Various sources of sharia are used by Islamic jurisprudence to elucidate the body of Islamic law.

[1] The primary

source accepted universally by all Muslims is the Qur'an, the majority adhering also to the traditionally
reported Sunnah, but rejected by others; Quranism. The Qur'an is the holy scripture of Islam, believed by
Muslims to be the direct and unaltered word of God. The Sunnah consists of the alleged religious actions
and quotations of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, narrated through his Companions and the Imams (per the
beliefs of the Sunni and Shi'ite schools respectively).[1]
As Islamic regulations stated in the primary sources do not explicitly deal with every conceivable eventuality,
jurisprudence must refer to resources and authentic documents to find the correct course of action.[1] According
to Sunni schools of law, secondary sources of Islamic law are consensus, the exact nature of which bears no
consensus itself; analogical reason; pure reason; seeking the public interest; juristic discretion; the rulings of
the first generation of Muslims; and local customs.[2] Hanafi school frequently relies on analogical deduction
and independent reasoning, and Maliki and Hanbali generally use the Hadith instead. Shafi'i school uses
Sunnah more than Hanafi and analogy more than two others.[1][3] Among Shia, Usuli school of Ja'fari
jurisprudence uses four sources, which are Qur'an, Sunnah, consensus and the intellect. They use consensus
under special conditions and rely on the intellect to find general principles based on the Qur'an and Sunnah, and
use the principles of jurisprudence as a methodology to interpret the Qur'an and Sunnah in different
circumstances. Akhbari Ja'faris rely more on tradition and reject ijtihad.[1][4] According to Momen, despite
considerable differences in the principles of jurisprudence between Shia and the four Sunni schools of law, there
are fewer differences in the practical application of jurisprudence to ritual observances and social transactions.[5]

1. Holy Quran
2. Sunnah / Hadith (sayings of the Holy Prophet (P.b.u.h)
3. Ijma (consensus of Opinion)
4. Qiyas (analogy)
All of these sources are interlinked and organized while making laws.
Quran and Sunnah are collectively called Primary sources while the other two are called secondary sources as
they depend on the primary sources.
Primary sources

Holy Quran:
The Qur'an is the first and most important source of Islamic law. Believed to be the direct word of God as
revealed to Muhammad through angel Gabriel in Mecca and Medina, the scripture specifies the moral,
philosophical, social, political and economic basis on which a society should be constructed. The verses
revealed in Mecca deal with philosophical and theological issues, whereas those revealed in Medina are
concerned with socio-economic laws. The Qur'an was written and preserved during the life of Muhammad, and
compiled soon after his death.[6]
The verses of the Qur'an are categorized into three fields: "science of speculative theology", "ethical principles"
and "rules of human conduct". The third category is directly concerned with Islamic legal matters which contains
about five hundred verses or one thirteenth of it. The task of interpreting the Qur'an has led to various opinions
and judgments. The interpretations of the verses by Muhammad's companions for Sunnis and Imams for Shias
are considered the most authentic, since they knew why, where and on what occasion each verse was
revealed.[1][6]

It is the primary source of Islamic Law and is independent of all other sources.
It is the Devine, eternal and complete word of Allah which is a source of guidance, for all Muslims.
It provides for Human, the knowledge of right and wrong.
The Quranic Law deals with beliefs, morality, worship, civil transactions, punishment for international injury
to human body, property and honour e.t.c.
Allah says in Quran:
“This is the book in it is guidance sure without doubt to those who fear Allah”
The injunctions of the Quran are the basis of the Islamic Shariah and the sacred laws of islam.
This law is perfect and comprehensive. It governs all the actions of a Muslim. It is eternal, everlasting and
unchangeable.
It is universal as it is for all the man kind.
Laws given in the Quran are humanistic in nature, in that they provide for a margin of error due to the weakness
of human nature.
“Allah does not a soul with more than it can bear”
Examples of laws stated in the Quran:
“As for the thieves cut off his or her hands”
“For other vices Allah says: “You who believe strong drink and games of chances and idols and divining arrows
are only an infamy of satan’s hand work. Leave it aside in order that you may succed”
“Those who unjustly eat up the property of orphans eat up the fire into their own bodies”
“We ordained there in for them life for life, eye for eye, nose for nose , ear for ear, tooth for tooth, wound for
wound , equal for equal”

Sunnah:
It is the second and primary source of Islamic Law.
The Sunnah is the next important source, and is commonly defined as "the traditions and customs of
Muhammad" or "the words, actions and silent assertions of him". It includes the everyday sayings and utterances
of Muhammad, his acts, his tacit consent, and acknowledgments of statements and activities. According
to Shi'ite jurists, the sunnah also includes the words, deeds and acknowledgments of the twelve
Imams and Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter, who are believed to be infallible.[1][7]
Justification for using the Sunnah as a source of law can be found in the Qur'an. The Qur'an commands Muslims
to follow Muhammad.[8] During his lifetime, Muhammad made it clear that his traditions (along with the
Qur'an) should be followed after his death.[9] The overwhelming majority of Muslims consider the sunnah to
be essential supplements to and clarifications of the Qur'an. In Islamic jurisprudence, the Qur'an contains many
rules for the behavior expected of Muslims but there are no specific Qur'anic rules on many religious and
practical matters. Muslims believe that they can look at the way of life, or sunnah, of Muhammad and his
companions to discover what to imitate and what to avoid.
Much of the sunnah is recorded in the Hadith. Initially, Muhammad had instructed his followers not to write
down his acts, so they may not confuse it with the Qur'an. However, he did ask his followers to disseminate his
sayings orally. As long as he was alive, any doubtful record could be confirmed as true or false by simply asking
him. His death, however, gave rise to confusion over Muhammad's conduct. Thus the Hadith were
established.[7] Due to problems of authenticity, the science of Hadith (Arabic: `Ulum al-hadith) is established.
It is a method of textual criticism developed by early Muslim scholars in determining the veracity of reports
attributed to Muhammad. This is achieved by analyzing the text of the report, the scale of the report's
transmission, the routes through which the report was transmitted, and the individual narrators involved in its
transmission. On the basis of these criteria, various Hadith classifications developed.[10]
To establish the authenticity of a particular Hadith or report, it had to be checked by following the chain of
transmission (isnad). Thus the reporters had to cite their reference, and their reference's reference all the way
back to Muhammad. All the references in the chain had to have a reputation for honesty and possessing a good
retentive memory.[7] Thus biographical analysis (`ilm al-rijāl, lit. "science of people"), which contains details
about the transmitter are scrutinized. This includes analyzing their date and place of birth; familial connections;
teachers and students; religiosity; moral behaviour; literary output; their travels; as well as their date of death.
Based upon these criteria, the reliability (thiqāt) of the transmitter is assessed. Also determined is whether the
individual was actually able to transmit the report, which is deduced from their contemporaneity and
geographical proximity with the other transmitters in the chain.[11] Examples of biographical dictionaries
include Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani's "Tahdhīb al-Tahdhīb" or al-Dhahabi's "Tadhkirat al-huffāz."[12]
Using this criterion, Hadith are classified into three categories:[7]
Undubitable (mutawatir), which are very widely known, and backed up by numerous references.
Widespread (mashhur), which are widely known, but backed up with few original references.
Isolated or Single (wahid), which are backed up by too few and often discontinuous references.
in a shariah court a qadi (judge ) hears a case, including witnesses and evidence . then the qadi makes a ruling .
sometimes the qadi consults a mufti or scholar of law, for an opinion.

