The Impact of The Design of Learning Spaces

+ MODEL
Frontiers of Architectural Research xxx (xxxx) xxx
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/foar
REVIEW
The impact of the design of learning spaces

on attention and memory from a
neuroarchitectural approach: A systematic
review
Mar Llorens-Gámez a,*, Juan Luis Higuera-Trujillo b,
Carla Sentieri Omarrementeria a, Carmen Llinares b
a
Department of Architectural Projects, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia 46022, Spain
b
Institute for Research and Innovation in Bioengineering (i3B), Universitat Politècnica de València,
Valencia 46022, Spain
Received 27 July 2021; received in revised form 5 November 2021; accepted 7 December 2021
KEYWORDS Abstract Enriched environments in animal models have demonstrated that exposure to an
Built environment; optimal stimulus improves behavior, cognition, and genomics. However, the evidence base
Neuroarchitecture; for the neurophysiological influence of human environment enrichment has not been exten-
Cognition; sively studied. This systematic review compiles indicators about the effect of built, indoor en-
Attention; vironments on the cognitive processes of memory and attention in humans. This work pursues
Memory; two main objectives: (1) to define current knowledge and the methods that are useful and
Learning spaces identify whether previously published studies indicate consistencies and (2) to report the ap-
proaches and strategies that can be used in evaluating cognitive processes affected by environ-
ment response. Results of this systematic review show that (1) form and geometry, (2) space
distribution and context, (3) color and texture, (4) height, width, and enclosure, (5) transition
and circulation, and (6) light, sound, and temperature have an impact on memory and/or
attention, and they can be assessed objectively. Despite all the advances in this field, meth-
odological limitations and a lack of cross-validated standard protocols are found. Therefore,
future research is necessary to provide a deep insight into how human cognition can be height-
ened by the environment to which it is exposed.
ª 2021 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf
of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Llorens-Gámez).
Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2021.12.002
2095-2635/ª 2021 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article as: M. Llorens-Gámez, J.L. Higuera-Trujillo, C.S. Omarrementeria et al., The impact of the design of learning
spaces on attention and memory from a neuroarchitectural approach: A systematic review, Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2021.12.002
+ MODEL
M. Llorens-Gámez, J.L. Higuera-Trujillo, C.S. Omarrementeria et al.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. Material and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.1. Data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.2. Selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.3. Data synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.1. Impact of built-environment design on cognitive processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.1.1. Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.1.2. Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2. Materials (environmental and experimental conditions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.1. Real-life environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.2. Simulation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.3. Methods (outcomes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.3.1. Subjective outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.3.2. Neurophysiological outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.4. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.5. Interventions (variables tested) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.5.1. Form and geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.5.2. Space distribution and context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.5.3. Color and texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.5.4. Height, width, and enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.5.5. Transition and circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.5.6. Light, sound, and temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.6. Control/comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.7. Risk of bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
1. Introduction cognitive systems stand out in this field as the main

mechanisms involved in learning processes (Ritter et al.,
As modern medicine has evolved into an evidence-based 2014). These studies are based mainly on learning pro-
practice (Sackett, 1997), other disciplines, such as archi- cesses, evidence, and academic results (Barrett et al.,
tecture, have developed along the same lines (Viets, 2009). 2013, 2017; Byers et al., 2014; Weinstein, 1977).
This evolution is led by connecting physical environments The literature in this field traditionally includes studies
and health outcomes using an evidence-based design (EBD) that have been performed in either real-life classrooms or
method (Steglitz et al., 2015). EBD has spread from laboratories (Benmohamed et al., 2004; Patten and Michelle
healthcare buildings (Jamshidi et al., 2020) to other func- Newhart, 2018). However, both scenarios have limitations.
tional types of spaces, such as classrooms, which is one of First, studies conducted in real-life classrooms cannot con-
the most studied environments at present (Oblinger and trol or isolate variables (Bovy, 1981; Polio, 1996). Second,
Lippincott, 2006; Lippman, 2000). In addition, learning much effort is needed to modify or build the possible vari-
spaces are essential in this field because cognitive ability ables in laboratory studies (Rizzo et al., 2000).
can only be enhanced at an early age (Kremen et al., 2019). Another traditional limitation concerns the methodol-
Nonetheless, general cognitive ability and specific cognitive ogy used in all these studies regardless of the scenario.
performance must be distinguished at a given time (Plomin, Thus, subjective methodologies, such as self-evaluated
1999). The former may be relatively static, but the latter is rating scales or questionnaires, have been used exten-
highly environmentally dependent (Thompson et al., 2017). sively in this field (Naismith et al., 2015). Subjective
This environment dependence is precisely the main interest measurements are essential instruments for understanding
in this review. the perception of experiences, but they alone are not
The premise for studying learning spaces is that built enough to quantify, compare, and explain this impact
environments affect cognitive processes, such as attention (Agnello et al., 2015). In addition, certain authors have
and memory (Anderson, 2000; Marchand et al., 2014). argued that such assessments show variations in ethnicity
Memory and attention are the basis for cognition, and these and cultural groups in tests because of the language used
(Öhman et al., 2000). Another problem is that the human
2
+ MODEL
body sometimes reacts to a stimulus before the input can tools and methodologies that can simulate and measure the
be processed consciously (Eberhard, 2009; Nanda et al., impact of learning space design on cognitive processes.
2013). Consequently, how the built environment and its
design can affect perception has not been systematically
defined (Akil et al., 2016; Stevens et al., 2019). This issue 2. Material and methods
used to be studied from a one-discipline approach with no
well-defined correlations. A systematic and rigorous methodology has been adopted in
However, many multidisciplinary research teams have our research. The steps taken and their criteria are based
recently emerged with support from new technological ad- on the principles described in the Cochrane Handbook
vances in a mature industry (Papale et al., 2016). This new (Cochrane, 2020). This section covers the data collection,
multidisciplinary approach, called neuroarchitecture by the inclusion criteria, and data synthesis.
Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (Sternberg and
Wilson, 2006), combines neuroscience and architecture, 2.1. Data collection
even though these two fields do not have many features in
common (Francis Mallgrave, 2009; Pallasmaa et al., 2013). The data were collected by searching for the most common
Architects have traditionally relied on perception and in- strings of words (see Table 1) that complied with the following
stinct rather than the scientific and experimental methods criteria: studies reviewed by peers, written in English, and
on which neuroscience studies are based (Isabella Bower, published in the last 20 years (from 2000 to 2020). This period
2019; Waldman et al., 2019). However, the latest advances includes the most remarkable work in this field because of
in neuroscience can now explain how our perception of the technological developments and reflects recent enthusiasm
world and how we explore it can affect our emotions, for this interdisciplinary field. The Publish or Perish software
problem-solving ability, and cognition (Rizzo et al., 2009; (Harzing, 2020) was used for the search.
Bower et al., 2019; Choo et al., 2017; Escera et al., 2002; The final list of search strings was filtered for 6 months
Landau et al., 2007; Radwan and Ergan, 2017). One great after examining several databases in the areas of architec-
advantage of these neuroscientific methods is, for example, ture, social science, and neurosciences (Web of Science,
that they allow the involuntary responses of the subjects to PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Avery Index). After
be measured (de Kort et al., 2003; Parsons et al., 2007). identification followed by screening, 164 documents focused
Moreover, the use of virtual reality (VR) combined with on attention and memory were selected for examination.
neuroscientific methods for neuronal, psychological, and
physical outcome measurement in situ is a remarkable 2.2. Selection criteria
advancement in this field (Hu and Roberts, 2020; Higgins and
Green, 2011). VR can solve the problem of controlling and
This systemic review includes any research or study that in-
isolating the design variables of built environments (Ansari
vestigates the impact of built environment design variables.
and Coch, 2006). Thus, the convergence of literature
The selection criteria applied in this systematic review were
about neuroscience and architecture in recent years has
chosen to ensure a rigorous and accurate revision of the
revealed a wide range of ideas and theories, giving an insight
impact of learning space design on attention and memory.
into this field (Karakas and Yildiz, 2020).
Attention and memory were chosen because they are essen-
Despite all the advances in this field (Higuera-Trujillo
tial to achieving satisfactory academic performance in
et al., 2021; Karakas and Yildiz, 2020), a dearth of studies
cognitive functions (Fenollar et al., 2007). Attention is a pro-
that systematically classify neuroscientific methods to
cess of selecting and controlling processing information
analyze the impact of built environment design on cognitive
(Bargh, 1982), whereas memory is an active process in which
processes is found. This systematic review has two main
information is retained at short, medium, or long term and
objectives. The first one is to outline the current landscape
gets updated (Nadel and Hardt, 2010). These functions affect
of recent research demonstrating the link between the
learning in an interdependent way, and their relationship has
design of learning spaces and specific cognitive processes,
been extensively studied (Chun and Turk-Browne, 2007; Lyon
such as attention and memory. The second is to explore the
et al., 1996; Robinson, 1995; Williams, 1999).
The studies must fulfill several criteria to be selected for
the review. First, they have to feature subjects’ attention
Table 1 Search strings used. Results were updated on and memory exposed to controlled conditions of design
July 25, 2021. variables (geometry, color, and light) in either a simulated
Search String or real-life built environment. Second, they have to
(Cognition) AND (Neuro-architecture OR Architecture OR describe a nervous system response and/or psychometric
Neuroscience) methods of self-reported perception state. In the latter
(Attention OR Memory) AND (Neuro-architecture OR instance, an extension of different methodologies using
Architecture OR Neuroscience) AND (Design variable) both objective and subjective measures was searched
(Attention OR Memory) AND (Neuro-architecture OR because of the limited literature available. The descriptors
Architecture OR Neuroscience) AND (Learning space) of central and/or autonomic nervous system responses used
(Attention OR Memory) AND (Neuro-architecture) in the selected studies include electroencephalography
(Attention OR Memory) AND (Design variables) AND (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
(Learning space) Animal models were excluded from the present work
because of the actual scientific evidence obtained from
3
+ MODEL
studies of human populations. Participants belong to specific cognitive processes (Baek and Choi, 2002; Barrett
healthy or clinical population groups. Although this review et al., 2013, 2015, 2017; Byers et al., 2014; Tanner, 2009).
aims to seek out studies using random samples, the little The excluded research provides useful knowledge about the
literature found focuses on cohorts of participants of a impact of classroom size or layout. Thus, this review focuses
similar age, background education, geographical location, specifically on controlled cognitive processes. Other notable
and/or ethnic group. papers excluded are related to studies about emotional re-
sponses to geometry (Banaei et al., 2019; Shemesh et al.,
2.3. Data synthesis 2017), materiality (Tsunetsugu et al., 2002; Zhang et al.,
2017), spatial distribution and context (Zou et al., 2019),
The first author of this review listed the title and abstract and lighting (Castilla et al., 2018a; 2018b), among others.
of the publications in order to select the studies whose Although stress and emotion are influential, incorporating
entire text was to be evaluated. The entire process was them into experimental procedures and conditions can
supervised and checked by the other authors. Thirty-seven modify brain function. Moreover, the magnitude of
papers were eligible for a full-text revision. The first author emotional response is not the objective of this review.
independently performed data extraction using an adap- However, the excluded studies include valid methodologies
tation of the Cochrane method (Cochrane, 2020) to compile for determining the impact of environment design on the
information about the aim of the study, quotations, impact human experience of comfort, stress reduction (Ergan et al.,
factor, materials and methods (participants, stimulus, 2019; Higuera-Trujillo et al., 2020; Pourbagher et al., 2020),
method, and data analysis), results, and notes with addi- and emotional perceptions (Shemesh et al., 2021;
tional information to consider. The authors analyzed the Tsunetsugu et al., 2002).
dataset individually. These procedures decreased the
number of studies included in this review to 14.
The selection process (Fig. 1) used the Preferred 3. Results
Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
(PRISMA) method (Moher et al., 2009). The Cochrane risk- After the thorough sorting of data, only 14 studies that met
of-bias tool was used in this study to define the quality of the inclusion criteria remained. The impact on cognitive
the selected papers. The findings discuss the observations processes, methods (recorded outcomes), materials
made after the bias study (Higgins et al., 2020). (environment and experimental conditions), population,
The selection process eliminated two studies performed interventions (variables tested), control/comparator,
in real-life classrooms that only reported studenteprofessor and risk of bias of the selected studies were analyzed (see
interaction: one is based on the class size method Table 2).
(Blatchford et al., 2011), and the other is based on the The selected studies were conducted from 2007 to 2021.
distribution of space and furniture (Cardellino et al., 2018). Most of them were published in the last 6 years. This period
Another seven studies excluded were based on academic reflects the recent boom in this type of interdisciplinary
results instead of a specific cognitive process; one of them research.
also focused on health parameters (Küller and Lindsten,
1992). Some authors assumed that an enhanced learning 3.1. Impact of built-environment design on
process or academic results are related to improved atten- cognitive processes
tion (Stojic et al., 2020) and cognitive processes. However,
notable studies about the impact of classroom design on The selected studies show that interior design variables can
academic results or specific tasks have been excluded from impact the specific cognitive processes of attention and
this review because they fail to demonstrate the links to memory, the two mainstays of the learning process.
Fig. 1 Selection process using PRISMA.
4
+ MODEL
Table 2 Classification of studies included in qualitative synthesis according to impact on cognitive processes (attention and
memory), methods (psychometric and neurophysiological outcomes), and materials (environment and experimental conditions).
Studies Attention Memory Subjective Neurophysiological Real Simulation
outcomes outcomes environment systems
Banaei et al., 2017 x x x x
Djebbara et al., 2019 x x x x x
Duyan & Ünver, 2016 x x x
Elbaiuomy et al., 2018 x x x x
Llinares et al., 2021a x x x x x
Llinares et al., 2021b x x x x x
Marchand et al., 2014 x x x
Meyers-Levy & Rui, 2007 x x x
Min & Lee, 2020 x x x
Vartanian et al., 2015 x x x x
Vecchiato et al., 2015a x x x x
Vecchiato et al., 2015b x x x x
Xiong et al., 2018 x x x x
Yang & Jeon, 2020 x x x
Cognitive processes Methods: Outcomes Materials: environment
3.1.1. Attention acknowledged that the lack of a thorough analysis of the

