classroom, he behaved well but had some
learning difficulties in mathematics. He was a quiet boy who did not intervene much in
class. He was slow in doing exercises and just copied what was on the blackboard or in
his classmate’s notebook. During group work, he hid himself behind the work of his
colleagues, because he had some difficulties in speaking Portuguese. In spite of
everything, he was successful in school.
André had a great friendship and respect for José. They started working
together in grade 7, when André had failing grades in eight subjects that he needed to
improve. José started helping him in “supported study”1 and continued doing so in
several other subjects. This partnership allowed André to improve considerably his
school results and consequently to pass to grade 8 with no failing grades.

1
Estudo Acompanhado, component of the students’ curriculum devoted to study subjects in which they have
more difficulties, such as Portuguese, English, Mathematics, etc.

163
 José was a brilliant student in all subjects, except physical education, in spite of
practicing several sports. In the remaining subjects usually he had all the answers correct
and was very concerned when that did not happen. In his interventions in class, always at
a high level, he used a brilliant reasoning and quite an advanced vocabulary for his age.
He did not turn down a challenge. José had great expectations about the kind of work I
asked them to do: take part in a study, in which students would use software to learn
geometry for a considerable period of time.

CONSTRUCTING TRIANGLES
In this exploration task, I intended students to learn how to build isosceles and
equilateral triangles. Afterwards, students had to relate to two kinds of triangles’
classification, regarding sides and angles. The right triangle construction was also
important, because it would be studied in later tasks. The following question led students
to relate to all triangles and made all groups experience great difficulties.

Investigate the relations that exist among triangles: acute, right, obtuse, equilateral, isosceles and
scalene. Write down the relations that you encounter.

André and José had no problems with this question. They were the only
students who completed totally the investigation, related to the classification of triangles
regarding sides and regarding angles (Figure 1).
Right triangle
Obtuse triangle
Triangles Isosceles
Acute triangle

Equilateral
Acute triangle

Scalene
Right triangle
Obtuse triangle
Acute triangle

Figure 1. Students’ scheme presented to answer the question “Constructing triangles”

.
This scheme was the result of several conclusions made by André and José
summarizing their answers to all the questions of the task. The most debated one was the
question that asked students if an equilateral triangle could be a right triangle.

LOCUS PROBLEMS
This task consisted in solving nine geometrical problems involving locus.
Students had to build and to relate circles, perpendicular bisectors, triangles, and
rectangles. Problem 3 was the following:

164
 In a basketball game Manuel is 4 meters from the ball and Sara is 5 meters from the same ball.
Where is the ball?
André and José presented a solution (Figure 2) that started from the position of
the ball, and then indicated Manuel and Sara’s possible positions; in other words, they
inverted the problem simplifying it. If they had marked first the position of Manuel and
Sara, the answer to the problem (position of the ball) would depend on the distance the
two friends were from each other. In my comment about their work, I proposed to them
to try out to solve the problem again, but starting by marking the friends’ positions,
drawing the respective circles and, afterwards, investigating the several possible answers
that could exist. The students accepted the challenge and tried to find all the possible
solutions for the problem. They built two circles: one centered in Manuel, with radius 5
cm, and another centered in Sara with radius 4 cm. After, they dragged one of those two
circumferences to verify if there was a solution. They synthesized the several possible
answers as follows:
(i) If they are more than 9 m away, there is no solution for the problem (the circumferences do not
intersect); (ii) if they are in a distance between 1 and 9 meters away, the ball can be in two different
locations (the intersection points of the two circumferences); (iii) if they are exactly 1 m away, there
is only possible place for the ball (the circumferences are tangents); and (iv) if they are less than 1 m
away, there is no solution again (the circles do not intersect).

Ex.de ManuelBall= 4,00 cm

Student’s answer:
BallEx. Sara = 5,00 cm
Manuel 3. Manuel can be in a circle with 4 cm
Ex.de Manuel
radius, while Sara can be in a circle
with 5 cm radius.

Ball

Ex. Sara
Sara

Solution process:
We marked a point – Ball – then with Transform menu we bid 2 points, on with
4 cm form point “Ball” and another with 5 cm from the same point.
Finally, we constructed two circles with radius 4 and 5 cm, each one of the built
points.

Figure 2. Students’ initial solution.

Translation tesselation
Before working on this investigation task, the students already solved two tasks
related to translations and vectors. In this task I wanted them to study the tesselation
using only this geometric transformation. The last question of this task generated a lot of
interest, because it led students to a small investigation on polygons that allowed them to
make a translation tesselation:
…And if we started initially with other quadrilaterals [the rectangle had been studied in previous
questions], could we also make a translation tesselation? And with triangles? Write down your
discoveries.

165
 André and José elaborated interesting conjectures, extending their investigation
to other polygons such as pentagons and hexagons. After the experiences and
discoveries, they tried to find a relation between the number of symmetry axes of a
polygon and the possibility or not to make a translation tesselation. At this time the
following dialog took place:
Teacher: So, have you answered the last question?
José: Yes! We realized that we can do translation tesselations using only squares or using only
rectangles.
Teacher: Why?
José: We manage to do translations and cover the plane.
Teacher: And have you already tried with triangles?
José: We realized that we could cover the all plane with equilateral triangles, but we had to
rotate some of them, so it wasn’t a translation tesselation.
Teacher: OK! And with rhombus or kites?
José: We could with rhombus, but with kites we could not. I think the reason is somehow
related with the number of symmetry axes.
Teacher: Why?
José: The square has four, the rectangle has two, the rhombus has also two and the kite has
only one.
Teacher: And can you do a translation tesselation with parallelograms?
José: Yes, because they have no symmetry axes.
Teacher: Then that was the conjecture that you could write?
José: I think that it is possible to make a translation tesselation with any polygon that has an
even number of symmetry axes.
Teacher: This conjecture is interesting. We would have to find a proof to see if your conjecture is
true, or a counter-example to show that it is false.
Some minutes later José called me to tell that a regular hexagon had six
symmetry axes and it was possible to do a translation tesselation with it. Although he did
not present a proof, he was convicted that his conjecture was true, since he did not find
any counter-example. Their answer was:
It’s impossible to cover the plane with triangles only using Translate [a Geometer’s Sketchpad
menu]. But with quadrilaterals, the rectangle, the square and the rhombus allow us to do translation
tesselation, because they have an even number of symmetry axes. Further more, we can cover the
entire sketch with all polygons that have an even number of symmetry axes to cover the plane.
At night, in front of my computer and with the help of Sketchpad, I draw a
regular octagon and realized immediately that it was impossible to make a translation
tesselation with this polygon. At the beginning of the next class I sat down with the
students at a computer and we reviewed the sketch made in the previous class. Then, we
built a regular octagon and the students tried to make a translation tesselation with this
polygon. They were surprised to verify that it was not possible, although the octagon had
an even number of symmetry axes. We talked about the measure of the octagon’s
internal angle, 135º, not being a divisor of 360º (circle angle), therefore not allowing this
figure to tessellate. Students went on to solve other tasks, but it was evident for me the
connections that this subject has with the geometry topics taught at grade 9: Rotations
and measures of polygons’ internal angles.

CONCLUDING REFLECTIONS
These three episodes concern André and José’s learning process and my role as
the teacher influencing their learning. But also they present situations in which the
students influenced my own learning. In the first task reported, “Constructing triangles,”
the initiative of the students in systematizing their ideas carried them to build an outline
that explains and organizes locally various kinds of triangles and the relations among
them. This organization allowed them to realize the relations that exist between the sides

166
and angles of triangles and to understand that only one of them, the equilateral, can be
acute, and, therefore it has unique characteristics regarding the others. It is a very special
triangle and has a relevant role in the study of plane geometry. I learnt that a good
question can lead students to develop this systematization ability, so neglected in our
teaching. Instead of presenting a theory already systematized of facts and properties,
teachers can provide a set of suggestions and explorations to help students learn it in a
more consistent way. The type of questioning, written or oral, is decisive to improve
students’ comprehension (Long, 1992; Menezes, 1999).
The second learning episode presented in this article shows the importance of
checking a problem solution that we believe is correct, questioning if it answers the
problem completely. But for that it is necessary to give students some time to attempt to
find the solution. That leads to the beginning of their comprehension. André and José
had more difficulties in solving geometric problems than working in open problems, but
I have to point out that the students tried to solve the task again, although it was already
graded by me. I learnt with them trying and trying again to solve a problem. They were
persistent, like a teacher also has to be. They liked a good challenge!
The last learning episode shows a situation in which the teacher did not manage
to explain or to justify any affirmation at the very moment. After a deeper reflection he
created insight and found not only a counter-example, but also a possible strategy to
initiate the study of a new theme. In open or problematic situations it is possible that
students present conjectures whose acceptance or denial is not possible right away. But
that also enables learning by teachers, even in themes that they know. Never letting
students with wrong mathematical ideas is always one of my main concerns. Sometimes
the difficulty is in trying to find the best way to quickly explain, justify or deny what a
student in the classroom tells. However, I think that is advantageous not leaving students
with the wrong idea, even when the explanation comes in the next day. In this case, the
discussion just involved the teacher and a pair of students. However, it could have
occurred with an affirmation done by students before all the classmates. In this case it
becomes necessary to discuss and, sometimes, discuss again later, with all, the veracity
or falsity of the conjectures. The discussions with all the students performed a
fundamental role in this learning process, in particular regarding the geometric concepts
(Gardiner & Hudson, 1998).
Finally, I would like to state the role that the dynamic geometry software had in
the students’ learning, as in my own learning. I do not concur with the skepticism
showed by a teacher that took part in the study by Hannafin, Burruss and Little (2001),
who thought that this kind of software was not significant in students’ geometric
learning and considered that his students did not learnt in a deep way the topics studied.
My students did! They managed to do geometric constructions, investigations and solve
problems with this powerful tool. I wonder what the ancient Greek mathematicians
would have done if they could use a tool like this.
I believe that the presence of a dynamic geometry environment in the classroom
only makes sense if students use it by themselves, preferably since the early years.
Therefore, the students need time to use this software, but it is gratifying to see their
learning. Teachers have to learn to use this tool and also to learn with their students. To
learn as they learn, all seeing geometry in a different way. They were learning, and so
was I...

167
REFERENCES
Gardiner, J., & Hudson, B. (1998). “The Evolution of Pupils’ Ideas of Construction and
Proof Using Hand-Held Dynamic Geometry Technology.” Proceedings of the 22nd
Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics
Education. A. Olivier & K. Newstead (eds.). South Africa. 2, 337-344.
Hannafin, R., Burruss, J., & Little, C. (2001). “Learning with Dynamic Geometry
Programs: Perspectives of Teachers and Learners.” The Journal of Education
Research. 94(3), 132-144.
Long, E. (1992). “Teachers’ Questioning and Students’ Responses in Classroom
Mathematics.” Proceedings of 16th Conference of the International Group for the
Psychology of Mathematics Education. Durham, USA. 3,172.
Menezes, L. (1999). “Matemática, linguagem e comunicação.” Actas do ProfMat99.
APM (ed.). Portimão. 71.
Ponte, J. P. (2003). “Investigar, ensinar e aprender.” Actas do ProfMat 2003. Lisboa:
APM. (CD-ROM). 23-39.

168
 CASE STUDIES ON DEMODELING ACTIVITIES
Mariarosaria Camarda*, Piera Romano** & Mariarita
Tammaro***
*Liceo Scientifico Statale “Carlo Urbani,” S. Giorgio a Cremano, Naples
(Italy)
**Liceo Scientifico Statale “Mons. B. Mangino,” Pagani, Salerno (Italy)
***Liceo Scientifico Statale “Calamandrei,” Naples (Italy)
*[email protected] , **[email protected],
***[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this paper we want to describe some classroom modeling and demodeling activities,
starting from the interpretation of a graph of motion in a Cartesian plane. According to
a model of cognitive dynamics based on resonance processes (Iannece & Tortora, 2007
and 2008; Iannece et al., 2007; Guidoni et al., 2005), the Cartesian plane is used as a
powerful tool of “communication,” while the choice of the topic motion depends on the
fact that it immediately goes in resonance with an enormous variety of daily life
experience of every human being. Finally, we show how our choices favor the
development of symbolic mathematical treatment.

INTRODUCTION
The PISA assessment results about mathematics literacy of Italian 15-year-old
students gave rise to a wide debate about our students’ difficulties to reach the mean
level of literacy with respect to the competencies fixed by OECD. Our participation in
the 3-year European project PDTR (Professional Development of Teacher-Researchers,
www.pdtr.eu) was the opportunity to deeply reflect and wonder about our own
professionalism as school teachers of mathematics and physics, and about the possibility
to improve our didactic actions: indeed, we often wonder why a lot of our students are
not able to tackle and solve a problematic situation, even if they studied the
mathematical instruments fit to solve the problem itself. This is a very common error we
make as teachers: we expect our students’ good performances concerning the relational
understanding of a mathematical concept, only on the base of a long-lasting work
concerning the attainment of instrumental abilities (according to the definition of
relational and instrumental understanding given by Skemp, 1971). By now, we have
learned that a professional change, which aims at enhancing our role of teachers as
learning mediators, needs a deep reflection upon our own action. As suggested by
Mason (1998), the improvement of students’ performances should be pursued through
teacher’s own professional development.
In this paper we want to describe our efforts to change our teaching practice, in
order to improve students’ results with respect to PISA items concerning graphs, and
their interpretation. We are going to describe some classroom activities concerning

169
modeling and demodeling1 processes, according to the definition given by Guidoni et al.
(2005). In the following section we will report the activity proposed to our students,
with a brief account of the theoretical reference frame, which inspired the activity itself,
while in the last section we will present some classrooms excerpts, and our reflections
on them.

OUR DIDACTIC CHOICES AND METHODOLOGY

A great number of items in PISA (2003) start with a graph, describing various
situations, in order to assess the ability to use graphical representations as one of the
mathematical instruments to communicate in mathematics, to display relationships, to
describe phenomena; shortly, to use and/or to recognize a mathematical model. Here, we
refer to a model in the sense given to this word by Iannece & Tortora (2008): “a very
complex process, neither deterministic nor one-way, where the formal structures are
seen as one of the different correlated ways into which the cognitive reconstruction of
external world structures takes form.” But what is fundamental, as emphasized by
Guidoni et al. (2005), is the ability to merge all the possible representations of a concept
(actions, words, graphs, laws, and so on) in a “continuous (even subliminal, in expert
situations) shifting from one cognitive dimension to another in a mutual progressive
enhancement,” or, again in the words of the authors, in alternative actions of modeling
and demodeling. It is worthwhile to notice that this is one of the eight competencies
indicated by Niss (2003) to define the mathematical literacy for OECD.
The teaching activities we are going to describe are inserted in a long lasting
path, as the fruit of a deep study made with our mentors in the PDTR team in Naples, in
order to introduce in the mathematical curriculum several modeling and demodeling
activities, to improve our students’ competencies in this direction. Here, we will describe
a demodeling activity, which follows several modeling ones concerning linear functions
and direct proportionality (see, e.g., Grasso & Mellone, 2008).
We proposed the following problem:
Observe the Cartesian graph in Figure 1: the two half-lines give information about the movements
of two slugs on a wall.

Figure 1.
Try to imagine a story that would describe the movements of the two slugs.
Try to describe their movements in the way you prefer (you can use natural language, symbolic
language, numerical tables, etc.)

1
Interpreting model elements in terms of the “reality modeled” (Niss, 2003)

170
 There are several reasons why we have chosen this particular problem: (1)
intentionally, the graph does not contain any information about the “name” and the
“surname” of the axes, i.e. the coordinate variables, just to underline the fundamental
role of the choice of the variables in interpreting a graph, and to develop in our students
the ability to select the most important features of a problematic situation, which can be
translated into mathematical variables and/or parameters. For the same reason there is no
even a fixed unity of measure, so also this choice has to be made in a suitable way. (2)
The concept of motion immediately goes in resonance with an enormous variety of daily
life experience of every human being, and this fact favors its symbolic mathematical
treatment, according to a model of cognitive dynamics based on resonance processes
(see Iannece & Tortora, 2007 and 2008; Iannece et al., 2007; Guidoni et al., 2005). (3)
As we already said, the problem was proposed after several modeling activities on linear
functions and direct proportionality, presented as a natural approach to describe
phenomena and not only as a typical mathematical content given by the teacher (see
Guidoni, 1985; Guidoni et al., 2003). (5) This problem gave us the possibility to treat
mathematics and physics without distinction to a great surprise of students (the first
question in both classrooms was: “Teacher, is this math or physics?”).
Of course, all these cognitive aspects are strictly related one to another, and it is
not easy to correctly manage the activity in order to catch all the possible didactic
opportunities, also because time, at school, rolls by fast! In our classes, this has been
partially possible thanks to the choice of a constructive didactic methodology: we
greatly encourage discussions in the classroom about the possible solution of a problem,
so that all students, alone or as members of small groups, have to formulate a solution
hypothesis, and in the meantime have to reflect on the exactness of other students’
proposals. In this way, the role itself of teachers considerably changes: they have to
mediate among different positions and, above all, they have to choose the direction the
discussion has to take, on the basis of students’ answers. So, we usually ask our students
to record the lessons, to write down transcripts, to reflect on the discussions, and to talk
about their homework. In this way we have the possibility to evoke answers previously
neglected, or to postpone the analysis of didactic aspects not immediately related to the
current activity. In the next section we will give punctual account of the strictly
disciplinary goals related to the chosen problematic situation.

EXCERPTS FROM THE CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES

As said above, the problem concerning the two slugs was proposed in different
classes at different levels. Nevertheless, we observed in students’ answers the same
cognitive dynamics with respect to the conceptual knots, that is why we will report
classroom’s excerpts without distinguishing among the various groups.

The stories
The students are mainly concerned with the first question, so they try to
imagine a story of the two slugs.
Rosario: The slugs had a quarrel, and now each of them is going her own way, so… the Cartesian
plane represents the wall and the two half-lines represent the slime of each slug.
Gennaro: It represents a motorcycle race starting from the same point but along two different paths.
The arrival is in two different places, since the two half-lines do not intersect.
Mario: Let’s talk about slugs! It is a race between two slugs: they walk along different paths but
they arrive at the same point, in fact at the arrival there are different values of x but the

171
 same value of y. It is possible to convince oneself looking at the following graph [pointing
at a drawing, here Figure 2]:

Figure 2

Martina: It seems to me that the journey of the slug moving along the half-line below (let’s call it the
first slug) goes on for a double time with respect to the journey of the second slug, because
of the different inclinations of the two half-lines. I mean: the second slug spends less time
than the first to cover the same distance.
Antonella: So, if the graph represents a race between the two slugs, the second slug is the winner.
We can recognize in students’ words the classic conceptual knot concerning the
study of a motion: it is clear that Gennaro and Rosario are talking about trajectories,
Mario is thinking of a particular x-y graph, while Martina interprets the graph as a time-
space law. So the teacher asks them which variables they choose for the two axes.
Gennaro: The plane represents the wall, so I think x and y.
Martina: The two half-lines represent two rectilinear uniform motions, i.e. motions where equal
distances are covered in equal times, therefore t (time) and s (space) are the variables on
the axes.
T.: So, who is right?
Alessandro: It depends on the story you decide to tell: both of them are right!
Alessandro’s answer is just what the teacher was hoping for. Indeed, it is clear
that Alessandro becomes aware that each graph is susceptible of several different
interpretations, on the base of the choice of the variables. This gives the possibility to
the teacher to underline how important is the “semantic” of a Cartesian graph.
T.: Well, can you tell me which is the faster slug?
Gennaro: Perhaps the first, but I am very confused, on an x-y graph I only see the direction!
Martina: In fact, the concept of velocity is strictly related to intervals of time, so I think you can give
an answer only if it is a t-s graph.
We believe that this is one of the crucial points of the activity. Indeed,
Gennaro, in spite of the perceptive-type information constituted by the two differently
inclined lines, does not forget that he is reading the graph as a trajectory, while Martina
is choosing the name and the surname of the two axes in a pragmatic way. We can say
that they are getting used to formulating hypotheses and to using them.
Valeria: According to Martina, each point represents a couple time-space… then each ratio
space/time represents a velocity!
Alessandro: But the ratio s/t is also the angular coefficient of the half-line…
Martina: Then, if the two slugs had the same speed, the two half-lines would be parallel… as two
parallel lines have the same angular coefficient.
Lucia: So, the more the half-line is inclined, the faster the slug goes!
In this dialogue all students become aware that the same object, a graph in a
Cartesian plane, is susceptible of both physical and mathematical meaning, and they are
trying to connect the two aspects in order to properly interpret the situation. On the other

172
hand, the conclusion of Lucia, who is looking at the graph from a physical point of
view, is greatly influenced by the inclinations of the half-lines, the same perceptive-type
information previously invoked by Gennaro.
At this point the teacher asks the students to re-interpret the graph as a t-v
graph, in order to enrich their possible points of view.
Martina: This time, the ratio between velocity and time is constant, as it was the ratio between
space and time in the previous case.
Alessandro: In any case, it represents a direct proportionality.
T.: Yes, but now the constant ratio has a different meaning.
Martina: Yes, in this case the inclination represents acceleration!
Valeria: This time it is a uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion.
T.: Are you sure that this graph represents a rectilinear motion?
Gennaro: No, it is certainly rectilinear only in an x-y graph, and in this case you cannot say that it is
uniform or uniformly accelerated!
Valeria: Sorry, you are right, a straight line, in a t-s graph, only means that you take equal number
of steps in equal intervals of time.
Martina: It means that the motion is uniform, not necessarily rectilinear!
Once again the students have to reflect on the possible meaning of the graph.
This time, they reflect on linear functions as mathematical objects and recall that they
always represent a direct proportionality. Their knowledge and competency about this
tool has been induced by the teachers by means of previous activities on modeling, as
we said before. However, Valeria’s words show that a line, or a half-line, is a strong
perceptive data, and it can generate mistakes. But, in spite of this, we recognize in the
subsequent intervention of Valeria, as well as in the words of Gennaro and Martina, the
great efforts made by the teacher and the students in order to control the semantic of a
graph in a Cartesian plane. Of course, the ability to interpret graphs cannot be reached
with only one activity, or only with demodeling activities. As we already said, a
continuous shift between modeling and demodeling activities is necessary. So, at the end
of the lesson, the teacher decided to give the following task:
One of the two slugs, whose movement was represented by the previous graph, suddenly stops
because of a small obstacle. For 10 seconds she looks all around to decide which direction to take,
then she turns right. Let’s represent on a Cartesian plan a graph fit to describe this story,
distinguishing three cases: the slug decides to continue walking a) with the same velocity, b) slower,
c) faster.
Figure 3 below shows one of the graphs proposed by students, which represents
a correct answer to the question. The correct answers of most students are a proof that
they become able to switch between modeling and demodeling activities. It is an
important goal for the teacher, as it constitutes a sort of proximal development area for
future skills inserted in the yearly curriculum.

173
 Figure 3.

CONCLUSIONS
The classroom excerpts presented in this paper refer to an activity chosen by
the authors to render students competent in mathematical modeling, which consists, in
the words of Niss (2003), not only in “performing active modeling in a given context,”
but also in “decoding existing models, i.e. translating and interpreting model elements in
terms of the ‘reality modeled’” (what we call demodeling). On the other hand, Guidoni
et al. (2003) emphasize the necessity of a continuous switching from modeling to
demodeling in order to achieve an effective competency by our students. Therefore, it is
clear that an improvement of our students’ performances in PISA-like tests requires a
deep reflection by teachers themselves on the needed didactic choices when
implementing the traditional curriculum, in order to achieve the mathematical
competencies required by OCSE. In this paper we have tried to show that in this
direction it is possible to re-read usual skills and tools on the base of a renewed
awareness of teachers of their potentialities.

REFERENCES
Bruner, J. (1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. London: Harvard Univ. Press.
Grasso, N. & Mellone, M (2008). “A PISA-like Problem for 8 year-old Children:
Teachers’ Choices.” This book.
Guidoni, P. (1985). “On Natural Thinking.” Eur. J. Sci. Educ. 7, 133-140.

174
Guidoni, P. Iannece, D. & Tortora, R. (2003). “La formazione matematica dei futuri
maestri. Appunti ed esempi di attività.” Progetto CNR. From the website
http://didmat.dima.unige.it/progetti/CNR/napoli/present.html.
--- (2005). “Forming Teachers as Resonance Mediators.” Proc. of PME XXIX.
Melbourne. 3, 73-80.
Hiebert, J. & Lefevre, P. (1986). “Conceptual and Procedural Knowledge in
Mathematics: An Introductory Analysis.” Conceptual and Procedural Knowledge:
the Case of Mathematics. J. Hiebert (ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Houdé, O.; Zago, L.; Mellet, E.; Montier, et al. (2000). “Shifting from the Perceptual
Brain to the Logical Brain: The Neural Impact of Cognitive Inhibition Training.”
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 12, 721-728.
Iannece, D.; Mellone, M. & Tortora, R. (2006). “New Insights into Learning Processes
from Some Neuroscience Issues.” Proc. of PME XXX. Prague. 3, 321-328.
Iannece, D. & Romano, P. (2008). “What Does it Mean to Have a “Scientific Approach”
for a Teacher? A Reflection.” Proc. of 5th International Colloquium on the
Didactics of Mathematics. (in press) Crete.
Iannece, D. & Tortora, R. (2007). “La Risonanza nei processi di apprendimento.”
Seminario Nazionale di Ricerca in Didattica della Matematica.
http://www.dm.unito.it/semdidattica/iannecetortorad.pdf.
Mason, J. (1998). “Enabling Teachers to Be Real Teachers: Necessary Levels of
Awareness and Structure of Attention.” J. of Math. Teacher Education. 1, 243-267.
Niss, M. (2003). “Quantitative Literacy and Mathematical Competencies.” Quantitative
Literacy: Why Numeracy Matters for Schools and Colleges. B. Madison & L. Steen
(eds.). Princeton: National Council on Education and the Disciplines. 215-220.
PISA 2003 Technical Report, OECD. OECD Publishing.
Sfard, A. (1991). “On the Dual Nature of Mathematical Conceptions: Reflections on
Processes and Objects as Different Sides of the Same Coin.” Educational Studies in
Mathematics. 22, 1-33.
Skemp, R.R. (1971). The Psychology of Learning Mathematics. Harmondsworth,
England: Penguin Books.

175
176
 MAKE YOUR OWN PROBLEMS
Truus Dekker* & Monica Wijers**
University of Utrecht (Netherlands)
* [email protected], * * [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Starting to design problems based upon a more or less realistic situation will create
“problems” in the different meaning of the word. What does it mean to make a “good”
context problem? Are all teachers good test designers or learning materials developers,
because of their professional training? These are two important questions to be
addressed in this contribution to the PISA handbook. Characteristics of context
problems that are used by professional test designers, either implicitly or explicitly will
be identified. For teachers, the purpose of the test or problem and how this makes a
difference in the problem design, is important. For a quiz, teachers may focus on
reviewing and using algorithms, whereas in another test, showing mathematical insight
is stressed. Finally, we found that almost absent in most text books is how to translate
from a problem situation to a mathematical model of the situation, solve the problem
within the mathematical model and translate again to decide whether or not the solution
found fits the situation. We will pass on some guidelines for teachers when they try to
help their students in this respect.

KEY WORDS:
Problem design, context problems, Assessment Pyramid, PISA

INTRODUCTION
The term mathematical literacy in the sense as it is used in the OECD PISA1
study emphasizes the functional use of mathematical knowledge in a variety of different
situations. As the PISA 2003 Assessment Framework states
Mathematical Literacy [is] an individual’s capacity to identify and understand the role that
mathematics plays in the world, to make well-founded judgments and to use and engage with
mathematics in ways that meet the needs of the individual’s life as a constructive, concerned and
reflective citizen. (15)
“Concerned and reflective citizen[s]” live in an ever changing society and thus
need to adapt to these changes in a creative and flexible way. Their mathematics
education needs to focus on these adaptations and therefore it is not enough for students
to master definitions, basic skills and the performance of standard procedures, that is,
having all kinds of mathematical tools available. Students must also learn how to use
those tools in unfamiliar situations as encountered in private life, in further studies as
well as in occupational life.
Based upon the work of de Lange (1994, 1999), used to design a National
Option for the Third (now Trends) in International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS) (Kuiper et al., 2000) the OECD has chosen to describe the cognitive demands
for mathematics in three competency clusters, the reproduction cluster, the connections

1
PISA Program for International Student Assessment

177
cluster, and the reflection cluster. For use with professional development in assessment
design, instead of the description provided by PISA, we offer a pyramid model for these
competency clusters that, in the words of a participating teacher, proved to be sweet,
short, and simple (Figure 1)
Level 1: Reproduction, procedures, concepts, and definitions
Level 2: Connections and integration for problem solving
Level 3: Mathematization, mathematical thinking and reasoning, generalization
and insight.

Figure 1. The Assessment Pyramid model

The three parts of the pyramid model indicate the number of problems at the
three levels, there is no hierarchy in the competencies. All three of them are important,
but since most questions at level 1 are often closed questions whereas questions at level
2 and especially at level 3 are open questions that need more time, in a balanced test as a
general rule the ratio below is used: level 1 : level 2 : level 3 = 3 : 2 : 1.
The third dimension in the pyramid, from easy to difficult, shows that a more
difficult problem is not necessarily at a higher competency level, it is just more
complicated to solve and it may take more steps, albeit at the same level, to do so.
An example of a PISA problem from the reproduction cluster, level 1 (meant
for students aged 15) is
Science test. In Mei Lin’s school, her science teacher gives tests that are marked out of 100. Mei Lin
has an average of 60 marks on her first four science tests. On the fifth test, she got 80 marks.
What is the average of Mei Lin’s marks in science after all five tests?
(Answer: 64 marks)
An example from the connections cluster, level 2.
Pizza. A pizzeria serves two round pizzas of the same thickness in different sizes. The smaller one
has a diameter of 30 cm and costs 30 zeds. The larger one has a diameter of 40 cm and costs 40 zeds.
Which pizza is better value for money? Show your reasoning.
(Answer: The larger pizza, because the surface area increases more rapidly than the prize of the
pizza or other correct reasoning.)

178
 And finally an example from the reflection cluster, level 3

Litter. For a homework assignment on the environment, students collected information on the
decomposition time of several types of litter that people throw away:

Type of litter Decomposition time

Banana peel 1-3 years
Orange peel 1-3 years
Cardboard boxes 0.5 year
Chewing gum 20-25 years
Newspapers A few days
Polystyrene cups Over 100 years

A student thinks of displaying the results in a bar graph. Give one reason why a bar graph is
unsuitable for displaying these data.
(Sample answers: The difference in lengths of the bars would be too big. The length of the bar for
“polystyrene cups” is undetermined. You cannot make a bar for 20-25 years.)
Both in real life and in occupational life it is important to be able to “translate”
a problem posed within a context into a mathematical model of the situation. In other
words, to find out what you need to do to solve the problem. Let us consider a simple
example, PISA 2003, question 1 “Growing up,” M150Q01-019, which stated:
Since 1980 the average height of 20-year old females has increased by 2.3 cm, to 170.6 cm. What
was the average height of a 20-year-old female in 1980? (Answer: 168.3 cm PISA score 477, level 1,
reproduction).
A graph showing the average height of both young males and females in the
Netherlands is provided but not really needed to answer the first question, though it
might help to see that the average height of 20-year-old females was 170.6 in the year
1998. Students need to translate the problem into the mathematical problem 170.6 – 2.3
= ... (168.3). It is this translation that makes the problem a more difficult one. The
subtraction algorithm is one that many students will show mastery of if it is presented as
a bare problem. Hardly any mathematics textbook address the importance of making a
mathematical model of the problem situation first, next solve the problem within the
mathematical model and last decide whether or not the solution found fits the situation.
A student who thought of the word increase only, and solved 170.6 + 2.3 = 172.9,
should look back at the problem situation and the graph and decide that the average
height measured in 1998 is the highest so the answer cannot be right.