Sunnah means the sayings, actions or silent approvals of the Prophet (P.b.u.h). Sunnah of the Prophet is not only
an elaboration of the meaning of the Quran, but also addresses issues upon which Quran is silent. As the Muslim
community grew, need was felt to supplement the Quran with Sunnah.
The Quran itself mentioned the need to resort to Sunnah in particular situations by saying:
“We have sent the admonition to you (O Muhammad) so that you should make plan and explain to the people
the teachings of the book which has been sent for them”
Relationship Of Quran With Sunnah:
The Quran tells us repeatedly “Establish prayers and pay charity”, but it doesn’t explain how frequently a person
should pray or what is the method of praying and timing of prayers e.t.c.
This was explained by the Prophet as he himself said: “Pray as you have seen me praying”
Similarly Quran enjoins the Muslims to pay Zakat but it doesn’t explain the rate of the Zakat or how many times
in a year a person should pay Zakat, all this was explained by the Prophet as he said:
“No Zakat is payable on property until a year passes away on it”
Allah commands that teachings of the Prophet (P.b.u.h) should be obeyed:
“Obey Allah and obey the Prophet”
“Whatever the Prophet gives you take it and whatever he forbids you refrain from it.

Ijma:
It is the third and secondary source of Islamic Law. Its meaning is unanimous agreement.
All medieval Muslim jurists rejected arbitrary opinion, and instead developed various secondary sources, also
known as juristic principles or doctrines[clarification needed], to follow in case the primary sources (i.e. the
Qur'an and Sunnah) are silent on the issue.[13]
Consensus[edit]
Main article: Ijma
The ijma' , or consensus amongst Muslim jurists on a particular legal issue, constitutes the third source of
Islamic law. Muslim jurists provide many verses of the Qur'an that legitimize ijma' as a source of
legislation.[14][15] Muhammad himself said:
"My followers will never agree upon an error or what is wrong",
"God's hand is with the entire community".[14][16]
In history, it has been the most important factor in defining the meaning of the other sources and thus in
formulating the doctrine and practice of the Muslim community.[17] This is so because ijma' represents the
unanimous agreement of Muslims on a regulation or law at any given time.[18]
There are various views on ijma' among Muslims. Sunni jurists consider ijma' as a source, in matters of
legislation, as important as the Qur'an and Sunnah. Shiite jurists, however, consider ijma' as source of secondary
importance, and a source that is, unlike the Qur'an and Sunnah, not free from error.[19] Ijma' was always used
to refer to agreement reached in the past, either remote or near.[17] Amongst the Sunni jurists there is diversity
on who is eligible to participate in ijma' , as shown in the following table:
School of
Formation of ijma' Rationale
jurisprudence
Hanafi through public agreement of Islamic jurists the jurists are experts on legal matters
through agreement of the entire community the people cannot agree on anything
Shafi'i
and public at large erroneous
Islamic tradition says "Medina expels bad
through agreement amongst the residents
Maliki people like the furnace expels impurities
of Medina, the first Islamic capital
from iron"
through agreement and practice of they were the most knowledgeable on
Hanbali
Muhammad's Companions religious matters and rightly guided
 only the consensus of the ulama of the same consensus is not genuinely binding in its
Usuli period as the Prophet or Shia Imams is own right, rather it is binding in as much as
binding. it is a means of discovering the Sunnah.
Source:[1][19]
In modern Muslim usage it is no longer associated with traditional authority and appears as democratic
institution and an instrument of reform.[17]

It is the consensus of majority opinion of the Muslim Jurists at a particular time and of a particular generation.
Quran itself approves of the Ijma:
“O you who believe, obey Allah, and Obey His messenger and those charged with duty amongst you”
However it must be noted that to perform Ijma, the legal experts must have complete knowledge of Quran and
Sunnah, because Ijma of modern experts cant go against the teachings of Quran and Sunnah.
They should also have in depth knowlwdge about the previously performed Ijmas and also of the new
problemundr consideration.
Prophet Muhammad (P.b.u.h) once said:
“Hold fast to my sunnah and the sunnah of Khulfa- e – Rashidin”
Ijma was practiced even during the life of the Holy Prophet when he consulted his companions on different
occasions before giving his personal opinion.
Examples Of Ijma performed during Prophet’s (P.b.u.h) Life:
Battle Of Uhad: Prophet consulted his companions and agreed with the opinion of the majority and fought the
war out of Madina.
Battle Of Trench: He had the trench dug around Madina on the suggestions of Sulman Al Farsi.
He once said ”My companions are like stars those who follow them get guidance”

Other Examples Of Ijma After The Death Of Prophet:

Compilation of the Quran:
On suggestion of Umer and by Ijma of the companions, Quran was compiled in a book form when many
companions of the Holy Prophet were killed in the battle of Yamama.
Two Calls for Friday Prayers:
During Hazrat Usman’s Caliphate it was decided by the experts to have two calls for prayers on Fridays.
Trawih Prayer:
The Prophet prayed trawih only 3 or 4 times in congregation in his life time. It was later during the caliphate of
Hazrat Umer that the system of congregation of Trawih was added after Isha prayer during Ramazan.