The cognitive processes involved in attention were measurements of attention and working memory is a
analyzed in 11 of the selected studies through different limitation.
procedures and techniques. In one study, attention was Apart from psychometric measurements, neurological
measured with a classic Stroop test (Stroop, 1935) at the techniques were also used in eight studies to analyze
end of each trial; the authors found that the attention of attention performance. The most widely used method is
participants is comparable in different environments, but EEG. One study used EEG to assess the potential event-
the potential differences in EEG were not explained (Banaei related activity in participants during different experi-
et al., 2017). Another psychological attention task similar ments involving passable transition spaces (Djebbara et al.,
to the auditory continuous performance test (Seidman 2019). The authors found that passable transitions are
et al., 1998) was used in two studies to quantify the num- associated with increased attention processing in the early
ber of errors and the reaction time to target stimuli evoked potential complex. The cortical measures also
(Llinares et al., 2021b, 2021a). Another test to evaluate the showed the effect-related properties of the environment
attention of participants is the Bourdon Attention Test guide to visual attention. Two other studies about the same
(Grewel, 1953). It was used in one study of how classroom topic explored the effect of furnishings in an interior space
wall colors affect students’ attention (Duyan and Ünver, by also using EEG (Vecchiato et al., 2015a, 2015b). The
2016). In this experimentation, the test was repeated results showed that theta oscillations are employed in
every five weeks, one for each color tested. The results memory, focused attention, and positive emotions. Hence,
showed that red walls negatively affect students’ atten- the improvement of the theta frontal midline stimulation
tion; in comparison, high scores were achieved with purple may be correlated with internalized attention. Attention is
walls. Another study used an attention-oriented and also measured with EEG in two other studies that show how
number-searching test to assess the impact of the physical EEG-C3-Beta and EEG-CZ-Beta metrics are associated with
environment (i.e., temperature, noise, and illuminance) on increased attention and cognitive performance; the high
the attention of persons using the learning space (Xiong beta band (21e30 Hz) is associated with alertness, whereas
et al., 2018). The results indicated that attention obtains EEG-CZ-Highbeta metrics is an indicator of attention judg-
the highest scores in a cool learning space, and a quiet ment (Llinares et al., 2021b, 2021a). These two studies also
environment (<50 dB) is necessary for better performance. used heart rate variability (HRV) as a physiological measure
Moreover, a well-lit environment can modulate attention because of its relation to attentional control. The metrics
processes regarding interaction with other physical pa- were obtained with low frequency (related to sympathetic
rameters. In a completely different study, several envi- activity and increased arousal) and high frequency (related
ronmental factors were controlled (light, sound, and to parasympathetic activity and decreased arousal). Apart
temperature) simultaneously, and different psychometric from studies using EEG, we also found a study that exam-
methods were performed to analyze students’ perceptions ined the impact of ceiling height and perception of enclo-
and learning (Marchand et al., 2014). This study conducted sure via 2D stimuli and fMRI (Vartanian et al., 2015). The
a built environment experience survey, which asked ques- authors found that curvilinear spaces with high ceilings
tions about attention during reading and listening tasks. attractively stimulate neural systems in the attention and
The results showed that a learning space with a low ceiling visuospatial perception of the dorsal stream, and the
may have a negative influence on adult learning during anterior midcingulate cortex stimulates and enhances exit
listening and other tasks. However, this study decisions in enclosed spaces. Another independent study
5
+ MODEL
used a computer analysis to identify a relationship between classroom lighting on students’ working memory (Yang and
geometric forms and architectural spaces, their construc- Jeon, 2020). The authors found that working memory is
tion materials, and users’ consciousness; then, the related considerably affected by correlated color temperature and
user’s brainwaves were identified (Elbaiuomy et al., 2018). illuminance. This study also revealed a gender bias because
The authors reported findings for both attention and women are more sensitive to glare and scored lower than
memory processes, among others. These findings revealed men. The researchers also determined that the influence of
that attention can be enhanced in indoor settings built of optimal correlated color temperature is greater than that of
concrete, steel, or glass. All the findings of these selected illuminance because the former provides better lighting
studies that involve improved attentional processes are comfort than the latter. Other researchers investigated the
graphically resumed in Fig. 2. impact of ceiling height on memory in their third experiment
via specific tasks (Meyers-Levy and Rui, 2007). They found
3.1.2. Memory that low ceilings trigger an impression of confinement. A
Memory is studied in seven of the selected papers using memory-measure indicator increases the mean number of
different methods. Two of the studies used psychological items recalled by category. On the contrary, spaces with high
memory tasks similar to the Deese, Roediger, and McDermott ceilings stimulate sensations related to freedom. A large
paradigm experiments (Beato and Dı́ez, 2011). The authors retraction clustering is a proven indicator of relational pro-
found that cold-hued classroom walls and narrower class- cessing. Another study that used computer simulation could
rooms are associated with superior memory performance. In identify a relationship between square and cylindrical spaces
addition to psychological tasks, EEG measurements were made of specific alpha waves that can improve the con-
performed in these two studies to analyze memory perfor- sciousness status of learning depending on memorization
mance; these measurements mainly include EEG-C3-Beta (Elbaiuomy et al., 2018). Finally, the impact of color contrast
and EEG-CZ-Beta metrics, which are associated with cogni- on spatial memory was investigated in the third study (Min
tive performance, and EEG-F3-Highbeta metrics, which is an and Lee, 2020). Spatial memory was evaluated in terms of
indicator of working memory (Llinares et al., 2021b, 2021a). scale and object detection rate by requiring the participants
Another study employed a memory-oriented task of recog- to map the space experienced. In this experiment, color
nizing meaningless images to assess the impact of physical contrast and hue do not have a considerable impact on
surroundings on the memory of persons using the learning spatial memory. Nevertheless, remarkable memorization of
space (Xiong et al., 2018). The researchers found that space elements was achieved in high-contrast systems, and a
memory is considerably affected by the crossover between substantial difference in the recall of details related to
lighting and temperature, whereas stimulating participants furniture and lights was achieved when the impact of color
by increasing the volume of noise does not facilitate hues was contrasted. The results also revealed that
memory-oriented tasks. One study used the Wechsler Adult compared with cold-color systems, warm- and neutral-color
Intelligence Scale-IV (Wechsler, 2005) to assess the impact of systems improve the spatial memory of the subjects. All the
Fig. 2 Graphical abstract of the findings of selected studies about design variables that can improve attention processes (Created
with BioRender.com).
6
+ MODEL
Fig. 3 Graphical abstract of the findings of selected studies about design variables that can improve memory processes (Created
with BioRender.com).
findings of these selected studies that show an improvement width or length of the area. Whether this study was per-
of memory processes are graphically resumed in Fig. 3. formed in a space where comfort parameters were
controlled remains unclear.
3.2. Materials (environmental and experimental
conditions) 3.2.2. Simulation systems
Seven studies were performed with simulation systems
This section considers studies of physical settings. The (Table 2). One of the selected studies used the 2D images of
selected papers focused on specific design variables, such as built, indoor environments inside a room with magnetic
(1) form and geometry, (2) spatial distribution and context, resonance imaging (MRI) (Vartanian et al., 2015). No indoor
(3) color and texture, (4) ceiling height, (5) transitivity and environmental quality (IEQ) data for temperature, light,
circulation, and (6) light, sound, and temperature. Table 3 and relative humidity were reported in this study. However,
lists the design variables controlled in the environment and the MRI room presumably met a minimum of the clinical
the experimental conditions of each study. environment control requirements. Another selected study
used computational skills to design a set of six basic geo-
3.2.1. Real-life environment metric forms with the same volume (Elbaiuomy et al.,
Eight studies were performed in real learning environments 2018). The researchers reported a natural air environment
(Table 2). Two studies were conducted in a real-life envi- but without any specifications. The other studies used 3D
ronment focused on lighting, sound, and temperature environments designed with VR techniques (Table 3a).
(Marchand et al., 2014; Xiong et al., 2018). Another study Whether comfort parameters were carefully monitored and
was performed in an environment-controlled classroom controlled during the experiments in these studies is not
that only analyzed the lighting factors (Yang and Jeon, known. However, one of the research groups reported that
2020). These studies are the only ones that reported all experimental research works were performed in the
these parameters in the space (Table 3a). Another study same place, time slots, and noise and temperature condi-
analyzed the impact of wall colors in a real classroom on tions (Llinares et al., 2021b).
users’ attention (Duyan and Ünver, 2016). In addition to
color (hue, value, and saturation), natural and artificial 3.3. Methods (outcomes)
lightings were also controlled in the classrooms to define
the experimental conditions. A study of the impact of in- Given the method used, different outcomes were analyzed
door physical surroundings on learning processes was per- across the array of the selected study designs. These re-
formed in an environment-controlled university classroom. ported measurements were classified into subjective and
Another selected study conducted in a real physical room neurophysiological outcomes (Table 2).
focused on the impact of ceiling height (Meyers-Levy and
Rui, 2007). This study was performed in four identical 3.3.1. Subjective outcomes
interior spaces, except for their ceiling height. The re- Various self-reported measures were used across the array
searchers only reported the height without specifying the of research designs. These measures consisted of point
7
Table 3 Experimental studies (a): The population characteristics and environmental conditions recorded in the studies include gender, study size, mean age, standard
deviation, methodology, tested variables, and experience method, EEG studies (b): The parameters and conditions from EEG experiments used to report neurophysiological
reaction correlations include brand of device, cap analysis software, system type, number of electrodes/channels, sampling rate, band-pass filter, and impedance. The
possibility of movement was also recorded because several experiments allowed it, and this approach may have affected the data gathered.
Experimental studies Population Intervention
(a), Year
M F Study Age Methodology Variables being Experience Lighting Temp o C Noise Dimension
size SD/(Range) tested method (lux)/(K)/(lm/m2) (dB) (W x L x H m)/(m3)
Banaei et al., 2017 7 8 15* 28.6 2.6 EEG & Form and 3D Virtual HTC NR NR NR 5 7.5 x 3
Psychometric geometry Vive (head
mounted)