PROBLEM DESIGN, FINDING GOOD PROBLEMS FOR PROBLEM

SOLVING
Many teachers complain that during teacher education, test and problem design
are hardly addressed at all. One of the reasons may be that test design is easy, as long as
only problems at the reproduction level (level 1) are used for classroom quizzes and tests
as is often the case. Just change the numbers in a problem for similar ones, change
oranges for apples and change the names of any people mentioned. That’s all.

The bath superintendent wants the height of the water in the swimming pool to be exactly 4 meters.
How many centimeters is that?

Jessica is filling the swimming pool in her garden. She wants the height of the water to be exactly 3
meters. How many centimeters is that?

What is being assessed here? Does the student know that 1 meter equals 100
centimeters? Then why use a silly context instead of asking:

179
 3 m = ....... cm (Fill in the blank).
The context is probably just there to make the problem look more interesting.
However, it is not taking students seriously since no student will really think that it is
wise to have a swimming pool with a depth of 3 meters (nearly 10 feet for those using
different units of measurement) in your garden. Moreover, the unit “centimeters” is too
exact to estimate the height of the water in the pool.
Take students seriously. The problem situation must be realistic or at least
imaginable, and the numbers used should be as authentic as possible. Always check! Not
all mathematical concepts can be posed within a plausible and meaningful context
situation. In that case, a bare question is more suitable. Our advice is to start with the
context situation and try to pose a variety of (mathematical) questions instead of asking
which context situation can be found to pose a question about for example a parabola.
If a problem situation is used to ask mathematical questions, the starting point
is the situation and not the mathematical content. The problem situation used should
provide a mathematically interesting problem that is worth solving in other words.
The questions asked within a context should be meaningful; designers should
ask themselves “Why would anybody want to know?” This does not mean the problem is
always interesting for every student, they all have their own interests and preferences;
they hate soccer or they know everything there is to know about prehistoric animals. But
at least students should be able to imagine that this particular problem is important or
interesting for a researcher or important within an occupational situation. We sometimes
call a context that is entirely “made-up,” not imaginable and uninteresting to almost
anybody, a non-text. Here is an example from a mathematics textbook:
For her birthday, Lois got a box of writing paper. She thinks the sheets are too big; they are 20 cm ×
30 cm. From both sides of each sheet of paper, she cuts an equally wide strip. After cutting the strips
off, she knows the surface area of one sheet of paper is 416 cm2. Use an equation to find the width of
the strips that Lois has thrown away.
It is not easy to find “rich” contexts that enable interesting mathematical
questions. Newspapers, scientific journals, objects of art, interesting buildings, utensils,
crafts and packaging are important sources. The situation that is found initially, almost
always needs to be adapted for use with students.
For less able students, the context should be closer to the student. For these
students a scientific context is less suitable.
The language used must be adapted for the age and reading competencies of
the students taking the test or using the curriculum materials. This means for example
that the text of a newspaper article used as a starting point for a (mathematical)
question being posed almost always needs to be changed. Photos and drawings may help
explain the situation. Visuals should be added to help students; they are not there for fun
or to make a test paper look “nicer.” Taking a closer look at the drawing, photo, or
diagram must be worthwhile for students, not a waist of time in a test situation or
learning situation.
A really rich context makes it possible to pose questions from a variety of
mathematical domains, number, algebra, statistics, or geometry. Problem designers
should be aware that for most students, even an interesting context becomes boring after
a while. Especially if a problem situation does not appeal to students, they may find it
very hard to keep motivated. Therefore, a “rich” context enables mathematical
questions from different domains. In general, limit yourself to one mathematical domain,
e.g. algebra and use the context another time for a different mathematical domain.

180
An article from a Dutch newspaper is summarized below to illustrate the previous
characteristics. A lot of information about the contest, the cost per tile, weight per tile,
etcetera is already omitted.

Ivo ten Hove won a contest to design a new tile to be used for pavements. He made one big, more or
less H-shaped tile measuring 90 x 90 centimeters and several smaller ones.

Figure 2. Tiles designed by Ivo ten Hove

Below you see a mathematical model of some of the tiles.

Figure 3. Mathematical model of some tiles

Many interesting questions could be posed within different mathematical

domains. As a start, designers might do just that. Of course, the tile is simplified and the
questions are posed regarding the mathematical model of one or more tiles. Here are
some examples:
Compute the area of an exactly square tile measuring 90 × 90 centimeters. Converse the answer you
gave to square meters.
One of the requirements for the contest was that a winning tile would not cost over 85 Euro per
square meter. Does a square tile of 90 × 90 centimeters which costs 90 Euro, meet the requirements?
Different square patios can be made using the large tile. We will make a row of growing square
patios. This row can be extended to higher numbers.

181
 Figure 4. One example of a row of square patios using Ivo’s tiles.

How many large tiles are needed for the fourth model?
Is it possible to make a square patio using exactly 210 square tiles?

Here are two formulas to compute the number of large tiles and small rectangular tiles in each model:
B = n2,
where B represents the amount of large tiles and n represents the number of the model,
R = 2n2 + 2n,
where R represents the amount of rectangular tiles and n represents the number of the model.
The number of rectangular tiles grows faster than the number of large tiles.
How does that show in the formulas?
Use the formulas to make a new formula that can be used to calculate the total amount (T) of tiles in
each model.

Shown above is a limited number of questions that might be posed using the
tiles context, teachers using this context found many other interesting questions. For
students it would be confusing to go from one mathematical domain to another in one
problem and they might get bored after a while trying to keep involved in the same
context. If the context is used as a test problem, designers would choose just one
mathematical domain (algebra, geometry, arithmetic) and limit themselves to a
relatively small number of questions. The same context may be used again later, or with
other students, with different questions.
The number of questions to be used with one context is advised to be 3 – 5 to
keep students motivated. It often takes time for students to get involved in the context
situation. This time can be rewarded by first asking a simple question, for example
reading data from a graph that is part of the context, substitute a number in a given
formula, perform a simple calculation that will clarify the situation, etc.
The first question to be posed within a context situation (if more than one
question is posed) should enable students to get “involved” in the context. Usually this
will be a simple question at the reproduction level. For a learning situation this
recommendation can be “translated” into:
The basic problem to be solved in the context situation should elicit student’s ideas. It should evoke
a “global” motif for students to become involved and it should continuously evoke “local” motifs to
keep the learning process going, leading to solutions to the problems they are confronted with.
(Westra 2008, 96)
And also:
To support the autonomy of the learner, the learning and teaching strategy should be transparent for
students: this implies that at any point it should be clear to the students what learning activities they
have to do, when and why. (Westra 2008, 198)

182
TEST DESIGN, AN EXAMPLE FOR THE CLASSROOM
From our own practice as test designers, educational materials designers and
mathematics teachers, we will take an example from the PISA2003 study to make the
problem solving process more explicit. The problem may serve as a basis for teaching
how to reason mathematically based upon the structure of a formula and think about
mathematical modeling of a situation.
The problem situation was derived from a newspaper article. The text is already
adapted for use in the classroom. Note that for less able students, we do not provide all
information available at once, because the students might feel overwhelmed when
having to deal with a lot of information. A photograph is added to clarify the situation
for those students who are not exercising regularly. Many sportsmen and women
regularly measure their heartbeat while exercising, so we may expect that many students
are interested in the context.

Heartbeat

For health reasons people should limit their efforts, for instance during sports, in order not to exceed a
certain heartbeat frequency.
For years the relationship between a man’s recommended heart rate and his age was described by the
following formula:
recommended maximum heart rate = 220 – age

As you read the information, many questions come up, some of which may be
used with students, in a classroom discussion or in a test, as well: What is a “normal”
heart rate for somebody my age?
Discussing this with students in a classroom, doing an experiment might be a
good idea. Count your pulse for half a minute. Are there differences among students?
Now jump up and down for a minute and count again. How did the heart rate change?
Whose recommended maximum heart rate is higher, a student’s or their teacher’s? Of
course it is not necessary to know the teacher’s age, in order to answer the previous
question, if we assume that the teacher is older than the students.
The formula is a rule of thumb and may not apply to everybody. Give an example for somebody the
formula may not apply to.
A newborn baby has a heart rate of over 100 beats per minute, but not nearly
220. So the formula is not suited for young children. (Note that students argue
informally here about domain and range without using or even knowing the appropriate
mathematical terms yet). A top athlete at rest may have a very slow heartbeat, of about
30 beats per minute. It is possible the formula does not apply to top athletes. Obviously,

183
because the information is given, the formula does not apply to women. Their heart rate
is slightly higher than for men. A similar formula for women is
recommended maximum heart rate = 230 – age
Suppose you would graph both formulas. (You do not have to do that) What would they look like?
How can you be sure?
Note this is a question that is not asked, because it does not take students
seriously:
Christian found his recommended heart rate to be 180. What is Christian’s age?
There are much better ways to find out somebody’s age!
Going back now to the newspaper article. Recent research showed that the
formula recommended maximum heart rate = 220 – age should be modified slightly. The
new formula is as follows: recommended maximum heart rate = 208 – (0.7 × age). The
article further stated: “A result of using the new formula instead of the old one is that the
recommended maximum number of heartbeats per minute for young people decreases
slightly and for older people it increases slightly.
From which age onwards does the recommended maximum heart rate increase as a result of the
introduction of the new formula? (Show your work)
Note that this question was used in the pilot of the PISA study but proved to be
too difficult for the majority of the students taking part. It certainly is a difficult
question. The question might become easier if there had been an introductory simple
question first, to get involved in the context, to have students draw the two graphs (or
give one graph and have them draw the other one) or state the problem in a different
way, for example:
For which age does it not make any difference whether the old or the new formula is used?
When answering the question, students may compare tables and check; they can
use the graphs, find the intersection point and check, use equations or just guess and
check. That is why this is a question from the connections cluster (level 2 in the
assessment pyramid), students need to find their own mathematical tools to solve the
problem. There are different tools that lead to a right answer, albeit not all equally
efficient.
In the newspaper article more information about exercising and checking your
heart rate was provided. Research has shown that physical training is most effective
when the heartbeat is at 80% of the recommended heart rate.
Change the formula recommended maximum heart rate = 208 – (0.7 × age) so that it becomes a
formula for calculating the heart rate for most effective physical training, expressed in terms of age.
The same question would have been a lot easier if it was posed much earlier in
the problem situation that is if it was posed for
recommended maximum heart rate = 220 – age, the original formula.
Students’ answers may show a variety of equivalent formulas, such as
effective heartbeat = 0.8 × (208 – (0.7 × age))
effective heartbeat = 166.4 – (0.56 × age)
y = 166 – 0.6x
y is the recommended maximum heart rate while exercising effectively and x represents the age in years.
When discussing answers to the last question in class, the relationship between
realistic situation and mathematical model of the situation should be addressed. Since the
formula is a rough estimate, 166 might be a better rounding for 0.8 × 208 than 166.4.
Within the mathematical model of the situation, 166.4 is correct but after finding the
answer, we should “translate” back to the situation in which the problem originally was
posed and check whether the answer should be adapted according to the situation.
A classroom test should reflect the teaching and learning process before the test
was taken. In the test, some questions could be posed about the same context that was

184
discussed in class. The context is a rich one that may lead to many different questions at
different levels of competency. For a level 3 problem, however, a teacher may look for
another, unfamiliar context, so students can show they are able to use the mathematical
content studied previously in this new context as well.

CONCLUSION
Below we will summarize the design characteristics discussed in this chapter.
The authors limited themselves in this respect; much more could be said about the
problem situation, about the design of an assessment plan for the school year or about
the design of a balanced classroom test. For teachers, it may be reassuring to know they
do not have to invent the wheel themselves. If you want to design problems at other
competency levels than just reproduction, start by looking at the work by other designers
and adapt their problems for use in your own classroom. And take care, once you start
looking around for interesting problem situations it is hard to stop and you may get many
problems!

TEST DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS, SUMMARY

1. A full test should be “balanced,” which means that the competencies

reproduction, connections, and reflection are addressed. (See Dutch pyramid
model included).
2. A context used as problem situation should be as authentic as possible. Note
that “authentic” may involve fictitious elements such as the name of a country,
the currency used, etc.
3. If a problem situation is used to ask mathematical questions, the starting point is
the situation and not the mathematical content.
4. The questions asked within a context should be meaningful; designers should
ask themselves “Why would anybody want to know?”
5. A “rich” context enables mathematical questions from different domains. In
general, limit yourself to one mathematical domain, e.g. algebra and use the
context another time for a different mathematical domain.
6. For less able students, the context should be closer to the student. For these
students a scientific context is less suitable.
7. The language used must be adapted to the age and competencies of the students
taking the test or using the curriculum materials. This means for example that
the text of a newspaper article used as a starting point for a (mathematical)
question being posed almost always needs to be changed.
8. The first question to be posed within a context situation (if more than one
question is posed) should enable students to get “involved” in the context.
Usually this will be a simple question at the reproduction level.
9. The number of questions to be used with one context is advised to be 3 – 5 to
keep students motivated.
10. Make it clear whether or not the question posed should be solved within the
situation or within the mathematical model of the situation. (For test purposes
often a mathematical model of the situation is already provided).

For a learning situation recommendation 8 can be “translated” into:

The basic problem to be solved in the context situation should elicit student’s ideas. It should evoke
a “global” motive for students to become involved and it should continuously evoke “local” motives

185
 to keep the learning process going, leading to solutions to the problems they are confronted with.
(Westra, 2008, 96)

Recommendation 10 can be “widened” into:

To support the autonomy of the learner, the learning and teaching strategy should be transparent for
students: this implies that at any point it should be clear to the students what learning activities they
have to do, when and why (Westra, 2008, 198)

REFERENCES
Dekker, T. (2007). “A Model for Constructing Higher Level Classroom Assessments.”
Mathematics Teacher. 101-1.
--- (2007). “Recent PISA Results.” Problem Solving as a Challenge for Mathematics
Education. M. Doorman et al. (eds.). ZDM Mathematics Education.
Lange, J. de & Boertien, H. (1994). The National Option of TIMSS in the Netherlands.
Enschede, the Netherlands: University of Twente.
Lange, J. de (1999). Framework for Classroom Assessment in Mathematics. Utrecht, the
Netherlands: Freudenthal Institute & Madison, WI: National Centre for Improving
Student Learning and Achievement in Mathematics and Science.
--- (2007). “Aspects of the Art of Assessment Design.” Assessing Mathematical
Proficiency. A. H. Schoenfeld (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kuiper, W.A.J.M., Bos, K.T. & Plomp, T. (2000). “The TIMSS National Option
Mathematics Test.” Studies in Educational Evaluation. 26, 43-60.
OECD (2003). The PISA Assessment Framework: Mathematics, Reading, Science, and
Problem Solving Knowledge and Skills. 15.
Van Reeuwijk, M.& Wijers, M. (2004). “Investigations as Thought-Revealing
Assessment Problems.” Standards-Based Mathematics Assessment in Middle School:
Rethinking Classroom Practice. T. A. Romberg (Ed.). New York: Teachers College
Press. 137-153.
Westra, R. H. V. (2008). “Learning and Teaching Ecosystem Behavior in Secondary
Education.” Systems Thinking and Modeling in Authentic Practices. Utrecht:
Freudenthal Institute for Science and Mathematics Education.

About the authors

Truus Dekker ([email protected]) is a test design specialist at the Freudenthal Institute for mathematics and
science education, University of Utrecht, the Netherlands. She has also many years of experience as a
mathematics teacher and provided professional development for teachers in different countries.

Monica Wijers ([email protected]) is a staff member of the Freudenthal Institute (FI), in the Netherlands.
The FI conducts research into aspects of mathematics education and on the teaching and learning of math.
She has been a teacher, teacher trainer, researcher, and curriculum developer in the field of mathematics
education since the early 1980s.

186
 “LET’S PRETEND!” ROLE-PLAYING, DRAWING,
CLASS DISCUSSION AT THE ROOTS OF MODELING
PROCESSES
Maria Pezzia*, Brunella Romano** & Marina Spadea***
*Dipartimento di Scienze Relazionali, Università degli Studi Federico II,
Naples (Italy)
**/*** 6° I.C. “Fava/Gioia, Naples (Italy)
*[email protected], **[email protected],
***[email protected]

ABSTRACT
We report here on a “mathematical workshop” realized in two second-grade classes,
whose goal was to enhance children’s autonomy and creativity in managing modeling
processes. Starting from a challenging problem, a tale about space time and speed,
children experienced different solving strategies and means to represent “reality:”
words, realistic drawing, role-playing, different kinds of symbols and graphic
representations. These strategies were built and compared during class discussions,
where children learned to reflect on power and limits of each representation. This paper
focuses on the first phase of the workshop, where the “creative interaction” between
different representation strategies is particularly evident. We try to analyze the role of
this interaction in order to trigger a process towards the construction of mathematical
models. Furthermore, we emphasize the role of the teacher as a mediator between
children’s “natural” ways of reasoning, and scientific thought.

INTRODUCTION
In the following paper we give an account of a mathematical workshop
experience in two second-grade classes. The activity starts from a mathematical tale,
centered on the conceptual tangle “space-time-speed.” The tale is quite complex and rich
in suggestions. It can be faced at different levels of mathematical skill and through a
multiplicity of representation strategies. Above all, the workshop is meant as an occasion
to experience abstraction and modeling processes. Our goal is to strengthen children's
autonomy and creativity in managing this kind of processes. Indeed, we think that one of
the reasons of the widespread negative attitude towards mathematics can be found in a
very common teaching practice: at every school grade, abstract objects are imposed on
students, but no one teaches them how to manage abstract processes (Nazzaro, 2005).
Usually, people are supposed to gain ability in using complex systems of mathematical
representations, but no one cares if these systems have any meaning for them (more: if
these meanings correspond to the culturally valid ones). At the same time, the ways by
which all individuals (children or adults) represent the world to themselves are not
considered, made explicit, and improved at school. That means that people are left at the
representation level where they were (Mazzoli, 2000). This way, the risk is that the gap
between cultural tools passed at school and individual life experience become wider and
wider along the years.

187
 During our courses of mathematics education and workshops with primary
school teachers we frequently hear statements like these: “You suggest I should use the
Cartesian plane, but it doesn’t fit my way of thinking;” “I know the right words to
explain it, but I’ve never really understood it;” “mathematics and me: we never met.” In
our opinion such statements represent quite well the school failure, today as well as in
the future, as they are so popular among teachers. For this reason our goal, while
working with both teachers and children, is to create a “meeting ground” for people and
mathematics. The problem is how to identify each student’s resources and how to
enhance them through (not to replace them by) mathematical tools (Hawkins, 1974).
In this process, the work on representation is crucial. At first, it is important to
make people aware of their resources: what can be obtained putting them in a
challenging problem solving situation. The comparison of different representation
modalities and of problem solving strategies proposed by peers and with the aid of the
resources brought in the group by an expert guide stimulates a metacognitive reflection
on everyone's ways of understanding. This can be seen as a first step from natural
towards scientific thinking (if we define it, following Vygotsky, 1990, Chapter 6, as
characterized by awareness and willingness to use). If people reflect on the power and
limits of their own representation strategies, and begin to build some criteria to
recognize an effective representation, then mathematical tools can be welcomed: they
can be seen as something that helps them solve some problems, overcoming their
individual limits. In this way, also the meanings of mathematical representations are
rooted in their experience and in their spontaneous way of thinking.
In the workshop that we will describe we worked with a multiplicity of
representations of the same situation, using drawings, movement, words, and symbols.
For many years the research literature in mathematical education and in cognitive
sciences underlined the importance of the use of different representations and languages.
This practice gives teachers the possibility to reach different students with different
kinds of prevailing intelligence and cognitive style (Gardner, 1983). At the same time,
each student can compare different representations of the same mathematical object
(Duval, 1995; Ferrari, 2004). In this paper we focus our attention on the latter point of
view, for different reasons: from one side, the experience of a multiplicity of
representation strategies avoids the risk of confusing a mathematical object and its
representation. Furthermore, we have experienced the effectiveness of provisional and
non-conventional representations, created by children on the basis of their needs in each
phase of the understanding process, and shared by the class community. This practice is
crucial also because it helps students to experience the nature of mathematics as a search
for patterns and structures. We agree with Hawkins when he says that the definitive
formalization of these structures is just a stable product of the mathematical process, but
not its essence.
In our workshop a central role is played by the use of the body and of its
movements in the space, in order to represent the problem. Obviously this is also due to
the kind of the problem proposed: we speak about movement, paths, speed of two
characters: a prince and a knight. Attempt to reproduce the characters’ actions is a
natural play for the children. Nevertheless, as we will try to show in this paper, this
reproduction is neither “a game only,” nor it is by any means easy: the choice of the
rules for our representation is a crucial source of reflection on the problem structure, and
on the delicate passage between concrete and abstract thinking. Of course, the body
movement and its observation play a crucial mediation role, but this kind of
representation is tightly intertwined with the others. In our experience, understanding is

188
made possible above all by the interaction among different means of representation.
“The Prince and the Knight” workshop is a good context to observe how children solve a
problem “with the help of their speech, as well as with their eyes and hands, as Vygotsky
would say (we could add: with the help of their feet, too). According to the Russian
psychologist, this “unity of action, perception, and language, which produces the inner
visual field,” is a basic aspect of human behavior.1 Didactic mediation is effective, in our
opinion, as it works on this unity, instead of hindering it.

THE “PRINCE AND THE KNIGHT” STORY

The following tale has constituted the starting point of many workshops for
students of all ages. In this paper we have chosen to focus our attention on the initial
phase of the workshop experience in two second-grade classes with the same
mathematics teacher (a member of our research group). Due to space limits, we have
decided to choose only a fragment of our experience (the first 4-5 sessions of laboratory
in every class) and to describe it in a detailed way, but not so detailed as to lose the
whole sense of the activity. This paper focuses on the interaction among different
strategies and ways of representing “reality.” We try to analyze the role of this
interaction in triggering the process of construction of mathematical models. The first
representation modality is actually the proposed text: of course, the story, although full
of realistic details, is not the reality but just one of its representations based on a system
of specific rules. Children are used to these rules, although they would not be able to
formulate them explicitly. The following text, translated from Nazzaro (2005), was read
aloud to the children before starting the discussion.
A prince, when he was grown-up, was curious to visit his father’s kingdom. Everyone said that the
kingdom was huge, full of woods, lakes, fields and green, scenting grasses. One day he decided to
leave with his retinue: knights, servants, carriages, tents and provisions. They walked 50 km. At
nightfall they camped: this was the first stop. Next morning the servants left the camp to set out
again. Before leaving, the prince called his most trustworthy knight and said to him: “You must go
back to the castle to bring me some medical herbs; you have also to bring me news about my
parents, while I continue travelling ahead.” Then they said goodbye and parted on their separate
ways. Every day the prince covered 50 km and the knight 100 km. The second night everyone
stopped, rested and on the third day kept walking. Finally, in the evening the knight caught up with
the prince, gave him the medical herbs and told him about his parents. Then they ate and rested. The
day after the prince asked the knight to go again to the castle to take jewels for the countesses. So
they left in opposite directions. After many days, the knight arrived at the castle and then met the
prince for the second time and gave him the jewels. The next morning the prince called the knight
and asked him to return to the castle to take the kingdom’s map because he was afraid of going over
the frontiers. The knight left once again. Many more days passed and the knight delivered the map to
the prince...

THE FIRST CLASS: DISCUSSION AND BODILY ACTION

In the first of the two classes where the story was told, after the reading, the
teacher asked the students to repeat the story in their own words during a collective
discussion. Everyone paid attention to a different detail. During the discussion the
teacher raised the fundamental question of the problematic situation: how can we foresee
when the prince and the knight will meet next time? (Gradually, during the workshop
sessions, other questions were emerging: after how many days they will meet the other
times? Will they meet forever, or there will be a moment in which the knight cannot

1
(Vygotsky, 1978, 26). Vygotsky's intuitions seem to be confirmed by recent research in neurobiology: the
unity among abstract thinking, language, motion and its observation has been observed also at the level of the
neural system of our brain (Gallese & Lakoff, 2005).

189
catch up with the prince any more?) The children let their doubts emerge. In formulating
hypotheses, they introduced the word “speed” – not present in the text. This way they
showed to have focused on the importance, for solving the problem, of this “complex
variable” that had emerged from their reflections on “kilometers and days.”
Mattia: It depends on the horse speed: if it is slow it will take longer, if the horse is fast it will take
fewer days.
The students, further stimulated by the teacher to foresee the next meeting,
spontaneously decide to perform the tale in order to understand “how the things have
really gone.”
Teacher: But how can we know when they meet?
Giuseppe: Let's pretend!
Mattia: Yes, I play the prince and someone else plays the knight.
The collective discussion went on with reasoning about the modalities of
interpreting and dramatizing the tale. The idea of “pretending,” typical of children's role
plays, took them to building a first model of the situation and to introducing crucial
ideas like scaling down.
Marta: Teacher, he goes around and then he arrives here and we can pretend that this distance is
50 km.
Alberto: We can pretend that an hour is until here and then here is another hour.
Mattia: But in this way the distances are small, it finishes too soon!
The discussion was lively because the children perceive that modeling is useful,
but many things that the children did not want to forgo were left out. For example, the
journey’s length, or the hard work made by the characters were very important for many
children: they represented the very spirit of the story. Anyway, after various hypotheses
and trials, the space and time constraints (that is, the classroom walls and the school-
time) induced them to agree on the use of suitable measurement units. As Gabriella said,
“We have to find an exact method that takes up a little space.”
Finally, we decided that one floor tile represents 50 km, and that the running
day is marked by a child who counts until ten (the night passes while he counts until
four, but soon the children realize that it is not essential: “at night everyone sleeps and
therefore the situation does not change”). The two characters move at the same time on
two parallel tile rows. This way we could visualize the meeting points: that is when the
prince and the knight were at the same distance from the starting point. Later on, after
trying the journey of the prince and the knight many more times, Chiara noticed that “the
prince is like time, in fact time goes always ahead, it is not like a DVD.” In this way she
recognized the necessity to think of the time through the spatial metaphor of an infinite
path in one single direction. Indeed, this metaphor is widely present in our common
language and represents our fundamental way to imagine and to represent time
(Capriolo, 1995).

THE SECOND CLASS: DRAWINGS AND THEATRICAL MACHINERY

In the other class the teacher asked children “the problem question”
immediately after the reading. Soon, the children tried to answer in the way they usually
apply for classic mathematics problems, that is, combining the numbers in the story
through arithmetical operations. But this time it was not easy to choose an arithmetical
operation. A student, in order to overpass the blockage moment, proposed to draw the
problem situation. The teacher passed this proposal to the whole class and re-opened the
discussion asking: “How can we draw in order to understand how to answer?”
Of course, the meaning of “drawing” in the original student’s proposals was an
“illustration of a scene.” Actually, this is the only kind of drawing that teachers usually

190
ask children in primary school. On the contrary, this time the teacher raised a different
question in order to encourage a global representation of the situation: if we want the
representation to help us solve the problem, it would be better if it shows all the
important data and the relations among them. Then, the children directed their search
towards two aspects. The first problem they discussed was the need for a strategy to
represent the two directions of the knight’s motion, in contrast with the prince who “goes
always ahead.” They proposed characters’ portraits turned in two opposite directions,
left and right oriented arrows, even overlapping tunnels. After that they tried to solve the
difficulty of a global glance at the story. For example, Erika proposed:
Maybe everyone can draw one day and one night and then we attach the drawings one after the other, by
a sticky tape. So we make a very long horizontal line.
The second meeting started with looking at the drawings made by each child the
previous time. The students did not succeed in joining the drawings in only one temporal
sequence. Moreover, single drawings did not help us make any forecast. Therefore, there
was a blockage moment. So, the teacher informed the children about the idea proposed
by the students of the other class: to represent the situation by dramatization. The
children enthusiastically agreed with this suggestion. At first, the idea of a
“performance” recalled their recent experience at a theatre. Therefore, they made a lot of
proposals, very complicated to realize: theatrical machines, rolling carpets, scenarios
made by screens with a projection of a running landscape, to simulate the movement of
the characters (as Alice said: “The scenes move and we pretend to walk”).
Although these proposals were too complicated and apparently not suitable they
hid some fundamental reflections on the problem of space-time representation. At first
children noticed that there was neither space nor time enough to reproduce the
experience of the prince just as he did it. We must simulate and reduce it. Proposals like
Alice’s showed the children’s “Copernican” awareness of the relations between the idea
of movement and the reference system: if we move our body, or move the reference
system, we get the same result. Later, another refined remark emerged when Lisa asked:
“Perhaps we have to use two screens to see the movement of the two characters, because
it is true that they move at the same time, but the prince and the knight are not attached
one to the other.”2
This discussion about “theatrical techniques” went on until the teacher thought
that it is better “to come back to earth,” in order to avoid getting lost. So she proposed to
start moving and to represent the journey by means available at the present moment.
Since this passage, the representation process was analogous to the other class, even if
more “realistic.” When a child found a solution, the requirements of the stage fiction
were always present: children were emotionally involved in the prince’s adventure, as
much as in the intellectual challenge to detect the encounter moments. In fact for
children it was important to act as they were really delivering the medical herbs as well
as to notice, with enthusiasm, that their method worked and that the third evening the
encounter between the prince and the knight really would occur. This continuous game
within and outside mathematics, within and outside the story promoted progressive
levels of abstraction. It could be imagined as a spiral-like process rather than a linear
progression.

2
In our opinion, this is a very deep reflection, since it seems to make explicit a problem frequently observed
also in adult learning. In our long experience of primary school teacher training we noticed that many adults
have strong difficulties to represent motions of different bodies on the same Cartesian plane, although they
understand its usefulness to make comparisons.

191
 Mariano: Yes, we can make a huge coil by the numbers and then we can color it with green like a
meadow. We can do a giant ruler!
Rita: But there is already the ruler, it is the floor tiles.