Qiyas:

It is the fourth source of Islamic Law.It is the legal method of deducing one principle from another by comparing
them together.
Qiyas or analogical reason is the fourth source of the sharia for the majority of Sunni jurisprudence. It aims to
draw analogies to a previously accepted decision. Shiites do not accept analogy, but replace it with reason (aql);
among Sunnis, the Hanbalites have traditionally been reluctant to accept analogy while the Zahirites don't
accept it at all. Analogical reason in Islam is the process of legal deduction according to which the jurist,
confronted with an unprecedented case, bases his or her argument on the logic used in the Qur'an and Sunnah.
Legally sound analogy must not be based on arbitrary judgment, but rather be firmly rooted in the primary
sources.[20]
Supporters of the practice of qiyas will often point to passages in the Qur'an that describe an application of a
similar process by past Islamic communities. According to supporters of the practice, Muhammad said: "Where
there is no revealed injunction, I will judge amongst you according to reason."[21] Further, supporters claim
that he extended the right to reason to others. Finally, supporters of the practice claim that it is sanctioned by
the ijma, or consensus, amongst Muhammad's companions.[20] Islamic studies scholar Bernard G. Weisshas
pointed out that while analogical reason was accepted as a fourth source of law by later generations, its validity
was not a foregone conclusion among earlier Muslim jurists.[22]Thus the issue of analogical reason and its
validity was a controversial one early on, though the practice eventually gained acceptance of the majority of
Sunni jurists.
The success and expansion of Islam brought it into contact with different cultures, societies and traditions, such
as those of Byzantines and Persians. With such contact, new problems emerged for Islamic law to tackle.
Moreover, there was a significant distance between Medina, the Islamic capital, and the Muslims on the
periphery on the Islamic state. Thus far off jurists had to find novel Islamic solutions without the close
supervision of the hub of Islamic law (back in Medina). During the Umayyad dynasty, the concept of qiyas was
abused by the rulers. The Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads defined it more strictly, in an attempt to
apply it more consistently.[20]
The general principle behind the process of qiyas is based on the understanding that every legal injunction
guarantees a beneficial and welfare satisfying objective. Thus, if the cause of an injunction can be deduced from
the primary sources, then analogical deduction can be applied to cases with similar causes. For example, wine
is prohibited in Islam because of its intoxicating property. Thus qiyas leads to the conclusion that
all intoxicants are forbidden.[20]
The Hanafi school of thought very strongly supports qiyas. Imam Abu Hanifa, an important practitioner
of qiyas, elevated qiyas to a position of great significance in Islamic law. Abu Hanifa extended the rigid
principle of basing rulings on the Qur'an and Sunnah to incorporate opinion and exercise of free thought by
jurists. In order to respond suitably to emerging problems, he based his judgments, like other jurists, on the
explicit meanings of primary texts (the Qur'an and sunnah). But, he also considered the "spirit" of Islamic
teachings, as well as whether the ruling would be in the interest of the objectives of Islam. Such rulings were
based on public interest and the welfare of the Muslim community.[20]
“ The knowledge of ours is an opinion, it is the best we
have been able to achieve. He who is able to arrive at
different conclusions is entitled to his own opinion as we
are entitled to our own. ”
— Abu Hanifa[20]
The Shafi'i school of thought accepts qiyas as a valid source. Imam Shafi'i, however, considered it a weak
source, and tried to limit the cases where jurists would need to resort to qiyas. He criticized and rejected
analogical deductions that were not firmly rooted in the Qur'an and sunnah. According to Shafi'i, if analogical
deductions were not strictly rooted in primary sources, they would have adverse effects. One such consequence
could be variety of different rulings in the same subject. Such a situation, he argued, would undermine the
predictability and uniformity of a sound legal system. [23]
Imam Malik accepted qiyas as a valid source of legislation. For him, if a parallel could be established between
the effective cause of a law in the primary sources and a new case, then analogical deduction could be viable
tool. Malik, however, went beyond his adherence to "strict analogy" and proposed pronouncements on the basis
of what jurists considered was "public good".[23]

It can only be performed when both Quran and Sunnah are silent on a particular issue and even no Ijma is
performed earlier.The purpose of Qiyas is to fascilitate Muslims to fashion their lives according to Islam in the
modern world.
Permission of its use is found in the famous dialogue between the Prophet (P.b.u.h) and Muadh bin Jabal when
he was appointed governer of Yemen. The Holy Prophet allowed him to exercise his own opinion if he had
failed in finding a solution, to some problem in Quran and Sunnah.
Qiyas like Ijma is required to be in accordance with the primary sources of Islamic Law.
The Quran says:
“Marry women of your choice, two or three or four, but if you fear you shall not be able to do justice then only
one”
Here the second clause (but if you fear..) allows for humans to apply their own reasoning and choose for what
suits them best but within the limits defined by Quran.
Quran at another point says:
“There are signs in this for people who understand”

Components Of Qiyas:
Asl: The actual injunction in Quran and Sunnah.
Illa: Reasoning behind the injunction.
Hukm: The new deduction made.
Far: The link between the injunction and deduction.
Example:
The Quran forbids sales transactions after the call of prayer on Friday (Asl). By analogy /Qiyas all kinds of
transactions (Far) have been forbidden (hukm) because like sales they also distract Muslims from the Friday
Prayers (Illa).

“Every intoxicant is khamr so every intoxicant is haram”

The Holy Quran forbids the use of Khamr (an alcohol of grapes) (Asl). By Qiyas (analogy, heroin and other
intoxiacnts (Far) are also because like Khamr they also cause intoxication. However, since it involves a lot of
individual effort, it is sometimes not encouraged by some scholars.
Why Some Scholars Reject Qiyas:
A verse of Quran says:
“O ye who believe! Put not your selves forward before God and his apostle…”
Thus some scholars claim that Qiyas means” putting yourself forward”
Analogy leads to discord among the Muslims, because it doesn’t lead to exactly the same opinions where
different jurists are exercising it and what leads to differences should be stopped. Thus due to the varying and
conflicting answers that can be given it is rejected by some scholars.

