Periodic Classification of Elements

There are total of 118 element6 known so far and the discovery of new elements still continues. Every element has its
own importance in the environment , some of them are useful while other are harmful. The harmful elements may
also be useful in other way.

It becomes a necessity to study the chemical and physical properties of each of the elements present around us
because every element is related to our life in some or other way. As the number is very large and there is possibility
that more elements will be discovered, so it becomes very difficult to study each of them separately. We need to
classify them in some groups according to their properties so that we can study them in group more easily and
effectively. Periodic table is the tool which is used to classify the known elements in groups.

It helps us to undertake a systematic study of the various elements found in nature without which it would have been
impossible for us to study all the elements in the table. With the help of periodic table a comparative study of the
elements and their compounds can be done.

Periodic table also helps us to analyse the periodic trend in various properties such as ionisation potential, electron
affinity, electronegativity etc.

Dobereiner's Triads, 1829

Dobereiner was the first scientist to classify the elements in some groups.

He tried to classify the elements with similar properties in groups of three elements (Triads). He could succeed in
making only a few triads.

In the triads of elements the atomic weight of the middle element was the arithmetic mean of the atomic weights of
the other two. Some of the triads are as under

Li Na K Ca Sr Ba P As Sb Cl Br

7 23 39 40 88 137 31 75 120 35.5 80

Newland's Law of Octaves, 1864

If the elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic weights, every eighth element had similar properties
to the first one like the first and eighth note in music. For example

sa re ga ma pa dha

Li Be B C N O

Na Mg Al Si P S

The main problem with this classification was that inert gases were not discovered at that time and also all the
elements could not be classified on this basis.

Mendeleef’s Periodic Table

Mendeleef’s Periodic law : The physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic
weights.
If the elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic weights, after a regular interval elements with similar
properties are repeated

On the basis of his law, Mendeleef proposed a periodic table for classicication of elements which is known
as Mendeleef’s Periodic Table
 The table is divided into nine vertical columns called groups and seven horizontal rows called periods.

Merits or Advantages of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:

 Study of Elements: First time all known elements were classified in a group according to their similar properties.
So, study of the properties of elements become easier.
 Predicting new Elements: It gave encouragement to the discovery of new elements as some gaps were left in it.
Sc, Ge, Tc were the elements for whom position and properties were defined by Mendeleev even before their
discoveries and he left the blank spaces for them in hit table.
Blank space at atomic weight 72 in Si group was called Eka silicon and element discovered later was named
Germanium.
o Eka Aluminium: Gallium

o Eka Boron: Scandium

o Eka Manganese: Technetium

 Demerits of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:
 Position of Hydrogen: Hydrogen resembles both, the alkali metals (1A) and halogens(VII A) in properties so
Mendeleev could not decide where to place it.
 Position of Isotopes: As atomic weight of isotopes differ, they should have been placed in different position in
Mendeleev’s periodic table. But there were no such positions for isotopes in Mendeleev’s periodic table
 Anomalous Pairs of Elements: There were some pair of elements which did not follow the increasing order of
atomic weights. E.g: Ar and Co were placed before K and Ni respectively in the table but having higher atomic
weights.
 Like Elements were Placed in Different Groups: Pt and Ag which have similar properties were placed in group
VIII and group IB respectively.
 Position of Isotopes: As atomic weight of isotopes differ, they should have been placed in different position in
Mendeleev’s periodic table. But there were no such positions for isotopes in Mendeleev’s periodic table
 Anomalous Pairs of Elements: There were some pair of elements which did not follow the increasing order of
atomic weights. E.g.: Ar and Co were placed before K and Ni respectively in the table but having higher atomic
weights.
Refer to the following video for Modern Periodic Table
We will gain in depth knowledge of this chapter under following subtopics:

 Tips and Tricks to Learn Periodic Table

 Periodicity in Properties
 Solved Examples

Modern Periodic Table

 Modern Periodic Law: Properties of elements are the periodic function to their
atomic numbers.
 The periodicity in properties is due to repetition of similar outer shell electronic configuration at a certain regular
intervals.

 In modern periodic table is based on modern periodic law in which elements are arranged in increasing order of
their atomic numbers.

 In the modern periodic table, the elements are arranged in rows and columns. These rows and columns are
known as periods and groups respectively.

 The table consists of 7 periods and 18 groups

 Period indicates the value of ‘n’ (principal quantum number) for the outermost or valence shell.

 Same number of electrons is present in the outer orbitals (that is, similar valence shell electronic configuration
 Characteristics of Periods
 First period is called shortest period and contains only two elements. Second and third periods are called short
periods containing eight elements each. Fourth and fifth periods are long periods containing eighteen elements
each. Sixth period is the longest period with thirty-two elements. Seventh period is an incomplete period
containing nineteen elements. Numbers 2, 8,8,18,18, 32 are called magic numbers.

 Lanthanide and actinide series containing 14 elements each are placed separately under the main periodic table.
These are related to sixth and seventh periods of III group respectively.

 Elements of third period from sodium (Na) to Chlorine (Cl) are called representative or typical elements.

 Valency of an element in a period increases from 1 to 7 with respect to oxygen.

Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3

1 2 3 4 5 6

 From left to right in a period generally

o Atomic weight, effective nuclear charge, ionisation potential, electronegativity and electron affinity of an
element increases.

o Atomic radius, electropositive character and metallic character of an element decreases.