NEW GRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS

In both classes the representation by body movement was a powerful
instrument: it gave us a first idea of the problem shape, and allowed us to find the first
days of meeting (they meet on 3rd, 9th, 27th day, etc.). The body representation caused us
to reject the first hypotheses advanced by children (based on additive series). That was
the reason for their being more anxious to understand the end of the story – if there is an
end! But there came a moment, in which we were too tired to go ahead and back. We
were tired because no evidence of our activity remained. We had to do it all over again:
at the beginning of every workshop session, when we made a mistake, or if a new person
entered and wanted to understand our activity. Moreover we couldn’t make so many
steps in the corridor of the school. Meanwhile someone played with the calculator and
made a sensational discovery: maybe we have to always multiply by three! But the
numbers are too big, we can not verify them walking!
Thomas: To use the body is a sure method, but now it is the moment to stop and to work with our
minds.
Probably this was the right moment to go back to graphic representations or try
them for the first time, in the case of the second class. We believe that the dramatization
influenced the graphic representation in a strong way: the latter is a kind of
representation where only useful elements are present. Moreover, this experience helped
the children to construct criteria for recognizing an effective graphic representation: the
bodily representation worked in that it allowed them to find solutions that otherwise we
would not have seen. But it was not easy to transfer all on the paper. For example,
Alessio asked: “Yes, I have the squared sheet like tiles, but how can I draw the prince’s
and the knight’s moving?” Genny tried to solve the problem by moving both his hands
on the sheet with a pen in each hand at the same time: this way he could represent the
movements of the two characters leaving a trace on the paper. During the play, we left
some signs on the floor, in order to mark the encounter and departure points. These signs
were now a source of inspiration for our graphic representations. Gradually, drawings
became less realistic and more essential. They became richer in lines and notches,
numbers and symbols, colored arrows for each of the two characters. But there was still
the difficulty to represent time passing by. During the performance children already used
a second dimension (time): this dimension was embodied, for example, by the sequence
of the days written on the blackboard, or by the children’s voice announcing the new
day. Someone tried to transfer on the sheet the bi-dimensionality (the two related
variables) through two parallel lines (a space line and a time line), which they tried to
connect with thinner vertical lines. Other children reproduced the second dimension with
voice: while they marked the characters’ movements on the number line, they whispered
counting the days.
Now it seemed that the road was opened to gradually introduce the Cartesian
plan. This useful instrument could be used to solve our problems in a “resonant” way
with the children’s ways of understanding. But this was the goal of the second phase of
our workshop and the hypothesis to be verified in the next step of our research.

192
CONCLUSION
When reflecting on this experience, an aspect emerges very strongly: the
cognitive power of the expression “let’s pretend.” This expression, proposed by the
children and typical of their role plays, represents during the workshop a bridge between
their ways of exploring the world, and of reasoning and mathematical thinking. “Let’s
pretend” means many things for the children. On one hand, this idea fulfills their need to
become subject-protagonists of the situation in order to explore it by themselves. The
opportunity of putting oneself in characters’ shoes promotes emotional involvement,
therefore motivation and ability to activate solution strategies.3 At the same time it
stimulates the involvement of children's bodies, with many important consequences on
their mental representations.
First of all, it is only through the movement of their body in space and time that
children realize the necessity of a dynamic model of the explored phenomenon. This
way, they grasp that it is better to reproduce an experience “in a shorter and simpler
way,” in order to reflect upon it. Doing this, they can observe it globally, they can
manipulate it more and more times, with a measure of control that is impossible in the
real world. This function is common to children’s games and to mathematical models.
These two ways of thinking proceed according to different rules and cannot overlap
(Vygotsky, 1978). However, in our experience, they have some points in common.
Through the connection with their experiences of spontaneous play games children
accept the abstraction from reality required to start the modeling process: if we are
pretending, then I can be a prince, or a chair can be a castle. Then we can accept if we
need that a long and hard journey is like a single tile, or like a small mark on the paper
sheet.
As we said before, the idea of “playing the situation” promotes the bodily
representation. This allows children to see the situation in a clearer way and gives them
the occasion to experiment an effective model that allows them to make forecasts and to
verify them. However, a bodily representation suffers from some limitations, like
evidenced in Section 5. The experience of these limits originates the need for a more
powerful and abstract model that allows them to see new things and enhances
comprehension. In our activity, different representations – drawings, symbols, body
movement, and speech – develop simultaneously. For instance, the limits of the graphic
or verbal representations open the road to dramatization that favors the production of
more effective graphic representations; discussion, verbal formulation of hypotheses and
reflection on the experience precede, accompany and follow the construction of other
representations; speech allows the construction of any kind of representations and

3
For the crucial role of emotions in rational cognitive processes, see Damasio, (1995).

193
indicates their strengths and weaknesses. This search for more and more effective
representations has the secondary effect of stimulating reflection on the explored
phenomenon: gradually, during our discussions, the conceptual tangle space-time-speed
starts to disentangle. The students recognize variables, notice their relationships, and
compare their behaviors.
Our previous remarks can give the impression of a linear reading of our
experience, like a straight path from complexity and confusion of “reality” towards a
more powerful and clarifying abstractions. Actually, things went in a different way. In
the “pretending” game students were also deeply involved in emotional and pragmatic
aspects. They discussed on and on about the fatigue of the young prince far away from
home, the reactions of the knight that had go back to the castle many times, the danger of
a frontier war. These facts were a powerful sources of motivation, but they also triggered
many reflections and questions on the problem structure. In this sense we can say that, in
our experience, narrative thinking and mathematical formalization reinforce each other
(Bruner, 1996). Also in some conflictual moments, the opposition produces new ideas.
This does not happen spontaneously, but through a careful didactic mediation, aimed at
integrating scientific thinking with the various forms of natural thinking.

REFERENCES
Capriolo, P.P. (1995). “Spazio tempo e cambiamento.” Il senso di fare scienze. F.
Alfieri, M. Arcà, & P. Guidoni (eds.). Torino: Bollati Boringhieri.
Damasio, R. (1995). L’errore di Cartesio. Milano: Adelphi.
Duval, R. (1995). Sémiosis et pensée humaine. Paris: Peter Lang.
Ferrari, P.L. (2004). “Matematica ed educazione: Il ruolo fondamentale dei linguaggi.”
XXI Seminario Nazionale di Ricerca in Didattica della Mat.
http://www.mfn.unipmn.it/%7Epferrari/SN.htm.
Gallese, V. & Lakoff, G. (2005). “The Brain’s Concepts: the Role of the Sensory-Motor
System in Conceptual Knowledge.” Cognitive Neuropsychology. 21.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York:
Basic Books.
Hawkins, D. (1974). Nature, Man and Mathematics: The Informed Vision. New York:
Agathon Press.
Mazzoli, P. (2000). “Uno sguardo alla scuola media.” I modi di fare scienze. F. Alfieri,
M. Arcà, & P. Guidoni (eds.). Torino: Bollati Boringhieri.
Nazzaro, P. (2005). “Rappresentare lo spazio e il tempo: storie di principi e di cavalieri.”
Capire si può. P. Mazzoli (ed.). Roma: Carocci.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1990). Pensiero e linguaggio. Ricerche psicologiche. (Italian critical
edit. by Mecacci, L., Laterza. Bari). First edition: Myshlenie I rech´.
Psihologicheskie issledovanija. Moskvà-Leningrad, Gosu-darstvennoe social´no-
èkonomicheskoe izdatel´stvo, 1934.
--- (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.
London: Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.).

194
 AN IDEA ABOUT FACILITATING STRUCTURAL
UNDERSTANDING OF TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
Włodzimierz Gadomski
University of Podlasie, Siedlce (Poland)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Trigonometric functions, cosine, sine, tangent etc. should be from the very beginning
taught as functions of the arc length measured in radians. This seems difficult for many
teachers and textbook authors. So that they begin with proportions in right triangles and
at the end of a long road, they arrive at the trigonometric functions of real arguments.
Most students then remain with the first concept image they grasped at the beginning of
that road. That image is imprinted in their minds and is difficult to change. In this
paper, I propose another way, aimed at the structural understanding of the topic. I
propose to use a simple tool, called trigonometric stamp which makes the arc length a
natural argument. As pilot studies confirm, it is advisable to begin then with cosine
rather than sine graph, because cosine graph is symmetric and gives better start to
syntonic structural understanding in the sense of Papert.

KEY WORDS:
Cosine, sine, imprinting, trigonometric stamp

In Polish schools initiation to trigonometry traditionally takes place at the age

of 14-15. After the change in the school system, this age group of students is in middle
school (gymnasium). It was first introduced for right triangles as proportions: sine,
cosine, and tangent, with related tables, and with visual graphical representation, usually
for positive angles. Then, a year or two later a new definition of angle was introduced
using arc length and full graphic representation of sine, cosine, and tan as functions on
the real line. Recently the topic was cancelled in middle school, and is treated only in
secondary schools at the age of 17-18.
The problem was discussed several times at our PDTR seminar, and some
critical remarks emerged. The traditional approach was time consuming and caused
difficulties when students accustomed to degrees had to switch to radians. The detailed
list of trigonometric identities that were difficult to remember came in traditional
approach before the graphical representation was available. Anyway the problem was
posed, if there exists an easier way of initiation to trigonometry and of course aiming
directly at structural understanding rather than formal (Krygowska 1977, 1979;
Mostowski, 2003).
We found that there is one such direct approach sketched in the literature
(Steinhaus, 1989). Steinhaus proposed a direct way of obtaining sine curve by rolling a
sheet of paper into a cylindrical roll, cutting it across with sharp knife and then

195
spreading the paper on the table. The edge appeared then as familiar wavy shape, exactly
like the sine line.
This approach, proposed by Steinhaus, was not practical for schools. First of all
the sharp knife is rather to be avoided in the classroom, and also, the resulting line
which theoretically should be neat and accurate, usually came out as irregular. And the
idea was abandoned. Another idea of cutting across a plastic pipe and trying to sketch
the sine line with a pencil or a marker was also unsatisfactory.

Figure 1. Notice the radius, marked on the circle

My idea was to make a wooden stamp as in Figure 1, a wooden peg with a

wooden circle attached on one end and an elliptic shape attached on the other end. Using
a stamp pad so that both ends of the stamp leave trace when the stamp is rolled on paper,
we get a general rough view of the wavy sine line. The initial play with the stamp is to
be followed by a usual use of a graphic calculator to connect wavy line with precise
graph of sine or cosine.
We tried it first in some individual cases, not in the whole classroom. The
results were in some sense unexpected. The wave line given by the stamp came first, and
then we tried to fit it into a coordinate system. It was natural, in such case, for students
to fit it so, that it was vertically symmetric. As a consequence, it was not the sine line but
the cosine that came first to mind, and the value was given by the projection of a radius
that was marked on the circle (Figure 2). So unlike the usual order of things, the cosine
function came first and sine function followed.

Figure 2. The wavy line traced on the paper

196
 Then, it turned out that for students such a sequence is easier to follow than the
traditional one, because it was easier to interpret and remember the vertically symmetric
graph of the cosine, then the sine graph, which is not vertically symmetric. The stamp
was used as a manipulative tool for understanding the situation in the holistic way. The
graphic calculator added the numerical accuracy.
Another surprise was that it was easy to explain why we should measure the
angle by the arc length of the circle, i.e. in radians, and it was natural to make the circle
the unit circle, i.e. the circle of radius one, in the coordinate system. Motivation for it,
for the students who were used to degrees is not so obvious (Mostowski, 2005). The
relation (cosα, sinα) for the points on the unit circle followed, which was another way of
defining cosine and sine functions: as the coordinates of points on the unit circle.
One of the principles of didactical designing was Krygowska’s Metaphor,
stating that we should “extract concrete actions for the students from the definitions,
proofs and theorems.” This principle is in general difficult to implement, and it often
requires special apparatus or special manipulatives, not always at hand.
After some pilot studies, I think that the trigonometric stamp is one such
concrete manipulative for arranging didactically meaningful situations, giving the
concrete action field aiming at structural understanding of an important topic.
The initial play with the stamp and related language games (Wittgenstein, 2004) should
be followed of course with work using a graphic calculator (Figure 4) or a computer. I
cannot make any decisive statements about this new approach, but I think it is worth
exploring and further trials are pending.

Figure 3. Graph of the y=cos x is vertically symmetric

Figure 4. Using graphic calculator gives numerical accuracy

197
REFERENCES

NiM 27, 1998, the cover story.

Gadomski, W. (2007) “Uczyć, czy nie uczyć o funkcjach trygonometrycznych w
gimnazjum?” [To Teach or not to Teach about Trig Functions in Gymnasium?]
NiM+TI. 62.
Krygowska, Z. (1977, 1979) Zarys Dydaktyki Matematyki. Warszawa: WSiP. 1, 80,
128-9; 2, 20.
Mostowski, K. (2005) “Kalkulator graficzny w edukacji matematycznej.” NiM. 56.
--- (2003) “Metafora Krygowskiej.” NiM. 48, 15-17.
Steinhaus, H. (1989). Kaleidoskop Matematyczny. Warszawa: WSiP. 225-228.
Wittgenstein, L. (2004). Dociekania filozoficzne. [Philosophical Investigations].
Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

198
 APPROACHING LINEAR OPTIMIZATION
PROBLEMS: AN EXPERIENCE IN UPPER
SECONDARY SCHOOL
Elisa Quartieri
Liceo Scientifico Wiligelmo, Modena (Italy)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this article I will analyze my experience in class modeling activities and evaluating
relevant competencies acquired by students’ efforts. In the final reflections I give
suggestions for teachers who wish to reproduce this ambitious project.

KEY WORDS:
Optimization problems, algebraic modeling, Cartesian graphical representation,
coordination of representative registers, students’ difficulties

INTRODUCTION
In recent years we have seen an increase of the use of mathematics, whether in
its theoretic use to various scientific disciplines, or in contexts of everyday life. Parallel
to this demand of subject increasing knowledge, at the same time research grows to find
better ways to motivate students to study mathematics. Today mathematics can be
considered quite rightly a fundamental element of the cognitive process, which is
indispensable for disciplines such as, for example, physics, chemistry, biology,
engineering, medicine and economy.
By mathematical modeling we call the proceeding that starts from a problem
originating within one of them, through its representation with the use of mathematical
language (equations, inequalities and their graphical representations), analysis of the
representation, discovery of different methods of numeric simulation fit to approximate
them, and at last the implementation of these methods with the use of computers.
Modeling and its applications to everyday life help the mathematics teacher to motivate
students and catalyze their attention, to involve them better than in a traditional lesson.
Moreover, as it happens frequently to a lot of problems as, for example, the one related
to field of economics, the mathematical models, with a number of variables help to
obtain much more quantitative information than one you could get with just a
quantitative analysis. It happens to theories, which advance problems on phenomena that
are not independent from each other that require maximizing certain quantities with
limited resources. Such problems, concerning very interdependent systems with
changing constraints, are crucial to foresee the answer to important questions, the way of
acting rationally.
As for tools, the new mathematics curriculum shown at the XXII Convegno
UMI-CIIM del 2001 states: “To solve a problem it will be necessary to use up your own
resources, fighting in the open, exploring knowledge to find the one useful for the goal,
developing new knowledge, changing the way to use them, going in deep, distinguishing
between important and redundant data, finding, in case of lack, data necessary for

199
controlling the solution process referring to the goal and to the validity of the result.”
The ministerial program states moreover that the scientific-area objectives are to
understand the scientific importance of the experimental method (quantitative
observation, formulation of hypotheses, mathematical modeling, experimental
expectations and experimental checks). All that is possible through a study on relations
and functions, in particular collections of elementary functions, and their graphics seen
as modeling tools. Moreover, interesting examples of linear modeling and optimization
can be found in the books Matematica 2003 and Matematica 2004, where you can find
innovative didactic suggestions suitable for secondary school, and useful for the new
curriculum (Anichini et al., 2003, 2004).
So, it is easy to understand why in the PDTR project I decided to work on
modeling as useful tool to amplify the competencies mentioned above. This type of
problems can develop and test students’ competencies and reflection (PISA 2002, 2003):
students when solving a problem have to come back several times from the model
context (linear function and algebraic and graphic representation) to the problem context.
It is just this work of interpreting and reinterpreting in different representative registers
and theoretical scope that aims to develop and strengthen competencies of highest level,
which involve also the concept of function as a mathematical object.
Feasibility of the introduction of problems of this type into different secondary
schools is disputable, though, above all because certain type of schools programs are
sometimes very strict and there is lack of time and didactic tools necessary for deeper
work on linear programming problems. In fact, in Italian text books devoted to liceo
scientifico it is almost impossible to find this problematic except for classical textbooks
e.g. by Prodi (1975, 79) or Speranza & Rossi Dall’Acqua (1979).
This article is divided in three parts: the first one is an introduction to modeling
and its power in the mathematical teaching, in the second one I will show more
significant problems. Finally, in the third part I will briefly describe my students and
discuss some final reflections about my work, also suggestions for teachers, who want to
reproduce this project in their school.

PROBLEMS
The topic that I have worked on includes a class of problems, which require
finding maximum or minimum points of a linear function of two variables in a limited
plane domain determined by a system of two-variable inequalities. It does not explicitly
occupy part of the secondary school curriculum, except perhaps for one technical school
oriented to economy. The topic is a simple but essential application of algebra to the real
world and is also a good training field for the algebraic calculus, analytic geometry, and
mathematical modeling. Obviously, problems of this type are simpler than those in the
real life (at least the number of variables is smaller); however, they are significant from
the theoretic and application point of view. The context of these problems offers the
possibility to verify students’ ability (i) to formulate a formal algebraic problem, (ii) to
coordinate different representatives’ registers: Cartesian representation of linear
functions and analytic geometry, and (iii) in competencies concerning the concept of
function and their development.
My work on modeling began in the past year. At the beginning it mainly
consisted in collecting problems and analyzing them with respect to difficulties in text
comprehension, easiness, attractiveness of the context, mathematical difficulties, and
required competencies. But the problems, which you usually find in textbooks have, we
can say, a scholastic taste, even if they are different in different schools; moreover, it

200
seems they are a mass-product: in fact, when you have solved one, others are easy. So I
needed new problems, with different problematic situations, not concerning situations of
everyday life, but above all that were not analogous. My first experience was
problematic. I carried it out in another school with a different ambient, which did not
allow me to freely do what I prepared previously. Innovation and choices based on
literature sometimes crash when confronted with everyday work with difficult classes,
where the innovated teaching fades into the background because of the lack of students’
motivation. Due to this experience I began my project this year by reconsidering the old
problems, studying and creating new ones, but above all by working on the means of
students’ motivation and awaking. The goal of the first phase was to create situations
able to involve students through their everyday curiosity.
In the a priory analysis we had to work not only on possible difficulties, errors,
misconceptions, obstacles, stressed in the didactic research, but also to choose, modify
or create problems directed towards students’ preferences and help to launch debates
involving essential knowledge, thus to expose its value or to institutionalize it.
The following problems are the ones proposed and then discussed in the class. I
should add that students needed to be prepared for them through exercises to be done at
home: to find the range of variability of a parameter so that an equation has solutions, to
understand the meaning of the intersection point of two lines when solving linear
systems, and to reinterpret the solution point in the problem context.

Problem 1
A farmer grows little cherry tomatoes and potatoes in a 4.200 m2 field, having an amount of 6.600
litters of water everyday to irrigate. For producing 1q of tomatoes, earning € 50, he needs 40 m2 of
field and 100 l of water each day. For producing 1q of potatoes, earning € 60, he needs 100 m2 of
field and 20 l of water per day. How many tomatoes and potatoes should the farmer produce to
obtain the maximum earning?
The difficulties connected with this problem are: (1) to recognize the unknown
values (x = tomatoes [quintal], y = potatoes [quintal]); (2) to find the constraints,
partially hidden (water constraint: 100x+20y ≤6.600, field constraint: 40x+ 60y ≤ 4.200
m2, constraint of sign: x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0); and to (3) to find the objective function (the earnings
to be maximized z = 50x + 50y).

Problem 2
Calories
Foods Price (cents) Protein (g)
(×100)
Chocolates 200 2 9
Chocolate milk 300 3 3

Helen is a thin teenager that loves a boy who likes shapely girls, so she decide to create a fattening
and a bit dangerous diet composed only of chocolates and chocolate milk, but she has a limited
budget. Let’s help Helen! Try to calculate the minimum cost of the daily diet that holds the
following restrictions: minimum amount of 1200 calories and 27 grams of protein, six chocolates at
most. Necessary data are in the table above.
The difficulties linked to this problem are: (i) to determine the unknown values
(x = quantity of milk y = quantity of chocolates); (ii) to find the constraints, even
partially hidden (calories constraint: 200x+300y ≥ 1200, protein constraint: 9x+3y ≥ 27,
non-negativity constraints for food 0 ≤ x ≤ 6; y ≥ 0); (iii) to find the objective function:
the cost to minimize s=2x+3y, (100 cents = 1 Euro); (iv) to notice that the cost attains
the minimum value not only at one point (x, y) but at infinity many points inside a
segment; that from these points we have to select those with integer coordinates; (v) to

201
know how to modify the problem so that the question of maximum cost might have a
numerical answer.

Problem 3
Is subscribing advantageous? And if you have an
Entry eight-year-old brother? Would it be advantageous
Full……………………........ € 8 for him? Analyze the situation and represent
Reduced…………….….…..€ 5 algebraically the cost as a function of the number of
(until 10 years) entries in each case (adult or child). Analyze the
Subscribers situation using graphs.
Full………………..…..........€ 4
Reduced…………….….….€ 2
Subscription € 20 (validity from 15/6 to 10/9)

The difficulties linked to this problem are: (i) to determine the unknown values
(y is the entry cost and x is the number of entries) and to represent algebraically the costs
in both cases; (ii) to interpret formulas in terms of functions and represent them
graphically as lines y=8x and y=20+4x; (iii) to understand that the subscription is
convenient only if 8x > 20 + 4x; (iv) to find the value x=5 and to be able to recognize it
as the point of indifference for the two cases; (v) to know how to modify the problem so
that the question of maximum cost might have a numerical answer.

Problem 4 – First part

A family, composed of two adults and three children, has a budget of 200 Euro for three months.
They try to maximize the number of the adult and children entrances, let all the adults and all the
children enter the swimming pool maximum times. Analyze the situation in terms of functions of the
number of entries. (Suggestion: use x as the number of adults’ entrances, and y as the children’s
ones.)
The difficulties linked to this problem are: (i) to divide the problem in two
different sub-problems: “subscriber case,” “single entries case” to be analyzed
separately; paying attention to the subscriber’s case; (ii) to find the constraints (price
constraint: 2(20+4x)+3(20+2y) < 200, months constraint: x+y < 5×90 (at the most
everyone, that is five persons, can go to the swimming pool everyday for three months,
that is 90 days), adult and children number constraint: x≥2 y≥3); (iii) to find the objective
function: the expenditure (to maximize) s=4x+2y and graphically explain the constraints
(you can observe that the subscription of 20€ disappears, because it is embodied in the
parameter, but when you need to interpret the expenses constraints it reappears).

Problem 5
Using a pattern calculate what the lowest price Single entry……………………................... € 6,50
is, according to the number of the monthly Carnet of 10 entrances…………….....…..€ 52,00
entrances.

The main difficulties linked to this problem are: (i) to express the unknown
values (x number of swimming pool entries, y the price); (ii) to draw and to recognize
step functions; (iii) to choose the right modeling among several possible through
comparing the two types of rate and stressing the indifference points; (iv) to recognize
the winner strategy as a combination of single entrances and a carnet.
At first a sheet was given to the students with a series of problems. I expected
collective solving and discussion on that. From the students’ point of view the beginning

202
of this class was quite strange: the first phase was spent in silence because they were
frightened by the recorder (used by the teacher), believing that it was there to
immortalize their own failure; this time of little shyness passed and they continued with
a joyous confusion climate because they were in a different place of work: the school
computer laboratory. After this phase things changed for the better and the students
began to talk to each other in a polite manner. The students liked the new subject very
much. The conversations were quite lively, above all when they had to explain to
another one their strategy or when, at the end of a discussion about a problem, they had
to find one or more solutions. There even was a strange competition to succeed. I did not
solve their problems; my role was to repeat in a better and correct way their ideas, to
summarize their discussions, and sometimes to pose questions, as a spectator. I
embodied a student who did not understand and frequently I played the game to follow
their train of thought in order to show them the contradictions. I put myself at the level
of my students and I accepted, using the time that the ministry program offers, questions
on questions, even the strangest ones. The student solutions appeared always quickly and
even wrong solutions or strategies were debated among students. They never saw them
as a defeat. All this was due not only to the good class climate but also to the fact that
the class seemed quite closed at the beginning.

SOME RESULTS
I worked in a third-grade class, with a strong mathematics program (PNI), of
a secondary school named Liceo Scientifico Wiligelmo in Modena. It was composed of
27 students, 10 girls and 17 boys, and their level was a medium one. Three students
came from another class, because of a break-up in the second year, and another one was
a grade repeater. Moreover, there were some issues related to immaturity (mainly boys)
and low self-esteem (mostly girls). At the end of the past year teachers judged eight
students not ready for the third year mathematics class, but they already provided for
filling the gaps. I did not know the student before because I am a substitute teacher for
one year maximum. I ascertained myself just at the beginning they were not familiar
with the “mathematics dialogue:” they found it difficult to argument, to reason out loud,
and at the beginning they seemed to prefer frontal lessons. Because my first attempts at
“dialogued lesson” seemed more of a monologue, all students regardless their level of
preparation remained silent.
I thought it would be interesting for students to know the history of linear
programming. It might help them understand the birth of a concept and see that
mathematics develops continuously. I started with a series of problems to solve with the
use of algebra, namely of equations of the first and second degree and systems of two
linear equations with two unknowns. After this we analyzed the meaning of a graphic as
a representation and possible aid or solution of a problem situation where linear
functions act. This choice was made to carry the student through a step by step discovery
of linear programming. Then I presented problems to choose from where a quantity (for
example expense) depending on several variables (the objective function) had to be
optimized i.e. become minimum or maximum. The variables on their part had to fulfill
constraints, that is, conditions that come from reality or from the particular type of the
problem.
It is necessary remember that we can talk of linear programming only in these
cases: (i) all the constraints that determine the acceptable solution domain are expressed
by first degree inequalities; (ii) the function that is to be optimized, called objective
function, is a linear function; (iii) all variables at least non negative.

203
 The pre-requirements necessary for this activity have already been completed
before the beginning of the project, either as a biennium review or as a part of the third
grade program (to be able to solve an equation or a system of equations of the first
degree, to know how to represent a linear equation on the Cartesian plane, to understand,
even superficially, the concept of function). We can consider among the pre-
requirements some knowledge of analytic geometry, in particular on canonic equations
of lines, and the dependence of lines y = mx and y = mx + q on m as a parameter.
When I started, my students were just working on the modules: Cartesian
plane, line, circumference, using these arguments to solve particular equations and
inequalities of the first and second degree, with absolute values and roots, either from
the algebraic or graphic point of view. I taught them how to find the solution of a system
of inequalities starting from drawing of the boundary, then using a couple of coordinates
of a point to determine the right semi plane to choose. I suggested to hatch the boundary-
lines if they do not belong to the solution area and to color the right piece of plane, or to
dot it if the values belong to naturals. Initial linear programming problems involving
only two variables can be represented effectively on the Cartesian plane and solution can
be found with simple geometric deductions. I stressed that the unknown values of the
problem modeled by inequalities had to be distinguished from the unknowns of an
equation. Paying attention to these details is not pedantry. In fact, the unknowns are here
not just numbers to be identified, as they were till now.
Since manual graphing takes much time and the lines are not always so “good,”
I mainly used the computer room with Derive. The use of this software was expedient to
save time, but also to obtain correct, clear and visually meaningful graphics thanks to
using colors.
During my activities on modeling I intended to teach the students to: (i)
distinguish in the problem data, unknowns (variables), and constraints to work on; (ii) to
give names to variables and to express algebraically the connections between them; (iii)
to find the variability field of the unknowns; (iv) to choose among different graphical
representations the right one, adequate to optimization criteria; and (v) to explain, in
order to obtain the solution of the problem, the results of the syntactic treatment of the
algebraic formulas and of the related geometric representations.
Discussions were always lively. The students confronted their ideas, showing a
good interpretative ability of the algebraic form, either in the Cartesian plane or in the
real problem. Yet to assess the individual learning I decided to give at the end of the
course these problems to solve in writing (class work):

Problem 1 for the class work

Chiara joins a charity event, selling cakes; the proceeds of the sales will be given to the parish
church of her town. She is not a good cook, so having to prepare two types of cakes she buys what
she needs at the supermarket, that is, cake mix and milk. With the money she has got she is able to
buy not less than 1200g of cake mix and at least 9l of milk. Each pancake needs 200g of cake mix
and 3l of milk; each chocolate cake needs 300g of cake mix and 1l of milk. Knowing that every
pancake will be sold at 20€ and every chocolate cake will be sold at 30€, how many cakes will be
sold of the two types? Which is the minimum income?
The parish church forced Chiara to sell not more than 6 cakes, because another parishioner will
prepare the same type of cake for the charity event.
a) Draw on a Cartesian plane the lines which represent constraints and minimum income, choosing the
right unit of measure;
b) Represent algebraically the relationship between: quantity of mixture, amount of milk, numbers of
cakes of the two types;
c) Represent algebraically the constraints on the numbers of pancakes or chocolate cakes or in general
of each type;

204
d) Represent the income function;
e) Explain carefully what the income function that comes from your formalization represents;
f) Show on the Cartesian plane, using colors, the “feasible region” or distribution area of variables and
explain which characteristics have points belonging to it.
g) How can you find points (x, y) where the income is minimum?
h) How can you calculate the minimum income?

Problem 2 for the class work

A farmer was to plant two different products on 20 hectare of soil. For type A the seed costs 300€
per hectare and for type B it costs 500€ per hectare. Besides, product A needs 20 hours of
specialized work by hectare, paid 15€ per hour; product B needs 30 hours of work paid 10€ per hour.
Government restrictions limit seeding product A at 15 hectare, but they do not limit it for B. If the
income given by product A was 1,500€ per hectare, and the one of product B was 1,300€ per
hectare, how the 20 hectare should be seeded to obtain the maximum revenue? Which value
represents the maximum net income?
Draw the constraints and the line that represent the maximum net income choosing the right
measurement. (Suggestion: substitute with x and y the areas of the cultivated fields A and B
expressed in hectare. Remember that you can have the net income subtracting the expenses from the
gross income.)