Juristic preference
Main article: istihsan
Abu Hanifa developed a new source known as juristic preference.[24] Juristic preference is defined as:
A means to seek ease and convenience,
To adopt tolerance and moderation,
To over-rule analogical reason, if necessary.[25]
The source, inspired by the principle of conscience, is a last resort if none of the widely accepted sources are
applicable to a problem. It involves giving favor to rulings that dispel hardship and bring ease to people.[23] The
doctrine was justified directly by the Qur'anic verse stating: "Allah desires you ease and good, not
hardship".[25] Though its main adherents were Abu Hanifa and his pupils (such as Abu Yusuf), Malik and his
students made use of it to some degree. The source was subject to extensive discussion and
argumentation,[26]and its opponents claimed that it often departs from the primary sources.[23]
This doctrine was useful in the Islamic world outside the Middle East where the Muslims encountered
environments and challenges they had been unfamiliar with in Arabia.[24] One example of isthisan is cited as
follows: If a well is contaminated it may not be used for ritual purification. Istihsan suggests that withdrawing
a certain number of buckets of water from the well will remove the impurities. Analogical reason, however,
dictates that despite removing some of the water, a small concentration of contaminants will always remain in
the well (or the well walls) rendering the well impure. The application of analogy means the public may not use
the well, and therefore causes hardship. Thus the principle of justistic preference is applied, and the public may
use the well for ritual purification.[25]

Public interest[edit]
Malik developed a tertiary source called al-maslahah al-mursalah, which means that which is in the best interests
of the general public. According to this source of Islamic law, rulings can be pronounced in accordance with
the "underlying meaning of the revealed text in the light of public interest". In this case, the jurist uses his
wisdom to pursue public interest. This source is rejected by the Shafi'ites, Hanbalites and Zahirites from Sunni
jurisprudence.[23]

Inference[edit]
Shafi'i accepted cases in which he had to be more flexible with the application of Qisas. Similar to Abu Hanifa
and Malik, he developed a tertiary source of legislation. The Shafi'i school adopted istidlal or inference, a
process of seeking guidance from the source. Inference allowed the jurists to avoid strict analogy in a case where
no clear precedent could be found. In this case, public interest was distinguished as a basis for legislation.[23]
Muslim scholars divided inference into three types. The first is the expression of the connection existing between
one proposition and another without any specific effective cause. Next, inference could mean presumption that
a state of things, which is not proved to have ceased, still continues. The final type of inference is the authority
as to the revealed laws previous to Islam.[27]

Reason
Main article: Ijtihad
Shi'ite jurists maintain that if a solution to a problem can not be found from the primary sources, then aql or
reason should be given free rein to deduce a proper response from the primary sources. The process, whereby
rational efforts are made by the jurist to arrive at an appropriate ruling, when applied is called ijtihad (literally
meaning "exerting oneself"). Shi'ite jurists maintain that qiyas is a specific type of ijtihad. The Sunni Shafi'
school of thought, however, holds that both qiyas and ijtihad are the same.[28]
Sunni jurists accepted ijtihad as a mechanism for deducing rulings. They, however, announced an end to its
practice during the thirteenth century. The reason for this was that centers of Islamic learning (such
as Baghdad, Nishapur, and Bukhara) had fallen into the hands of the Mongols. Thus, the "doors to ijtihad", were
closed.[28] In Sunni Islam, thus, ijtihad was replaced by taqlid or the acceptance of doctrines developed
previously.[29] Later in Sunni history, however, there were notable instances of jurists using reason to re-derive
law from the first principles. One was Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728/1328), another was Ibn Rus̲ h̲d (Averroes d.
595/1198).[29]
There are many justifications, found in the Qur'an and sunnah, for the use of ijtihad. For example, during a
conversation with Mu'ādh ibn Jabal, Muhammad asked the former how he would give judgments. Mu'ādh
replied that he would refer first to the Qur'an, then to the Sunnah and finally commit to ijtihad to make his own
judgment. Muhammad approved of this.[30]
A lawyer who is qualified to use this source is called a mujtahid. The founders of the Sunni madhabs (schools
of law) were considered such lawyers. All mujtahid exercise at the same time the powers of a mufti and can
give fatwa. Some mujtahid have claimed to be muj̲addid, or "renewer of religion." Such persons are thought to
appear in every century. In Shi'ite Islam they are regarded as the spokespersons of the hidden Imam.[29]

Local custom
Main article: Urf
The term urf, meaning "to know", refers to the customs and practices of a given society. Although this was not
formally included in Islamic law,[31] the sharia recognizes customs that prevailed at the time of Muhammad
but were not abrogated by the Qur'an or the tradition (called "Divine silence"). Practices later innovated are also
justified, since Islamic tradition says what the people, in general, consider good is also considered as such
by God. According to some sources, urf holds as much authority as ijma (consensus), and more than qiyas
(analogical deduction). Urf is the Islamic equivalent of "common law".[32]
Local custom was first recognized by Abū Yūsuf (d. 182/798), an early leader of the Ḥanafī school. However,
it was considered part of the Sunnah, and not as formal source. Later, al-Sarak̲h̲sī (d. 483/1090) opposed it,
holding that custom cannot prevail over a written text.[31]
According to Sunni jurisprudence, in the application of local custom, custom that is accepted into law should
be commonly prevalent in the region, not merely in an isolated locality. If it is in absolute opposition to Islamic
texts, custom is disregarded. However, if it is in opposition to analogical reason, custom is given preference.
Jurists also tend to, with caution, give precedence to custom over doctoral opinions of highly esteemed
scholars.[32] Shi'ite scholars do not consider custom as a source of jurisprudence, nor do the Hanbalite or
Zahirite schools of Sunni jurisprudence.