Djebbara et al., 2019 11 9 19* 28.1 6.2 EEG & Transition and 3D Virtual NR NR NR 9 5 x NR
Psychometric circulation Windows Mixed
Reality (head
mounted)
Duyan & Ünver, 2016 78 74 152 8e9 Psychometric Colour and Physical room 500 lm/m2 NR NR NR
texture (real classroom)
Elbaiuomy et al., 2018 e e e e Simulation Form and CST Microware NR NR NR 1 m3
software geometry Studio simulation
software
Llinares et al., 2021a 51 39 90 23.56 3.433 EEG & Height and 3D Virtual HTC 4000 K NR NR 16.50 8.80 x 3.80
Psychometric enclosure Vive (head
+
mounted)
MODEL
Llinares et al., 2021b 91 69 160 23.56 3.433 EEG & Colour and 3D Virtual HTC 4000 K NR NR 16.50 8.80 x 3.80
8
Psychometric texture Vive (head

mounted)
Marchand et al., 2014 95 62 158** (17e49) Psychometric Lighting, sound Physical room 500/2500 lux 22.2/26.6 35/65 6.4 9.4 x 3
and temperature (controlled
laboratory)
Meyers-Levy & Rui, 2007 NR NR 164 NR Psychometric Height and Physical room NR NR NR W x L x 3/2.4
enclosure
Min & Lee, 2020 39 75 114 22.32 Psychometric Colour and 3D Virtual NR NR NR 15 6 x NR/9.5
texture environment 6.5 x NR
videos Unreal
Engine 4.18
Vartanian et al., 2015 6 12 18 23.39 4.49 fMRI & Height and 2D Image in fMRI NR NR NR NR
Psychometric enclosure Signa Excite HD
Vecchiato et al., 7 5 12 26.8 2.4 EEG & Space 3D Virtual CAVE NR NR NR 3 3 2.5
2015a, b Psychometric distribution and using 3DS Max
context 2011 software
Xiong et al., 2018 5 5 10 20e24 Psychometric Light, sound and Physical room 60/300/2200 lux 17/22/27 40/50/60/70 11.7 9 x 3
temperature (controlled
classroom)
Yang & Jeon, 2020 30 30 60 20e25 Psychometric Light Physical room 650/1050 lux; 25 41 5.22 8.17 x 3.4
(illuminance and (controlled 3000/4000/5700 K
correlated classroom)
colour
temperature)
+ MODEL
scales, questionnaires, analysis of spatial mapping, Stroop

Movement allowed Color and Word Test (Stroop, 1935), Self-Assessment
Manikin (SAM; Bradley and Lang, 1994), Bourdon Atten-
tion Test (Grewel, 1953), and semantic differential. Seven
of the fourteen selected studies used these subjective
outcomes in addition to neurophysiological outcomes,
Yes
No
No
No
whereas six studies used only these psychometrical
methods. Another study also analyzed behavioral data by
recording the reaction time (Djebbara et al., 2019).
Impedance
Experience, dominance, arousal, novelty, familiarity,

comfort, mood, pleasantness, beauty judgments, and
<15 kU
<10 kU
<10 kU
approach-exit decisions were the dimensions considered
NR
in these measures. The outcomes of these studies were

obtained posttest or during exposure, except for the
outcomes of one study without participants. Additionally,
one study assessed attention using the Stroop virtual test
No electrodes/channels
(Banaei et al., 2017), whereas the other two studies

measured the sense of presence through a SUS question-
naire (Llinares et al., 2021b, 2021a). Different types of
tasks were used in some studies with different objectives.
In one study (Marchand et al., 2014), a test passage and a
19/24
comprehension assessment were performed using a sen-

128
64
tence verification task (Royer et al., 1979). This study also

9
performed specific learning tasks of listening and reading,

whereas another study performed different categoriza-
hp Z 0.016 Hz;
Sampling rate/
hp Z 0.2 Hz;
hp Z 0.5 Hz;
hp Z 0.5 Hz;
tion, attention, memory tasks, and other subjective out-

lp Z 250 Hz
lp Z 40 Hz
lp Z 40 Hz
lp Z 45 Hz
comes (Meyers-Levy and Rui, 2007). Another study

1000 Hz/
Filtering
500 Hz/
256 Hz/
256 Hz/
required participants to sketch the proportion, size, and

shape of the experienced environment and its furniture to
analyze spatial memory (Min and Lee, 2020).
Wet/Dry System
3.3.2. Neurophysiological outcomes

All the studies performing neurophysiological methods
also used psychological methods, except for one study
Wet
Wet
Wet
Dry
that was conducted without population (Table 3a). Two of

these studies observed the correlations between the
psychological and neurophysiological metrics (Llinares
et al., 2021b, 2021a). This approach constitutes relevant
progress in the neuroarchitecture field. Regarding the
methodology used, the most common practice used to
measure objective neurophysiological response is EEG
techniques (Table 3b). Wet electrode systems (EB Neuro,
EASYCAP, b-Alert x10, and BEMicro) were used in five of
EEG parameters & conditions
the studies, and only one study used a dry electrode sys-
tem (EegoSports). The EEG studies and their data collec-
b-Alert 10 with EEGLAB
tion, protocols, and devices/technology used for each

EASYCAP with EEGLAB
EegoSports with ANT

Brand and software
study are shown in Table 3. The band-pass filter data and

Neuro and EEGLAB
EMicro, EBNeuro
sampling rates are diverse across the publications,

whereas the number of electrodes varies from 9 to 128.
with EEGLAB
These differences indicate various neurophysiological

data collection methods used across the selected studies.
However, the impedance was kept below 10 (Djebbara
et al., 2019; Vecchiato et al., 2015b) and 15 kU (Banaei
et al., 2019). Another method of compiling central neu-
Llinares et al., 2021a, b
EEG studies (b), Year
Djebbara et al., 2019
NR Z Not reported.
ral system data used is fMRI (Vartanian et al., 2015). One