Problem A Problem B
Represent on a Cartesian plane the constrains and the line of
60% 70%
minimum income
Represent algebraically the link between components 60% 60%
Represent algebraically the constraints 70% 70%
Represent objective function 70% 60%
Show the “feasible region” on the Cartesian plane using
50% 60%
colors (no one has dotted the area)
Diligence about graphical representation, in general 40% 50%
Percentage table of right answers

Explain what the objective function represents on a Cartesian plan 30%

Explain which characteristics the points belonging to the “feasible 40%
region” have
Explain how to find the feasible region point to be optimized to 60%
solve the problem
Argumentation, in general 40%
Percentage table of good answers to metacognitive questions in the first problem

I have chosen to assign this task with different questions and different
difficulties because I wanted to give students an opportunity to try to solve at least one of
the two problems: the first had a metacognitive question to sound out the verification
knowledge applied and the argumentation abilities used during the reasoning; it provided
a comparison, with not only a single solution, but with a couple of solutions. The second
problem offered an operative suggestion, but it had a more difficult objective function to
represent. Both the problems had not the real numbers as application field, but the
natural ones, which would highlight any interpretative gap linking the mathematical
solution to the problem.
The first problem was not absolutely the easiest one for the students: it was not
simple to find what the unknowns were. In spite of great work done, paths taken by some
students were almost shocking. They put constraints as 2hgx+3ly without noticing that
they summed hectogram with liters, that it were different magnitudes, and without
asking themselves what the two quantities represented. Those who solved the problem

205
finding the right solution did not answer adequately. The algebraic procedure was
correct, but too concise and argumentation poor. What surprised me was that this attitude
was common even among better students. When I asked them for explanations they said
that the answers were obvious from the graph. Instead, I had better results from weak
students. Maybe for “strong” students the exercise consisting in wording the information
of the Cartesian graphic was considered useless, because for them the tool spoke in a
clear way. Almost all the students used tables as solution strategy. I want to stress that
this was not suggested or mediated by the teacher; it came out spontaneously.
The second problem was the less difficult one; perhaps it was due to the hint.
Some difficulties came in search of the net income function. Almost all the students
wrote correctly the constraints. Here only a small number of students continued to use
the grid strategy, because they felt no more need.
Only two students were unable to solve the problem, and to find the unknowns.
What I noticed assigning this task was that the majority of students, as you can
see from our table, did not have great difficulties putting both problems in formulas and
algebraic representation. But inversely, answering the metacognitive questions was
difficult. This could mean that the students had a scarce capability to think on their own
mental process. During the phase of class discussion the recorded spontaneous students’
reactions about the given problems were noteworthy, but all this phase was done orally,
not in writing. All the collective analysis involved the algebraic code comprehension and
the cognitive aspect related to the comprehension of the “game rules.” The students
understood these rules, but they thought it was useless to write down on paper what was
clear. So even if the participation in class was good and the students’ comments were
positive, either on the project in general or the problems discussed, all this partially
disappeared in the first class work.
It is not an easy task to assess students in a short term. In fact, it could be
important to give this type of problems some time. It would give the possibility to
evaluate how much of the acquired knowledge was applied significantly. In school
programs, time should be assigned for passing again through some important activities
done during the learning process. This is what mainly helps creating real competencies
in every subject. So after some months when we did not work any more on this type of
problems I decided to give another class work, more essential, but more diversified,
which I do not discuss here. In this second class work the verbal interpretation of the
graphics was scarcely done; it seems the cause for it was laziness in explaining orally the
meaning of the graphical and algebraic representation implications.
However, I can say that the class just at the beginning of the year seemed not to
be much inclined to dialogue, maybe because of the temperament, but undoubtedly they
were not accustomed to it. As the language teacher confirmed, the students had trouble
exhibiting their thoughts freely, and frequently they aimed to be too short and concise in
reasoning. The work done has produced positive results at the communication and
motivation level; however, even if things got better and the way was right, the results
have not been reached completely on the level of written communication. What
surprised me was that when they found a difficult problem they aimed at using the grid
as a tabular representation: a personal strategy to overcome difficulties! The students
anyway showed they were growing up, developing their strategies, creating their tools:
the first step to become adults in mathematics. About this I could say I am satisfied.
Reconsidering my entire project, at the beginning, creating problems suitable
for our scope seemed to be the more complex phase of work. But very soon I realized
that the greatest difficulties were on the evaluation, that is, how to reconcile the

206
evaluations obtained by the students on the discussion level with the one of the
individual written texts.

REFERENCES
Anichini G., Arzarello F., Ciarrapico l., Robutti O. (2003). “La matematica per il
cittadino, attività didattiche e prove di verifica per un nuovo curricolo di
matematica - ciclo secondario, liceo scientifico Vallisneri, Lucca, Matteoni
stampatore.” Matematica 2003.
--- (2004). “La matematica per il cittadino, attività didattiche e prove di verifica per un
nuovo curricolo di matematica – quinta classe del ciclo secondario di secondo
grado, liceo scientifico ‘Curbastro’, Lugo di Romagna, Ravenna, Franzoso
stampatore.” Matematica 2003. G. Anichini, O. Robutti (eds.).
Brandi, P., Salvadori, A. (2004). Matematica&Realtà. edizioni Mondadori.
OCSE (2002). Sample Tasks from the PISA Assessment: Reading, Mathematical and
Scientific Literacy. Paris.
OCSE (2003). Assessment Framework: Mathematics, Reading, Science and Problem
Solving. Paris. [Italian translation.: PISA 2003: valutazione dei quindicenni,
Armando, Roma].
Iaderosa, R. (2003). Grafici e funzioni: aspetti algebrici, geometrici e di modellizzazione
del reale. Bologna: Pitagora.
Prodi, G. (1975-79). Matematica come scoperta. Firenze: D’Anna.
Speranza F., Rossi Dall’Acqua A. (1979). Il linguaggio della matematica. Bologna:
Zanichelli.
Maraschini W., Palma M. (2006). Multiformat. edizioni Paravia. 7.
Zwirner G., Scaglianti I. (2003). Il metodo matematico orientato all’ economia. edizioni
Cedam.
Re Fraschini M., Grazzi G. & Spezia C. (2003). Matematica per l’economia. edizioni
Atlas.

207
208
 HOW TO TEACH THE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS?
István Takács
Ady Endre Gymnasium, Debrecen (Hungary)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The Hungarian mathematics teaching in higher secondary grades is rather formal,
abstract. The science of mathematics is the main factor to influence this approach. This
style of teaching is hard for average and below average students. To change this
approach I started using knowledge from the outside world. This study describes a small
experiment in teaching the trigonometric functions.

KEY WORDS:
Realistic mathematics, trigonometry, concept image

INTRODUCTION
After visiting a lot of Hungarian secondary schools, Laurinda Brown (Bristol
University) formulated her opinion about Hungarian mathematics education in the
following way: “You, in Hungary, are teaching mathematics, we, in England, children.”
This statement expresses clearly that in Hungary the science of mathematics stands in
the center of mathematics teaching. Due to long traditions, the abstract, formal side is
preferred; the learning problems of average and below average students are no topic of
discussions. To put it simply, the Hungarian mathematics education is elite oriented;
fostering talented students is the most important task. But most of our students are not
talented in mathematics. In my secondary school in Kecskemét we have students
interested first of all in humanities, languages.

THE STUDENTS
There are 32 students in my class, but only 20 of them attend the bilingual class,
so they learn mathematics in 2 groups – in English and in Hungarian. In these classes the
language and the culture of the target language are the most important objectives, so the
students prefer to learn art subjects. Therefore, as a science subject teacher, I must face
great challenges to make them like my subject. How to motivate such students to learn
mathematics? This is my favorite question from the beginning of my teacher carrier.
Participating in the PDTR project as a future teacher-researcher I changed my formal
style of teaching. First of all, the discussions of PISA problems convinced me about the
necessity of change. In this paper I will analyze two lessons on the sine function.
In Hungary, we introduce the trigonometric functions in grade 10. As the first
step, we introduce them in right-angled triangles using similarity. Having done this, we
generalize the trigonometric functions for arbitrary angles. I will restrict myself to the
teaching of sine function. It has a long tradition in Hungary to introduce the concept of
sine with the help of unit vector in the following way:

209
 Sin α means the second coordinate of a unit vector e, with direction angle α in the vector-coordinate
system i, j. The direction angle of vector e means the measure of the angle of the rotation which
brings the vector i into the vector e.

e(cosα;sinα)
sinα
e

α
0 cosα 1

This definition causes a lot of difficulties for average ability students. I have
chosen another definition. I will report it in this paper.1

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The PDTR project helped me to give a theoretical basis to my teaching; until
now I considered only the pure mathematical viewpoints. For the teaching of the concept
of function the following PISA competencies are relevant: modeling skill,
representations skill, symbolic, formal and technical skill, communication skill.

Representations
Bruner introduced the notion of enactive (material), iconic (visual) and
symbolic representations. According to him,
any domain of knowledge (or any problem within that domain of knowledge) can be represented in
three ways: by a set of actions appropriate for achieving a certain result (enactive representation); by
a set of summary image or graphics that stand for a concept without defining it fully (iconic
representation); and by a set of symbolic or logical propositions drawn from a symbolic system that
is governed by rules or laws for forming and transforming propositions (symbolic representation)
(Bruner, 1966).
Due to Hungarian traditions, until now the use of symbolic representations was
dominant in my teaching. Of course, the graphical representations were used too, but the
material was neglected. At the introduction of the concept of sine function I used the
Ferris-wheel as an enactive representation. For the graph of the sine function (visual
representation) we used a heated fork and a smoked glass.

Concept image
Vinner and Tall introduced this notion. They call to the concept name
associated concrete examples, pictures (graphs, tables), experiences, inner connections to
other concepts (networks), impressions, emotions as the concept image. They state that a
rich concept image helps students mobilize their knowledge about the concept after a
long time, too. With the use of Ferris-wheel we wanted to enrich the concept image of
sine function.

210
 Narrative psychology refers to a viewpoint within psychology, which is
interesting in the “storied nature” of human conduct. Human beings deal with experience
by constructing stories and listening to the stories of others. Psychologists studying
narratives are challenged by the notion that human activity and experience are filled with
“meaning” and that stories, rather than logical arguments or lawful information are the
vehicle, by which that meaning is communicated. This dichotomy is expressed by
Bruner as the distinction between the “paradigmatic” and the “narrative” forms of
thought which, he claims, are both fundamental and irreducible one to the other (Bruner,
1966). Focusing on the narrative forms of thought as Sarbin proposes that the “narrative”
becomes a root metaphor for psychology to replace the mechanistic and organic
metaphor which shaped so much theory and research in the discipline over the past
century. His fundamental concepts in connection with cognition are summarized in the
table below (Sarbin, 1986).

The mode of cognition Narrative Paradigmatic, theoretical

Organization time, sequences, actions timeless, categorical,
subordinating
Textual story, deliberate description
Correspondence Intended hierarchy-relations
Idea special, episodes impersonal, validity
Embedded contextual, personal, social context free tendency

In our cases the story with “Ferris-wheel” and “My running with the heated
fork” gave a meaning for the mathematical concepts.
The most recent discoveries about the nature of mind focus on the embodiment
of mind. The detailed nature of our bodies, our brains and our everyday functioning in
the world structure human concepts and human reason. This includes mathematical
concepts and mathematical reason. The cognitive unconscious plays a significant role as
most thoughts are unconscious – not repressed in the Freudian sense but simply
inaccessible to direct conscious introspection. We can not look directly at our conceptual
systems and at our low-level thought process. This includes most mathematical thoughts.
Not only mathematical but also metaphorical thoughts are relevant in this theory. For the
most part, human beings conceptualize abstract concepts in concrete terms, using ideas
and modes of reasoning grounded in the sensory-motor system. The mechanism by
which the abstract is comprehended in terms of the concrete is called conceptual
metaphor. Mathematical thought also makes use of conceptual metaphor, as when we
conceptualize numbers as points on a line (Lakoff & Nunez, 2000). These ideas
convinced me that I am allowed to use concrete, material objects in my mathematics
teaching.

Introductory problem for the sine function

211
 We investigated a Ferris-wheel. We concentrated on the motion of a cabin,
which was at the beginning of our observation in a middle position that meant its
suspension point was lying on the same horizontal level as the rotation axis. We
considered this horizontal line as a baseline at the rotation of the observed cabin. We
were interested in the height of the suspension point of the cabin relative to the baseline.
This height can be positive (above the line) vs. negative (under the line). Let the radius
of the Ferris-wheel be 12.5 meters and the time of one whole rotation of the wheel 30
seconds. We determined the position of the cabin at different times. For example: at t =
5 sec the rotation angle realized by our cabin was 60 degrees.
h = 12,5 ⋅ sin 60 0
For t = 10 sec the rotation angle was 120 degrees. The height would be
(
h = 12,5 ⋅ sin 1800 − 1200 )
We determined the position of the cabin in the cases of the third and fourth
quadrant in a similar way.
It was important to notice that students could solve these problems with their
knowledge about the right-angled triangles. After these exercises we focused on the unit
circle (radius 1) with its center in the origin in the Descartes coordinate system. On the
circumference of this unit circle there was a moving point. The position of this moving
point could be determined with the help of the rotation angle (relating to the positive part
of the x axis).
Sine α meant the second coordinate of this moving point at the rotation angle α.

Sinα
α
1

Cosα

To help my students see and memorize the connection between sin and cos of α
and 180°-α I always illustrate this with a book. If we try to close it then the angle of
elevation creates an acute angle and an obtuse one, but the virtual “height” is the same.
As the example is touchable, they can understand that sinα = sin(180°-α).

But if we open it we can do it in two different directions: (i) anti-clockwise

direction ⇒ acute angle α; (ii) clockwise direction ⇒ reflex angle = 180°-α
That helps them memorize that cosα = - cos(180°-α).

212
 The Ferris-wheel model helped my students remember this definition. This
definition is equivalent to the vector definition, because the coordinates of a position
vector are equal to the coordinates of the endpoint of this position vector. Why do we
use the “vector definition” in trigonometry in Hungary? The only argument usually is
this: because the vectors are very important in modern mathematics and we shall teach
mathematics in the style of modern mathematics.

Graph of the sine function

I got the following idea from a physics teacher: Use smoked glass and
this…(He gave me the greatest pitchfork I have ever seen, with a special needle at its
end.)

First, let us see an experiment. If we hit the fork it will resonate. On the basis of
physics we know that both arms of the fork will oscillate (and give a sound in our ears).
The pitch level depends on the lengths of the arms and the distance between them. We
know it oscillates; therefore, we need its movement path. That is why we need the
smoked glass. If we move the needle of the oscillating pitchfork along the glass and then
look through the glass we can observe a beautiful sine wave (with slight attenuation).
At the beginning of the lesson I showed the students a small pitchfork (like the
one we use with a choir). I made it resonate and touch the table to hear its sound (the
international pitch “A”). I ask the students: “Do you have any ideas why I brought this to
the classroom?” I asked them to write down as the main title of the lesson “Piquancy of
Sine.” They knew that this was a mathematics lesson but they trusted me. I hit the fork
again and said: “Hmm… It’s too small.” And I took out the large one. With this
introduction the students were very eager and curious. I think this is the point every
teacher wants to reach in a class.
The morale was perfect, “research” flashed them up (that is, the aim to be over
the stimulus-threshold). I created curves with the fork on the glass and showed it around
the class. After this experiment they got the opportunity to create the function graph on
the smoked glass, and I was surprised that they wanted to reach split-hair accuracy level.

213
 I saw that I could not stop at this moment. I asked one of the class-mates to
create an enormous sin(x) function across the blackboard. Naturally, the question came
from the students: “What is the connection between the rotation of the cabin and the
oscillation of the fork?” To explain it we made another experiment.
I took out my other device prepared for the lesson, which was a simple spring
with a small piece of weight at the end of it. Then, by playing with the weight, I moved it
up and down and asked where the sine function could be in this case. Most of them
found out that if I moved it with the appropriate velocity in front of the blackboard the
movement of the weight wrote down the picture of the sine function. With the help of
vibrating movements it created some connections between mathematics and physics. A
question from one of the students came immediately: “That’s why we see the sine curve
after resuscitation in the Emergency room? As our heart does a vibrating movement,
too?”
I demonstrated to students that if we projected the rotation of a fixed point on
the wheel perpendicularly on the wall, we could observe the connection between the
circular motion and the oscillation.
In the last part of the lesson only one thing was left: students had to create the
most beautiful graph of the sine function working in pairs. One student holding a pen
had to move it along the unit circle; at the same time his/her partner simulating the time-
axis had to draw a sheet of paper under the pen.

Some of the students asked more questions: “Mr Takács, please! And what do
we get if we don’t go on a circular line? If I draw a triangle, a square or a hexagon with
my pencil?” That was the turning point of the lesson since the student, whose mind
opened already, not only paid attention to what was going on, but also construed theories
and problems for himself. That is what I call different aspects of mathematical thinking.

214
Unfortunately, we have been fixed to some theories and definitions and we forgot to
leave this “fixation.” Has there ever been a mathematics teacher who asked just for fun
which functions would come out?
I built up next starting point with this question, which deviated from the
syllabus, but I could not leave this problem at that. I brought the following exercise into
my next lesson:
How might the wheels of a bicycle look like if I don’t want to feel the holes in the road (the length of
the road equals with one turn of the wheel).

Physical meaning of the transformations of the sine function

The second problem I presented was the transformations of sine function. There
are a lot of misconceptions in students’ heads; most of them learn mechanically what
they shall do in different cases. (Translation along the axis, stretching the graph etc.) If
π
we need to explain the transformations of the trigonometric functions sin(2x), sin(x+ )
4
π
or sin(2x+ ) the path of the cabin also helps us. The multiplication outside “sin”
4
1
(2sin(x) , sin(x)) has the physical meaning of in- or decrease the radius of the wheel.
2
The “reflection in the x axis” (e.g. -sin(x)) equals with opposite direction of the rotation
of the cabin.

215
 Shifting the function left and right with an angle (e.g. sin(x+ π )) means that we
4
need to draw that cabin, which is already on the way (and not lying on the “ground”),
back to the beginning. The physical meaning is: the cabin was π/4 sec earlier in the start
position, so we need to translate the graph of the function sine x to the left by π/4 units.
At the function sin(x-π/4) our cabin has a delay, so the graph of the function sin x will be
translated along the x axis to the right by π/4 units.

Multiplying inside by a number (e.g. sin(2x) or sin( 1 x)) corresponds with

2
changing the speed of the wheel: accelerate it twice when we multiply by 2, so the cabin
goes two times around until the “old wheel” turns once, so we will get two periods of
function sine during the same time.
The hardest task for my students was to explain how to draw the graph of the
π π
function sin(2x+ ) or sin(2x- ). At sin 2x the argument 2x means that the wheel has
6 6
double speed than in original case. With this double speed the cabin needs only half time
to be on the position where the cabin was in the beginning case. So it needs in (π/6):2 =
π/12 sec to be on the position where sin 2x was.

SOME FEEDBACK OF THE EXPERIMENT

The trigonometric functions will come back the following year in grade 11.
However, I have tested this method only once, but it shed light on the essence of the
matter: it was enough to say a word and the whole process of the drawing and later the
analysis of the functions flashed on them. The main difference came up in the case of

216
 1
inequalities when they had to solve this problem: sin( x ) > .The main difference was in
2
the use of devices: those who learn mathematics in Hungarian tried to draw a unit circle
and, with one exception, they didn’t find the other angle so wrote down that
π
α> + k ⋅ 2π was the solution. Those who created the function looked for “Where is
6
sin(x) function above 1 ?” and based on this geometrical view they knew immediately
2
that there are 2 angels with the value of 1 . But I was really surprised that they could tell
2
me that one of the angels must have been between 0 and π and the other between π
2 2
and π . So – as I used the symmetry of the function – I did not have to explain that the
other angle was π − α . There was only one step from this to understand sin( x ) 2 > and
1
2
1
sin( x ) > . The students also noticed the connection between sine and cosine functions
2
π π
very soon when sin( x ) = cos( x − ) came up. When we pulled it with , it was more
4 2
“edible” for the students.

Sharing ideas with colleagues

I was rather disappointed in sharing my experiences with my colleges. They
disagreed with me, e.g.: “They just need to learn it, while it is a simple unit-circle.” I put
asked back: “Should they not understand it?”
Why should everything be about mathematics in mathematics lesson? The task
should be understandable not only for the TOP TEN. Roughly speaking, teachers want to
be successful in mathematics lesson; I am disappointed when I can see only three arms
in the air when I asked a question. Mathematics should not be imposed onto students,
however, according to the syllabus we have time for pure mathematics only. But we
should shed light on connections with other areas. Mathematicians say that if people are
good at mathematics they are also good at physics and vice versa, because they have
found the connection. But they are not, if we do not take a step, we do not build up
knowledge but just fill the student’s memory.
Watch what you do! That could be the core of all the types of learning. But we
need to provide the experience of observation and build up the first lookout tower for
students. It seems to me that it will be long, hard work to change the opinions and habits
of Hungarian mathematics teachers.
In this lesson I dared to “waste” one hour of the curriculum. Many students felt
the need to try those experiments. With some luck, they will remember this “research”
lesson about oscillatory movement and sine function for ever.

REFERENCES
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Towards a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press. 44-45.
Eisenberg, T. (1994). On Understanding the Reluctance to Visualize ZDM. 4, 109-113.

217
Hámori, J. (1999). “Az emberi agy aszimmetriái.” [The asymmetry of the human brain].
Dialog Campus. Budapest: Pécs.
Klein, S. (1980). “A komplex matematikatanítási módszer pszichológiai
hatásvizsgálata.” [The investigation of the effects of the complex mathematics
teaching method]. Hungarian Akadémiai Kiadó. Budapest. 44-45.
Lakoff, G., Nunez, R.E. (2000). Where Mathematics Comes From. New York: Basic
Books.
Pólya, G. (1977). A gondolkodás iskolája. [How To Solve It]. Budapest: Gondolat.
Sarbin, T. R. (1986). “The Narrative as Root Metaphor for Psychology.” Narrative
Psychology: The Storied Nature of Human Conduct. T. R. Sarbin (ed.). New York:
Praeger. 3-21.
Wittmann, E. Ch. (1998). “Standard Number Representations in the Teaching of
Arithmetic.” Journal für Mathematik-Didaktik. 2/3, 149-178

218
 INTERPRETATION OF GRAPHS BY STUDENTS IN
GRADE 7 AND 8
Federica Vecchiè
Scuola Media Statale di Rubiera (Italy)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
This essay reports the results of an experiment on interpretation of graphs connected
with everyday situations, which was conducted in two middle school classes. This
experimentation was born inside the PDTR project, which aims at the didactic
innovation in the classes consisting in the development of an authentic mathematical
thinking in students and, on the other hand, at teachers’ professional refinement. The
main aims of this work were to put into effect didactic practices suitable for the
international contest in the viewpoint of PISA test, that is, to lead students to acquire
competencies induced from the test itself, giving an the same time stimuli to their
involvement. The work dwells above all on the problems faced by the teacher in the
construction of the didactic path and on the difficulties students experienced in the
learning process. This has brought the teacher to a critical reflection on her own
concepts about mathematics and its teaching and to a research to improve her own way
of conduct in the class.

INTRODUCTION
The activity object of this work concerns interpretation of graphs representing
real-life situations. It was based on a careful analysis of the results of PISA test (OCSE,
2003). Problem situations were designed jointly with other teacher-researchers in
training. Differentiated questions gave an opportunity to confront students with
situations different than the descriptive statistics – the standard area where graphs are
used at school.
The author worked with students in grade 7 and 8 of middle school. Three
different worksheets were administered (see the appendix). In the first worksheet (“The
Parachutist”) a problem situation was used explained in the NMP project (Harper, 1987);
for the second (“Postal rates”) relevant problem from PISA test was used, a little bit
modified on the language level to make the comprehension easier; for the third
worksheet (“Play station”) we got inspiration by modifying the contest from an activity
presented in the PDTR seminars.
Testing was carried out in a seventh- and eighth-grade class of a middle school.
The decision to submit the same worksheets to students of different classes was
suggested by the willingness to find out how important the different level of maturity
and knowledge were and how much they could influence the results and students’
involvement. It took about 12 hours. Students accepted the requirement of motivating
and substantiating their answers.
The activity allowed us to point out strong link between mathematics and
everyday life, which students usually cannot catch at school. It stressed the importance
of communicating with others, telling one’s own ideas and justifying choices. That is

219
what is generally difficult for our students. This activity also had an effect on my
teaching profession and it let me think about my topic knowledge (that would become
better and better) and about the importance of an a priori analysis of problem situations
proposed in the classes and of possible strategies put in action by the students.

AIMS
The main aim of this activity was of double nature: on the one hand, it proposed
to build up a course aimed at fostering in students the increment (or the birth) of an
interest for mathematics, considered not just in its theoretical aspect but also as
something useful in applications; on the other hand, the aim was to promote in students
the consciousness of how necessary and important was the development of their
communicative abilities, both written and oral, in their lives. Moreover, one of the aims
was to educate students’ attitude towards problematic situations unusual for them,
making them learn how to answer simply, trust their intuition, but also teaching them to
reflect and build up a solving strategy, coordinating the various kinds of information,
according to the registers they belong to. Under a more general point of view there were
several objectives of interdisciplinary nature: (i) capacity to read graphs; (ii) capacity to
compare different graphs and get useful information for the resolution of further
problems; (iii) capacity to deduce in a correct way their own answers; as well as
metadisciplinary aims: (a) talking to schoolmates and the teacher; and (b) understanding
the value of the collective construction of one’s knowledge through comparing it with
peers under the guidance of the teacher.

THE WORKSHEETS
It was interesting to see how students would react to the worksheets. Regarding
worksheet 1 (“The Parachutist”) we expected students to be able to answer correctly to
the first three questions, while the last two would create problems. We thought not all of
them would be able to connect the information expressed by the chart and the graph, and
that many, simply considering the fall of a body in the air (for example, a leaf or a
feather) would make mistakes without comparing the chart to the graph. Regarding
worksheet 2 (“Postal rates”) on the contrary, we thought it would be interesting to
observe how students would interpret a chart connected to data gathered in groups,
something unusual for them, and also how their answer could be influenced by previous
knowledge about graphs. Regarding worksheet 3 (“Play station”) it was interesting to
observe whether students would answer the questions proceeding by trials and mistakes
or calculation strategies, and whether they would determine a unit of measure to draw
the graph in order to check what they had found.

METODOLOGY
The first two worksheets with the problem situations were proposed in two
different sessions to students working in pairs (heterogeneous pairs properly formed by
the teacher) for an hour, with the request to write down their strategies of thought, while
the third and last were proposed as a test to be solved independently. We then analyzed
the works with the students in a collective discussion, without showing solutions or
proposing corrections (the instrument used was an overhead projector). This choice was
made to avoid a situation when students would be too much influenced by the teacher’s
remarks but, on the contrary, to have them freely discuss in group about their solutions
in order to reach a self-correction. Students were able to compare their ideas, to listen to

220
and reflect about answers and motivations given by other schoolmates, to express their
doubts and difficulties, and to find out their mistakes.
The group discussion phases were recorded. The following written transposition
of group discussion by the teacher was a fundamental instrument for her since it enabled
her to get evidence on class dynamics and difficulties of the students (she noticed that
they talked most of all on the motivation of the answers they had given). In particular,
this enabled her to realize what her attitude was while managing the discussions.
STUDENTS’ BEHAVIORS AND DIFFICULTIES
Sometimes students’ behaviors and difficulties turned out to be coherent with
the expectations, sometimes they surprised the teacher who was obliged to reconsider
her ideas and to reflect about possible motivations regarding the answers she received.
Below, we will analyze the difficulties encountered by students dealing with each
worksheet, and report essential parts of the group discussion.
Worksheet 1 “The Parachutist”
As foreseen, all students in grade 7 and 8 answered correctly the first three
questions of the worksheet while mistakes occurred in the answers to the last two
questions where they were asked to choose the right graph and to motivate their choice.
Actually, while in the third class 18 students out of 22 answered correctly, in the second
class only 4 out of 20 did. The majority of students who made mistakes chose graph A,
as it was in previous studies (Malara & Iaderosa, 2001). Moreover, despite the
expectations of the teacher few students checked the data in the chart controlling the
graph, which would have favored the correct choice. Many did not consider to analyze
the text of the problem, in particular, about the meaning of “free fall” they indicated
graph A as the most representative of the relation (fall time – distance from the ground)
connecting it to the undulation phenomenon in air of a body under the wind action.
Below are (in chart 1) some significant parts of the class discussion about the
observations made.
Chart 1
Class discussion extract, which represents various opinions that emerged. It relates to the choice of a
modeling graph of the relation proposed in situation 1.
Teacher: How did you proceed to choose one of the graphs and why?
Student M: We chose B because the jump had been made without opening the parachute, maybe A could be
the right choice if he had already opened it because he could meet air currents; in my opinion B was the best
because when he jumps from the plane he hadn’t opened the parachute yet.
Teacher: But what do you understand when you read “free fall”?
Student M: With “free fall” I understand that he still has to open the parachute.
Student E: It’s graph B because it represents a speed variation, because in the first part of the graph the line
is more horizontal, while after it’s steeper, actually during the first 5 seconds it falls for 125 meters, while in
the last it falls for 875 meters.
Student F: On the contrary, Miss, I chose graph A because it looked more realistic but I didn’t check it was
in free fall and he hadn’t opened the parachute
Teacher: If I show you how a pen and a sheet fall down, which one best represents the fall of the parachutist?
In group the students answer: the pen
Teacher: Then, why couldn’t it be graph C? What if I told you the right one is C?
Student E: It can’t be because it represents a constant speed
Student M: Because while falling speed increases, then it’s B.
Teacher: But also in C
Student G: But in C it starts immediately fast with a constant speed while if we look at the chart it doesn’t
have always the same speed, speed varies.
Student Ga: I meant the same thing
Student Gi: No, it’s just that in C you can see it starts fast immediately falling from the plane, whereas in B
you can’t.

221
Worksheet 2 “Postal rates”
Contrary to the expectations, the majority of students in both classes answered
correctly. The ones who did wrong, did so because they chose the graph connecting it to
models they got from previous school experiences or because they could not interpret the
chart correctly. We confirmed what we had foreseen in the a priori analysis, i.e. that the
data in the chart, not giving interval values, represented a serious difficulty of
interpretation for the students. We report in Chart 2 some parts of the discussion which is
representative of the various opinions.

Chart 2
Discussion extract, which represents different opinions that emerged in the class in the choice of the
graph, most adherent to the data chart in situation 2.
Teacher: What kind of reasoning have you made to choose the graph?
Student F: Well, at once we excluded the first graph at the top on the left, because it seems to us it was the
less representative of the chart situation, then we compared the other three graphs and the measures of the
two graphs on the bottom, which are the same of the chart situation, and we have noticed that the margins
between a weight and the other weren’t respected because, if, for instance, we took a space between 2001g
and 3001g it was clear that the price rose, while in the chart it remained constant. So, for this reason and
following a process of elimination we chose the graph at the top on the right, as further acknowledgment we
traced vertical lines, which ran on x-axis, to form little rectangles we then compared with the chart.
Teacher: Has anyone reasoned in a way different from F’s? For example, you, M, what kind of reasoning
have you made?
Student M: I was wrong
Teacher: Why do you think you were wrong?
Student M: I chose graph C at the bottom on the left, because it seemed to us more right and furthermore we
didn’t consider the weights in the chart, but only the fare and it seemed to us that the points corresponded.
Teacher: And when should you compare the weights?
Student M: I didn’t understand that from 501 to 1000 g the fare was the same.
Student E: Beside the fact that I didn’t consider the constant fare and I chose one of the points and then it
didn’t seem possible that it was the graph at the top on the right because I had never seen such a graph .
Student G: On the contrary, we chose the last one at the bottom on the right because, as E said, we had never
seen a graph with lines instead of dots; then, since we had already excluded the first at the top on the left, we
chose the last one because we thought it was the right one.

Worksheet 3 “Play station”

Confirming previous hypothesis, this paper was the most difficult for the
student, also because in this case they worked alone. The students’ approaches were
mostly inadequate to the expectations. The teachers expected answers to the questions
based upon comparison strategies between data and graphs, which implied calculation
procedures. The students, on the contrary, chose different ways without taking into
consideration the possibility to connect chart and graph, and without making use of
appropriate units of measure. Many did not care about reading, which variables were
written on the axis, some chose the graph which starts from the origin ( the last at the
bottom on the right) without considering that in the problematic situation it is excluded
that a game has 0 cost.