Kinds of Punishments:
These are the following kinds of Punishments:

1. Qisas:
Qisas means the right of causing death of convict if has committed Qatl-i-arnd or hurt. The term Qisas is literally
derived from Al-Qasas which means to follow in some ones foot I its legal sense, Qisas signifies or means to
shed blood in repetition or retribution. Qisas is to award an equitable punishment to offender for an intentional
crime of homicide or for serving any of the body or injuring it. The divine injunction in the Holy Qur’an is:

“The life for the life, and the eye for the eye and the nose for the nose and the ear for the ear and tooth for the
tooth for wounds relation”.( 2: 179)
Again:

‘And one who attacks; attack him in like manner as he attacks you.’ (11:194)
The same injunction has been repeated in another verse.
if you, punish the punish with the like of that, where with you were afflicted’.

The punishment of Qisas is based upon the Islamic principle:

life for life; an eye for an eye. This is the highest form of punishment left at the disposal of the legal heirs and
inflicted by the Court. e.g., the punishment of Qatl-i-amd is death as Qisas’.

Execution of Qisas
(I) Execution of Qisas in Qatl-i-Amd
(a) Qisas in Qatl-i-Amd shall be executed by a functionary of the Government by causing death of the convict
as the Court may direct.
(b) Qisas shall not be executed until all the wali’ s are present at the time of execution, either persor9lly or
through their representatives authorized by them in writing in this behalf:
Provided that where a wali or his representative fails to present himself on the date, time and place of
execution of qisas after having been informed of the date, time and place as certified by the Court, and officer
authorized by the Court shall give permission for the execution of qisas and the Government shall cause
execution of qisas in the absence of such wali.
(c) If the convict is a woman who is pregnant, the Court may, in consultation with an authorized medical
officer, postpone the execution of qisas upon a period of two years after the birth of the child and during this
period she may be released on bail on furnishing of security to the satisfaction of the Court or, if she is not so
released she shall be dealt with as if sentenced to simple imprisonment.

(ii) Execution of qisas for hurt:

(a) Qisas shall be executed in public by an authorized medical officer who shall before such execution
examine the offender and take due care so as to ensure that the execution of qisas does not cause the death of
the offender or exceed the hurt caused by him to the victim.
(b) The wali shall be present at the time of execution and if the wali or his representative is not present after
having been informed of the date, time and place by the Court an officer authorized by the Court in this behalf
shall give permission for the execution of qisas.
(c) If the convict is a woman who is pregnant the Court may, in consultation with an authorized medical
officer, postpone the execution of qisas up to a period of two years after the birth of the child and during this
period she may be released on bail on furnishing of security to the satisfaction of the Court or, if she is not so
released shall be dealt with as if sentenced to simple imprisonment.

2. Diyat:
“Diyat” means the compensation specified in S. 323 payable to the heir of the victim.
The word Diyat has been derived from the Arabic word which means the flow of some liquid. From the word
the other word derived is (valley), the place from where the rain-water flows. Applying the principles of
Arabic-grammar, the initial word from has been omitted, and the word ‘They’ has been added, whereas, the
word Diyat’ has formed.
Diyat is a compensation fixed by Law/Shariat payable to the heir of the victim by the offender. This blood-
money is substitutory punishment for Qisas is the form of monetary compensation. It is a fixed punishment
implementable as the right of the individual.

Value of Diyat:
According to Section 323. (1) The Court shall subject to the injunctions Islam as laid down in the Holy Qur’an
arid Sunnah, and keeping in view the financial position of the convict and the heirs of the victim, fix the value
of Diyat which shall not be less than the value of thirty thousand six hundred and thirty grams of Silver.

Limit of Diyat Money:

The Diyat money has to be fixed keeping in view the financial position of the accused, but the same would not
be less than Rs.1, 70, 610 equivalents to 30.630 grams of silver.

Payment of Diyat:
Payment of Diyat may be in the following ways, made:
1. The Diyat may be made payable in lump-sum or in installments spread over a period of three years from the
date of the final judgment.
2. Where a convict fails to pay Diyat or any part thereof within the period specified in sub-section (1) the
convict may be kept in jail and dealt with in the same manner as if sentenced to simple imprisonment until the
Diyat is paid full or may be released on bail if he furnishes security equivalent to the amount of Diyat to the
satisfaction of the Court.
3. Where a convict dies before the payment of Diyat or any art thereof,b it shall be recovered from his estate.

Diyat can, be given:

In the following cases’ Diyat can be awarded:
1. Sections 306 to 307 Qatl-i-Amd not liable Qisas.
2. Section 321 Qatl-i-Amd after waiver or compounding of Qisas.
3. Section 315 Qati Shaibh-i-amd.
4. Section 318 Qatl Khata.
5. Section 32J QatI-bis-Sahab.
With the exception of Section 321 P.P.C. the Court can award tazir in addition Diyat.

Disbursement of’ Diyat:

The amount’ of Diyat is to be disbursed amongst the heirs of victim according to Shariah. In case were an heir
foregoes his share it shall not be recovered. It can be ordered to be paid in lump sum or in installments by the
court. In default the convict is liable, to simple imprisonment. He may be released on bail on security equivalent
to the amount of Diyat to the satisfaction of the, Court.
Qisas and Diyat Difference:
The remedies for torts as’ recognized by Sharia are retaliation and compensation ‘in cases of infringement ‘of a
man’s right to the safety of a person and restitution and compensation are the remedies proved for the violation
of man’s proprietary right and for other wrongs of’ similar character.
The individualization, of punishment under Islamic law is fundamental whether as, to Hadd, Qisas or Tazir. The
Diyat by contrast, is not strictly punishment, but is in the nature of compensation which must be aid to the victim
as reparation for the injury. It is sometimes confused with punishment because the amount of compensation is
specified in advance. That practice is evidence of the firm adherence to the principle of equality of all persons
before the law irrespective of social status. When the criminal is poor, his family or his tribe assumes collective
reasonability for paying compensation (Diyat) in cases of homicide or assault.