Banaei et al., 2017
study also explored the impact of geometric spaces and

Vecchiato et al.,
their construction materials on users’ brainwaves via

2015a, b
computer software (CST Microwave Studio) (Elbaiuomy

et al., 2018). The results of these studies cannot be
compared because different techniques were used in each
study.
9
+ MODEL
Table 4 Findings of selected studies after qualitative review according to tested variables that affect memory and attention:
(1) form and geometry, (2) space distribution and context, (3) color and texture, (4) height, width, and enclosure, (5) transition
and circulation, (6) light, sound, and temperature.
Studies Findings
Reference Variable Attention Memory
Banaei et al., 2017 Form and Curvilinear interior spaces cause NS
geometry higher cognitive and emotional
levels whereas rectilinear interior
spaces contribute to lower
satisfaction and excitement in
participants.
Djebbara et al., 2019 Transition and Early sensory brain activity varies NS
circulation as a function of affordances when
discovering the environment and
before actual movement.
Movement preceded by negative,
motor-related component is
dependent on affordances.
Duyan & Ünver, 2016 Colour and Students’ attention is higher when NS
texture walls are purple (5P 7/8), followed
by blue (5B 7/8), green (5G 7/8),
yellow (5Y 7/8) and red (5R 7/8).
Elbaiuomy et al., 2018 Form and Attention is enhanced in an indoor Memory can be enhanced in a square or
geometry space built of steel, concrete, or cylinder space built of concrete.
glass. Conical, glass spaces and square,
wooden spaces are better for
concentrating and retaining information.
Llinares et al., 2021a Height and The classroom width significantly The classroom width significantly
enclosure impacts on psychological and impacts on psychological and
neurophysiological attention neurophysiological memory metrics.
metrics. Wider classrooms are Wider classrooms are associated with
associated with poorer poorer performance and lower
performance and lower emotional emotional arousal. Psychological and
arousal. Psychological and neurophysiological metrics are
neurophysiological metrics are correlated.
correlated.
Llinares et al., 2021b Colour and Student’s attention tasks have Student’s memory tasks have higher
texture higher results in classrooms with results in classrooms with cold-hued
cold-hued colors (between colors (between yellowish green and
yellowish green and purple, 5GY, purple, 5GY, 5BG, 5 PB, and 5P).
5BG, 5 PB, and 5P).
Neurophysiological results
indicated that cold-hued colors
elicited significantly higher
activation.
Marchand et al., 2014 Light, sound Conditions of To C, sound and light NS
and outside the comfort zone (OCZ)
temperature affects listening tasks negatively
but has no impact on reading
tasks.
Meyers-Levy and Rui, 2007 Height and NS Ceiling height can influence specific
enclosure concepts: space with high ceiling
stimulates primarily rational processing;
and space with low ceiling stimulates
item-specific processing.
Min and Lee, 2019 Colour and NS Memory is enhanced in spaces with high-
texture contrast colour combinations.
Vartanian et al., 2015 Height and Spaces with a high ceiling and NS
enclosure curvilinear geometry are more
10
+ MODEL
Table 4 (continued )
Studies Findings
Reference Variable Attention Memory
attractive and stimulate areas
involved in visual and spatial
perception. Restricted movement
and restricted fields of vision, as in
spaces with low ceilings, prompt
emotional responses that enhance
exit decisions.
Vecchiato et al., 2015a, b Space Internalized attention may be NS
distribution correlated with the improvement
and context of the theta frontal midline
stimulation. During focused
attention, memory and positive
emotion process, the Theta
neuronal oscillations are
employed.
Xiong et al., 2018 Light, sound Thermoneutral, fairly quiet, and Thermoneutral, quiet and bright are the
and moderately bright are the optimal optimal physical conditions for
temperature physical condition for problem- perception-oriented tasks, whereas
solving processes, whereas cool, warm, quiet and moderately bright are
fairly quiet and bright are the the optimal physical conditions for
optimal physical conditions for memory-oriented tasks.
attention-oriented tasks.
Yang & Jeon, 2020 Light, sound NS The optimal colour temperature lighting
and comfort for learning spaces is 4000 K.
temperature Satisfaction, acceptance, and
perception are not affected. Women are
more sensitive to glare. Optimal colour
temperature has more impact on
learning than illuminance.
NS Z Not Studied.
3.4. Population some specific requirements. In seven studies, normal or