Chart 3
Discussion extract, which represents various opinions that emerged in the class about the choice of the
graph which is most adherent to the data given in situation 3.
Teacher: Which graph would you exclude first and why?
Student Mi: I remember I chose A immediately because it had no point.
Teacher: Everybody excluded A first?
Student F: I eliminated graph D first because, as the problem suggested (he points to the origin of the axis) at
this point Luca had no reward.

222
Student G: On the contrary, I secondarily eliminated B because it doesn’t start from point O, but the sellings
are immediately high, while in the other graphs we start from a smaller selling to reach a bigger selling.
Student S: I chose C.
Teacher: Why?
Student S: Because it is the most correct, according to the text.
Student F: I Chose D, on the contrary, because it didn’t look possible to me there could be a reward if the
game cost 0 Euro.
Student E: I chose D too, at the beginning, but then, thinking about it, the reward can’t be 0 but 50 cents, so
the point must be off O, then it’s C.
Teacher: Why not B?
Student: Yes, but B is wrong because looking at the cost of the games over 10 Euro and those of the games
under 10 Euro it’s clear they’re different, that is, for a cost under 10 Euro it remains constant while in B it
increases a lot.
…
Teacher: When Andrea agreed with Luca he didn’t talk about a 10 Euro price, what can Andrea tell Luca
about it, according to you?
Student M: I answered he gives him 7.5% that is a half way between 5% and 10%, and maybe also 50 cents.
Teacher: Who thought, on the contrary, that the reward might be 50 cents plus 5% and 10%?
(None of them took into consideration these two possibilities or made calculations giving arbitrary values,
they found different percentages, particularly 7.5%. To let the class know, which might be Andrea’s answer,
a student has been called to the blackboard and he calculated 5% plus 50 cents out of 10 Euro (1 euro) and
10% of 10 Euro (1 Euro). The calculations let the students understand that Andrea’s answer should have
been: It didn’t matter because it was the same thing.)

TEACHER’S REFLECTIONS ABOUT THE EXPERIENCE

The activity proved stimulating for the students who participated with a lot of
enthusiasm and cooperated with schoolmates and teacher. For the students it was a
moment of personal reflection and self-criticism. They noticed how difficult it is for
them to express themselves: they often have many ideas but, not being able to explicitly
express them, they are tacit audience in discussions. The group discussion made lessons
more stimulating for them, attracting also those who usually get distracted more easily,
who, on the contrary, participated actively giving their own contributions.
This has been a new and stimulating didactic experience also for the teacher,
useful for her formation. It has anyway created problems of various nature: (1) to include
this activity, with its time and spaces not always quantifiable, in a curricular planning,
which has to be linked to the school planning; (2) construction of a new didactic
program, and in particular the deep analysis about the possible attitudes and difficulties
of students; (3) managing of group discussion in class; (4) evaluation of students.
The introduction of this experimental segment in the class planning involved a
tiring negotiation with the colleagues of the parallel classes, who were not involved in
the experience, and a careful restructuring of the whole year work plan in order to make
the work fruitful and to enable it to get a certain consolidation and to consider possible
effects.
As far as research is concerned, it required time for the planning and a
confrontation with teachers and researchers. We thought long about how to structure the
worksheets and, anyway, we noticed later that some of our choices were not optimal; for
example, the decision to add point P in some graphs of the third worksheet, in order to
take the students to a comparison with numeric data, turned out to be distracting because
it influenced too much of their behavior in excluding some graphs. Apart from the
psychological difficulty to accept the use of a tape recorder (which especially at the
beginning inhibited also the teacher), it was difficult to lead the discussion, to know how
to intervene with students in order to help them to find the solutions, which words to use
not to create ambiguity or forced answers. Listening again to the recordings of the

223
discussions we realized how much lack of experience of the teacher conditioned the
development of the discussion. For example, it was not possible to limit the remarks of
the best students, as well as to help them try to express themselves at their best, with a
simple language; in a way it could be comprehensible for the weaker student, in order to
favor their participation, too. Another negative aspect was evaluation of students, since
often the motivations to their answers were given with an approximate language,
sometimes less comprehensible, or even in contrast with the given answer. The answers
to the extemporary questions, the remarks in discussions, individual and in-pair work –
all this was hard to assess.
This activity and didactic methodology enabled the teacher to grow
professionally and convinced her more about the present necessity to change something
in the teaching of mathematics in order to improve its comprehension and to promote a
stronger motivation in the majority of students. For instance, she understood,
professionally, how significant her role is in a group discussion, for many reasons: (a)
she should be able to give the right value to students’ remarks; (b) she should not give
solutions or express opinions; (c) she should leave space for the discussion, keeping on
being a mediator; (d) she should give everybody the chance to express their ideas or
reflections fostering the development of the expositive capacities and improvement in
the use of the specific language; (e) she should help students going beyond their fear of
making mistakes or doing wrong, underlining the importance of the sharing of mistakes
as a point to start from in order to reach conscious construction of collective knowledge.
The participation in the project made me become aware of the necessity of a
better mastery of the three different kinds of knowledge, interwoven and professionally
indispensable: disciplinary knowledge, which enables me to find the crucial knots of the
various disciplines and to adapt learning context to the evolving conditions of those who
learn; knowledge, which concerns the learning processes enabling to interpret the
difficulties and to plan actions aimed at strengthening and motivating students; and
didactic knowledge, which considers the teacher as an active mediator between thought
and actions of the students.

REFERENCES
Iaderosa, R. (2004). “Grafici e funzioni.” Aspetti algebrici, geometrici e di
modellizzazione del reale. Bologna: Pitagora.
Harper, E. (1987). NMP: Mathematics for Secondary School. UK: Longman.
Malara N.A, Iaderosa R. (2001). “Un aspetto di un percorso didattico per l’aproccio al
concetto di funzione.” L’Insegnamento della Matematica e delle Scienze Integrate,
24A, 4, 376-387. [English Version in Rogerson, A. (ed.) Proc. Congr. Int. New
Ideas in Mathematics Education. Australia: Palm Cove, 2001. 156-165.]
OCSE (2003). Il test di valutazione internazionale P.I.S.A. Roma: Armando.
OCSE/PISA Program for International Student Assessment:
http://archivio.invalsi.it/ri2003/pisa2003;
http://www.invalsi.it/ric-int/pisa2006/sito/

224
APPENDIX

Worksheet 1 – “The Parachutist”

The following table refers to a parachutist’s free falling jump from an aeroplane:
Time (s) 0 5 10 15 20
Height (m) 3000 2875 2500 1875 1000
a) How high is the plane from the ground at the moment of the jump?
b) How many meters lower was the parachutist after the first 5 seconds?
c) How many meters did he cover in the last 5 seconds?
d) One of these graphs describes the drop. Which one?
e) Explain why you didn’t choose the other
two.

Worksheet 2 – “Postal Rates”

Postal charges are based on the weight of the items (to the nearest gram). In a certain
town postal charges are those shown in the table below:
Weight (to the nearest gram) Charge
Up to 20g 0.46 Euro
21g-50g 0.69 Euro
51g-100g 1.02 Euro
101g-200g 1.75 Euro
201g-350g 2.13 Euro
351g-500g 2.44 Euro
501g-1000g 3.20 Euro
2001g-3000g 5.03 Euro
Look at it with attention.
a) Which one of the following graphs is the best representation of the postal
charges in that town? Give evidence to your choice.
b) Write also why you didn’t choose one of the other graphs
(The horizontal axis represents the weight in grams, the vertical axis the charge in Euro)

225
Worksheet 3 – “Play station”

Andrea, who is very fond of play stations, decides to sell some of his video-games in
order to buy the new play station. He asks Luca, his schoolmate, for help, and he
promises him for every game sold under 10 Euro 0.50 Euro plus 5% of the price of the
sold game. For every game sold over 10 Euro he promises him 10% of the price of the
sold game. Which one of the following graphs show this situation more realistically?

a) Which graph would you exclude first? Why?

b) In your opinion, can one make hypothesis about the abscissa of point P? What
price of a game could it correspond to?
c) The right graph is … Explain why and explain also why you didn’t choose one
of the other three.
d) In Andrea’s choice Luca is doubtful…: if a game costs 10 Euro how should he
behave?
In your opinion, what could Andrea answer?

226
 PART 4
EXPERIMENTS ON
LEARNING AND
USING ALGEBRA
 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY TO PROMOTE
ALGEBRAIC AND GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATIONS OF FUNCTIONAL
RELATIONSHIPS
Marika Cavazzoni
GREM – Department of Mathematics, University of Modena & Reggio
Emilia (Italy)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Our research concerned designing and experimentation of a didactic path based on the
theoretical frame of our ArAl project, which also takes into account the competencies of
the PISA test. The path is aimed at the acquisition of mathematical knowledge on linear
function and related competencies by middle school students. Classroom activities
started from a set of realistic situations and developed towards the construction of
meanings about variables, constant, and linear functions. They also influenced the
development of logical thinking and reasoning, argumentation and communication
through observations and interpretative hypothesis by the class, using specific terms and
explaining computations and complex relations with words or in writing. Students’
attention was focused on the “mathematical processes,” which involved the
encoding/decoding and the interpretation of familiar and non-familiar representations of
mathematical objects, choice and switching between different forms. Students learned
how to collect data; manage the translation from “reality” to mathematical structures;
work with or validate a model; use symbols and formal language to describe
relationships between variables and constants. In research the metacognitive and
metalinguistic aspects are prevalent. Teachers are essentially involved in the planning of
classroom activity and in the analysis of conceptual nodes and difficulties that students
can encounter, whereas students are stimulated to acquire the capacity of control over
their cognitive processes and the adaptation of mental models due the social interactions
between fellows. Summing up, students were generally able to recognize variables and
to identify linear functions; difficulties appeared when they tried to solve some situations
(“Port Said” and “T-shirts”) characterized by a high logical complexity and the
presence of two different linear functions.

INTRODUCTION
OECD/PISA examines the capacities of students to analyze, to reason and
communicate mathematical ideas effectively as they pose, formulate, solve and interpret
problems in a variety of situations. Student who are to engage in solving a problem from
“reality” have to take on activities such as: (1) identifying the relevant variables with
respect to a problem situated in reality; (2) representing the problem in a different way,
including organizing it according to mathematical concepts and making appropriate
assumptions; (3) finding patterns and relationships; and (4) translating the problem to a
mathematical model. At the same time they will build classical PISA competencies, such

229
as: thinking and reasoning, argumentation, communication, modeling, representation,
and use of symbolic and formal language.
Italian students had negative results on OECD/PISA tests due to traditional
teaching of algebra, where the study of rules is generally privileged, as if it could
precede the understanding of meanings. Problem solving activities have episodic nature
and, in middle school, the subject “linear functions” is approached as a tool for modeling
simple physical phenomena rather than rooted in the modern vision of arbitrary
functional correspondence.
Our study was inspired by the OECD/PISA philosophy and based in the ArAl
Project (Malara & Navarra, 2003), located in the early algebra theoretical framework. It
was aimed at the acquisition of mathematical knowledge on linear function and related
competencies by middle school students. Also, it was an approach to 1-to-1 functions
together with their inverses (as in Malara, 2006).

THE LESSON PATHWAY AND THE WORK METHODOLOGY

The lesson pathway (Annex 1) was elaborated by using ArAl Project (U9) and
NMP Project (Harper, 1987) materials. We decided to (1) explore complex open
situations; (2) research for binary correspondence laws; (3) put into the field and
coordinate multiple representative registers.
The didactic methodology involved these phases: (a) handing out and reading a
worksheet, and identifying the objectives; (b) exploration and production of protocols in
the workbook; (c) writing individual argumentation; (d) classroom discussion of
protocols and individual points of view; (e) search for a general and shared solution of
the problem; (f) recording shared conclusions in the workbooks.
In this research the metacognitive and metalinguistic aspects were prevalent; the
teacher was involved in a precise planning and analysis of the conceptual nodes and
difficulties that students could encounter, whereas students were stimulated to acquire
the capacity of control over their cognitive processes and the adaptation of mental
models due the social interactions between fellows. All the sessions were recorded and
analyzed “a posteriori” through joint reflection with the mentor (R. Nasi) and project
coordinator (N.A. Malara).

ANALYSIS OF PROTOCOLS AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION

We focused our attention on two activities: “Sticks and pebbles” (Annex 2),
proposed in the middle of the pathway, and “Think it through…” (Annex 3), proposed as
a final test.

The “Sticks and pebbles” problem

In the “Sticks and pebbles” problem students had to: 1) identify the variables; 2)
collect and organize data; 3) study patterns and research relationships; 4) represent the
relationships in verbal, algebraic and graphic languages; 5) verify the relationships for
specific values of the variables; and 6) work with and validate a model.

A student (S.Z.) writes on the blackboard:

No. Pebbles No. Sticks Exploration
2 2 ( 2 – 1) x 2 = 2
4 6 (4–1)x2= 6
7 12 ( 7 – 1 ) x 2 = 12
10 18 ( 10 – 1 ) x 2 = 18

230
 No. of Sticks = (No. of Pebbles–1) ×2

At this point it is fundamental that students know that a number can be

represented in various ways and that non canonical representation can help in identifying
the relationship between the variables. In the class, this work strategy was very common
because students, since the first activities, had the opportunity to appreciate the
transparency of the arithmetic expression as the generation process of a rule.

Then I translated the rule for our friend Brioshi.1

I put b = No. of Sticks and s = No. of Pebbles The rule is: b = ( s – 1 ) x 2
[The student makes a naive use of the “letter” as a label, Student S. writes on the blackboard and
says]: I found a new rule

No. Sticks No. Pebbles Exploration

2 2 ( 2 : 1) + 1 = 2
6 4 (6:2)+1=4
12 7 ( 12 :2 ) + 1 = 7
18 10 ( 18 : 2 ) + 1 = 10

Number of Pebbles = ( Number of sticks : 2 ) + 1

Teacher: What can you observe?

Student N.: Now the subject of the sentence is the number of pebbles.
You can observe that the relationship depends on the interpretation of the problematic situation
given by each student.
Student V.: Look! -1 ×2
“Number of Sticks “ “Number of Pebbles”

+1 :2
There are “direct relation” and “inverse relation.” The student described the direct and
inverse relations by using the arrow representation and he realized the inverse operators
swap.
Student J.: I found a different rule Number of Sticks = Number of Pebbles x 2 – 2.
Student C.: I think it’s the same as Silvia’s rule, because if I put Number of Pebbles = 3, I obtain the
same result.
Number of Sticks = (Number of Pebbles – 1) x 2 = (3 1) x 2 = 4
Number of Sticks = Number of Pebbles x 2 – 2 = 3 x 2 – 2 = 6 – 2 = 4
Teacher: It‘s not enough to verify the relationships for a single value of the variable.
Student C.: I tried also with Number of Pebbles = 4.
Number of Sticks = (Number of Pebbles – 1) × 2 = (4 − 1) × 2 = 6
Number of Sticks = Number of Pebbles x 2 – 2 = 4 x 2 – 2 = 8 – 2 = 6
It was a necessary arithmetic check of the equivalence.
Teacher: Do you remember what we said about the distributive law?
The teacher did not want to block the flux of the collective discussion, but he
suggested activities that may favor identification of equivalence between different
representations of the same relationship and lead to understanding the power of syntactic
transformation
Student J.: I found this rule …. The difference between the double of the number of sticks and the
number of pebbles is equal to 2.

1
Brioshi is a “virtual” Japanese student, who does not speak the Italian language but knows how to express
himself with correct mathematical language. He likes to exchange e-mail messages with other class groups.
Brioshi is a powerful educational mediator that helps to explain why a symbolic language has to be used and
which rules it has to abide to (Malara & Navarra, 2001).

231
(Number of Sticks × 2) – Number of Pebbles = 2
We constructed an environment able to stimulate an autonomous elaboration of
a new language in which rules may be gradually located, within the constraints of a
didactic contract that tolerates initial moments of syntactical “promiscuity,” named
“algebraic babbling.”
Teacher: Did somebody find other rules?
Student S. M.: I wrote all the rules for our friend Brioshi …
b = (s – 1) x 2
s = (b : 2) + 1
2xs–b=2
S. M. showed a spontaneous passage to the algebraic language as the symbols for
variables in play were used.
Teacher: All right! Can somebody represent the relations in a graph?
[Student N. draws Cartesian plot on the blackboard]:

20
The red points represent the direct relation:
b = (s – 1) × 2, whereas the blue ones stay for the inverse
16 relation s = (b : 2) + 1
The two graphs are symmetric; there is a point common
for both relationships. It represents a pile with 2 sticks
12 and 2 pebbles.
y

0
0 4 8 12 16 20
x

This step was very difficult and some students had to draw two separate graphs
for direct and inverse relationships. The Cartesian plot of the direct and inverse
relationships points out the conflict between semantics and syntax. Conventionality of
the reference system was noticed: the horizontal axis is the locus of the independent
variable values, whereas the vertical axis is the locus of the dependent variable values.
The swap involves only the role of the variables in relation to the studied situation and it
generates geometrical symmetry.
Teacher: What about the Section B?
Student A.: Pile C is wrong because if I use the rule b = (s – 1) x 2, the number of sticks should be
b = (3 -1) x 2 = 2 x 2 = 4. A stick is missing.
Student S.Z.: Pile A has no sticks. If I use the rule b = (s – 1) x 2, it will be b = (1 – 1) x 2 = 0.
The student chose the direct relationship and checked it by “particularization”
for a specific value of the independent variable.
Student J.: I used the graph of the rule to solve the problem; I look for the point (1; …) …….
Teacher: What did you find?
Student J.: I found a point with coordinates (1; 0) that means a pile with a pebble and no sticks.
In this case, the student chose to solve the problem by using the graphic
representation of the relationship and interpreted the couple of coordinates in terms of a
pile of sticks and pebbles.
Student S.M.: Meg removed a stick from pile C, so now I have only 2 sticks. I must find the number
of pebbles in the new pile. I use the inverse relation: s = (b : 2) + 1 and I calculate: s = (2 : 2) + 1 =
1+1=2 She should take a pebble off.
The student identified which variable was in play and she used the inverse
relationship to calculate its value. The lessons pathway went on with open situations

232
involving multiple variables, manipulation of algebraic sentences, generation of new
relationships and problem solving activities.

The “Think it through ...” problem

In the “Think it through…” problem a set of geometric patterns, graphs and
verbal or algebraic sentences were given. Students had to analyze them in order to
identify the relationships they represent. Then they had to match them as different
representations of the same relationship.
Students can encounter difficulties in 1) interpretation of the text that is
synthetic and abstract for them; 2) seeking for the relationship; 3) interpretation of the
graph; 4) coordination of the iconic, verbal, algebraic, and graphic representations.
Teacher: Have a look to the section “Rules and letters.” In your opinion, what is the meaning of the
letter “m”?
Student S.: Maybe “m” means “number of white tiles,” because there is a geometric pattern where
the number of white tiles is always equal to four. This regularity is represented in the graph (5).
In the “Think it through….” problem the letter “n” means “number of black tiles,” because in
the geometric pattern (E) there is always a black tile. So the rule could be: n = 1 …..
Students identify the meaning of the letters by using and interpreting a different
representation of the relationship. This behavior requires a complete knowledge of the
conceptual nodes about linear functions and good linguistic competencies.
Teacher: Can you find the correct match for graph (3)?
The teacher decided to focus attention of the class group on this point because
the graph did not represent a well-known linear functional relationship.
Student I.: It is very difficult. I am sure that it represents geometric pattern (B).

Student M. writes on the blackboard:

No. Black Tiles No. White Tiles Exploration
1 0 (1–1)x1=0
2 2 (2–1)x2=2
3 6 (3–1)x3=6
4 12 ( 4 – 1 ) x 4 = 12
5 20 ( 5 – 1 ) x 5 = 20

She says: The rule could be: No. White Tiles = No. Black Tiles × (No. of Black Tiles -1).
The student used non-canonical representations of the numbers to find the
relationship between the variables and she applied it to data collected from the graph.
Student J.: …. and, using the letters, the rule would be: m = n x (n – 1).
Student C.: In my opinion graph (1) represents these data ….. and it matches pattern (F).

No. Black Tiles No. White Tiles Exploration

1 2 1+1=2
2 3 2+1=3
3 4 3+1=4
4 5 .…….
….. …. ……..
6 7 6+1=7

The rule is m = n + 1, but I’m not able to say this rule in spoken language.

Student M. Z.: I think it could be: No. White tiles – No. Black tiles = 1, because the regularity
concerns the difference between the variables, that is always equal to one.
M.Z. recognized the implicit form of the rule, whereas C. observed only the
additive relationship.

233
CONCLUSIONS
The activities were well accepted by the seventh-grade class, maybe because
young students are less conditioned by errors and stereotypes. Thus, they can be led to a
collective construction of new meanings through the practice of reflections and
hypotheses and the “murky” language use. Some of the major difficulties that young
students have to face with algebra are represented by the need to understand: 1) why a
symbolic language has to be used; 2) which rules does the symbolic language have to
abide to; and 3) the difference between solving and representing a problem.
The exploration phase is important because it contributes to questioning the
wide-spread conception of mathematics as something complete that must be accepted
passively. Arguing round a problem means becoming “knowledge producers” and
finding out that there might exist several correct strategies – are expression of
completely different mental processes. The generalization process is mediated by the non
canonical representations of mathematical objects and the analogical thinking. Then the
students learn to paraphrase different formal representations of the law.
These facts are in favor of relational teaching and learning of arithmetic and an
early-algebra approach. The teacher’s role in the classroom has changed because she is
an expert leader who stimulates the discussion, corrects mistakes if necessary and checks
verbalization of shared conclusions. She has to acquire that “local flexibility,” which
enables her to follow the flux of thoughts emerging from the class group, to grasp and
develop the potentialities and to insert them into the working context.

REFERENCES
Fiorini, R., Marchi, S. Nasi, R., Stefani, P. (2006). U9:Verso le funzioni. Progetto ArAl,
Bologna: Pitagora.
Harper E. (ed.). (1987-88). NMP: Mathematics for Secondary School. Essex, England:
Longman.
Malara, N.A. (2006b). “Behavior of 6th-Grade Students in Front of a Problematic
Situation Aimed at Approaching the Concepts of Function and Inverse Function.”
Proc. ICTM3 (CD). Istambul.
Malara N.A, Navarra, G. (2001). “‘Brioshi’ and Other Mediation Tools Employed in
Teaching of Arithmetic from a Relational Point of View with the Aim of
Approaching Algebra as a Language.” Proc. 12th ICMI Study on Algebra. F. Chick
(ed.). 2, 412-419.
--- (2003). ArAl Project: Arithmetic Pathway towards Favoring Pre-Algebraic Thinking.
Bologna: Pitagora.
OECD (2005). PISA 2003 Report. OECD Publications. [Italian version published by
Armando Editore, Roma].

234
APPENDIX 1. Lesson Pathway

Activities Objectives
1. “Masked party and pass- Phase 1
words.” Identification of variables and constants
1A. “A new point of view …..” Direct and inverse relations
Coordination of verbal, algebraic, graphic and arrow
2. “Graffiti” representations
2A “An interesting clue”
Phase 2
3. “Sticks and pebbles ” Identification of variables and constants
4. “Christmas’ Trees” Direct and inverse complex relations
5. “A secret code” Verbal, algebraic and graphic representations
Identification of cases not fitting the rule
Phase 3
6. “The magic cards” Multiple variables and complex relationships
7. “Port Said” Check of equivalence between different forms of the
8. “T- shirts” same relationship
Generation of new relationships by algebraic
manipulation
Problem solving
Final Test
9. “Think it through…..” Coordination between verbal, algebraic and graphic
representations

235
236
 TEACHING EXPERIMENT
WITH ALGEBRAIC PROOFS
Béla Kallós
Catholic Gymnasium, Nyiregyháza (Hungary)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this article I present an experiment carried out in a Hungarian school. During this
experiment a worksheet was used that was compiled by the Italian teacher, Annalisa
Cusi. First, I describe the teaching of algebra and arithmetic in Hungarian secondary
schools, then the class participating in the experiment, and finally the experiences of
facing questions sometimes unusual for the students. One of the main aims of the PDTR
project is getting thorough information about various methods of teaching mathematics,
exchanging ideas and opinions on the subject. We believe the following experiment to be
an adequate part of this.

KEY WORDS:
Algebra, proofs, modeling, generalization, problem solving

TEACHING ALGEBRA IN HUNGARY

The teaching of mathematics in Hungarian secondary schools is basically
determined by two factors: the local curricula of the school based on the so-called frame
curricula and the requirements of the final examinations. In 2005 the system as well as
the requirements of the final exams changed. A two-level system was introduced: most
students take the intermediate level final exam; however, those who wish to go on to
higher education can also choose to take the advanced level. New topics were included
in the requirements that have never been taught before (e.g. combinatorics, graphs,
probability calculus, and statistics). Consequently, both the time devoted to algebra and
its requirements have been reduced. It can still be stated that about 30% of the
mathematics education is spent dealing with topics on algebra and arithmetic.
The greatest emphasis is laid on working with algebraic expressions, solving
various linear and quadratic equations, inequalities and simultaneous equations. In grade
7 the systematic teaching of algebra begins. Then the students get gradually used to
using letters and carrying out operations with expressions including letters in
mathematics. They spend much time on special identities (e.g. commutativity,
associativity, distributivity; the factorized form of (a ± b)2, a2 – b2, (a ± b)3, a3 ± b3,
identities of powers) and on their application (e.g. factorization methods: factorization-
out, grouping). In the earlier system of final exams, the operations with rather
complicated algebraic fractions had an important role, now the students have to apply the
identities (simplification, multiplication, division, collection of terms) only to simple
algebraic fractions. Compare the problems below – one from the earlier and one from the
present system:

237
 1. Carry out the operations below:
x + 3 2x −1 x − 3
− −
x + 1 x − 1 x2 − 1
( x ≠ 1)
[From the final exam in 1996]
2. For the real numbers a and b it holds that a − b
2 2
. What is the value of a + b?
= 20
a −b
[From the final exam in 2006]
While the requirements have been reduced for some topics, others have gained
more and more importance. For instance, expressing a variable from formulae in physics
or chemistry, or solving practical, life-like problems using equations. In addition to the
algorithms of solving equations, it is more and more important to teach students how to
form equations for practical word problems, how to find a mathematical model for a given
problem. According to the plans of the Ministry of Education, in a few years’ time about
50% of the problems at the intermediate level should be practical; this proportion is already
over 30% today, too. Obviously, one of its aims is to improve the performance of
Hungarian students in different international (e.g. PISA) tests.
I wish to mention another tool, with which the related authorities try to get the
schools to give more and more emphasis to competence-based education. Every year
since 2003 (except for 2005), national competence tests have been performed in grades
6, 8 and 10, where student abilities are measured in mathematics and reading with
questions similar to the PISA test. Since 2008, the results of all the schools have been
available for the public in the internet. I believe that due to this, in educational
institutions in the following years more and more emphasis will be laid on practical word
problems.

SOME THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Kieran (1996) has identified three components of algebraic activity: (1)
generational activities, which involve: generating expressions and equations – the
objects of algebra; for example, equations representing quantitative problem situations
expressions of generality in geometric patterns or numerical sequences, and expressions
of the rules governing numerical relationships; (2) transformational rule-based
activities, for example, factorizing, manipulating and simplifying algebraic expressions
and solving equations. These activities are predominantly concerned with equivalence,
form and preservation of essence; and (3) global, meta-level activities, for example:
awareness of the mathematical structure, awareness of constraints of problem situations,
justifying, proving and predicting, and problem-solving. These activities are not
exclusive to algebra.
In our experiment the third component was mainly in the center – justifying,
proving – of course some expressions of generality and transformational activities were
necessary to find a conjecture.

PISA COMPETENCIES
The following PISA competencies were relevant in our experiment:
mathematical thinking skill, mathematical argumentation skill, formal and technical
skill, communication skill. David Tall speaks about three worlds of mathematics:
conceptual-embodied, proceptual-symbolic, formal-axiomatic. Arithmetic and algebra
belong to the second world.
An elementary procept is the amalgam of three components: a process which
produces a mathematical object, and a symbol which is used to represent either process
or object. A procept consists of a collection of elementary procepts, which have the same

238
object. The expression 3 + 2x means two different things, the process of adding together
3 and 2 times x and the product of that process.
To be effective in algebra students need to see the algebraic expressions as
procepts, that is, both calculation processes and concepts or objects that can be
manipulated with. In our experiment, for example, 2n – 1 represents an odd number, that
is, a concept (mathematical object) but it can also be seen as a result of a process: natural
number n is multiplied by two and from the product 1 is subtracted.
Our opinion is that the exercises in the experimental material are good examples
for practice both meanings of symbolic expressions.

PRESENTATION OF THE EXAMINED GROUP

In the experiment, 14 of my students from grade 10 at Szent Imre Catholic
Secondary Grammar School in Nyíregyháza took part. This is was the second year that I
thought them 5 lessons a week, at the advanced level. The students who applied for the
advanced level course from the three classes in grade 10 form my group; and the rest
have 3 mathematics lessons a week. Since these students took an entrance test for the
advanced level, they are more motivated than their fellow students.
The abilities of the group are most objectively described by the above
mentioned competency test, as my students answered test questions from 2006. The
national average score in secondary grammar schools was 556 points, 25% was 489
points, 75% was 620 points, 95% was 727 points. The average score of the 14 students
was 648 points, the deviation 123 points. The results are indicated in the table below:

between 489-556 points between 556-620 points between 620-727 points over 727 points
(25-50%) (50-75%) (75-95%) (95-100%)
4 students 4 students 2 students 4 students
Lenke, Beáta, Erzsébet, Anita, Kati, Brigitta, Viktor Ákos, Zoltán Edina, Lehel, Péter,
Feri Mihály

These data also support my personal impression: on average, the group consists
of students with better abilities than the national average in secondary grammar schools,
but the deviation is high, the group is heterogeneous. A few students do not intend to
participate in the advanced level course next year, due to their poor results. For Anita
written tasks seem to be more difficult than the oral ones; she has slight symptoms of
dyslexia. There are 5-6 students who regularly participate in mathematics competitions.
One of them (Edina) is regularly among the best students of the county, and another
student (Mihály) has outstanding results in national competitions besides the county ones
(last year he ranked 2nd in the national final). Since the abilities of Mihály are much
better than those of the others, I asked him to solve the problems individually,
independently from the others. As expected, he finished the test questions two lessons
sooner that the others. He needed four lessons to do this, while the others six.
The students are motivated, their attitude towards learning is positive. They
participated in the experiment with pleasure. In general, they needed 15-20 minutes to
solve the test questions that I planned for a whole lesson; only the worksheet compiled
for lesson 5 took up all the 45 minutes. During this lesson, the students worked in pairs,
other lessons involved individual work. Individual work was always followed by a class
discussion. I think the difficulty of the test questions well suited this group; it was a real,
however, not insurmountable challenge for them. The solutions gave the students a
feeling of success.

239
 The initial test was taken on March 13th, and the solutions were discussed in the
same lesson. The next five lessons were held between March 28th and April 1st.
The test problems by Annalisa Cusi are listed in the Appendix.