3. Daman:
According to S. 299-D. “Daman” means the compensation determined by the Court to be paid by the offender
to the victim of causing hurt not liable to arsh. Daman is ordered for injuries where punishment of Arsh is not
available. The value is not fixed or specified in the Ordinance. Its be determined in each case, by the Court
keeping in view,

Firstly, expenses incurred on the treatment of victim’

secondly, loss or disability caused in functioning or power of any organ; and
Thirdly, for the anguish suffered by the s’c1irn 1 he Daman .‘d h court shall he payable to the victim or, if he
victim dies, to his hair according t their respective shares in the inheritance,
In cases of Qati it will be proper, rather necessary for prosecution to provide the Court with a list of Wali, i.e.,
legal representatives of the deceased victim, as well as mention financial of parties for determination of Diyat,
Arsh or Daman. The arts or criminal jurisdiction will not be required to undertake additional proceedings to
determine dispute among the heirs. In the e of dispute, the compensation of any form may remain lying in
Government treasury with direction to the heirs have recourse to the civil Courts. In such cases the compensation
is to be received by the victim. There will be therefore, no problem about its disbursement. If, however, the
victim dies, then in the case of dispute his legal heirs lay be asked to have recourse to the Civil Courts.

Value of Daman:
The value of Daman may be determined by the Court keeping in view
(i) The expenses incurred on the treatment of victim;
(ii) Loss or disability caused in the functioning or power of any organ and
(iii) The compensation for the anguish suffered by the victim.

Non-payment of:
In case of non-payment of Daman, it shall he recovered from the convict and until Daman is paid in full to the
extent of his liability, the convict may be kept in jail and dealt with in the same manner as if sentenced to simple
imprisonment or may he released on bail if he furnishes security equal to the amount of Daman to the satisfaction
of Court.

4. Arsh:
Pakistan Penal Code specifically prescribes the amount of money, which is to be paid by the offender to the
victim or to his heirs as compensation in certain cases this specified compensation is known as Arsh’.
Arsh means the compensation specified in Qisas & Diyat Ordinance to be paid by the offender to the victim or
his heirs. In the cases of attempt to commit Qati-i-Amd, hlaf-i-Udw, Itlaf-iSalahjyyat-i-Udw, when the Qisas is
not executable keeping in view the principles of equality in accordance with the injunctions of Islam, the
offender shall be able to Arsh and may also be punished with imprisonment as Ta’azir.
The value of Arsh:
The value of Arsh will be assessed at certain percentage, indicated in various provisions of the value of diyat
under Section 323, P.PC. The court while working out the percentage of the value of the diyat will take into
consideration the minimum value of diyat fixed by the Federal Government on the first day of July each year.

Payment of Arsh:
The Arsh will be payable in lump-sum or in installments spreading over three years from the date of final
judgment. The Arsh shall be payable within the time specified by court and the offender may be kept in jail to
serve simple imprisonment until the Arsh is paid in full. The court may release a convict on bail, if he furnishes
security equal to the amount of Arsh to the satisfaction of court for its payment. If the convict dies before
payment of Arsh, it shall be recovered from his estate.

Disbursement of Arsh or Daman:

The arsh or Daman shall be payable to the victim or, if the victim dies to his heirs according to their respective
shares in inheritance.

5. Tazir:
(S. 299(K) PPC). It means the punishment other than Aisas, Diyat, Arsh or Daman. It is the punishment for
crimes for which Shariat has not provided the fixed sentence. Its nature and quantum is left to the discretionary
jurisdiction of State. The term Tazir is derived from the word which literally means to prohibit and punish. As
stated above, it is a discretionary punishment inflicted by State for chastisement, correction purification or to
refine.

Explanation:
Tazir means punishment awarded by the Court other than Qisas, Diyat Arsh or Daman. It includes punishment
of imprisonment, forfeiture of property and fine. Award of ta’zir has been left at the discretion of the Court
which should be exercised in a judicial manner and according to the facts and circumstances of the case (KLR
1992 Mag. c. 12)

Tazir Punishments:
The law maker empowers the Court to ermine the quantum and choose the kind of penalty so that it will possible
for the Court to to into account the motives of offence in man-made laws and the Islamic Shariah being that the
latter does recognize the effect of motives in the case of offence categorized Huddod or Qisas. In the case of
other offences there is nothing in Shariah inhibiting the Court to take into account the motive of crimes (1991
PSC 29).

6. Wall:
Means a person entitled to clause Qisas. Who is Wall?
(I) Wall: In case of Qati, the Wali shall he
(a) the heirs of the victim, according to his personal law, and
(h) the Government, if there is no heir.
(ii) Wali in hurt cases: In the case of hurt the Wall shall be:
(a) the victim;
Provided that, If the victim is a minor or insane, his right to Qisas shall be exercised by his father or paternal
grandfather how-high so-ever;
(b) The heirs of the victim; if the later dies before the execution of qisas; and
(c) The Government, in the absence of the victim or the heir of the victim
Ash'ariyya and Mu'tazila

The Mu'tazila - literally 'those who withdraw themselves' - movement was founded by Wasil bin 'Ata'
in the second century ah (eighth century ad). Its members were united in their conviction that it was
necessary to give a rationally coherent account of Islamic beliefs. In addition to having an atomistic
view of the universe, they generally held to five theological principles, of which the two most important
were the unity of God and divine justice. The former led them to deny that the attributes of God were
distinct entities or that the Qur'an was eternal, while the latter led them to assert the existence of free
will.

Ash'ariyya - named after its founding thinker, al-Ash'ari - was the foremost theological school in Sunni
Islam. It had its origin in the reaction against the excessive rationalism of the Mu'tazila. Its members
insisted that reason must be subordinate to revelation. They accepted the cosmology of the Mu'tazilites
but put forward a nuanced rejection of their theological principles.

1. Historical survey
2. Cosmology
3. The five principles
4. The unity of God
5. Divine justice and human destiny

1. Historical survey

The Mu'tazila originated in Basra at the beginning of the second century ah (eighth century ad). In the
following century it became, for a period of some thirty years, the official doctrine of the caliphate in
Baghdad. This patronage ceased in ah 238/ad 848 when al-Mutawakkil reversed the edict of al-
Ma'mun, which had required officials to publicly profess that the Qur'an was the created word of God.
By this time, however, Mu'tazilites were well established in many other centres of Islamic learning,
especially in Persia, and had split into two rival factions, the Basran School and the Baghdad School.
Although their links with these two cities became increasingly tenuous, both schools flourished until
the middle of the fifth century ah (eleventh century ad), and the Basran School only finally disappeared
with the Mongol invasions at the beginning of the seventh century ah (thirteenth century ad). After the
demise of the Mu'tazila as a distinct movement, Mu'tazilite doctrine - by now regarded as heretical by
Sunnis - continued to be influential amongst the Shi'ites in Persia and the Zaydis in the Yemen.