corrected-to-normal vision was specified for the subjects
Participants were not filtered by gender, age, or cultural (Banaei et al., 2017; Djebbara et al., 2019; Llinares et al.,
background during the selection process (Table 3a). In 2021b, 2021a; Vartanian et al., 2013, 2015; Yang and Jeon,
total, 972 individuals participated in the experimental 2020). Three studies performed pretest screenings, one of
studies. Population characteristics are shown in Table 3. which revealed a color-blind participant (Duyan and Ünver,
Only six of the selected studies showed the average age 2016; Min and Lee, 2020; Yang and Jeon, 2020). One study
(Banaei et al., 2017; Djebbara et al., 2019; Llinares et al., required specific conditions, such as enough sleep, regular
2021b, 2021a; Min and Lee, 2020; Vartanian et al., 2013, diet, and clothing, to minimize individual differences
2015). One of them did not calculate the standard deviation (Xiong et al., 2018). Two studies required self-assessed
(Min and Lee, 2020). All of these studies were performed right handedness (Vartanian et al., 2013, 2015). Without
with university students, except for the one that involved further explanation, the subjects in five studies were
primary school students (Duyan and Ünver, 2016), and described as “healthy” or “neurologically healthy” (Banaei
another study, which used computational skills with no et al., 2017; Djebbara et al., 2019; Vartanian et al., 2013,
participants (Elbaiuomy et al., 2018). Therefore, we 2015; Vecchiato et al., 2015a, 2015b). In four of all the
analyzed different age ranges in this review (see Table 3). studies, the participants were remunerated (Djebbara
Ethnic and cultural precedence was described only in one et al., 2019; Meyers-Levy and Rui, 2007; Min and Lee,
study (Marchand et al., 2014). In the other two studies, the 2020; Yang and Jeon, 2020). Only one study required par-
precedence was a criterion used to avoid any cultural ef- ticipants to have previous experience or exposure to avoid
fects (Llinares et al., 2021b, 2021a). In another study, the effects of environmental inadaptability (Xiong et al.,
participants were classified by sociocultural and economic 2018). Three studies specified the academic background
backgrounds (Duyan and Ünver, 2016). Participant eligi- (Djebbara et al., 2019; Zou et al., 2019) or the grade point
bility criteria comprise common and general standards and average of the participants (Park and Choi, 2014). In all 14
11
+ MODEL
selected publications, the average number of subjects is 81 style and distribution of furnishings in interior spaces
(SD, 65.8). The use of statistical analysis to assess the (Vecchiato et al., 2015a, 2015b). The context was defined
appropriate number of subjects for valid statistics is not as “empty,” “modern,” or “cutting-edge.” Both publica-
documented in any study. Only two publications identified tions used independent component analysis with only
r-value and z-score (Vartanian et al., 2013, 2015), whereas artifact-free trials considered in the studies. Time-
r-value and correlation coefficients were reported in five frequency evaluation and topographical statistical maps
EEG publications (Banaei et al., 2017; Djebbara et al., were used to measure power spectral density on individu-
2019; Llinares et al., 2021b, 2021a; Vecchiato et al., ally defined bands and widths that used the individual alpha
2015b). One study reported Cronbach a values to ensure frequency (IAF): q (ranging from IAF 0.4 to IAF 0.8) Hz,
the reliability of the measurement scale (Leung and Fung, a (IAF 0.8, IAF 1.2) Hz, and m (IAF, IAF 1.2) Hz bands.
2005). Another study used ARC scores and p values to Mass univariate analysis reported high q strength in the left
determine the clustering ratio (Meyers-Levy and Rui, 2007). and frontal areas in interiors with self-reported height
The remaining studies only presented p values (Marchand presence scores. a and m band stimulation was reported but
et al., 2014; Min and Lee, 2020; Park and Choi, 2014). not sustained throughout the frontal and central areas. The
increased activity of q in the frontal midline and the major
3.5. Interventions (variables tested) loss of synchronization in the frontal and left m band were
correlated with height comfort scores. The authors
Different variables were tested across the array of the concluded that visual and spatial perception areas in the
selected studies. These variables were grouped as follows: front-parietal system are stimulated by the perception of a
(1) form and geometry, (2) space distribution and context, nice interior, indicating the involvement of cognitive and
(3) color and texture, (4) height, width, and enclosure, (5) motor processes throughout the assessment of built
transition and circulation, and (6) light, sound, and tem- environments.
perature. Finally, the results of the selected studies are
listed in Table 4 according to the variables tested (see 3.5.3. Color and texture
Table 4). Three studies showed how color and/or texture consider-
ably affect memory and attention using psychometric
3.5.1. Form and geometry methods. Only one of them used neurophysiological
Two studies demonstrated the impact of form or interior methods, including HRV and electroencephalogram. The
space geometry on cognition. One used EEG combined with first study explored the influence of color contrast and hue
psychometric methods, and the other used computational on spatial memory (Min and Lee, 2020). Six indoor settings,
software. In one of the studies, the subjects were reques- each in a different color (neutral, cool, and warm color
ted to move across the simulated spaces to experience the variations, with high and low contrast), were shown as
space from various viewpoints (Banaei et al., 2017). The stimuli to participants. The results revealed that memory is
subjective psychometric findings showed that rectilinear enhanced in spaces with high-contrast color combinations.
interior spaces contribute to low satisfaction and excite- High contrast increases visual saliency, encourages
ment in participants, whereas spaces with curved lines perception, and improves the understanding of unfamiliar
result in high scores in these two cognitiveeemotional spaces and embedded architectural elements. The results
states. The second study examined the impact of six also indicated that color contrast in a short evaluation of
types of interior space geometries and four different spaces leads to spatial memory and cognition. The second
building forms on users’ brainwaves (Elbaiuomy et al., study explored the effect of the color of classroom walls on
2018). The studied forms, which have the same volume, students’ attention (Duyan and Ünver, 2016). The experi-
were a cube, cone, pyramid, cylinder, vault, and dome. In mental method in this study used the students’ preferred
this study, resonance frequency was identified in various wall colors from a previous study (Duyan & Ünver, 2015) to
interior spaces using CST Microwave Studio. The authors select and apply five colors defined by the Munsell color
found a relationship between the geometric forms of system (Munsell, 1971) into a classroom wall for one week.
interior spaces, their construction materials, and users’ The students’ attention was assessed at the end of every
consciousness. In this study, the associated user’s brain- week. The results revealed that the students’ attention
waves were discerned, and the findings revealed that levels increase with purple (5P 7/8) walls, followed by blue
attention can be enhanced by indoor settings built of steel, (5B 7/8), green (5G 7/8), yellow (5Y 7/8), and red (5R 7/8)
concrete, or glass. As a function of memory, learning can be walls. Thus, the best outputs were achieved with the cold-
enhanced if participants are inside a square or cylindrical hue colors. These findings are in good agreement with those
space made of concrete. Moreover, the cognitive processes of the third study, which showed that cold hue colors in-
involved in concentration and retaining information can be crease arousal and enhance performance in attention and
enhanced if the user is inside a conical space, glass space, memory tasks. This study measured the impact of cold and
or a square, wooden space. warm hueecolored virtualized classroom walls on attention
and memory processes (Llinares et al., 2021b). The stimuli
3.5.2. Space distribution and context included 24 configurations defined by four cold and four
Only two studies, performed by the same authors, used EEG warm colors with different chromas: 5GY 5/4, 5GY 5/10,
as an objective indicator to investigate the impact of the 5BG 5/4, 5BG 5/10, 5 PB 5/8, 5 PB 5/14, 5P 5/6, 5P 5/12,
12
+ MODEL
Figure 4 Analysis of types of bias found in the selected studies caused by the following: randomization process (D1), deviations
from intended interventions (D2), missing outcome data (D3), measurement of the outcome (D4), selection of the reported results
(D5), other important/key contamination bias, such as the IEQs (D6).
5RP 5/8, 5RP 5/14, 5R 5/10, 5R 5/16, 5 YR 5/4, 5 YR 5/10, recall clustering. The results consistently showed these
5Y 5/2, and 5Y 5/8. two types of processing with highly accurate indicators.
The second study, focused on width, was performed in
3.5.4. Height, width, and enclosure virtual environments and showed that narrow classrooms
Three studies showed the considerable impact of ceiling enhance cognitive performance, which is associated with
height, width, and enclosure using two different environ- high arousal levels (Llinares et al., 2021a). The impacts of
ments: virtual and real spaces. The first study was con- different parameterizations of classroom width (8.80,
ducted in a real environment, and it demonstrated how 8.20, and 7.60 m) with the same length (16.50 m) and
ceiling height affects the way information is interpreted height (8.80 m) dimensions were compared. Finally, the
by the users of the space (Meyers-Levy and Rui, 2007). This third study, focused on height and enclosure, examined
study, which was focused on height, was based on three the impact of these variables on attention by using 2D
different experiments performed in four rooms with stimuli in fMRI (Vartanian et al., 2015). The study pro-
identical features, apart from their ceiling height. duced behavioral results by evaluating the participants’
Experiment 1 used body state assessment and anagram preferred approach/avoidance and beauty judgments.
solving to show that ceiling height can influence specific Neural results were also reported using fMRI analysis with
concepts. Experiments 2 and 3 also demonstrated that the statistical parametric mapping. The left precuneus and
factors affected by ceiling height mainly elicit rational left middle frontal gyrus were enabled by aesthetic de-
rather than item-specific processing. Variations in the cisions related to ceiling height comparison. The left
form of perception and responses of individuals occurred middle temporal and right superior temporal gyrus were
only when the perception of the ceiling height was rela- stimulated by appraisals of beauty when comparing open/
tively high. Other proofs that relational (item-specific) closed spaces. Activity was observed in the anterior
processing can be boosted by concepts primed by a high cingulate cortex when contrast was experienced in open/
(low) ceiling were added during the experiment by enclosed settings. Spaces with a high ceiling and curvi-
analyzing the memory measures of cud-item recall and linear geometry were regarded as attractive and
13
+ MODEL
stimulating and involved in visual and spatial perception. last study examined the impact of color temperature and
The anterior midcingulate cortex was enabled by enclosed classroom lighting illuminance on students’ cognition and
spaces, which enhance exit decisions. The researchers perception (Yang and Jeon, 2020). The experiment was
argued that low locomotive and visual availability, such as performed using the light of different color temperatures
in spaces with a low ceiling, incite emotional responses (3000, 4000, and 5700 K) and illuminance (650 and 1050 lx).
that enhance exit decisions. The researchers found that the color temperature for
optimal lighting comfort in learning spaces is 4000 K.
3.5.5. Transition and circulation However, satisfaction, acceptance, and perception are not
As far as we know, only one study analyzed the effect of affected. The results revealed a gender bias in the working
transition and circulation on cognitive processes. Thus, this memory task because women are more sensitive to glare
investigation explored the impact of the cognitive pro- and achieved lower scores than men. The researchers
cesses associated with architectural affordances (environ- concluded that optimal color temperature has a more
ment and movement) using EEG (Djebbara et al., 2019). considerable effect than illuminance because it gives a
The experiment used VR to perform transitions ranging great sensation of comfort.
from nonpassable to easily passable spaces. The subjective
experience was measured via a virtual SAM and reaction 3.6. Control/comparator
time. The results showed that the early sensory brain ac-
tivity of each person varies depending on affordances when A clear distinctive control was used in the six studies of
these individuals perceive the world and before an actual exposure to the built environment. This approach included
movement. These results also showed that the motor- the following: the study that explored the impact of
related, negative component depends on affordances that furnishing style by comparing an “empty room” to “mod-
proceeded movement through transitions. These findings ern” and “cutting-edge” interior spaces (Vecchiato et al.,
suggested that awareness is intrinsically connected to the 2015b); the study that investigated the impact of geo-
body’s possible movement and proved that space move- metric form by comparing a simple cubic space to 17
ment is a continuous predictor of the universe of alternative spaces with diverse geometries (Banaei et al.,
affordances. 2017); those that explored the impact of light, sound, and
temperature on learning processes (Marchand et al., 2014;
3.5.6. Light, sound, and temperature Xiong et al., 2018); and the study that analyzed the effect
Several studies also demonstrated how light, sound, and of contrast and color upon spatial memory (Min and Lee,
temperature considerably affect attention and/or memory 2020). No clear exposure to controlled, interior, built en-
(Table 4). A study examined whether undergraduate stu- vironments was found in the remaining four publications.
dents’ learning, mood, and perceptions of learning spaces Instead, the following experimental studies manifested
have any impact on success in reading and listening tasks differences between groups: the study that examined an
affected by combinations of comfort variables, such as open/enclosed high space and an open/enclosed low space
temperature, sound, and light (Marchand et al., 2014). The (Vartanian et al., 2015); the study that explored the pro-
results showed that in a comprehension test, subjects who cessing type that people use by comparing four rooms with
experienced the listening task outside the comfort zone ceilings of different heights (Meyers-Levy and Rui, 2007);
have more negative grades than subjects who were in the one that studied the attention and memory perfor-
normal comfort conditions. However, no discrepancy be- mance of university students in different classroom widths
tween reading modality conditions was observed. (Llinares et al., 2021a); the study that investigated the
Compared with the students in their usual comfortable cognitive processes associated with architectural affor-
conditions, the students outside of their comfort zone show dances using nonpassable to easily passable transition
increased negative effects and claim that the classroom spaces (Djebbara et al., 2019); the study that explored the
temperature and sound have a considerable adverse influ- impact of geometric interior spaces and their construction
ence on their results. The results of the participants in the materials on brainwaves and on the perception of subjects
reading task scenario are better than those of the students in six settings with identical volume but different geomet-
in the listening task scenario because of the poor perfor- rical form (Elbaiuomy et al., 2018); the study that analyzed
mance of the task with the sound levels in the classroom. the impact of classroom walls of five different colors on
Another study examined the effect of light, temperature, students’ attention (Duyan and Ünver, 2016); and the study
and sound on the learning process in different types of tasks that explored the impact of cold or warm hue classroom