RESULTS OF THE INITIAL TEST

The question of the domain was noticed by one student (Mihály). He indicated
the domain in parentheses where the wording of the problem made it obvious that the
variables stand for integers, and he did not write anything where the variables could
stand for any real number. For example: “The cube of a number - k 3 ; An even number -
2k ( k ∈ ˘ ) ” For the others it was natural that the variables represent integers. Therefore,
during the discussion we agreed that thereafter the variables stand for integers even
without specifying it.
The Hungarian textbooks do not use the concepts “consecutive” or “the
antecedent of a number,” instead the expression “greater or smaller adjacent number” is
common. This was not problematic; some applied these concepts as soon as in question
2 – where algebraic expressions had to be translated into verbal language.
In addition to Mihály, other three students (Edina, Péter, Lehel) solved task 1
without mistakes. One student (Anita) completely misunderstood it; she tried to rephrase
the sentences in other words and did not use algebraic expressions. The others solved the
problem with minor mistakes. The following mistakes were instructive: (a) Three
students (Erzsébet, Kati and Ákos) did not know what to do with the tasks about even
numbers. The discussion made them understand the necessary notations. This is
indicated by the fact that in the following lessons they were able to correctly use similar
expressions. First, Feri could not solve the problem properly. He translated “an even
number” into the form k ∈ ˘ , then he crossed it out and wrote 2k . (b) Viktor and Lenke
2
used the absolute value to represent the opposite of an even number: “ − ( 2 n ) and n⋅ 2 ”
Task 2 was the opposite of task 1; here propositions had to be translated into
verbal language. Except for Anita, Erzsébet, Ákos and Lehel, everybody could solve the
task by giving adequate verbalizations. Having given false answers to task 1, Anita could
not solve this problem either; she translated only the first expression correctly (to the
others she did not give answers): “ 4k + 1 - we multiply a natural number by 4 and add 1
to it.” The content of the solutions of Erzsébet and Ákos were correct, still, they were
unable to separate themselves form the algebraic expression completely and used its
letters in the translation: “ 4k + 1 - we multiply k by four and add 1 to it; 2 ⋅ 4k - four
times a number k multiplied by 2;…”
Lehel correctly translated the last two expressions; he created an unusual but
correct statement from the first three ones:
4k + 1 - giving 1 as a remainder after division by four; 2 ⋅ 4k - the number is divisible by eight;
( k + 2 ) ⋅ 3 - the number is divisible by three; k − 1 - the antecedent of the square of a number;
2

( k + 1) - the antecedent of the consecutive of a number

2

Task 3 turned out to be one of the easiest ones; everybody solved it correctly.
Task 4 was more difficult to understand. Before the solution I was afraid that some
students would only mention the letter k that the expressions have in common. This task
received the largest number of different solutions. Four of them (Edina, Brigitta, Mihály
and Péter) realized that each expression is divisible by 3. Lehel marked the number 3 in
each expression, but failed to give a verbal explanation. Feri misinterpreted the task and

240
tried to find identical expressions; and he did: ( h + k ) ⋅ 3 and 3h + 3k . Looking for the
feature in common, Ákos and Viktor found that k and 3k are present in each expression,
but neither of them examined the substitution values. Erzsébet, Beáta and Anita did not
give any answers.
Task 5 was again easy to solve, the students had already been familiar with this
type of exercises, and everybody worked well.

ACTIVITIES OF TRANSLATION
The first part in the second and third worksheets includes tasks that asked
students to translate statements into algebraic language. After the initial test, the majority
of the activities of translation were solved correctly also by students who had
misunderstood or not been able to solve the previous ones.
Task 1 in the second lesson brought a new challenge for them, the algebraic
form of two- and three-digit numbers. In the previous two years they had seen word
problems that required this knowledge, so it was surprising for me that only four
students knew how to represent expressions with several digits according to unit values
(e.g. two-digit numbers in the form 10a + b (Edina, Lenke, Brigitta and Mihály). Two of
them (Péter and Ákos) represented two- and three-digit numbers as follows: ab and abc .
Feri also used a similar representation, but without a line above.
The solutions of task 2 were good, even brackets were used correctly (e.g. the
square of a number was represented either by ( 2k )2 or by 4k 2 ). It was only Edina who
was a bit forgetful here and interpreted the sentence “Subtract an odd number from its
antecedent!” as follows: 2k + 2 − ( 2k + 1) .
As a result of revision, in the test questions for the third lesson most of the
students already knew how to apply the correct representation of two- and three-digit
numbers. At this point, it was the remainder and its treatment that was new. The students
had already seen such tasks about a year before; therefore it was surprising to me how
many of them could not remember these. The following mistakes were made: (a) Ákos
and Brigitta represented a number divisible both by 4 and by 3 as n or as 4n ⋅ 3n ; a
3⋅ 4 4⋅3
number such that the remainder of the division of it by 5 is 3 as n + 3 or as 5n + 3 ; and
5 5
the multiples of 5 and of 7 were represented correctly; (b) Ákos, Viktor and Anita
represented a number, which is not divisible by 3 only as, 3n+1.

ANALYSIS OF VARIABLE EXPRESSIONS

The second part in the second and third worksheets included tasks related to
analyzing variable expressions. Task 1 in the second worksheet was solved correctly by
everyone but Anita and Lenke. Task 2, however, was only solved by four students
(Lenke, Erzsébet, Edina and Mihály). It can be noticed that, although the others solved
the tasks about parity correctly, they could not give the features of the variable for the
expressions divisible by 3 and by 6. One of the typical mistakes was that the expression
3b was not considered to be divisible by 3 for b=0 (Kati, Feri). The other mistake
involved stating that the expression 3b is divisible by 6 if and only if b is divisible both
by 2 and by 3 (Anita, Brigitta and Ákos).
The students could correctly determine the parity of the expressions in the tasks
in the third worksheet, but some of them made mistakes when they examined divisibility
by 4 and by 9 (Ákos, Brigitta, Anita, Viktor, Zoltán, Lenke).

241
ANALYSIS OF STATEMENTS
Task 3 in the worksheets for the second and third lessons was also concerned
with the analysis of statements, and so was the worksheet for the fourth lesson.
Task 3 in the second worksheet involved the analysis of statements related to
distributivity. Two students even put down the formal representation of the statements
before deciding if they were true or false. Only two students could not solve the tasks
correctly (Anita and Ákos), although Ákos gave the formal representation of the
statement and still considered it true: a3 ⋅ b3 = ( a ⋅ b ) 3 .
For the statements to be analyzed in the third worksheet several students could
correctly form the expressions and draw proper conclusions from them. Mistakes were
made at the third statement (Viktor, Zoltán, Feri, Lenke). In the class discussion it turned
out that the complex text was difficult for the students; e.g. they had to think over the
parity of the consecutive even number of an even number.
The worksheet for the fourth lesson focused entirely on the analysis of
statements. The class discussion revealed that the statements 1, 4 and 5 were strange to
them. Both the condition and the consequence of statements 4 and 5 were obviously true,
so, although it was clear for them that the statement is true, they were disturbed by the
lack of a real conclusion. Only Zoltán found statement 5 to be false; the others held both
the statement 4 and 5 true.
The students can see two interpretations of statement 1 (“The sum of three odd
numbers is divisible by 3”) in the Hungarian teaching of mathematics. When analyzing
statements like statement 1, primary school textbooks expect three answers from the
students: a) certainly true, b) might be true, c) impossible. Secondary school textbooks
offer two alternatives for the evaluation of such statements: true or false, i.e. if there is
one counter example from the domain, for which the statement does not hold, then it is
considered false, otherwise true. This distinction is not clear for the students, because
they find tasks of the first type in other subjects, too (e.g. in biology, geography). Due to
this, some students (Lehel, Feri, Brigitta, Beáta, Ákos) argued that the statement is true
since there are three odd numbers, the sum of which is divisible by three. Furthermore,
they even proved it formally that there are infinitely many instances like this:
( 2k + 1) + ( 2k + 3) + ( 2k + 5) = 6k + 9 = 3 ( 2k + 3) .
The students rephrased statement 1 during the class discussion so that the
solution should be unambiguous: “The sum of any three odd numbers is divisible by
three” or “The sum of three odd numbers is always divisible by three.”
In this worksheet the students were asked not only to find out which of the
statements is true of false, but also to justify their answers. It was interesting to see that
some students (Péter, Mihály, Viktor, Zoltán) found it obvious that it was sufficient to
justify the falsity of a statement by a counter example, while true statements needed
some general proof. Besides this, some of them (Anita, Lenke) used only an example for
the true statements, too. This mistake can later also be observed when proofs are
required.
Some students (Lenke, Lehel, Kati) applied the algebraic identities related to
the sum and difference of two terms incorrectly during a correct justification. For
instance the justification of the statement “If n is odd, the expression n2+1 represents an
odd number” was the following:
Lehel’s proof:
True, because if n is odd, then n = 2k + 1 . ( 2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 1 is odd. Odd+1=even.
Lenke’s proof:

242
 n = 2m − 1
( 2m − 1) + 1 = 4m2 − 1 + 1 = 4m2
2

The students’ proofs generally consisted of verbal explanation. Some (Feri,

Lehel, Brigitta) intended to use algebraic expressions in addition to the verbal
explanation for the justification, but the algebraic proof related only to special cases. The
reason for the error was that consecutive numbers were considered in the justification of
a statement. If it was about an odd number, then they considered three consecutive odd
numbers and adequately represented it formally. If two even numbers were mentioned,
then they examined two consecutive even numbers. Therefore, their answer was correct,
but the justification was not:
Feri’s justification:
If the sum of two numbers is odd, then also their product is odd. The statement is false, the sum of
two numbers is odd if one of them is even and the other is odd, so: 2k ⋅ ( 2k + 1) = 4k 2 + 2k according
to this the product is even, thus the statement is false.
Lehel’s justification:
If the sum of two even numbers is even, then also their product is even. True, because the sum and
product of two even numbers are always even. 2k ⋅ ( 2k + 2 ) = 4k 2 + 4 ⇒ even.

FORMULATION AND ANALYSIS OF CONJECTURE, FIRST PROOFS

Most time (a whole 45-minute lesson) was taken up by the fifth worksheet. The
students worked in pairs only during this lesson. The pairs were formed on the basis of
friendship, I asked them to choose partners with whom they work with pleasure. The
following pairs were created: Viktor – Kati; Péter – Zoltán; Beáta – Lehel; Feri –
Brigitta; Anita – Lenke; Edina – Erzsébet (Ákos was absent, Mihály worked
individually). I decided on the pair-work because due to the heterogeneous group I had
expected some students not to be able to solve these tasks alone, but they had a better
chance of benefiting from the pair-work, and also the better students understand the
solutions deeper while explaining them to their pairs.
The task was unusual for them; they saw such open problems only rarely.
Moreover, they seemed to be uncertain whether to judge the proof adequate or
incomplete. After solving task 1 correctly, Edina asked for my opinion about whether the
statement is suitable and the proof sufficient.
In task 1, several different conjectures were formed for the difference of the
square of two consecutive numbers: an odd number; the sum of the two consecutive
numbers; the number 1 less than twice the original number. Everybody had a correct
conjecture, most proofs were as follows: n 2 − ( n − 1)2 = n 2 − ( n2 − 2n + 1) = 2n − 1 = n + ( n − 1) . It
could be seen that following the discussion of the previous worksheet, the students did
(
not make the typical mistake when squaring the sum ( a + b )2 = a 2 + b2 . There were two )
instructive proofs:
Anita and Lenke’s conjecture:
n 2 − ( n − 1)
2
n∈ N
n 2 − n 2 + 2n − 1
2n − 1
This is an odd number.
Proof:

243
 n=3
n 2 − ( n − 1)
2

32 − ( 3 − 1)
2

9 − 4= 5
2n − 1 = 2 ⋅ 3 − 1 = 6 − 1= 5
The two numbers are equal.
Kati and Viktor’s proof (they had similar proofs for the other statements, too):
n 2 − ( n − 1) = n + ( n − 1)
2

n 2 − ( n 2 − 2n + 1) = n + ( n − 1)
n 2 − n 2 + 2n − 1 = n + ( n − 1)
2n − 1 = 2n − 1
During the class discussion the students soon realized that in the first case it was
not correct to prove by offering examples. In the case of the second proof, however, they
could not understand why I found it incomplete; all of them thought the solution to be
correct. The students and I had the dialogue below:

Teacher: What do you think about the proof of Kati and Viktor?
Viktor: Perfect!
[laughing]
Teacher: Viktor says it is perfect.
Péter: They proved the line at the top.
[In the top line on the blackboard they could see:]
( )
n 2 − ( n − 1) = n 2 − n 2 − 2n + 1 = 2n − 1 = n + ( n − 1) .)
2

Viktor: There must be something wrong if the teacher does not like it …
Péter: …also the logic is good.
Teacher: What is my problem with this?
Edina: It is a bit too complicated.
[In the following three minutes they give further ideas to correct the proof.]
Viktor: What kind of mistake are we looking for? Is something missing? Or did I miscalculate
something?
Several students: It is correct! The calculation is correct!
Teacher: What do you want to prove? This: n 2 − ( n − 1)2 = n + ( n − 1) . How can you start out? Also
from this. This is dangerous. You start out from the statement you want to prove and get an
obviously true statement.
Kati: If the order were the opposite, would it be correct?
Teacher: It would. The last line is clearly true. From this the last but one line follows, then the one
above it and finally the statement to be proved. So we derive the statement to be proved from a
true statement.
Ákos: And why is the first proof not correct?
Feri: Because we do not know if the statement is true, and we still assume it to be.
Viktor: What if we assumed that the difference of two square numbers is not equal to the sum of the
two numbers and we proved this? This means that it would be an indirect proof.
Péter: Then this would have led to contradiction, so the original statement is true.
Teacher: This way it would be correct. I’ll show you why it’s not always good to start out from the
statement to be proved. Let the statement be this: −1 = 1 . The proof is as follows: Let’s
assume that −1 = 1 .
Edina: …and we square this …
Teacher: Yes. Then we get 1 = 1 . This is an obviously true statement, so we are ready with this,
−1 = 1 holds. Do you see what my problem is with the proof of Viktor and Kati? But it also
happens that this is a good way to start. We have seen a proof this year, too, in which we
started out from the statement to be proved. Does anyone remember it?
[The students were turning the pages in the textbook for a while to find the proof wanted.]
Edina: The relation between the arithmetic and the geometric mean?

244
 Teacher: Yes, this is what I had in mind. (We quickly looked through the proof.) In the end we get
an obviously true statement. Do you remember what else there was in the end? One sentence.
What was it?
Edina, Feri and Péter interrupting one another: Taking equivalent steps we got an obviously true
statement, hence the statement to be proved is also true.
Teacher: This is what I missed from the proof of Kati and Viktor. If we write this at the end of the
proof then it will really be complete. At the end of the solution of a similar final exam task
the following sentence could be found: “each step of the derivation is reversible, therefore
the statement is also true.
Everybody realized that in task 2 the sum of three consecutive numbers was
divisible by three. Many of them could state that this sum was the treble of the number in
the middle. The algebraic justification was unproblematic. The generalization, however,
turned out to be more difficult, because part a) already included the unknown n, so it was
not clear for them what else they had to generalize. Some observed that the statement
held for not only the sum of three terms but of any number of terms. A few of them
wrote down the sum of only an odd number of consecutive numbers in a closed form.
Task 3 proved to be the most difficult one, three pairs (Lehel – Beáta, Viktor –
Kati, Anita – Lenke) did not realize that n3 − n can be factorized into the product of three
consecutive numbers, but they could factorize-out n ( n3 − n = n ( n 2 − 1) ) .
Task 4 did not cause any difficulty for the students. It is worth mentioning that
they could phrase the conjectures after studying many specific cases.
In the task sheet for the sixth lesson the students had to analyze proofs. During
this lesson they again worked individually. The students had not yet seen such tasks
during their studies. After the task sheets and discussions of the previous lessons I
expected this task sheet to be completely unproblematic. Still, it turned out that some
students were still incapable of differentiating between the correct and the incorrect
proofs. The proofs of Alice and Filippo were judged to be correct by Mihály, Péter,
Erzsébet, Edina, Viktor, Zoltán, Ákos, Lehel, Pista, Kati, Brigitta, and incorrect by the
other three students. Péter noted that Filippo’s algebraic proof was nicer and clearer than
Alice’s proof. Lenke went further and said that in her opinion Alice’s proof was bad
because it was in verbal language.
Based on Anita’s and Lenke’s earlier proof I expected that it would be clear for
everybody that Giovanni’s proof using examples was incorrect. It was clear to Péter,
Lenke, Beáta, Viktor, Mihály, Edina, Lehel, Pista and Kati, but not to the other five
students.
Lenke’s proof was also deceptive. Péter, Ákos, Viktor judged it correct, Beáta,
Ákos, Zoltán did not answer.

RESULTS OF THE FINAL TEST AND WHAT THE EXPERIMENT TAUGHT

ME
In the final test my students had to construct two statements and two proofs.
Both tasks were solved correctly by Mihály, Edina, Zoltán, Beáta, Kati, Lenke and
Brigitta. Task one was correctly proved by Viktor, Lehel, Ákos and Zoltán. Lehel and
Viktor, due to miscalculation, did not accept the conjecture in the second task; they
found a “counter-example.” Both proofs of Anita and Erzsébet were false; however,
Anita was able to translate the text into algebraic language in task one, but she made
mistakes during the rearrangement
⎛ ( n − 1) + n + ( n + 1) + ( n + 2 ) + ( n + 3 ) + ( n + 4 ) ⎞ ⎛ 6n + 9 ⎞
⎜ ⎟−3 ⎜ ⎟ − 3 2n + 9 − 3 2n + 6
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 ⎠
=⎝ = = = n+6
2 2 2 2

245
 The second proof of Péter was correct; in the first one he could not properly
transcribe the text into the language of algebra.

The most important outcomes of the teaching experiment

I attach great importance to becoming familiar with the ideas on mathematics
teaching in other countries. Otherwise education might become closed and certain
emphases remain in the background. Our present experiment drew attention to the
significance of algebraic proofs, to the judgment of logical statements, as well as to the
fact that much more activities of “translation” are needed in both directions – translating
a verbal situation into the language of algebra, the possible meanings of algebraic
expressions.
I often believe that if we discuss something with students once, then it will be
clear for everybody from then on. During the experiment it turned out that they tend to
forget not only about concepts discussed several months before, but also information
learned in the previous lesson. The essential, frequent elements of the curriculum (for
example the formula for the square of a sum) must be repeated several times. According
to my experience, other approaches (e.g. geometric representations) can also contribute
to the consolidation and the effective application of algebraic concepts.
The analysis of proofs was very instructive. In the future, I am going to strive to
present and analyze correct and incorrect solutions, because the knowledge of students is
stable enough if they are able to recognize and correct mistakes. A good opportunity to
do this could be discussing the solutions following a test, or stressing the applied proving
strategies (e.g. arguing in inverse direction).
The most important benefit for me is the reflection to my own teaching. I think
it is this field that I have managed to develop most in the PDTR so far.

REFERENCES
http://www.davidtall.com
Teaching and Learning Algebra pre-19. (1995). Report of a Royal Society/JMC
Working Group
Kieran, C. (1996). The Changing Face of School Algebra: Invited Lecture on the Eighth
International Congress on Mathematics Education.
Malara, N. A. (2006). “Promoting Teachers’ Changes: Examples from an Educational
Process in Early Algebra.” Proceeding of the International Conference: The
Mathematics Education into the 21st Century. University of Brno
Rogers, L., Novotná, J. (2003). Theory, Principles and Research: Effective Learning and
Teaching of Mathematics from Primary to Secondary School. Bologna: Pitagora
Editrice.

246
APPENDIX:

Initial test
1) Translate the following statements into algebraic language:
The double of a number
The square of a number
The triple of a number
The cube of a number
An even number
The double of an even number
The triple of an even number
The opposite of an even number
The product of two consecutive numbers
The consecutive of a number
Two consecutive even numbers
The square of the consecutive of a number
The consecutive of the square of a number
The antecedent of a number
2) Translate these propositions into verbal language:
4k+1 2⋅4 k(k+2)⋅3 k2-1, (k+1)2
3) Which of the following expressions are equivalent to 8k ?
2⋅4k 4⋅2k 6+2k (5+3)k
4) What do the numbers represented by the following expressions have in common?
3⋅5k (h+k)⋅3 3h+3k 9k 6k
2
5) Complete the following statements:
If u=v+3 and v=1 , then u=………
If a+b=43 , then a+b+2=…………
If e+f=8 , then e+f+g=……………
If n-246=762 , then n-247=…………

First lesson
Discussion about the test

Second lesson
Activities of translation
1) Translate the following statements into algebraic language:
An odd number
The double of an odd number
The triple of an odd number
The square of an odd number
The cube of an odd number
The opposite of an odd number
The consecutive of an odd number
Two consecutive odd numbers
The antecedent of an even number
The antecedent of an odd number
A two-digit number
A three-digit number

247
The square of a two-digit number
The cube of a three-digit number
2) Translate the following procedures into algebraic language:
Add 3 to the square of an even number.
Subtract 1 to the cube of an odd number.
Subtract an odd number from its antecedent.
Add to the cube of a number the square of its antecedent.
3) Are the equalities expressed by the following statements true?
The sum of the triple of two numbers is equal to the triple of the sum of the same
numbers.
The product of the triple of two numbers is equal to the triple of the product of the same
numbers.

Analysis of variable expressions

1) k is a natural number:
k+3 is multiple of 3 if k …
k+3 è even if k …
2) b is a natural number:
3b is multiple of 3 if b …
3b is even if b …
3b is multiple of 6 if b …
3b is odd if b …

Third lesson
Activities of translation
1) Translate the following statements into algebraic language:
A number divisible by 7
A multiple of 5
A number divisible both by 4 and by 3
A number such that the reminder of the division of it by 5 is 3
A number which is not divisible by 2
A number which is not divisible by 3
2) Translate the following procedures into algebraic language:
Add 5 to the consecutive of the square of a multiple of 5
Subtract 2 to a three-digit number
Multiply the consecutive of a number divisible by 7 by a two-digit number
3) Are the equalities expressed by the following statements true?
The difference between the square of a number and the same number is equal to the
product between the same number and its antecedent.
The sum between the cube of a number and the square of the same number is equal to
the product between the same number and its consecutive.
If we add 3 to the double of the antecedent of a number, we find the consecutive even
number of an even number.
4) a is a natural number:
a2 is even
a2 is odd
a2 is a multiple of 4
a2 is not divisible by 9

248
Fourth lesson
Analysis of statements
Find out which of the following statements are true and which are false, justifying your
answers.
1) The sum of three odd numbers is divisible by 3
2) The product of two even numbers is never divisible by 7
3) If n is odd, the expression n2+1 represents an even number
4) If the sum of two even numbers is even, then also their product is even
5) If the product of two even numbers is even, then also their sum is even
6) If the sum of two numbers is odd, then also their product is odd
7) If the product of two numbers is odd, then their sum is even

Fifth lesson
Formulation of conjectures and first proofs
1) Consider a natural number. Find out the difference between its square and the square
of its antecedent. What kind of regularities can you observe? Try to prove what you
state.
2) a) Consider a natural number. Find out the sum between this number and its two
consecutive numbers. What kind of regularities can you observe? Try to prove what you
state.
b) Do you think it is possible to generalize this conjecture?
3) Consider a natural number. Find out the difference between its cube and the same
number. What kind of regularities can you observe? Try to prove what you state.
4) a) “Write down a two digit number. Write down the number that you get when you
invert the digits. Write down the difference between the two numbers (the greater minus
the lesser). Repeat this procedure with other two digit numbers. What kind of regularity
can you observe? Try to prove what you state.
b) What happens if we consider the sum of the tow numbers instead of their difference?
Try to prove what you state.

Sixth lesson
Analysis of proofs
Consider the following statement: If a natural number n is even, then n2+16 is divisible
by 4.
Analyze the following proofs of the statement given by four students. Are they correct?
Why?

Alice’s Proof:
If n is even, then n is divisible by 2. So it contains a factor 2. If we square n, this factor
becomes 4.
So the square of n is divisible by 4. 16 is divisible by 4 too.
So we can collect 4 as a factor from n2 and from 16, so their sum will be divisible by 4!

Giovanni’s Proof:
If n is 2, then n2+16=4+16=20.
If n is 4, then n2+16=16+16=32.
If n is 6, then n2+16=36+16=52.
If n is 8, then n2+16=64+16=80.
So the statement is true!

249
Filippo’s proof:
n=2k
so n2=(2k)2=4k2
so n2+16=4k2+16=4(k2+4)
So the statement is true!

Elena’s proof:
n2+16=4x
so n2=4x-16
so n = 4( x − 4)
n
so n = 4 ⋅ x − 4
n
so n is divisible by 4!
Seventh lesson
Proofs
1) Consider a natural number. Add to this number its four consecutive numbers and its
antecedent. Divide this sum by 3. Subtract 3. Divide the result by 2. What do you
find?
2) Try to do the same starting from another number. What regularity can you observe?
Try to prove what you assert.
3) Consider two three-digit numbers. For example, 153 and 285.
a) Calculate their product 153⋅285=43605
b) Subtract the second number from 1000 1000-285=715
c) Subtract 1 from the first number 153-1=152
d) Multiply these last two numbers 715⋅152=108680
e) Sum the results of the operation a) and d) 43605+108680=152285
The final result is the number which can be obtained putting the previous of the first
number near to the second number. Does it happen starting from other three-digit
numbers? Can you justify this regularity? (Suggestion: indicate the two initial numbers
with x and y).

250
 AND WHEN A STUDENT BRINGS A RULE TO THE
CLASSROOM?
Sandra Marques* & Sara Cabral Costa**
*Escola E. B. 2, 3 Piscinas, Lisboa & Escola Superior de Educação de
Lisboa (Portugal)
**Escola E. B. 2, 3 Gaspar Correia, Portela & Escola do Hospital de
Santa Maria, Lisboa (Portugal)
*[email protected], **[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to illustrate how the rule of three was included in the
students’ repertoire in a sixth-grade classroom, during a teaching experiment. Teaching
this rule was not on the teacher’s agenda. However, it emerged from a strategy of a
student when solving a task. This created a dilemma to the teacher: should the rule be
integrated into the classroom repertoire or not?

KEYWORDS:
Rule of three, direct proportionality, classroom dynamics.

As teachers, we know all too well that when students come to school and to us,
they already have a considerable background of tools including knowledge, strategies,
and techniques. However, it is not always easy to deal with this for teachers, for the rest
of students, and for those in charge of monitoring students in their learning. This episode
came up during a teaching experiment related to the mathematics topic of direct
proportionality, in a sixth-grade class (Costa, 2007).
The class was taught by the same teacher in the previous school year (grade 5).
It had a classroom dynamics which valued students’ involvement and included moments
of sharing different strategies. Quite often, students (starting from proposed problems)
were induced to devise their own strategies which were discussed afterwards and
deepened in the larger group, with the teacher’s support (one of the authors of this
paper).

The unexpected happened!

In the scope of the teaching experiment, an initial test was applied to identify
the strategies of students and their performance in solving problems involving
proportionality prior to the formal teaching of this subject. In this test, several different
problems were proposed. Some were missing value problems (questions in which three
values are given and the fourth is asked for), others involved numerical comparisons
(questions in which all the four values are given and students were asked to relate them)
and yet in others students had to check the existence of direct proportionality.
In one of the missing value problems, Carla, one of the students in the class,
used the cross product to solve it. Many questions arose: Where did she learn it? Why
did she use it in this problem? Did she know how to use it meaningfully? This was more

251
than a legitimate doubt, as her use of such strategy in this particular situation was
misguided! (Figure 1);

Takes 135
minutes to go
the distance
of 90 Km.

Figure 1. Carla’s solution of the automobile question of the pre-test

The teacher was surprised, as Carla attended grade 6 for the first time, and she
was not taught such procedure in grade 5. However, she decided not to question her at
this time in order to maintain the classroom dynamics. Instead, the teacher suggested a
task to the students, to be done individually or in pairs, and later the students’ strategies
would be presented and the difficulties explored as they came up.
On the following class, during the discussion of the strategies in the class
conducted by the teacher’s questioning, an arm rose in the air signaling that someone
had a different strategy to present. Carla headed for the blackboard, as others did before,
and presented the rule of three as her problem solving strategy.
The rule of three entered the classroom. What to do now? Toss it off? When a
student is a carrier of some sort of information – extra-curricular knowledge or, at least,
knowledge foreign to the classroom – should this be integrated into the working
dynamics? Should its discussion be encouraged or, on the contrary, put aside because it
does not matter at that particular moment, even though it might be interesting later, in
that very same class or in the next week? And what to do, if contrary to the teacher’s
intent, the presented strategy ends up being adopted by most students?
With Carla at the blackboard, some students immediately showed surprise, as
they considered this strategy to be very “fast” and “simple” to use. The teacher decided
to strengthen that perception and completed the explanation given by Carla, exploring
some properties and relating it to the fundamental property of the proportions. Hence,
the teacher chose, as she had done with other strategies, not to put it aside but to
integrate it in students’ knowledge.

From then on...

This strategy became very appealing to several students, who begun using it
successfully in many problems. From then on, this procedure was as valued by the
teacher as the others formerly presented (using tables, consider unit rates, perform
successive additions, etc.). Nevertheless, this strategy seemed to be the preferred one by
students. This was verified in the final evaluation, when many students used this
procedure, always successfully. In the final interview, the investigator (the other author
of this paper) acknowledged that all the students correctly used the rule of three. The
students indicated that they used it because it was faster.

252
 Teacher: Did you understand this task?
Carla: Yes... The purpose is to dilute a glass and a half of juice syrup in 9 of water… Oh, I can use
the rule of three! If… Is it a glass plus a half?
Teacher: Yes, a glass and a half is a glass plus a half.
Carla: A glass and a half... Ok… One and a half of syrup… 9 of water, 3 of syrup… x. 3 glasses of
syrup times 9 glasses of water then divided by one and a half of syrup equals 27 divided by
[uses pocket calculator] may I? Equals 18… 18 glasses of water.
Teacher: Do you think there’s another way? If you didn’t know the rule of three wouldn’t you be
able to solve it?
Carla: I would, but I don’t use the others often...
Teacher: Ok, but write down the answer…
Carla: Oh, I could make a table... But it would be more complicated and it doesn’t fit in here and I
like it more this way… I have more… I don’t know… I’m more certain!

A:
Should
use 18

Figure 2. Use of the rule of three in a missing value problem during the interview

The students also showed a big tendency for its use when dealing with repeated
calculations (Figure 3). The same thing happened, with several students, in the problem
dealing with calculating the necessary quantities for each ingredient of a certain recipe:

6. Na hora do lanche, Ricardo lembrou-se de

uma receita que a avó fazia sempre. Foi ver os
ingredientes, para pedir à mãe para o fazer…
200 g de açúcar;
250 g de farinha;
4 ovos;
50 g de manteiga
A mãe quis fazer um bolo maior e resolveu usar os 6 ovos que tinha
em casa. Indica as quantidades dos outros ingredientes que vai ter de usar,
para que o bolo tenha o mesmo sabor.