2. Cosmology

Popular accounts of the teaching of the Mu'tazilites usually concentrate on their distinctive theological
doctrines. To the philosopher, however, their cosmology, which was accepted by the Ash'ariyya and
other theological schools, is a more appropriate starting point.

To the Mu'tazila, the universe appears to consist of bodies with different qualities: some are living
while others are inanimate, some are mobile while others are stationary, some are hot and some are
cold, and so on. Moreover, one and the same body may take on different qualities at different times.
For instance, a stone may be mobile when rolling down a hill but stationary when it reaches the bottom,
or hot when left in the sun but cold after a long night. Yet there are some qualities which some bodies
cannot acquire; for example, stones are invariably inanimate, never living. How are the differences
between bodies, and between one and the same body at different times, to be explained?

The answer given by the Mu'tazilites is that all bodies are composed of identical material substances
(jawahir) or atoms (ajza'), on which God bestows various incorporeal accidents (a'rad). This view was
first propounded by Dirar ibn 'Amr (d. c.ah 200/ad 815) and elaborated by Abu al-Hudhayl
(d. ah 227/ad 841 or later), both of whom were early members of the Basran School. Abu al-Hudhayl
held that isolated atoms are invisible mathematical points. The only accidents which they can be given
are those which affect their ability to combine with other atoms, such as composition or separation,
motion or rest. Conglomerates of atoms, on the other hand, can be given many other accidents such as
colours, tastes, odours, sounds, warmth and coldness, which is why we perceive them as different
bodies. Some of these accidents are indispensable, hence the differences between bodies, whereas
others can be bestowed or withdrawn, thus explaining the differences between one and the same body
at different times.

This account of the world gained rapid acceptance amongst Islamic theologians, although to begin with
it was rejected by two Mu'tazilites of the Basran School, al-Nazzam (d. ah 221/ad 836) and Abu Bakr
al-Asamm (d. ah 201/ad 816?). The former, who was Abu al-Hudhayl's nephew, argued that atoms
which were mere mathematical points would not be able to combine with one another and that, rather
than being composed of atoms, bodies must therefore be infinitely divisible. Abu al-Hudhayl replied
that God's bestowal of the accident of composition on an isolated atom made it three-dimensional and
hence capable of combining (see Atomism, ancient). Al-Asamm, on the other hand, objected to the
notion of accidents, arguing that since only bodies are visible their qualities cannot have an independent
existence. Abu al-Hudhayl retorted that such a view was contrary to divine laws because the legal
obligations and penalties for their infringement were not directed at the whole person but at one of his
'accidents', such as his prostration in prayer or his flagellation for adultery.

3. The five principles

According to the Muslim heresiographers, who are our main source of information about the Mu'tazila,
members of the movement adhered to five principles, which were clearly enunciated for the first time
by Abu al-Hudhayl. These were: (1) the unity of God; (2) divine justice; (3) the promise and the threat;
(4) the intermediate position; and (5) the commanding of good and forbidding of evil.

The fifth principle, which is derived from several passages in the Qur'an (for example, Surah 9: 71),
and which the Mu'tazilites understood as an obligation incumbent on all Muslims to intervene in the
affairs of state, was rarely put into practice. For the Ash'arites, the commanding of good and forbidding
of evil was the prerogative of the head of state, who acted on behalf of the Muslim community.

4. The unity of God

The first half of the shahada, the Muslim declaration of faith, is the testimony that there is no god
besides Allah. Thus the numerical unity of God is axiomatic for all Muslims. Nevertheless, although
the Qur'an explicitly asserts that God is one, and equally explicitly rejects polytheism and the Christian
doctrine of the Trinity, it speaks of God's 'hands' (Surah 38: 75), 'eyes' (Surah 54: 14) and 'face' (Surah
55: 27), and of his seating himself on his throne (Surah 20: 5), thus apparently implying that he has a
body. Moreover, in describing the radiant faces of believers 'looking towards their Lord' on the Day of
Resurrection (Surah 75: 23), it suggests the possibility of a beatific vision.
However, the Mu'tazilites emphatically rejected such notions, insisting that God is not merely
numerically one but also that he is a simple essence. This led them to deny that he has a body or any
of the characteristics of bodies such as colour, form, movement and localization in space; hence he
cannot be seen, in this world or the next. The Mu'tazila therefore interpreted the Qur'anic
anthropomorphisms as metaphors - God's 'hands' are his blessing, God's 'eyes' are his knowledge, his
'face' is his essence and his seating himself on his throne is his omnipotence - and argued that, since
the Qur'an elsewhere asserts that 'sight cannot reach Him' (Surah 6: 103), the phrase ila rabbiha
nazira means 'waiting for their Lord' rather than looking towards him.

5. Divine justice and human destiny

In addition to championing the unity of God, the Mu'tazilites stressed his justice. They held that good
and evil are objective and that the moral values of actions are intrinsic to them and can be discerned
by human reason. Hence God's justice obliges him to act in accordance with the moral law. For
instance, he is thus bound to stand by his promise to reward the righteous with paradise and his threat
to punish the wicked with hellfire. More importantly, the reward and punishment which he metes out
must be merited by creatures endowed with free will (see Free will). Thus although the Qur'an says
that God guides and leads astray those whom he wills (Surah 14: 4), it cannot mean that he predestines
them. This and similar texts refer rather to what will happen after the judgement, when the righteous
will be guided to paradise and the wicked will be caused to stray far from it. With regard to our acts in
this world, God creates in us the power to perform an act but we are free to choose whether or not to
perform it.