(perception, memory, attention, and problem solving) with walls on university students’ memory and attention
a 3 4 3 full factorial design experiment (Xiong et al., (Llinares et al., 2021b).
2018). This study showed that environmental factors have
a considerable impact on the learning processes except in
problem-solving tasks. According to this study, the optimal 3.7. Risk of bias
physical learning space varies for each type of learning
process: thermoneutral, quiet, and bright conditions for The risk possibility of the experimental methodologies
perception-oriented tasks; warm, quiet, and moderately included in this review must be analyzed to understand the
bright conditions for memory-oriented tasks; thermoneu- quality of the studies. The Cochrane tool (Higgins et al.,
tral, fairly quiet, and moderately bright conditions for 2011) for evaluating the risk of bias (Fig. 4) was applied,
problem-solving processes; and cool, fairly quiet, and and five types were determined for discussion. One study
bright conditions for attention-oriented tasks. Finally, the was excluded from this analysis because of the lack of
14
+ MODEL
experimentation in its materials and methods (Elbaiuomy literature about the features of the interior and built en-
et al., 2018). vironments can demonstrate any impact on human cogni-
Seven of the fourteen studies did not reveal how the tion (see Table 2). Six of the spatial properties addressed in
allocation of interventions was defined, resulting in an the selected articles were examined (see Table 4): (1) form
unclear risk. Only four groups of researchers reported that and geometry, (2) space distribution and context, (3) color
the stimuli performed was rotated in a random order of and texture, (4) height, width, and enclosure, (5) transition
exposure (Djebbara et al., 2019; Llinares et al., 2021b, and circulation, and (6) light, sound, and temperature.
2021a; Yang and Jeon, 2020). In another study, the authors However, the possibility of unexplored synergistic effects
reported that the experiment was conducted indepen- among the design variables was not yet addressed, and this
dently and without order effect (Xiong et al., 2018). aspect must be investigated in future research.
Another study described some phases of its experimental Five limitations in this field were identified: (1) diverse
procedure as 50/50 pseudorandomized or randomized methods (outcome, measure, and system types), proced-
(Marchand et al., 2014). ures (filters, impedance, and sampling rate), and algo-
All experimental studies, except one (Marchand et al., rithms (interfaces/transformations of data output) for
2014), sampled participants individually. Therefore, the objective data decoding; (2) inaccurate documentation of
probability of subjects who were aware of possible classi- the characteristics of participants; (3) failure to specify the
fication (e.g., by background) was reduced. Whether the procedure and reason for measuring sample size; (4) p
subjects participated blind in the experiments is not values described without correlating coefficients or extent
known. Moreover, whether the staff conducting the of impact; (5) no description of any controlled IEQ vari-
experiment were unaware of participant classification and ables. The first limitation shows that no studies used the
the exposure sequence is uncertain. The studies included same method to quantify or record the impact of built
exposure to control, but five of them did not explain this environment design on cognitive processes. The use of
scenario clearly. These studies showed the differences different methods limited the capacity to synthesize and
between groups, whereas this study revealed the differ- confirm by replicating the results. In addition, different
ences between groups. environmental conditions (real or simulated) do not help
The problem of incomplete data is mentioned in two achieve a standard or cross-validated protocol. Data were
publications, addressing possible loss bias. These studies also presented in different ways because of the multiple
stated that certain participants were excluded because of methodologies used. Some publications used plotted re-
technical problems with data collection and unnecessary sults, which are visually clearer and more straightforward
noise in the data analysis. than bar charts. Thus, this limitation also identified the use
No noteworthy risk was found in the measurement of the of different methods of statistical analysis, which consti-
outcome. tutes a reproducibility challenge. However, this problem is
Two studies revealed an unclear risk of reporting bias not uncommon in cognitive neuroscience. Heavy reliance
because only significant results were reported in the papers on statistical measurements to isolate multivariate data
(Duyan and Ünver, 2016; Meyers-Levy and Rui, 2007). Ten indicates that great consideration is needed for experi-
papers reported insignificant findings alongside significant mental designs to yield consistent findings. The second to
findings, thereby reducing the risk selective of reporting. the fourth limitations feature a substantial under-
The remaining study did not use statistical methods. empowerment in the studies because they only include an
Finally, the IEQs of the built environments experienced average of 81 participants and a minor shift in age samples.
were only reported in one study as a key contamination Whether this young pool of subjects is due to age-related
consideration (Djebbara et al., 2019) and in three studies as experimental intentions or merely due to all participants
the main variable that has been tested (Marchand et al., being selected from educational establishments is unclear.
2014; Xiong et al., 2018; Yang and Jeon, 2020). Finally, This scenario also indicates a population with a level of
another study performed in real-life classrooms reported schooling above the world average. Based on the small
controlling only the lighting (Duyan and Ünver, 2016). The sample size, p values should be displayed along with the
features referred to as IEQ variables play an essential role extent of the impact or correlation coefficient values.
in the environmental experience. Therefore, a high risk of Finally, the last limitation indicated that among the studies
biased outcomes exists when these variables are not using simulation system methods, only six reported
controlled and stabilized. A study in a clinical fMRI setting controlled environmental parameters, such as IEQs (see
can be reasonably assumed to have a degree of control, Table 3a). This lack of control of IEQ parameters limits the
whereas the other study performed in a laboratory envi- consideration of important design elements, such as light,
ronment indicated that all noise and temperature condi- orientation, and ventilation. Future research methodology
tions were kept stable (Llinares et al., 2021b). Uncontrolled must closely examine how the application of technologies
IEQ parameters entail a considerable risk that the impact interacts with objective measurement systems to simulate
reported in the papers is biased (Vartanian et al., 2013, a monitored built environment.
2015). In some studies, experiences were also analyzed in
relation to the body movements of the participants
(Vecchiato et al., 2015b). The researchers found that
4. Discussion cognition processes are inherently related to the possibil-
ities of future body movement. These findings showed that
Neurophysiological and/or psychological methods were moving through environments may create an ongoing pre-
used in the present study to examine whether the current diction of a universe of affordances. T his study also
15
+ MODEL
demonstrated the probability of assessing EEG correlates of curvilinear interior spaces built of steel, concrete, or glass,
spatial perception, including sensorimotor, embodiment, whereas memory processes could be enhanced in a square
and spatial experimentation of cerebral schemes. Thus, or cylinder space built of concrete. (ii) When a subject
this study revealed the involvement of motor processes in assesses space distribution and context, the front-parietal
cognitive processes in the perception of built environ- system is stimulated. Thus, the mental process involving
ments. Therefore, considering an in-depth analysis of the this assessment task could have an impact on attention. (iii)
impact of the action, movement, and spatial continuity on The use of a cold-hue color in classroom walls could
cognition processes is valuable for future research. enhance memory and attention, whereas the use of high-
From a methodological point of view, the results contrast color combinations could improve spatial memory.
demonstrated that a limited number of studies had been (iv) Attention could be improved in narrow classrooms with
conducted in this field of knowledge thus far. Thus, the high ceilings and curvilinear geometry, whereas memory
experiments have limited sample sizes and no group vari- could be improved in narrow classrooms with low ceilings.
ety. Various methodological, technological, and statistical (v) Transition and circulation affordances could be con-
methods were also used (see Table 3a). Finally, no studies nected with awareness and cognitive processes. (vi) Light,
have documented the dimensions of the impact according sound, and temperature conditions could enhance the
to these limits, indicating that a meta-analysis of this field attention processes in cool, fairly quiet, and bright spaces,
of study is not yet feasible. Some studies that used neuro- whereas memory could be improved in warm (4000 K),
logical methods analyzed the main cortical surface areas to quiet, and moderately bright spaces. However, robust evi-
measure the activity caused by visual stimulation situated dence regarding the neuropsychophysiological impact of
in the occipital and parietal regions for visual input and different variables related to learning spaces and the
identifying objects, respectively (see Table 3b). Thus, ex- design of built, indoor environments remains lacking. One
periments using head-mounted VR devices should not group could observe the correlation between psychological
hinder the EEG electrodes under the scalp areas, where and neurophysiological metrics, representing substantial
such neural activity is predicted. Therefore, using a head- progress in the field of neuroarchitecture (Llinares et al.,
mounted display (HMD) compatible with the EEG elec- 2021b, 2021a). However, no accepted standard ap-
trodes is vital to ensure a stable experimental design. HMD proaches or protocols exist at present to determine how the
systems are preferred because of the CAVE system (Cruz- design factors of built environments influence the neuro-
Neira et al., 1992). The research into advanced EEG and physiological correlates of human cognition processes. This
fMRI modeling provides a deep understanding of the situation has resulted in various strategies and methods
neuronal circuits, networks, and mechanisms stimulated that make producing a meta-analysis of the impact unfea-
during perception and cognitive response tasks. These ap- sible in terms of reviewing studies at the state-of-the-art
proaches would definitely require cortical/subcortical level (see Table 3a). Extensive research with controlled
networks. In particular, three studies identified the ante- documentation of environmental factors is needed to assess
rior cingulate cortex, which has important limbic and pre- the impact of design variables on neuropsychophysiological
frontal links in both EEG and fMRI results. The posterior reactions and their synergistic effects and make progress in
cingulate cortex and the occipital lobe are involved when this field. The reasons why different levels of cognition
processing multiple spatial perspectives. occur in different built environments should be considered.
Other instruments based on physiological methods (e.g., Moreover, determining whether the neurophysiological
galvanic skin response and blood pressure) are valuable for processes involved in self-reported feelings and subjective
assessing the body’s response to a stimulus. In this decisions affect our levels of attention and memory in
approach, reliable and calculated experimental comfort different spaces is essential. Given that a clear consensus
conditions are required to guarantee that the responses are about the methods that analyze the built environment’s
caused by the stimuli being evaluated instead of other impact on the cognitive processes does not exist, neuro-
confusing parameters. Although the outcomes in this physiological analysis, an area in which architects do not
method include evidence about how the body identifies and have the expertise, must be performed soon. Standard
reacts to visual stimulation, they are not as effective as the protocols must be created to quantify and determine the
single outcome for discerning how, where, and why brain cognitive effect of how interior spaces are perceived,
stimulation happens. These instruments are also ideal for enabling a clear understanding of the impact that the
verifying the presence of a reaction, whereas fMRI or EEG design variables of interior spaces have on attention and
may indicate what activity occurs in the central neural memory. In addition, research must use standard criteria
system. However, only two of the selected studies applied when reporting experimental design parameters to ensure
these physiological methods (HRV) (Llinares et al., 2021b, maximum clarity and reproducibility. New principles for the
2021a). These types of outcomes, both neurophysiological design of environments and spaces in all sectors (education,
and psychological, must be integrated to help determine if healthcare, and industry) could change how governments
the subject is actively aware of a shift in cognitive status in and industries worldwide value the project design of spaces
response to stimuli. by drawing up a replicable and cross-validated approach
applicable when assessing spaces with arbitrary post-
occupancy instruments. If the impact of design variables is
5. Conclusion understood from a neurophysiological approach, architects
will have a leading role in supporting and boosting educa-
The results of this review suggest the following: (i) Form tion, work productivity, and other human activities
and geometry could enhance the attention processes in affected by their surroundings.
16
+ MODEL
Declaration of competing interest Bower, I., Tucker, R., Enticott, P.G., 2019. Impact of built envi-
ronment design on emotion measured via neurophysiological
correlates and subjective indicators: a systematic review. J.
The authors declare that they have no known competing Environ. Psychol. vol. 66, 101344. Academic Press.
financial interests or personal relationships that could have Bradley, M.M., Lang, P.J., 1994. Measuring emotion: the self-
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. assessment manikin and the semantic differential. J. Behav.
Ther. Exp. Psychiatr. 25 (1), 49e59.
Byers, T., Imms, W., Hartnell-Young, E., 2014. Making the case for
Acknowledgments space: the effect of learning spaces on teaching and learning.
Curric. Teach. 29 (1), 5e9.
Grant BIA2017-86157-R was funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/ Cardellino, P., Araneda, C., Garcı́a Alvarado, R., 2018. In-
501100011033 and by ERDF, A way of making Europe. Grant terventions in the classroomethe influence of spatial organi-
PRE2018-084051 was funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/ sation on educational interaction in Uruguay. Architect. Eng.
501100011033 and by ESF, Investing in your future. Des. Manag. 14 (6), 413e426.
Castilla, N., Llinares, C., Bisegna, F., Blanca-Giménez, V., 2018a.
Affective evaluation of the luminous environment in university
References classrooms. J. Environ. Psychol. 58, 52e62.
Castilla, N., Llinares, C., Bisegna, F., Blanca-Giménez, V., 2018b.
Agnello, P., Ryan, R., Yusko, K.P., 2015. Implications of modern Emotional evaluation of lighting in university classrooms: a
intelligence research for assessing intelligence in the work- preliminary study. Front. Architect. Res. 7 (4), 600e609.
place. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 25 (1), 47e55. Choo, H., Nasar, J.L., Nikrahei, B., Walther, D.B., 2017. Neural
Akil, H., Balice-Gordon, R., Cardozo, D.L., Koroshetz, W., Posey codes of seeing architectural styles. Sci. Rep. 7 (1), 1e8.
Norris, S.M., Sherer, T., Sherman, S.M., Thiels, E., 2016. Neuro- Chun, M.M., Turk-Browne, N.B., 2007. Interactions between
science training for the 21st century. Neuron 90 (5), 917e926. attention and memory. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 17 (2), 177e184.
Anderson, John Robert, 2000, second ed. Learning and Memory: an Cochrane, 2020. Data Extraction Forms | Cochrane Developmental,