At tea-time, Richard remembered a cake recipe that is grandmother used to do quite often. He sorted
out the ingredients to ask his mother to do it…
200 g sugar;
250g flour;
4 eggs;
50g butter
His mother wanted to do a bigger cake, so she decided to use the 6 eggs she had in the fridge! So
that the cake tastes the same, calculate the amounts of the other ingredients.
Marta: Well, if she was... We divide this [quantity of each ingredient] by 4 and we know how
much it was for each egg. 50 g divided by 4 is 12.5; 250 divided by 4 is 62.5 g; 200 g
divided by 4 was 50 grams… Well, now we could do… If she had six eggs then [pause,
looks to initial data] … Oh! If we didn’t do this we could use the rule of three.
Teacher: You’re already using another strategy...

253
 Marta: Well, then we would do 6 times 50 g divided by 4 equals 75 g. [she does the mental
calculation and uses the pocket calculator to check the result] We already know that this
one here is flower, then the same thing with the other ingredients… Which is equal to
12000 divided by 4 equals 300 g of sugar and then only the butter is missing… 4 eggs, 50
g if there were 6 eggs we should use 6 times 50 divided by 4. We should use 375 g of
flower, 300 g of sugar and 75 g of butter.
Teacher: I’m only going to ask you one thing... Why did you abandon this strategy? Was it wrong?
Marta: No, it’s only that it’s easier to do it this way, if I did it the other way it would take longer.
Teacher : Other strategies?
Marta: The proportion, the table...
flour

sugar

butter

Figure 3. Rule of three in a repetitive calculation

It was exactly regarding a question asked on the interview A: She should use
(Figure 4) that Carla stated that she knew this rule even 375g of flower,
before she was in grade 5: 300 g of sugar and
75g of butter

Carla: Because I attend the ATL (“Free Time Activities”) … Well, like, I mean… It’s a way I do
it… Because I couldn’t remember but back at the ATL they told me that there was this
rule… I could remember but I knew how it was done and, like, I started to use it.
Teacher: Did you know it prior to the ATL?
Carla: Yes, I did! With the teacher of the... From the 1 -4 [grades]
Teacher :And did you talk about this rule?
Carla – Yes, we used it, but not quite often... Because they [the problems] weren’t that hard!
Fig. 4. One of the moments during the interview when the student used the rule of three.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
The rule of three is, quite possibly, a strategy used throughout life by the most
of those who learned it, for instance when trying to figure out how many litters of fuel a
car has spent at the end of a trip, when choosing between two sales promotions of the
sort of take x and pay for y, when calculating a currency exchange or converting
measurement units. Even though it relies on a numerical relationship, this rule is
possibly one of the most visible aspects, along with others, of mathematics in the context
of reality. However, it is not always used with understanding, serving as a “magic
formula” to find the answer to a problem in which, starting off from three values, we
need to find the fourth. Hence, this is a powerful problem solving tool involving direct
proportionality situations.
Teaching the rule of three was not on the teachers’ agenda. However, the
culture of the classroom open to students’ communication about their strategies, allowed

254
this tool to reach the entire class. The teacher had made into a habit for students to
comment these subjects in open discussions. Usually, the teacher’s starting point were
the works that students presented to discuss the different problem solving strategies and
the representations that students reached.
The strategy adopted by the teacher was to facilitate the integration of the rule
into students’ knowledge relating it to the fundamental property of proportions. As such,
instead of putting aside this tool brought in by Carla, the option was to establish
connections with previous knowledge, thus trying to create conditions for its
understanding by all students.
On the other hand, it seems to us rather important to bring students to learn how
to distinguish situations in which there is direct proportion from those in which it does
not occur. It is necessary to consider both situations in a balanced way, as the rule of
three is only applicable to situations involving direct proportion.
Hence, when confronted with both kinds of situations, students should be able
to recognize which strategies they can use, including personal problem solving
strategies. That is, the important thing here is that students, when put before a problem
(involving proportion or not) can apply an efficient strategy, formal or informal, with
understanding.
It is important that those who know the rule understand that they can not use it
always when they are given three values and the fourth is asked for. Besides, if the rule
is applicable, they have to know how to use it properly, relating the appropriate values.
For that, a good understanding of the multiplication relationships and the fundamental
property of proportions are key elements. To ignore them and to only apply the rule can
only lead to a superficial knowledge, allowing students to solve routine exercises, but
not problems slightly different from the usual ones.

REFERENCE
Costa, S. (2007). O raciocínio proporcional dos alunos do 2.º ciclo do ensino básico
(Master’s thesis, Universidade de Lisboa).

255
256
 EQUIVALENCE OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
Idália Pesquita
EB 2,3 D. Carlos I, Sintra (Portugal)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
This article focuses on the writing of the general term of sequences of numbers when an
unexpected difficulty arises: the equivalence of two expressions with variables. This
situation happened in a teaching experiment as part of an investigation about the
development of students’ algebraic thinking. Data were collected through written
reports by students and audio recording of the lessons. It appears that students can
identify regularities, make generalizations and express them in algebraic language but
they show nevertheless difficulties in leaving the arithmetic conception in favor of the
algebraic conception. The results show that it is necessary to do significant and ongoing
work with situations involving the equivalence of algebraic expressions.

KEYWORDS:
Sequences, algebraic expressions, equivalence, algebraic thinking

Working in mathematics throughout school years leads the students to leave

arithmetic and gain confidence in algebraic thinking. However, many students aged 15-
16 have difficulty with understanding the meaning of letters and their usefulness.
Following this thought, and the awareness that students feel more confident in working
with numeric expressions and in using numbers to reason, I prepared the task “Number
grid” for eighth-grade students. This is an exploration/investigation task based on a
square grid with numbers from 0 to 99 (Figure 1) and has four questions.
This task is the first task of a teaching unit aimed at making students feel the
need to work with letters, and then working with letters in operations with polynomials
and solving first or higher degree equations with and without denominators or
parenthesis (Pesquita, 2007). This experiment focused on writing of the general term of
the sequence 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 … Students were able to establish generalizations and
get two algebraic expressions. However, they had difficulty in realizing the equivalence
of those two expressions.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
Figure 1. Number grid from 0 to 99

257
THE FORMATION RULE
The lesson was divided in two parts – the students began to solve the task
working in small groups, and later there was a discussion with the whole class. The first
question asked students to identify sequences of numbers and indicate their formation
rule. In the final discussion all the eleven sequences of numbers that students found were
written on the board. Eight of these sequences were based on a similar formation rule
that involved a number of multiple or successive additions, beginning at 0. Another
sequence began at 9, always adding 9. Another was 7, 16, 25, 34, 43, 52, 61, 70 …,
which was based on the diagonal of the grid that starts at 7, adding always 9. One
sequence had a formation rule quite different, using addition and subtraction: 29, 28, 38,
37, 47, 46, 56, 55, 65, 64, 74, 73, 83, 82, 92, 91 … The formation rule was -1, +10, -1,
+10 …
Then, I introduced the designations “order” and “term” used in sequences of
numbers. After that, based on the sequence 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 …, the following table
was built with the help of students:

Order Term
1 0
2 5
3 10
4 15

My concern was to make all the students understand the formation rule, and
how the sequence was formed. After some terms of the sequence were written on the
board, there was the following dialogue:
Teacher: What is the 10th term of the sequence?
Margarida: 50.
Teacher: Really? Is it 50?
[Some students say yes and others say no]
Madalena: It is 45.
Teacher: 45… Why?
Madalena: Because in multiplication table the first is 0.
Jacinto: And then?
Marta: The multiplication table doesn’t start from 0.
Madalena: The first is 0.
Teacher: Yes… And???
[Some students say that it is 50 and others say is 45]
Teacher: There are two possibilities: some say it is 50 and some say it is 45. Let us see…
Beatriz: Teacher, on 10 it is 5 × 10 , 50. On 10 it is 50. But as the first is 0, it must be 45.
Marta: That’s right, because of 0.
Teacher: I understand what she said. Did you all understand what she said? Ricardo, what do you
say?
Ricardo: 45.
João: It is 45, Teacher.
Aniceto: I think it is 50…
Margarida: It is 45.
Aniceto: It is not.
Teacher: Calm down, calm…
…
Margarida: It is the multiplication table of 5, but it begins at 0. So it is always one less. Instead of
being 50 it is 45.
In this dialogue we can see that students were divided, some said 45 and others
50. Some were fixed by the multiplication table of 5 so they said that the 10th term must
be 50. Other students realized that there was a variation on the multiplication table of 5,

258
so they said “[this] multiplication table does not start at 0.” Margarida’s intervention is
the one that ended this discussion when she drew attention to the fact that this sequence
was based on the multiplication table of 5 with the previous multiple.

THE EQUIVALENCE OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

The following dialogue shows the reasoning that took place to find the general
term of the sequence:
Teacher: Now we must find the general term. What if instead of 10 it was n?
Alexandre: What is that?
Teacher: n in the following sense: if you want the term of order 1000, how would you get it?
Beatriz: I had to do the computation!
Alexandre: 5 × 1000
Margarida: n×5− 5
Teacher: Yes, it is right. Alexandre, it was 5 × 1000 − 5 . And in this case 1000 was my n.
Rodrigo: It is 995.
…
Teacher: The general term is how I can find the general, the generation…
Madalena: × 5 , −5 .
Teacher: × 5 , −5 ?
Madalena: We have a number; we multiply it by 5 and then subtract 5.
Teacher: So how is it? The general term is always the term with n. So what is the general
term of this?
Madalena: × 5 , −5
Teacher: It is 5 × n − 5 .
Getting to the expression of the general term was relatively easy. The
intervention of Madalena was essential, by referring to the others that she considered a
number, then multiplied it by 5 and then subtracted 5. However, the expression of the
general term had already been referred by Margarida.
After the students found the expression of the general term, I asked them if they
could simplify the expression 5 × n − 5 . They immediately gave me wrong answers such
as 5n , 4n and n. After the students realized that these responses were incorrect,
replacing them with values, one of them noticed another way to indicate the general
expression of the sequence, as the following episode shows:
Rodrigo: It is possible to make it 5 × 0 , 5 × 1
Teacher: And then?
Rodrigo: It is always following that.
Teacher: What is the general term if I use it? I will take his idea. You were saying that the 1st
term is 0, and it is 5 × 0 . And then it is 5 × 1 , 5 × 2 , 5× 3 … [Ricardo is saying that
while I’m writing on the board] Now tell me, in 100th term, how much it is?
Ricardo: It is 99.
Teacher: And in order n?
Ricardo: 5× n −1
Madalena: 5× n − 5
Teacher: Calm down… We will combine this… We forget what we know so far… You are
saying to me that it is 5 × n − 1 ?
Marta: No. It is 5 times, open parenthesis, n subtract one.
Teacher: Marta told me something else: 5 × n − 1 .
Madalena: I can not understand…
Teacher: Let’s go and see, if we can understand why, when I say this [ 5 × n − 5 ] is the same
as 5 × n − 1 . Madalena: we did the first reasoning and it was not wrong.
Madalena: No…
Teacher: Here, it is not 1, it is 1-1, that is 0. Here, it is not 2, it is 2-1, that is 1. [I pointed to
the board]
Madalena: Yes.

259
 Teacher: Here, it is not 3 is 3-1, here it is not 100, it is…
Margarida: It is 100-1.
Teacher: It is not n.
Margarida: It is n − 1 .
Madalena: I have already understood it.
Teacher: When we did this [first reasoning], we did it right. We did 5 × 1 and then took 5
from the multiplicative table, until we came to 5 × n and subtract 5. Now the
question is how do you know that 5n − 5 is 5( n − 1) ?
Margarida: It is right.
Teacher: Or, is anything wrong?
Margarida and Filipa: It is right.
Teacher: Why?
Margarida: Because it is right on both ways.
Madalena: Because n can not be n, when it is the previous to n.
Teacher: Madalena, this is n. n − 1 means that is the one before n.
Madalena: Oh… I do not know how to explain…
Teacher: How do we ensure that this equivalent to this?
Beatriz: We can not, because we do not know what n is.
Margarida: We did it both ways, so it has to give the same…
Teacher: So can I guarantee that 5 × n − 5 is the same as 5 × ( n − 1) ?
Margarida: Yes.
Teacher: We have made the first reasoning and it gave [ 5 × n − 5 ]. We did the second one and
it gave this [ 5 × ( n − 1) ] and we have not made any mistake… With the knowledge
that you have until now, can you justify it?
Aniceto: I… If n is 1000 it gives 5 × 999 , that is 4995 and on the other is 5n that gives 5000,
less 5 it is 4995.
Teacher: For 1000 it is right.
Filipa: For 2, it is so, too.
Margarida: It is OK for all the numbers.
Teacher: It is, for all the numbers…
Ricardo’s reasoning to find the general expression of the sequence was correct.
However, for Magdalena it was difficult to follow him since she was stuck at the
expression 5 × n − 5 . After overcoming this situation, Marta indicated that “It is 5 times,
open parenthesis, n subtract one.” Then, I asked students how they could ensure
equivalence of the expressions 5 × n − 5 and 5 × ( n − 1) . Beatriz said that “We can not
because we do not know what is n”, suggesting that she needed to concretize n. Then, I
insisted on equivalence of expressions. Aniceto said that he could guarantee it because it
was correct for 1000. Filipa added that it was also correct for 2. It appears that students
felt the need to give concrete meaning to the letter, although, they were able to
understand it as representing a general number.
My question: “With the knowledge that you have until now, can you justify it?”
was intended to check, if the students were able to concentrate on the reasoning
involving a generalized number and could verify the equivalence of those two
expressions. However no one was able to make it! In this case, students, despite
recognizing the meaning of letters in this situation, remained attached to the arithmetic
strategies and habits. They showed difficulties in manipulating symbols and in
interpreting and using mathematical symbols, important aspects of algebraic thinking
(Arcavi, 1994).

260
CONCLUSION
This task took place with students in grade 8. I taught them in the previous year.
In grade 7 they had contact with letters, including simplifying algebraic expressions and
solving equations. This task aimed to make them work with letters once more and
promote their understanding of their use. I wanted students to be able to abandon the
reasoning based on numbers (arithmetic conception) and gain confidence in working
with letters (algebraic conception).
This work was intended to indicate the general term of the sequence. I wanted
students to understand the formation rule and to be able to indicate a term of a distant
order. And I wanted them to get progressively familiar with the algebraic symbolism.
The general expression only emerged gradually. They came across two expressions
5 × n − 5 and 5 × ( n − 1) . With the formulation of questions and several interactions
between the students and me, they were capable of communicating mathematically their
ideas and to build a more formal reasoning. This episode shows that it is possible to
generate opportunities for generalizing and systematically expressing that generality as
suggested by Kaput and Blanton (2005).
Despite that fact that the students previously worked several times with the
distributive property, they were blocked because the expression included a letter. The
change from arithmetic to algebraic thinking modifies many things and makes students
no longer use what they had learnt before. Thus, it seems to me that it is essential that
students in grades 7-9 acquire skills in situations involving the use of letters and that the
work is done out with understanding. The existence of two expressions for the same
sequence is an opportunity for learning about the equivalence of expressions. Students
were able to recognize the use of letters to represent concrete numbers, but their answers
were still stuck in arithmetic. They substituted concrete values and checked, if the result
was the same. This shows that it is necessary to give students a gradual and frequent
contact with reasoning that appeals to the abstract nature of mathematics in a way that
they will develop their ability to think algebraically.

REFERENCES
Arcavi, A. (1994). “Symbol Sense: Informal Sense-Making in Formal Mathematics.”
For the Learning of Mathematics. 14(1), 24-35.
Pesquita, I. (2007). Álgebra e pensamento algébrico de alunos do 8.º ano. Tese de
Mestrado. Universidade de Lisboa. http://ia.fc.ul.pt.
Kaput, J. & Blanton, M. (2005). “Algebrafying Elementary Mathematics in a Teacher-
Centered, Systematic Way. Retrieved on March 3rd, 2008
http://www.simcalc.umassd.edu/downloads/algebrafyingmath.pdf)

261
262
 TEACHING LINEAR OPTIMIZATION AT
SECONDARY LEVEL
Ildikó Pataki
Gymnasium Karcag, Karcag (Hungary)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Linear optimization is not included in the Hungarian mathematics in the secondary
school; however, the knowledge needed for it is required there. Partly as a result of
PISA tests, the applications of mathematics have been emphasized in Hungary, too. I
carried out an attempt of teaching linear optimization at a secondary school in Karcag,
Hungary. In the present document I summarize my experience.

KEY WORDS:
Modeling, optimization, problem solving

INTRODUCTION
In Hungary, the teaching of mathematics traditionally centers around
mathematics as a science. Having attended several mathematics classes, Laurinda Brown
(Bristol University) gave her opinion about our way of teaching mathematics as follows:
“You, in Hungary, teach mathematics, we, in England, teach children!” As a
consequence of the rather poor Hungarian results in PISA tests, the applications of
mathematics and mathematical modeling have gradually been highlighted in the teaching
of mathematics in Hungary, as well. Participating in the PDTR project seminars I also
started to consider what I could change in my way of teaching. My students mostly
revolted at solving mechanic algebraic problems. “Why should we solve such problems?
What is the point in so much practice?” This was when I decided to try to discuss with
my students the topic of linear optimization, which needs a lot of algebraic knowledge.

KNOWLEDGE AND COMPETENCE NEEDED FOR LINEAR OPTIMIZATION

The new National Curriculum emphasizes the application of acquired
mathematical concepts in practice and in other subjects. Besides interpreting and
analyzing word problems, representative diagrams and modeling are also held essential.
In the local curriculum of our school the requirements of each topic are stated for each
school year. The competencies listed for the requirements of the final exam include the
students’ ability to see the mathematical problem involved in a given text, to create a
model, to carry out calculations based on the model, and to interpret the results obtained.
The competencies related to the topic of functions include functional
representation of simple relations of everyday life. Students have to be able to draw
conclusions from the analysis of these functions in connection with the expected course
of real events. Among the competencies concerning geometry we can find planar and
spatial orientation, and the ability to prepare an appropriate diagram, to represent the
possible set in the coordinate system. According to the specific final exam requirements,
solving simple linear and quadratic inequalities, simple simultaneous inequalities with

263
one unknown are necessary at the intermediate level. At the advanced level solving of
more complex problems is required. Graphing linear functions, as well as normalized
direction vectors are essential requirements even at the intermediate level.
Linear optimization belongs to the periphery of mathematics teaching at the
secondary level. Earlier, curricula did not require this topic, hence most teachers ignored
it due to lack of time. They did not even include it as an additional material, although all
textbooks include one or two problems related to it.

THEORETICAL BASES
The necessity of teaching this topic is implied by the fact that all the PISA-
related competencies are developed through it: thinking and reasoning, mathematical
argumentation, modeling, problem posing and solving, representation, communication,
using symbolic, formal and technical languages and operations. Most application tasks
are complex problems.
In my course, the Pólya phases of solving a problem were applied: (i)
interpretation and analysis of a problem; (ii) preparation of a solving plan; (iii) execution
of the solving plan; and (iv) looking back, reflection.
In the solving process of problems related to linear optimization metacognitive
components also were in the foreground: (a) planning; (b) overview of the solving
process, checking; (c) looking back, reflection.
I considered the realistic teaching of mathematics as a model, from which a lot
can be adopted and learnt. The aims of are: (1) social goal: to become an intelligent
citizen (mathematical literacy); (2) economical goal: to prepare for the workplace and for
future education; (3) scientific goal: to understand mathematics as a discipline
Finally, I was keeping in mind the following key findings of the PDTR
seminars and lectures. (1) Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about
how the world works. If their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp
the new concepts and information that are taught, or they may learn them for purposes of
a test, but revert to their preconceptions outside the classroom; (2) to develop
competence in an area of inquiry, students must have a deep foundation of knowledge,
understand facts and ideas in the context of conceptual framework, and organize
knowledge in such a way that it facilitate retrieval and application; and (3) a
metacognitive approach to instruction can help students to learn to take control of their
own learning by defining learning goals and monitoring their progress in achieving
them.
I drew from it some practical principles: (1) teachers must identify and
eliminate the preexisting understandings that their students bring with them; (2) teachers
must teach the subject matter in depth, providing many examples, in which the same
concept is involved, and a firm foundation of factual knowledge; (3) the teaching of
metacognitive skills should be integrated into the curriculum in a variety of subject
areas. (National Academy, 2003)

THE PROJECT
Research questions
(i) Is it realistic, the idea to teach linear optimization to 15-year-old students?
(ii) How many lessons are needed at least for the safe acquisition of the material? (iii)
Are the students able to effectively apply the concepts of algebra and functions in
problems of real life situations? (iv) What conditions must be satisfied for the teaching
of linear optimization to be effective in secondary schools?

264
Hypothesis
Students can effectively acquire the material when the necessary concepts and
procedures are carefully formed, practical problems integrated, and the computer
application opportunities made use of.
The project was carried out in class 10B at Gábor Áron Secondary Grammar
School, Technical School of Medicine and Youth Hostel in Karcag during the autumn of
2005. Classes were held in one or two afternoons a week. The work began with the
participation of 13 students, from among which only 10 completed the course with a
final test due to illness or other timing problems. The students were accepted to this
grammar school class without an entrance test. They learned English at an advanced
level; however, the whole class with 36 members had mathematics classes 3 times a
week. The 13 students were all volunteers, having very or quite good grades, one of
them had medium abilities. They had successful results at county-level competitions, but
there were no outstanding students among them.

The scheme of the project

Lesson 1: Pre-test
Lessons 2-3: Preparation phase
Lessons 4-9: Development phase
Lesson 10: Final test

Applied research methods

A technician video recorded almost every lesson. The knowledge of the
students was tested with a pre-test at the beginning and with a final test at the end of the
course. In addition to the video recording, consultations with the students as well as an
analysis of students’ documents also contributed to getting as precise an insight into their
learning process as possible.

The detailed way of solving a problem

Below I demonstrate the steps of solving a given problem. After refreshing the
necessary knowledge, the problem was approached; then the problem was solved
together by the class members, with a lot of teacher’s aid and explanation. It was the
uniqueness of the topic that made me choose joint work this time; these students are used
to working together anyway. I applied the teaching style dominating the Hungarian
teaching of mathematics: first the new topic is introduced and explained by the teacher,
then students solve problems based on the sample presented.

The solution phases of linear optimization problems: (1) interpretation, collection of

data; (2) translation into the language of mathematics; (3) modeling; (4) acquisition of
the solution technique; (5) finding the object function; (6) finding the possible range, (7)
parallel translation of the object function; (8) construction of level lines; (9) finding the
optimum point; and (10) calculation of the optimum point(s) and value(s).

Problem
In a pottery, jars are manufactured in two ways: A and B. Whichever way the product is made, it
spends a certain time in the molding, burning and painting machines. The time (in hours) needed for
the production is given in the following table:

265
 A B
Moulding 0.08 0.05
Burning 0.1 0.2
Painting 0.1 0.12

There are 2 molding, 4 burning and 3 painting workers. Everybody is allowed to work at most 40
hours a week. The jar produced by method A costs 4.50€ each, one made by method B brings 7€
profit for the pottery.
How many pieces should be produced of types A and B if they want to gain the maximal profit?
How much is this profit?
This problem introduced the new topic. Since it turned out to be difficult for the
students, I asked them to read the problem out several times, which enhanced
understanding and finding the essentialities. I tried to get the students to collect the
important data and relations from the text. The questions were asked: What did we read
about? How many types of products are produced? How many production phases do the
products go through? Explain what the value 0.2 stand for in the table. What does a 40-
hour-long working week mean? How many hours does a worker work a day in such a
week? How many days does a worker work a week?

Solution
An interpretation of the problem is the first phase of teaching linear
optimization
Teacher: Do we know how many pieces should be produced of types A and B?
Csilla: We do not. Let us denote the number of products A by x, that of products B by y.
Teacher: What profit does 1 piece of product A bring?
Students [immediate answer]: 4.5 €.
Teacher: What profit does 1 piece of product B bring?
Péter: 7 Euro.
Teacher: What is the profit of x pieces of product A and y pieces of product B? What profit
can be reached in total? What determines profit?
Statement: 4.5 x + 7 y .
Teacher: Let us name this object function, and this function has two variables! What should
this object function be like?
Erzsi: It should be as big as possible.
Anna: It should be maximal, very big.
We agreed to call this maximization. We stated the aim that the values of x and
y should be chosen to give a maximal value for K(x; y), and this should be denoted by:
K(x; y) = 4.5x + 7y→max.
Teacher: How many working hours are available at each place?
Dénes: Since there are two molding workers, this means 80 working hours a week; the four
burning workers can work 160 working hours; while the three painting workers are
allowed to work 120 working hours a week.
The simultaneous inequalities were set up after answering the questions below:
Teacher: (1) If 1 piece of product A is made in 0.08 hours in the molding machine, then how
much time do x pieces of this need? (2) If 1 piece of product B is made in 0.05 hours
in the same place, then how much time do y pieces of this need? How much time is
available for molding in total?
Analogously, the questions were discussed in relation to each production phase.
Thus the following simultaneous inequalities were put down:
0.08 x + 0.05 y ≤ 80 ,
0.1x + 0.2 y ≤ 160 ,
0.1x + 0.12 y ≤ 120 ,
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.

266
 Teacher: Let us rearrange the simultaneous inequalities to the standard form and graph the set
of possible solutions!
At this point I was still rather invasive with much teacher aid and guidance.
The work of Anett, Sára, Annamari:
y ≤ −1.6 ⋅ x + 1600
y ≤ −0.5 ⋅ x + 800
− 10 ⋅ x
y≤ + 1000
12
x≥0
y≥0
The rearrangement of the first three inequalities above in y was not perfect, it
was really difficult to rearrange an inequality with fractions, but the new form made the
graphing of linear functions definitely easier. Such sum-division type operations must be
practiced a lot as to make sure that students divide not only one of the terms, and they
should be able to decide when to represent a fraction in decimal and when in an ordinary
simplified form.
Teacher: Conditions x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0 are called non-negativity conditions, which means that
the values of x and y can only be positive integers.
Renáta: The reason for this is that no negative number of pieces, or half pieces can be
produced either of type A or of type B.
Teacher: How could the points be indicated in the plane for which all conditions hold?
Anna stated that the common part of the inequalities should be indicated.
When graphing the inequalities we first examined what value the function takes for x = 0,
and where the zero of the function is.
Teacher: Let us find points in the possible range and determine the profit there! At point (200;
300) the profit is 4.5 ⋅ 200 + 7 ⋅ 300 = 3000 ; at point (600; 400) it is
4.5 ⋅ 600 + 7 ⋅ 400 = 5500 Euro.
Teacher: How could the maximal profit be found? Can we choose the coordinates of the point
at random?
My question was provoking, and I even suggested the point (1000; 600). They
stated that it was impossible, because it was not included in the possible range.
Teacher: What interval could the maximal profit belong to?
The students realized that it was only the points in the possible range that can be
solutions. I suggested trying to graph the object function, too.
Let us make it theoretically equal to 0. We get the line with the equation
9 ,
y=− x
14
which is a black linear function passing through the origin; it is called function of direct
proportionality. After this we examined specific points, for each of which we calculated
the profit. Such a point was e.g. point (0 ; 0). In this case x=0 and y=0 number of pieces
are produced, the profit is 0 Euro. We can step further along the axis x. The point (400;
0) was selected and the profit 4.5 ⋅ 400 + 7 ⋅ 0 = 1800 Euro was determined.
In this case the parallel translated object function passing through (400;0) with the
slope − 9 intersects axis y at point (0; 257.12). The intersection of a given function
14
with axis y was already practiced before, and it caused no difficulties. The fact was
surprising for us that for point (0; 257.12) the profit was also approximately 1800. We
found it interesting to calculate the substitution value also for x=100 and to determine
the profit there. A new point was chosen on axis x: (700; 0). Lajos: “In this case the
translated object function passing through point (700; 0) with the slope 9 intersects
−
14

267
axis y at point (0; 450).
As a result of joint calculation we found that point (300; 257.14) also lay on this
line. Here the profit was bigger than in the earlier cases, it was 3,150 Euro.
Similarly, point (1400 ; 0) was also examined.
Éva: The translated object function passing through point (1400; 0) with the slope
9 intersects axis y at point (0; 900). Point (600; 500) is also a point of this line.
−
14
Significant observations were made at this point, namely that the same profit
belonged to points that lay on a given line, and also that the lines with different profits
would be parallel. The students guessed which two lines intersected at the point giving
maximum value, to which the parallel line of the object function should be translated.
This point was the ideal solution. This point belonged to the possible range, and the line
of the object function did not have a value above or under it that would belong to the
possible range.
y = 800 − 0.5 x
5x
y = 1000 −
6
Kata: These two lines are:
= 800 − 0.5 x .
5x
1000 −
6
Solving this linear equation with one unknown gave us the two
coordinates of the point, i.e. x = 600, y = 500 , so we got the profit by substitution:
4.5 ⋅ 600 + 7 ⋅ 500 = 6200 Euro.

The optimal solution was: 600 pieces should be produced of type A, and 500
pieces of type B, the optimal profit was 6,200 €.

CONCLUSIONS
It was the interpretation of the text, its translation into the language of
mathematics and creating a mathematical model that proved to be the most difficult task.
To decide what to denote by a new variable even turned out to be problematic. It was
also difficult to create the simultaneous inequalities. One of the crucial inventions was
the concept of the object function. It was difficult to realize that using the coordinates of
the points, concrete values can be calculated for the object function; and also to see that
the same profit belongs to points that lie on a given line, and that lines of different profits

268
are parallel. Determining and finding the object function, as well as creating its parallel
translation were also problematic. It is often challenging to select the point of the
possible range, through which the object function passes, that result in the maximum
profit. On the basis of interviews I drew the conclusion that finding the object function is
much easier for them than that of the simultaneous inequalities. Even the good students
forgot about the conditions on non-negativity and those relating to positive integers.
The steps of the above solution were discussed at the PDTR seminars in detail.
Several fellow teachers, although accepting the strong teacher guidance in the
introduction phase, suggested encouraging students to do more individual work and to
elicit more student ideas. It was a strange feeling later to see and hear how much I was in
the foreground, how I wanted to make students accept my ideas and argumentation. In
what followed, the joint class work was gradually replaced by group-work and then by
individual work.
In the development phase 5 problems were solved jointly, demanding more and
more from students each time. During lesson 8 a further problem was to be solved in
groups of 3. At the end of the lesson each group member had to comment on some part
of the problem. During lesson 9, 3 different problems were solved by the same groups as
in the previous lesson, with only one student explaining the solution at the end. Lesson 9
included problems of different difficulty, so the group-work was graded.
I repeated the project also with another group of students. This time I provided
more opportunities for students to present their ideas and argumentation; I tried to stay in
the background. This was not always easy, since I have already got used to being the
leading and dominating figure in the classroom. Nevertheless, I started changing my
style.
The application of computers and interactive boards could further improve
understanding, and these facilities are available at our school, as well as some software
applicable to represent simultaneous equations and inequalities, and even surfaces. I
wish to make use of these facilities in the future.