Sāmarrā (Arabic: ‫)سا َم ّراء‬

is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Saladin
Governorate, 125 kilometers (78 mi) north of Baghdad. In 2003 the city had an estimated population
of 348,700. Samarra was once in the "Sunni Triangle" of violence during the sectarian violence in Iraq
(2006–07).
In the medieval times, Samarra was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and the only remaining
Islamic capital that retains its original plan, architecture and artistic relics.[1] In 2007, UNESCO named
Samarra one of its World Heritage Sites.[2]

The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of
the Roman Empire in the East during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city
was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, which had been founded as Byzantium). It survived
the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist
for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.[1] During most of its
existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. Both
"Byzantine Empire" and "Eastern Roman Empire" are historiographical terms created after the end of
the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire (Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν
Ῥωμαίων, tr. Basileia tôn Rhōmaiōn; Latin: Imperium Romanum),[2] or Romania (Ῥωμανία), and to
themselves as "Romans."[3]
Several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the
Roman Empire's Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I (r. 324–337) reorganised the
empire, made Constantinople the new capital, and legalised Christianity. Under Theodosius I (r. 379–
395), Christianity became the Empire's official state religion and other religious practices were
proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), the Empire's military and administration
were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin.[4] Thus, although the Roman
state continued and Roman state traditions were maintained, modern historians distinguish Byzantium
from ancient Rome insofar as it was centred on Constantinople, oriented towards Greek rather than
Latin culture, and characterised by Orthodox Christianity.[3]
The borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of
decline and recovery. During the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565), the Empire reached its greatest
extent after reconquering much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast, including
North Africa, Italy, and Rome itself, which it held for two more centuries. During the reign
of Maurice (r. 582–602), the Empire's eastern frontier was expanded and the north stabilised. However,
his assassination caused the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, which exhausted the Empire's
resources and contributed to major territorial losses during the Early Muslim conquests of the seventh
century. In a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs.[5]
During the Macedonian dynasty (10th–11th centuries), the Empire again expanded and experienced
the two-century long Macedonian Renaissance, which came to an end with the loss of much of Asia
Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikertin 1071. This battle opened the way for the
Turks to settle in Anatolia.
The Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century
Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city.[6] However, it was delivered a mortal
blow during the Fourth Crusade, when Constantinople was sacked in 1204 and the territories that the
Empire formerly governed were divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms. Despite
the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several
small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories
were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to
the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire.[7]

Babylonia
was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in central-
southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). A small Amorite-ruled state emerged in 1894 BC, which
contained at this time the minor administrative town of Babylon.[1] Babylon greatly expanded from the
small provincial town that it had originally been during the Akkadian Empire (2335-2154 BC) during
the reign of Hammurabi in the first half of the 18th century BC, becoming a major capital city. During
the reign of Hammurabi and afterwards, Babylonia was called Māt Akkadī "the country of Akkad" in
the Akkadian language.[2][3] It was often involved in rivalry with its older fellow Akkadian-speaking
state of Assyria in northern Mesopotamia, as well as Elam to the east, in Ancient Iran. Babylonia
briefly became the major power in the region after Hammurabi (fl. c. 1792 – 1752 BC middle
chronology, or c. 1696 – 1654 BC, short chronology) created a short-lived empire, succeeding the
earlier Akkadian Empire, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Old Assyrian Empire; however, the Babylonian
empire rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi and reverted back to a small kingdom.
The Babylonian state, like Assyria to the north, retained the written Akkadian language for official use
(the language of its native populace), despite its Northwest Semitic-speaking Amorite founders
and Kassite successors, who spoke a language isolate, not being native Mesopotamians. It retained
the Sumerian language for religious use (as did Assyria), but already by the time Babylon was founded,
this was no longer a spoken language, having been wholly subsumed by Akkadian. The earlier
Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in Babylonian and Assyrian culture, and the
region would remain an important cultural center, even under its protracted periods of outside rule.
The earliest mention of the city of Babylon can be found in a clay tablet from the reign of Sargon of
Akkad (2334–2279 BC), dating back to the 23rd century BC. Babylon was merely a religious and
cultural centre at this point and neither an independent state nor a large city; like the rest of
Mesopotamia, it was subject to the Akkadian Empire which united all the Akkadian and Sumerian
speakers under one rule. After the collapse of the Akkadian empire, the south Mesopotamian region
was dominated by the Gutian people for a few decades before the rise of the Third Dynasty of Ur,
which restored order to the region and which, apart from northern Assyria, encompassed the whole of
Mesopotamia, including the town of Babylon.

Sasanian Empire
(/səˈsɑːniən/ or /səˈseɪniən/), also known as the Sassanian, Sasanid, Sassanid or Neo-Persian
Empire,[11]known to its inhabitants as Ērānshahr[1] in Middle Persian,[a] was the last period of
the Persian Empire (Iran) before the rise of Islam, named after the House of Sasan who ruled from 224
to 651 AD.[2][13] The Sasanian Empire, which succeeded the Parthian Empire, was recognised as one
of the leading world powers alongside its neighbouring arch-rival the Roman-Byzantine Empire, for a
period of more than 400 years.[14][15][16]
The Sasanian Empire was founded by Ardashir I, after the fall of the Parthian Empire and the defeat
of the last Arsacid king, Artabanus V. At its greatest extent, the Sasanian Empire encompassed all of
today's Iran, Iraq, Eastern Arabia (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatif, Qatar, UAE),
the Levant (Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan), Armenia,
the Caucasus (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Dagestan, South Ossetia, Abkhazia), Egypt, large parts of Turkey,
much of Central Asia (Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan), Yemen and Pakistan.
According to a legend, the vexilloid of the Sasanian Empire was the Derafsh Kaviani.[17]
The Sasanian Empire during Late Antiquity is considered to have been one of Iran's most important
and influential historical periods and constituted the last great Iranian empire before the Muslim
conquest and the adoption of Islam.[18] In many ways, the Sasanian period witnessed the peak of
ancient Iranian civilisation. Persia influenced Roman culture considerably during the Sasanian
period.[19] The Sasanians' cultural influence extended far beyond the empire's territorial borders,
reaching as far as Western Europe,[20] Africa,[21] China and India.[22] It played a prominent role in the
formation of both European and Asian medieval art.[23]Much of what later became known as Islamic
culture in art, architecture, music and other subject matter was transferred from the Sasanians
throughout the Muslim world.[24]