Integrated Approach. John Wiley & Sons. https://psycnet.apa. Psychosocial and Learning Problems. https://dplp.cochrane.
org/record/2000-07354-000. org/data-extraction-forms.
Ansari, D., Coch, D., 2006. Bridges over troubled waters: education Cruz-Neira, C., Sandin, D.J., DeFanti, T.A., Kenyon, R.v.,
and cognitive neuroscience. Trends Cognit. Sci. 10 (4), 146e151. Hart, J.C., 1992. The CAVE: audio visual experience automatic
Baek, S.-G., Choi, H.-J., 2002. The relationship between students ’ virtual environment. Commun. ACM 35 (6), 64e73.
perceptions of classroom environment and their academic de Kort, Y.A.W., Ijsselsteijn, W.A., Kooijman, J., Schuurmans, Y.,
achievement in Korea. Asia Pac. Educ. Rev. 3 (1), 125e135. 2003. Virtual laboratories: comparability of real and virtual
Banaei, M., Hatami, J., Yazdanfar, A., Gramann, K., 2017. Walking environments for environmental psychology. Pres. Tele-
through architectural spaces: the impact of interior forms on operators Virtual Environ. 12 (4), 360e373.
human brain dynamics. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 11. Djebbara, Z., Fich, L.B., Petrini, L., Gramann, K., 2019. Sensori-
Banaei, M., Ahmadi, A., Gramann, K., Hatami, J., 2019. Emotional motor brain dynamics reflect architectural affordances. Proc.
evaluation of architectural interior forms based on personality Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 116 (29), 14769e14778.
Duyan, F., Ünver, R., 2015. Çocukların Ilkö _ gretim sınıf duvar
differences using virtual reality. Front. Architect. Res. 9 (1),
_ ‚kin tercihleri. Ulusal Aydinl. Kongr.-ATMK 16 (18),
renklerine Ilis
138e147.
Bargh, J.A., 1982. Attention and automaticity in the processing of 131e138.
self-relevant information. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 43 (3), 425e436. Duyan, F., Ünver, R., 2016. A research on the effect of classroom wall
Barrett, P., Zhang, Y., Moffat, J., Kobbacy, K., 2013. A holistic, colours on student’s attention. A|Z ITU J. Fac. Archit. 13 (2),
multi-level analysis identifying the impact of classroom design 73e78.
on pupils’ learning. Build. Environ. 59, 678e689. Eberhard, J.P., 2009. Applying neuroscience to architecture.
Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., Barrett, L., 2015. The impact of Neuron 62 (6), 753e756.
classroom design on pupils’ learning: final results ofaholistic, Elbaiuomy, E., Hegazy, I., Sheta, S., 2018. The impact of archi-
multi-level analysis. Build. Environ. 89, 118e133. tectural spaces’ geometric forms and construction materials on
Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., Barrett, L., 2017. The holistic the users’ brainwaves and consciousness status. Int. J. Low
impact of classroom spaces on learning in specific subjects. Carbon Technol. 13 (1), 43e51.
Environ. Behav. 49 (4), 425e451. Ergan, S., Radwan, A., Zou, Z., Tseng, H., Han, X., 2019. Quanti-
Beato, M.S., Dı́ez, E., 2011. False recognition production indexes in fying human experience in architectural spaces with integrated
Spanish for 60 DRM lists with three critical words, 2011 Behav. virtual reality and body sensor networks. J. Comput. Civ. Eng.
Res. Methods 43 (2), 499e507, 43(2). 33 (2), 04018062.
Benmohamed, H., Leleve, A., Prevot, P., 2004. Remote labora- Escera, C., Corral, M.J., Yago, E., 2002. An electrophysiological and
tories: new technology and standard based architecture. In: behavioral investigation of involuntary attention towards audi-
Proceedings - 2004 International Conference on Information and tory frequency, duration and intensity changes. Cognit. Brain
Communication Technologies: from Theory to Applications, Res. 14 (3), 325e332.
ICTTA 2004, pp. 101e102. Fenollar, Pedro, Román, Sergio, Cuestas, P.J., 2007. University
Blatchford, P., Bassett, P., Brown, P., 2011. Examining the effect of students’ academic performance: an integrative conceptual
class size on classroom engagement and teacher-pupil interac- framework and empirical analysis. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 77 (4),
tion: differences in relation to pupil prior attainment and pri- 873e891.
mary vs. secondary schools. Learn. InStruct. 21 (6), 715e730. Francis Mallgrave, Harry, 2009. The Architect’s Brain: Neurosci-
Bovy, R.C., 1981. Successful instructional methods: a cognitive ence, Creativity, and Architecture. Wiley-Blackwell.
information processing approach. Educ. Commun. Technol. 29 Grewel, F., 1953. Le test de Bourdon-Wiersma. Folia Psychiat.
(4), 203e217. Neurol. Neurochi. Neerland. 56 (5), 694e703.
17
+ MODEL
Harzing, A.-W., 2020. Publish or Perish. https://harzing.com/ Meyers-Levy, J., Rui, Z., 2007. The influence of ceiling height: the
resources/publish-or-perish. effect of priming on the type of processing that people use. J.
Higgins, Julian, Green, Sally, 2011. Cochrane Handbook for Sys- Consum. Res. 34 (2), 174e186.
tematic Reviews of Interventions. Wiley & Sons. Min, Y.H., Lee, S., 2020. Does interior color contrast enhance
Higgins, J.P.T., Altman, D.G., Gøtzsche, P.C., Jüni, P., Moher, D., spatial memory? Color Res. Appl. 45 (2), 352e361.
Oxman, A.D., Savovic, J., Schulz, K.F., Weeks, L., Sterne, J.A.C., Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D.G., 2009. Preferred
2011. The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the
in randomised trials. Br. Med. J. 343 (7829). PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 6 (7), e1000097.
Higgins, J.P.T., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Munsell, A.H., 1971. Color Notation. Munsell Color Company.
Page, M.J., Welch, V.A. (Eds.), 2020. Cochrane Handbook for Nadel, L., Hardt, O., 2010. Update on memory systems and
Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.1. Cochrane. processes, 2011 Neuropsychopharmacology 36 (1), 251e273,
https://training.cochrane.org/cochrane-handbook-systematic- 36(1).
reviews-interventions#how-to-cite. Naismith, L.M., Cheung, J.J.H., Ringsted, C., Cavalcanti, R.B.,
Higuera-Trujillo, J.L., Llinares Millán, C., Montañana i Aviñó, A., 2015. Limitations of subjective cognitive load measures in
Rojas, J.C., 2020. Multisensory stress reduction: a neuro- simulation-based procedural training. Med. Educ. 49 (8),
architecture study of paediatric waiting rooms. Build. Res. 805e814.
Inf. 48 (3), 269e285. Nanda, U., Pati, D., Ghamari, H., Bajema, R., 2013. Lessons from
Higuera-Trujillo, J.L., Llinares, C., Macagno, E., 2021. The neuroscience: form follows function, emotions follow form.
cognitive-emotional design and study of architectural space: a Intell. Build. Int. 5 (Suppl. 1), 61e78.
scoping review of neuroarchitecture and its precursor ap- Oblinger, Diana, Lippincott, J.K., 2006. Learning Spaces. Educause.
proaches. Sensors 21 (6), 2193. Öhman, A., Flykt, A., Lundqvist, D., 2000. Unconscious emotion:
Hu, M., Roberts, J., 2020. Built environment evaluation in virtual evolutionary perspectives, psychophysiological data and neu-
reality environmentsda cognitive neuroscience approach. ropsychological mechanisms. In: Cognitive Neuroscience of
Urban Sci. 4 (4), 48. Emotion. Oxford University Press.
Isabella Bower, R.T.P.G.E., 2019. Impact of built environment design Pallasmaa, J., Mallgrave, H.F., Arbib, M.A., Tidwell, P., 2013. In:
on emotion measured via neurophysiological correlates and sub- Tidwell, Philip (Ed.), Architecture and Neuroscience. Tapio
jective indicators: a systematic review. J. Environ. Psychol. 66. Wirkkala - Rut Bryk Foundation, Espoo, Finland, 2013.
Jamshidi, S., Parker, J.S., Hashemi, S., 2020. The effects of envi- Papale, P., Chiesi, L., Rampinini, A.C., Pietrini, P., Ricciardi, E., 2016.
ronmental factors on the patient outcomes in hospital environ- When neuroscience ‘touches’ architecture: from hapticity to a
ments: a review of literature. Front. Architect. Res. 9 (2), supramodal functioning of the human brain. Front. Psychol. 7.
249e263. Park, E.L., Choi, B.K., 2014. Transformation of classroom spaces:
Karakas, T., Yildiz, D., 2020. Exploring the influence of the built traditional versus active learning classroom in colleges. High
environment on human experience through a neuroscience Educ. 68 (5), 749e771.
approach: a systematic review. Front. Architect. Res. 9 (1), Parsons, T.D., Bowerly, T., Buckwalter, J.G., Rizzo, A.A., 2007. A
236e247. controlled clinical comparison of attention performance in
Kremen, W.S., Beck, A., Elman, J.A., Gustavson, D.E., children with ADHD in a virtual reality classroom compared to
Reynolds, C.A., Tu, X.M., Sanderson-Cimino, M.E., standard neuropsychological methods. Child Neuropsychol. 13
Panizzon, M.S., Vuoksimaa, E., Toomey, R., Fennema- (4), 363e381.
Notestine, C., Hagler, D.J., Fang, B., Dale, A.M., Lyons, M.J., Patten, Mildred L., Newhart, Michelle, 2018. Understanding
Franz, C.E., 2019. Influence of young adult cognitive ability and Research Methods: an Overview of the Essentials - Mildred L.
additional education on later-life cognition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Patten, Michelle Newhart - Google Libros. Routledge.
Sci. U.S.A. 116 (6), 2021e2026. Plomin, R., 1999. Genetics and general cognitive ability. Nature
Küller, R., Lindsten, C., 1992. Health and behavior of children in 402, C25eC29, 6761, 402(6761),.
classrooms with and without windows. J. Environ. Psychol. 12 Polio, C., 1996. Issues and problems in reporting classroom
(4), 305e317. research. In: Second Language Classroom Research: Issues and
Landau, A.N., Esterman, M., Robertson, L.C., Bentin, S., Opportunities, pp. 61e79.
Prinzmetal, W., 2007. Different effects of voluntary and invol- Pourbagher, S., Azemati, H.R., Saleh Sedgh Pour, B., 2020. Class-
untary attention on EEG activity in the gamma band. J. Neu- room wall color: a multiple variance analysis on social stress
rosci. 27 (44), 11986e11990. and concentration in learning environments. Int. J. Educ.
Leung, M.Y., Fung, I., 2005. Enhancement of classroom facilities of Manag. 35 (1), 189e200.
primary schools and its impact on learning behaviors of stu- Radwan, A., Ergan, S., 2017. Quantifying human experience in
dents. Facilities 23 (13e14), 585e594. interior architectural spaces. Congress on computing in civil
Lippman, P.C., 2000. Evidence-based Design of Elementary and engineering, Proceedings, 2017-June, pp. 373e380.
Secondary Schools: A Responsive Approach to Creating Learning Ritter, F.E., Baxter, G.D., Churchill, E.F., Ritter, F.E., Baxter, G.D.,
Environments. John Wiley & Sons. Churchill, E.F., 2014. Cognition: memory, attention, and
Llinares, C., Higuera-Trujillo, J.L., Aviñó, A. M. i, Torres, J., learning. In: Foundations for Designing User-Centered Systems.
Sentieri, C., 2021a. The influence of classroom width on Springer London, pp. 123e164.
attention and memory: virtual-reality-based task performance Rizzo, A.A., Bowerly, T., Buckwalter, J.G., Klimchuk, D., Mitura, R.,
and neurophysiological effects, 49, pp. 813e826 (7). Parsons, T.D., 2009. A virtual reality scenario for all seasons: the
Llinares, C., Higuera-Trujillo, J.L., Serra, J., 2021b. Cold and warm virtual classroom. CNS Spectr. 11 (1), 35e44.
coloured classrooms. Effects on students’ attention and mem- Rizzo, A.A., Buckwalter, J.G., Bowerly, T., van der Zaag, C.,
ory measured through psychological and neurophysiological Humphrey, L., Neumann, U., Chua, C., Kyriakakis, C., van
responses. Build. Environ. 196, 107726. Rooyen, A., Sisemore, D., 2000. The virtual classroom: a
Lyon, G.R., Krasnegor, N.A., McMenamin, S., 1996. Attention, mem- virtual reality environment for the assessment and
ory, and executive function. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 17 (4), 278. rehabilitation of attention deficits. Cyberpsychol. Behav. 3 (3),
Marchand, G.C., Nardi, N.M., Reynolds, D., Pamoukov, S., 2014. 483e499.
The impact of the classroom built environment on student Robinson, P., 1995. Attention, memory, and the “noticing” hy-
perceptions and learning. J. Environ. Psychol. 40, 187e197. pothesis. Lang. Learn. 45 (2), 283e331.
18
+ MODEL
Royer, J.M., Hastings, C.N., Hook, C., 1979. A sentence verification Vartanian, O., Navarrete, G., Chatterjee, A., Fich, L.B., Gonzalez-
technique for measuring reading comprehension. J. Read. Mora, J.L., Leder, H., Modroño, C., Nadal, M., Rostrup, N.,
Behav. 11 (4), 355e363. Skov, M., 2015. Architectural design and the brain: effects of
Sackett, D.L., 1997. Evidence-based medicine. Semin. Perinatol. 21 ceiling height and perceived enclosure on beauty judgments
(1), 3e5. and approach-avoidance decisions. J. Environ. Psychol. 41,
Seidman, L.J., Goldstein, J.M., O’Craven, K., Savoy, R., 10e18.
Breiter, H.C., Goodman, J.M., Woodruff, P.W.R., Tsuang, M.T., Vecchiato, G., Jelic, A., Tieri, G., Maglione, A.G., de Matteis, F.,
Rosen, B.R., 1998. A functional magnetic resonance imaging Babiloni, F., 2015a. Neurophysiological correlates of embodi-
study of auditory vigilance with low and high information pro- ment and motivational factors during the perception of
cessing demands. Neuropsychology 12 (4), 505e518. virtual architectural environments. Cognit. Process. 16,
Shemesh, A., Talmon, R., Karp, O., Amir, I., Bar, M., 425e429.
Grobman, Y.J., 2017. Affective response to Vecchiato, G., Tieri, G., Jelic, A., de Matteis, F., Maglione, A.G.,
architectureeinvestigating human reaction to spaces with Babiloni, F., 2015b. Electroencephalographic correlates of
different geometry. Architect. Sci. Rev. 60 (2), 116e125. sensorimotor integration and embodiment during the appreci-
Shemesh, A., Leisman, G., Bar, M., Grobman, Y.J., 2021. A Neu- ation of virtual architectural environments. Front. Psychol. 6
rocognitive Study of the Emotional Impact of Geometrical (DEC), 1944.
Criteria of Architectural Space, pp. 1e14. Https: Viets, E., 2009. Lessons from evidence-based medicine: what
//Doi.Org/10.1080/00038628.2021.1940827. healthcare designers can learn from the medical field. HERD 2
Steglitz, J., Warnick, J.L., Hoffman, S.A., Johnston, W., Spring, B., (2), 73e87.
2015. Evidence-based practice. In: International Encyclopedia Waldman, D.A., Wang, D., Fenters, V., 2019. The added value of
of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, second ed. Elsevier, neuroscience methods in organizational research. Organ. Res.
pp. 332e338. Methods 22 (1), 223e249.
Sternberg, E.M., Wilson, M.A., 2006. Neuroscience and architecture: Wechsler, D., 2005. In: WAIS-IV Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale,
seeking common ground. Cell vol. 127, 239e242 (Cell Press). fourth ed. Pearson Assessments.
Stevens, B., Roelfsema, P., Götz, M., Li, C., Tasic, B., Weinstein, C.S., 1977. Modifying student behavior in an open
Miesenböck, G., 2019. Working across disciplines in neurosci- classroom through changes in the physical design. Am. Educ.
ence. Cell 179 (2), 283e284 (Cell Press). Res. J. 14 (3), 249e262.
Stoji
c, H., Orquin, J.L., Dayan, P., Dolan, R.J., Speekenbrink, M., Williams, J.N., 1999. Memory, attention, and inductive learning.
2020. Uncertainty in learning, choice, and visual fixation. Proc. Stud. Sec. Lang. Acquis. 21 (1), 1e48.
Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 117 (6), 3291e3300. Xiong, L., Huang, X., Li, J., Mao, P., Wang, X., Wang, R., Tang, M.,
Stroop, J.R., 1935. Studies of interference in serial verbal re- 2018. Impact of indoor physical environment on learning
actions. J. Exp. Psychol. 18 (6), 643e662. efficiency in different types of tasks: a 3 4 3 full
Tanner, C.K., 2009. Effects of school design on student outcomes. factorial design analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health 15
J. Educ. Adm. 47 (3), 381e399. (6), 1256.
Thompson, L.A., Detterman, D.K., Plomin, R., 2017. Associations Yang, W., Jeon, J.Y., 2020. Effects of correlated colour tempera-
between cognitive abilities and scholastic achievement. Gen. ture of LED light on visual sensation, perception, and cognitive
Overlap Environ. Diff. 2 (3), 158e165. performance in a classroom lighting environment. Sustainability
Tsunetsugu, Y., Miyazaki, Y., Sato, H., 2002. The visual effects of 12 (10), 4051.
wooden interiors in actual-size living rooms on the autonomie Zhang, X., Lian, Z., Wu, Y., 2017. Human physiological responses to
nervous activities. J. Physiol. Anthropol. Appl. Hum. Sci. 21 (6), wooden indoor environment. Physiol. Behav. 174, 27e34.
297e300. Zou, Z., Yu, X., Ergan, S., 2019. Integrating biometric sensors, VR,
Vartanian, O., Navarrete, G., Chatterjee, A., Fich, L.B., Leder, H., and machine learning to classify EEG signals in alternative ar-
Modrono, C., Nadal, M., Rostrup, N., Skov, M., 2013. Impact of chitecture designs. In: Computing in Civil Engineering 2019:
contour on aesthetic judgments and approach-avoidance de- Visualization, Information Modeling, and Simulation - Selected
cisions in architecture. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110 (Suppl. Papers from the ASCE International Conference on Computing in
2), 10446e10453. Civil Engineering 2019, pp. 169e176.
19