REFERENCES
Dürr, C., Filler, A., Grassmann, M., Kimel, K. et al. (1998). Analytische Geometrie.
Berlin: Volk und Wissen Verlag.
Kronfellner, M., Peschek, W., Fischer, R., et al. (1995). Angewandte Mathematik. Wien:
Verlag Jugend&Volk.
Courant, R., Robbins, H. (1962). “Was ist Mathematik?” Springer.
Blumenthal, B. (1965). Anwendung mathematische Methoden in der Wirtschaft. Leipzig:
B. G. Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft.
Späth, H. (1979). “Klassenweise diskrete Approximation.” Vortragsauszüge der Tagung
über konstruktive Verfahren der Optimierung bei graphentheoretischen und
kombinatorischen Problemen vom 07.05. bis 13.05.78 im Mathematischen
Forschungsinstitut Oberwolfach. L. Collatz, G. Meinardus, W. Wetterling (eds.).
Basel und Stuttgart: Birkhäuser.
Faddejew-Faddejewa. (1964). Numerische Methoden der linearen Algebra. Berlin: VEB
Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften.
Piehler, J. (1969) Einführung in der lineare Optimierung. Zürich: Harri Deutsch.
Sadowski, W. (1963). Theorie und Methoden der Optimierungsrechnen in der Wirtschaft
Lehrbuch. [Übersetzung aus dem Polnischen]. Berlin: Verlag Die Wirtschaft.

269
--- “Was ist lineare Optimierung?”
http://statmath.wuwien.ac.at/~leydold/MOK/HTML/node145.html
Wittmann, E. C. (1987). Elementargeometrie und Wirklichkeit Braunschweig,
Wiesbaden: Vieweg.
Zimmermann, B. Jetzt wird’s optimal-lineare Optimierung

Hungarian references
Denkinger Géza-Gyurkó, L. (1984). Matematikai analízis feladatgyűjtemény. Budapest:
Tankönyvkiadó.
Csernák L.(1990) Operációkutatás II. Budapest: Tankönyvkiadó.
Ferenczi, Z. (2000) Operációkutatás főiskolai jegyzet. Győr.
Komlósi, S. (2001). Az optimalizáláselmélet alapjai. Budapest-Pecs: Dialóg Campus
Kiadó.
Dr. Miklós, F. (1972). Matematikai kislexikon. Budapest: Műszaki Könyvkiadó.
Kreko, B. (1962). Lineáris programozás. Budapest: Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó.

270
 THE USE OF CONCRETE AND VISUAL
REPRESENTATION IN TEACHING EARLY ALGEBRA
IN ORDER TO AVOID BASIC DIFFICULTIES
Gordana Stankov
Serbian School, Budapest (Hungary)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this paper I present a method of teaching early algebra by using concrete visual
representations. I explain one example dealing with the rule of removing parentheses
followed by a minus sign. Testing of this method took place in March 2004, during 24
lessons in grade 7 (12-year-old students) in the Serbian minority school in Budapest in
Hungary. I was inspired to seek for alternative ways of teaching because of the special
needs of my students – their lack of ability to give verbal explanations of their way of
thinking and the reasons for acting in a certain way. I was trying to achieve the
development of students’ algebraic thinking, which should enable them to understand
and use algebra easily. Furthermore, this ability could be used later to cope better with
the problems of the contemporary world. Students’ positive results encourage me and
indicate that using real objects has beneficial effect on the learning process of algebra
for this particular age group.

KEY WORDS:
Representations, early algebra, procedural vs. conceptual knowledge

INTRODUCTION
In my teaching of mathematics in a bilingual primary and secondary school I
face such a problem that my students, regardless of age, make an amazing number of
errors when they apply the knowledge of elementary algebra. I collected and analyzed
the mistakes made in and comments made about the tasks they usually have difficulties
doing. A possible explanation for these elementary mistakes can be that they consider
the algebraic symbols and formulas to be “letters” rather than expressions of general
relationships between numbers or quantities. For them, algebra is a frightening world of
symbols, which they manipulate using senseless rules they have learned by heart. I
suspect that the roots of this misleading way of thinking could originate from the period
of their education when they encountered algebra for the first time. Unfortunately, there
is a dramatic leap in the textbooks from arithmetic to algebra (without gradual transfer).
Trying to help my students to overcome these difficulties I asked myself the
following question: Can teaching method of early algebra be developed so that students
make links between mathematical formalism and familiar situations? This would enable
them to build up their algebraic notions by using their abilities, experience and the
knowledge already acquired.
I decided to extend the period of teaching using concrete manipulative tools and
to combine such use with more abstract methods. Besides having a beneficial effect on
algebra learning this method enriches students’ conception and perspective of

271
mathematics. It will show them that many different every-day activities can be expressed
by the same algebraic expression. The second reason for my decision is the special
position of my students: I teach in a bilingual school in Budapest (Hungary), which
implements the official Hungarian curriculum with an additional aim: to teach fluent
Serbian language on a high level. A lot of our students do not have the appropriate
command of Serbian language or do not speak it at all so they attend this school in order
to learn it. On the other hand, students coming from Serbia do not speak Hungarian.
Consequently, in the same class we can find students with very different level of
knowledge of these two languages, so we have to use both languages during lessons.
In order to have better communication and understanding with my students I
use gestures and body language extensively. I spontaneously point to different objects
and use things to clarify issues manually and verbally. The role of language is complex:
explaining activities, thoughts and ideas on the appropriate level of representation, but
also to bridge over the different levels of representations. Using manipulative tools
serves the purpose of continuation of tradition already existing on lower levels of
elementary school and students are used to approach this kind of activity seriously. By
manipulating objects one can mobilize and use the actual vocabulary already accepted,
familiar and connected with every-day life situations.
For this reason I formulated the following research question: Can the use of
concrete and visual representations help students build up the basic knowledge of
algebra in the complexity of bilingual schools as well as develop specific way of
thinking, which is typical in algebra?

BASIC NOTIONS AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Concept development and representations
According to Bruner (1966) there are three different levels of representations of
any problem (within a domain of knowledge): (1) enactive level means representations
by a set of actions appropriate for achieving a certain result; (2) iconic level means
representations by a set of summary images or graphics that stand for a concept without
defining it fully; and (3) symbolic level means representations by a set of symbolic on
logical propositions drawn from a symbolic system that is governed by rules or laws for
forming and transforming propositions.
Algebra teaching usually happens on the symbolic level. Our aim was to use the
enactive and visual level longer than it is used traditionally in Hungary. Skemp (1978)
distinguished instrumental and relational understanding: (1) instrumental understanding
means that a student knows how to do thing; and (2) relational understanding relates
knowing how to do things with knowing why to do them.
Students with only instrumental kind of knowledge have big difficulties to find
alternative ways of doing things and can be easily disturbed by outside factors. Student
with relational understanding have a possibility to find new solutions independently by
creating always new and new conceptual structures (schemas). The way of building new
structures is self-rewarding and students experience satisfaction because they can
develop more and more complex schemas, so their self-confidence builds up. Besides
already mentioned, students find also self-motivation in their studies and gaining new
knowledge.
Instead of a formal definition, we use, according to Lakoff (1987), the method
of conceptual embodiment: “the idea that the property of certain categories is a
consequence of the nature of human biological capacities and of the experience of
functioning in a physical and social environment.” The contexts for conceptual

272
embodiment of an algebraic expression that we used in our experiment were “candy
stories” and “paper strips.”
Gray and Tall (1994) introduced the notion of procept as an idea generated by
looking at a symbol, such as 3+2, both as a process (of addition) and a concept (of sum).
It was extended to include different symbols and different processes that give rise to the
same mental object in the mind of a particular individual. Thus 1+4, 2+3, 3+2, 4+1 can
all represent the same procept involved in composing arithmetic processes that give 5.
An elementary procept is the amalgam of a process, (which produces) a mathematical
object and a symbol, which is used to represent either process or object. A procept
consists of a collection of elementary precepts, which have the same object.
We consider a procept not to be just a simple compression of different aspects,
but also a flexible way to see and interpret an algebraic expression in two directions:
command for concrete processing and symbolic recognition of the expression (as a
collection of representations). All of these symbols are considered to represent by a
student the same object, though obtained through different processes. But it can be
decomposed and recomposed in a flexible manner.
In order to describe the total cognitive structure that is associated with a
concept, which includes all the mental pictures and associated properties and processes,
Tall and Vinner (1981) introduced the term concept image. The concept image is
something non-verbal associated in our mind with the concept name.

Some algebraic aspects of thinking

Mathematics is an abstract science and algebra is the most abstract part of it. In
the didactical literature the problem solving, functional, generalization, language, and
historical approach to school algebra are described by Bednarz et al. (1996), Usiskin
(1988), and Drouhard (2001). In educational practice we consider the same algebraic
problem from different approaches.
According to Mason and Sutherland (2002) we can find algebraic aspects of
thinking while detecting and expressing a structure: “Imbuing every lesson with
algebraic thinking, with expressing generality and particularizing generalities, with
conjecturing and reasoning, is vital to successful experiences with algebra.” Students can
use algebraic thinking for better orientation to and participation in business, economy
and political life. The modern world and trends involve these kinds of mathematical
mental processes more then ever.
The main difficulties in early algebra learning can appear in developing an
understanding of the meaning and use of algebraic symbols and expressions. There are
different sources from which the algebraic expression can take its meaning. One of them
is formal: an algebraic expression is meaningful if it can be derived from the set of
axioms. In contrast with formal we use the term referential meaning: (1) An algebraic
expression can represent a relationship between numbers in general – we call it
numerical meaning; (2) An algebraic expression can recall a relationship among
quantities in some situations – we call it situational meaning.
The numerical meaning of the identity a + (b + c) = a + b + c is the following
“rule:” When we add sum of two numbers to an individual number we would get the
same result as if we added first number to the same individual number and after that the
second number to it. With concrete numbers we show the usefulness of this rule:
In case a = 15, b = 6, c = 4 we calculate in the form 15 + (6+ 4), but in case of a = 13, b
= 7 and c = 5 we use 13 + 7+ 5. If students understand the referential meanings of
expressions they can make good explanations of expressions and identities.

273
 The same identity a + (b + c) = a + b + c can be associated with a situational
meaning, for example with the following story:
Ana had a apples and she got b from her sister and c from her brother at the same time. Mary had a
apples. She got b from her sister and later she got c from her brother.
They have the same number of apples, but the ways of their calculations are
different. Appropriate stories can help students to understand expressions and identities.

Some special difficulties connected with early algebra

Most of the difficulties of my students relate to the generalization and
recognition of structure, the meaning of algebraic symbols and expressions,
manipulation of symbolic forms. The students manipulate the sides of an equality
asymmetrically, therefore we have to deal not only with the four given equalities, but
also with the equalities obtained through changing of the sides. One of the typical
mistakes that my students make is creating malrules. As for Matz (1982) students create
malrules by generalizing signs of operations and creating prototype rules from which
they construct new rules:

The correct rule is: a + (b + c) = a + b + c

Prototype rule is: a … (b … c) = a…b…c
malrules are: a – (b + c) = a – b + c
a – (b – c) = a – b – c

There are some difficulties caused by the properties of Serbian language. For
example we use two different terms for expressing addition of objects (dodati) and
addition in algebra (sabrati). Fortunately, in arithmetic we use both terms, therefore it is
used as mediator between addition of objects and addition in algebra. Manipulating the
objects, students write down the arithmetic expression. However, they express it verbally
using both terms for addition and after generalization they write down and express
verbally the algebraic expression.

STRIP-ARITHMETIC, THE COMBINATION OF REPRESENTATIONS

Following the Hungarian curriculum for grade 7 (13-year-old students) I ap-
plied my strip-arithmetic method in March 2004 during 24 lessons of algebra. The class
consisted of 8 students (3 girls and 5 boys). This small number of students enabled me to
have individual approach to every student, so I could deal with their individual
problems. All of them were bilingual; however, 3 of them expressed themselves better in
Hungarian, whereas the rest preferred Serbian.
At the beginning students took both subject pretest and motivation test and were
tested at the end of the school year (measuring the some categories). This gave me the
insight to the development of their knowledge and motivation level.

1. The hypotheses
Motivated by the question mentioned in the introduction and by my personal 5-
year teaching experience in Serbian school in Budapest I could put forward the
following hypotheses: The use of concrete and visual representations can help students
to build up the basic knowledge of algebra in the complexity of bilingual schools, as well
as specific way of thinking, typical for algebra.
2. The mathematical aim of the case study
I am going to describe 3 lessons in order to demonstrate the method by
explaining the following identities:

274
 a + (b + c) = a + b + c
a + (b – c) = a + b – c
a – ( b + c) = a – b – c
a – ( b – c) = a – b + c
This is the first time we develop the students’ skill of generalization, which can
be expressed in the language of algebra (associativity of addition, minus sign in front of
parentheses, realizing and expressing structures).

3. Pretest
Before conducting these 3 lessons I wanted to sum up the learning
preconditions using the pretest. The task connected to the goal of these lessons was:
(1) Without any calculation, associate with the expression on the left side an expression on the right side,
which has the same value:

185 – 58 – 9
58 – 185 + 9
185 – (58 – 9) 185 + 58 – 9
185 – 58 + 9
185 + 58 + 9
(2) Write a story which will support your choice.
(3) Using mathematical signs write down the rule.
In order to avoid mental calculation I set three-digit number in the numerical
expressions.
Nobody solved this task correctly. 5 of 7 students chose the first expression on
the right side (malrule). Two of them connected the expression on the left side with two
different ones on the right side (1st and 3rd), without knowing that the result is uniquely
determined. Here is one of their five similar stories:
Peter had 185 forints. He gave 58 to Joca and 9 to Milan. How many forints has he still got?
The students gave referential meaning only to the expression on the right side,
whereas the expression on the left is not mentioned at all. They cannot control their own
solution with regard to “the same value.” Two of the girls have wrongly interpreted the
rule about minus sign in front of the parentheses and one of them wrote the following
equality (without any story):
n – (x – y) = n – x – y.

4. Lessons
First, we manipulated with objects, collected experiences, and drew
conclusions. The students felt safe using manipulative tools. The order to handle
identities was from the simplest towards the more complex ones. We recalled the basic
technique of mental addition using exercises like: (a) Generate the number 8 as a sum of
two numbers. [We are looking for the processes (1 + 7, 2 + 6, 3 + 5, 4 + 4), when the
concept (8) is given.]; (b) Add 9 to 8. [They suggested to solve it by splitting 8 into 1 +
7.]; (c) Compare these numbers without counting: 892 + 171 and 892; 892 – 171 and 892
[This is a preparation for equations, too.]; and (d) Which number can replace the box in
the equality 11 + 12 = + 8? [Without understanding the meaning of the equal sign one
can write the value of the sum on the left side into the box.]

a) The identity a + (b + c) = a + b + c
Concrete manipulation with objects: Enactive level of representation
Each positive whole number is represented by discrete sets of real objects.
Cardinality of these sets is the given number. To add two numbers means to build the

275
union of two sets and to take its cardinality as the sum. Each student got 36 candies (12
of 3 different kinds: toffis, mint and fruit ones) and they had to construct the sets and
their relations corresponding to the arithmetical expression 4 + (6 + 3) written on the
board. During this activity a procept of “sum” developed through alternative perception
of an arithmetical expression as a process on the one hand, and as a concept on the other:
Students represented the numbers 4, 6 and 3 by creating 3 groups of 3 different
kinds of candies: (i) They consider (6 + 3) as a process and added the group of 3 candies
to the group of 6 candies; (ii) The result of the addition (6 + 3) was a concept (9).
The steps (i) and (ii) form together an elementary procept. The new process 4 +
(6 + 3) means that we add to the group of 4 candies the group of (6 + 3) candies. The
result of this complex process is the concept 4 + (6 + 3), which denotes the number of
candies in newly created group. One of the possibilities of formulating the situational
meaning of the arithmetical expression 4 + (6 + 3) is: Pera had 4 toffis and he got 6 fruit
candies and 3 mint candies at the same time. Now he has 4 + (6 + 3) candies. The
situational meaning of the parentheses is contained in the words: “At the same time.”
During the lesson I demanded that the description story should be written using
only separate numbers of the original groups of candies. In spite of the instruction given,
2 of the students used number 9. In their stories students did not refer to the specific time
of getting the candies, so by asking questions I urged them to be more specific in their
formulation.
It is very important to establish mutual connections between a symbol in the
expression with the appropriate word or words in the story. We practiced this through
discussions.
Mira had 4 candies and she got 6 from her sister. What should she do in order to have the same
number of candies as Pera. Write down your work.
Having seen 4 + 6 as a process and as a concept, they now had to compare the numbers
of Pera’s and Mira’s candies:
4 + (6 + 3) = 4 + 6 … O,
where … means an operation, O means a number of candies. The sign “=” is the rule
“get the same number of candies on both sides (numerical meaning of the equality sign).
The situational solution was: Mira should get some (O) candies, … in an
addition, O means 3. The basis of this solution was the same number of Pera’s and
Mira’s candies.
The next exercise originated from the numerical meaning and asked for a
situational explanation:
Replace the “boxes” and write an appropriate story: 14 + (6 + 8) = 14 + 6 … O.
Three students wrote the stories for the left and for the right side but they did
not connect them according to the equality sign. A student’s answer:

276
A worksheet with correct comments in two languages (“=” is signed with red color).

The student wrote a story explaining the equality. Here is a translation of her
story with language mistakes, which are underlined in original text:

I had 14 apples. Next day when I went shopping I bought 6 red apples and 8 green apples. Now I
have this much apple.
Next day I decided to make pie and I had 14 apple. I made a pie but had no enough apples, so off I
went and bought 6 more. When I came back rings the telephone: guests coming to dinner! Must
make more pie! Again going to the shop and bought 8 more apples. I know I had no enough. Now I
have as much apple like the first day.

This work shows that she makes mistakes by using the language (with cases -
jabuke instead of jabuka, incorrect order of words, incomplete sentences); her
mathematical understanding of the problem is obvious and can not be denied.
The next step was using mental objects instead of real ones: the students faced
large numbers in tasks. Replace the “boxes”: 120 + (80 + 300) = 120 + 80 … O.

Arithmetic of strips
After dealing with discrete objects we used paper strips in order to repeat the
tasks above and to have a possibility to generalize the operations for “symbolic” quantity
(the length of the strip without concrete measured value). We used graph paper strips in
different colors. We agreed that 1 column of squares represented the measurement unit;
we did not care for the width of the stripe. Different given numbers were represented by
strips in different colors. Within one task we did not change the color used for the same
number.
The addition of two numbers was represented by connection of two strips; the
new (extended) strip represented the sum of them (concept). In order to connect the
strips we used white tape where we wrote the signs of operations (in order to keep in
mind the process). For an operation in parentheses we used smaller operational sign and
the strips on the both sides of this sign represent the expression in the parenthesis.

Replace the “boxes”: 4 + (6 + 3) = 4 + 6 … O. Use the paper strips for representing the expressions.

The students made the following steps:

277
Step 1: Representations of numbers: 4, 6 and 3 by cutting popper strips of 4, 6 and 3
units.

Step 2: The students connected the strips representing 6 and 3, (6 + 3 as a process):

Step 3: The students connected the representation of the number 4 with the
representation of the expression (6 + 3) using the result as a concept in the process 4 plus
(6 + 3).

Step 4: The students connected the strips representing 4 and 6, (4 + 6 as a process):

Step 5: The students compared the concept 4 + (6 + 3) and 4 + 6 by looking at the length
of the strips. To the shorter strip they had to add the strip of the length of 3 units.

Conclusion of Step 1- Step 5: … means an addition, O means 3.

In order to recognize the symmetric property of the equal sign we dealt with the
analogical task 4 + 6 + 3 = 4 + (6 … O). Next we used 2, 5, 7, 8 or 9 instead of 3, the
students discovered the general conclusion: O means always the second number in the
parentheses (formal meaning). The role of O (and of each number) can be replaced by a
strip (meta-symbolic) and we can rich the formal using a + (b + c) = a + b … c, (three
types of adding in process). The formal meaning of … can be confirmed after examining
all the three identities.

b) Dealing with the identity a + (b – c) = a + b – c

Starting again with the enactive level of representation: using marbles
Playing with marbles students gave referential meaning to these expressions:
10 + (8 – 3) and 10 + 8. We added to the first group of 10 marbles another group, which
is by 3 smaller than 8, and exactly 8 to the other group of 10 marbles. In the equation 10
+ (8 – 3) = 10 + 8 … O the operation … meant a subtraction and O could be replaced by
3. Referential meaning of 10 + (8 – 3) = 10 + 8 – 3 can be: Pera had 10 marbles
and he got another group which was by 3 smaller than a group of 8 and Mira had also 10
marbles and she firstly got 8 and after that another 3 marbles. Now they had the same
number of marbles.

278
Using stripes
The same task was represented by strips. After the
representations of the numbers 10, 8 and 3 by stripes
we defined the “strip subtraction” (for the cases, when
the minuend was bigger than the subtrahend):
- We put the subtrahend on the minuend to the left or
to the right end and stick it on it.
- We folded back the double-layered part. The
difference was represented by the remained strip.

We constructed 8 – 3 (process) and use the result for

the process of addition of 10 and (8 – 3). The sum 10
+ (8 – 3) has to be compared with the result of the
(known) addition 10+8.

The representation of 10+8 is by 3 units longer than the representation of 10 +

(8 – 3). Dealing with similar tasks (we use 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 instead of 3, the students
discover the conclusion: a + (b – c) = a + b + c.

c) Dealing with the identity a – (b + c) = a – b – c

Using multicolor sticks
The task was: Replace the “boxes” 15 – (5 + 9) = 15 – 5 O.
Playing with multicolor sticks students gave referential meaning to the
expressions 15 – (5 + 9) and 15 – 5 (always using the same colors for the same
numbers). In the first case they took away number of sticks bigger by 9 than in the
second case. Comparing the numbers of sticks after doing this it was obvious that 9
sticks should be taken away from the second group of sticks. The answer was correct: 15
– (5 + 9) = 15 – 5 – 9.
The referential meaning of the written can be: Pera had 15 sticks yesterday and
he simultaneously gave 5 to Jovan and 9 to Marko, today he has 15 sticks also and he
gives 5 to Jovan and latter 9 to Marko, so now he has the same number of sticks as
yesterday.

Using paper strips

The students made the representations of 15, 5 and 9
and joined two strips and stick the “+” sign over.
5 + 9 as a process of addition
The students used the result 5 + 9 as a concept and
constructed 15 – (5 + 9) as a process of subtraction
(sticking and folding back of the appropriate strips).
↓ ↓

279
The students constructed 15 – 5 as a process of
subtraction (sticking and folding back the appropriate
strips).

We compared the concepts of 15 – (5 + 9) and 15 – 5

and gave the conclusion:

15 – (5 + 9) is shorter by 9 than the stripe 15-5. In

order to get the same length we stuck and folded back
a part of length 9 from the strip representing 15-5.

The experiences with strips should be transferred into the world of normal
arithmetic:
15 – (5 + 9) = 15 – 5 … O.

We obtained that the equality was true if we replaced O by 9. The role of …

was determined by the operation regarding to both of values included in parentheses and
by the operation in the parentheses.

15 – (5 + 9) = 15 – 5 … O.

The sum in the parenthesis means that the members have to be manipulated on
the same way (spojiti= join both of them). Now we have a complex subtrahend (the sum
of 5 and 9). The subtraction means saviti = folding, therefore we have to fold 5 and 9,
and this means, that we made the operations (15 – 5) – 9. In this case … means a
subtraction (one has to subtract the second summand, too).
The students had no problem in the stage of generalization and were able to get
the identity which follows: a – (b + c) = a – b – c.

d) Dealing with the identity a – (b – c) = a – b + c

Using candies
The students solved the task 15 – (8 – 3) = 15 – 8 … O using candies and giving
referential meaning to the expressions: Pera and Jovan had 15 – 15 candies on the table.
Pera wanted to take 8 candies, but 3 of them fell back. Jovan took 8 candies and …. “=”
means that they still have the same number of candies. Jovan should to put 3 candies
back (+).

280
Using paper strips
The students mad the representations of 15, 8 and 3.
They stuck and folded back 3 of the strip 8).

The students stuck and folded back the result of (8-3) of the strip 15.

The students constructed 15 – 8 as a process of subtraction (sticking and folding back of

the appropriate strips).

We compared the concepts of 15 – (8 – 3) and 15 – 8 and give the conclusion:

15 – (8 – 3) is by 3 longer than the strip 15 – 8. In order to get the same length we join a
strip of length 3 to the strip representing 15-8.
This means in the terms of the arithmetic: the equality is in 15 – (8 – 3) = 15 – 8 … O
true if we replace O by 9.
The role of … is determined by the operation “fold back the part, which was already
folded,” “put back 3.”

15 – (8 – 3) = 15 – 8 … O.

The difference in the parenthesis means that the members have to be

manipulated in different ways. The complex subtrahend (the difference of 8 and 3):
folding (saviti) 8 and joining 3. In this case … means addition.
The students had no problem in the stage of generalization and were able to get
the identity which follows: a – (b – c) = a – b + c.

CONCLUSION
The use of objects, stories and strips (and the cross-connection to the algebraic
description) could promote the ability of constructing referential meaning of algebraic
expressions as well as ability of generalization, perceiving structures, and the creation of
procept. As one of the techniques to eliminate the application of malrules created by a
student is to try out whether the rule is applicable in arithmetic or real situation (method
of control). The systematical considering of all logical possibilities of these identities
should cut down creating of malrules (method of mathematics).
It was obvious that students did the tasks gladly. They approached them as a
kind of game, were also interested in their classmates’ stories and indicated to one
another noticed imperfections. Manipulation with objects helped them understand the
structures of algebraic expressions and also facilitated correction of their own

281
understanding. Finally, the complex activity during the mathematics lessons had positive
effects on the functional use of Serbian language.
Paper stripes can also be used as representation means at the beginning of
teaching equations.

REFERENCES
Bednarz, N., Kieran, C. & Lee, L. (eds.). (1996). Approaches to Algebra, Perspectives
for Research and Teaching. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Bruner, J. S. (1964). “Some Theorems on Instruction, Illustrated with Reference to
Mathematics.” Theories of Learning and Instruction: The 63rd Yearbook of the
National Society for the Study of Education. E.R. Hilgard (ed.). Chicago: University
of Chicago Press. I, 306-335.
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Towards a Theory of Instruction. Harvard University Press
Drouhard, J.-P. (2001). “Researches in Language Aspects of Algebra: A Turning Point?”
Proceedings of the 12th ICMI Study Conference the Future of the Teaching and
Learning of Algebra. H. Chick, K. Stacey, Ji. Vincent & Jo. Vincent (eds.).
Melbourne: The University of Melbourne. I, 238-242.
Gray, M. & Tall, D. (1994). “Duality, Ambiguity and Flexibility: A Proceptual View of
Simple Arithmetic.” The Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. 26 (2),
115-141.
Lakoff G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about
the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Resnick, L. B., Cauzinille-Marmeche, E., & Mathieu, J. (1987). “Understanding
Algebra.” Cognitive Processes in Mathematics. J. A. Sloboda & D. Rogers (eds.).
Oxford: Clarendon Press. 169-203.
Skemp, R. (1978). “Relational Understanding and Instrumental Understanding.”
Arithmetic Teacher. 26 (3), 9-15.
Tall, D. & Vinner, S. (1981). “Concept Image and Concept Definition in Mathematics
with Particular Reference to Limits and Continuity.” Educational Studies in
Mathematics. 12, 151-169.
Usiskin, Z. (1988). “Conceptions of School Algebra and Uses of Variables.” The Ideas
of Algebra, K-12, 1988 Yearbook of the NCTM. A. F. Coxford (ed.). Reston, VA:
NCTM. 8-19.
Vinner, S. (1994). “The Role of Definitions in the Teaching of Mathematics.” Advanced
Mathematical Thinking. D. Tall (ed.). Dodrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

282
 Management

University of Rzeszow – coordinating institution

Stefan Turnau – project coordinator
Bronisław Czarnocha – teaching research coordinator
Harrie Broekman – mathematics learning coordinator
Nicolina Malara – teaching research expert
John Mason – teaching research expert
Anna Widur – evaluator
Małgorzata Grygiel-Rożek - administrator

Partners and participants

Hungary:
University of Debrecen
Coordinator: András Ambrus
Mentors & instructors: Tünde Kántor, András Kovács, Peter Nagy, Réka
Szász
Teachers: Éva Balla, Krisztina Barczi, Aranka Engbersen, Gordana
Stankov, Béla Kallós, Bernadett Koi, Anna Kozárné Fazekas, Ildikó Pataki,
István Takács, Mariann Tóth

Italy:
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia
Coordinator: Nicolina Malara
Mentors & instructors: Annalisa Cusi, Roberta Fiorini, Loredana
Gherpelli, Rosa Iaderosa, Donatella Iannece, Sandra Marchi, Nick Maxwell,
Maria Mellone, Nicola Miolo, Romano Nasi, Giancarlo Navarra, Maria
Pezzia, Roberto Tortora
Teachers: Monica Bursi, Maria Rosaria Camarda, Marika Cavazzoni,
Stefania De Blasio, Stefano Delmonte, Barbara Esposito, Roberta Fantini,
Nicoletta Grasso, Patrizia Liguori, Chiara Lugli, Francesa Mondelli, Ida
Oliva, Annalisa Orefice, Marco Pelillo, Romano Piera, Elisa Quartieri,
Roberta Raimondi, Brunella Romano, Marina Spadea, Mariarita Tammaro,
Annamaria Torre, Mauro Trombaccia, Federica Vecchié
Poland:
University of Rzeszow
Coordinator: Stefan Turnau
Mentors & instructors: Maria Legutko, Bożena Maj, Justyna Hawro,
Magdalena Michniewicz
Teachers: Marzena Bugiel, Grażyna Cyran, Agnieszka Drąg, Katarzyna
Dymek-Nowak, Monika Holik, Jerzy Migoń, Agata Białek, Katarzyna
Radoń, Katarzyna Sasor-Dyrda, Ewa Szczerba

University of Podlasie
Coordinator: Krzysztof Mostowski
Mentors & instructors: Wacław Zawadowski, Celina Kadej, Rafał
Kołodziej, Elżbieta Urban
Teachers: Małgorzata Andrzejczyk, Jolanta Cabaj, Iwona Chrząścik, Emilia
Czapla, Włodzimierz Gadomski, Anna Łaszczyk, Zygmunt Łaszczyk,
Elżbieta Matusiak-Łuba, Alicja Przychoda, Jacek Rzępołuch, Karol
Sieńkowski, Ireneusz Szubarczyk, Sylwia Tratkiewicz, Dariusz Uchman

Portugal:
University of Lisbon
Coordinator: João Pedro da Ponte
Mentors & instructors: Hélia Oliveira, Cláudia Canha Nunes, Nuno
Candeias, António Dias Domingos, Rosário Oliveira
Teachers: Ana Isabel Silvestre Silva, Ana Sofia da Silva Mesquita de Matos,
Carmen Isabel Domingos Salvado, Elisa Maria Leal Mosquito, Guida Paula
Oliveira Rocha, Idália Maria Pereira Pesquita, Isilda de Jesus Correia
Rodrigues Pedro Marques, Neusa Cristina Vicente Branco, Sandra Isabel de
Carvalho Marques, Sara Cristina Henriques Cabral da Costa, Teresa da
Conceição Fernandes Vaz Seixas Alves Marques

Spain:
University of Barcelona
Coordinator: Joaquin Gimenez
Mentors & instructors: Carmen Burgues, Núria Rosich, Vicenç Font,
Manel Sol
Teachers: Carme Aymerich, Lluís Mora Cańellas, Jordi Comellas, Iolanda
Guevara, Pili Royo, Montserrat Torra, Berta Vila, Xavier Vilella