The Impact of The Design of Learning Spaces

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Impact of The Design of Learning Spaces

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Impact of The Design of Learning Spaces

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

+ MODEL

Frontiers of Architectural Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/foar

The impact of the design of learning spaces

1. Introduction cognitive systems stand out in this field as the main

Fig. 1 Selection process using PRISMA.

3.1.1. Attention acknowledged that the lack of a thorough analysis of the

M. Llorens-Gámez, J.L. Higuera-Trujillo, C.S. Omarrementeria et al.

Psychometric texture Vive (head

scales, questionnaires, analysis of spatial mapping, Stroop

Experience, dominance, arousal, novelty, familiarity,

in these measures. The outcomes of these studies were

(Banaei et al., 2017), whereas the other two studies

comprehension assessment were performed using a sen-

tence verification task (Royer et al., 1979). This study also

performed specific learning tasks of listening and reading,

tion, attention, memory tasks, and other subjective out-

comes (Meyers-Levy and Rui, 2007). Another study

required participants to sketch the proportion, size, and

3.3.2. Neurophysiological outcomes

that was conducted without population (Table 3a). Two of

tion, protocols, and devices/technology used for each

EegoSports with ANT

study are shown in Table 3. The band-pass filter data and

sampling rates are diverse across the publications,

These differences indicate various neurophysiological

Djebbara et al., 2019

ral system data used is fMRI (Vartanian et al., 2015). One

study also explored the impact of geometric spaces and

their construction materials on users’ brainwaves via

computer software (CST Microwave Studio) (Elbaiuomy

3.4. Population some specific requirements. In seven studies, normal or

You might also like