 Diagonal relationship — Elements of second period Li, Be and B resemble closely with the elements Mg, Al and Si
of third period in the next higher group.

Second Period Li Be B C

Third Period Na Mg Al Si
 Elements of second period are called bridge elements.

Characteristic of Groups
 There are nine groups in modern periodic table and they are represented by roman numerals as I, II, III, IV, V, Vi,
VII, VIII and zero.

 Groups I to VII are further divided into two subgroups A and B, Group VIII consists of three sets, each one
containing three elements.

 Inert gases or noble gases are placed in zero group.

 The valency of an element in a group is equal to the group number.

 The elements of the groups which resemble the typical elements are called normal elements. For example IA, IIA,
IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA group elements are normal elements.

 Those elements of the groups which do not resemble the typical elements are called transition elements. For
example- IB, IIB, IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, and VIII group elements are transition elements.Hydrogen is placed in
both IA and VIIA groups.

 Atomic weight, atomic size, electropositive character and metallic character of elements increases down the
group.

 Ionisation potential, electron affinity and electronegativity of elements decreases down the group.

Classification of Elements
 On the basis of electronic configuration, the elements may be divided into four groups.
s-block elements
 These are the elements in which last electron enters s subshell.

 These are present in the left part of the periodic table.

 These include 1 and 2 group elements.

 All the s- block elements are metals.

 The general electronic configuration of valence shell for s block elements is ns 1-2 ( n = 1 to 7).
p – block elements
 These are the elements in which last electron enters p subshell.

 These are present in the right part of the periodic table.

 These include 13 to 18 of the periodic table.

 Most of the p block elements are metalloids and non metals but some of them are metals also.

 The general electronic configuration of the valence shell is ns2np1-6 ( n = 2 to 7).

 ns2 np6 is stable noble gas configuration. The electronic configuration of He is Is 2.

d-Block Elements
 These are the elements in which last electron enters d-subshell.
 These are present in the middle part of the periodic table (between s & p block elements)

 d block elements include group 3 to 12 groups of the periodic table.

 All are d block elements are metals.

 The last electrons fills in ( n – 1)d orbital.

 The outermost electronic configuration of d block elements is (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2 (n = 4 to 7).

 There are three series of d-block elements as under

 3d series – Sc(21) to Zn (30)
 4d series – Y (39) to Cd (48)
 5d series – La (57), Hf (72) to Hg (80)
f -Block Elements
 These are placed separately below the main periodic table.

 These are mainly related to IIIB i.e. group 3 of the periodic table

 There are two series of f-block elements as under

 4f series – Lanthanides – 14 Elements i.e. Ce (58) to Lu (71)

 5 f series – Actinides – 14 Elements i.e. Th (90) to Lw (103)

 the last electron fills in ( n – 2) ¦-orbital

 Their general outermost electronic configuration is (n-2)¦1-14 (n-1)s2 (n-1)p6 (n-1)d0-1ns2 (n = 6 and 7).
Introduction
 In the universe 115 elements have been discovered till today.
 Each of these elements possesses different properties.
 It is difficult to understand and use the properties of each element at a time.
 Hence attempts were made to discover ways to learn the properties of
elements in systematic order.

Dobereiner’s triads

In 1829, 30 plus elements were known. Dobereiner, a German scientist made some
groups of three elements each and called them triads.

Characteristics:

 Atomic mass of the second element of a triad is nearly equal to the arithmetic
mean of atomic masses of other two elements.
 Elements in triad have similar properties.
Triad 1

It is found that atomic mass of sodium (Na) is arithmetic mean of first element
lithium (Li) and third element potassium (K) and the properties of sodium were mean
of properties of that of lithium and potassium.

Triad 2
Mean of the atomic masses of the calcium (Ca) and barium (Ba) is almost equal to
atomic mass of strontium (Sr).

Arithmetic mean of calcium (Ca) and barium (Ba) =(40+137)2=88.5

Actual atomic mass of the strontium (Sr) = 87.6

Triad 3

Arithmetic mean of Chlorine (Cl) and Iodine (I) = (35.5+127)2=81.5

Actual atomic mass of the second element = 80

Limitations:

Dobereneir’s idea of classification of elements into triads did not receive wide
acceptance as he could arrange only 9 elements in triad form.

Newland’s law of Octaves

 Newland an English chemist in 1866 gave Law of Octaves.

 Till then 56 elements were known.
  Law of Octaves says that “If elements are arranged by the increasing order of
their atomic masses, property of every eighth element (starting from first
element) repeats”.

Characteristics of Law of octaves:

 It contained the elements starting from hydrogen and ends at thorium.

 Properties of every eighth element follow of that of first element.

Limitations of Newlands law of octaves:

 Similarity in properties of elements as per the law was seen up to calcium only.
 Only 56 elements known that time were talked about. At that time around 1
element was discovered every year. The elements to be discovered were not
considered.
 At many places, 2 elements were placed in a single slot (ex Co &Ni)
 Placing of iron far away from cobalt and nickel, which have similar properties
as iron, could also not be explained.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

 Dmitry Mendeleev a Russian chemist in 1869 gave Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.

 Till then 63 elements were known.
 Mendeleev arranged elements in increasing order of their atomic mass.
 He tried to put elements with similar properties in a group.
 Due to this we find empty boxes in his table.
Properties of groups studied by Mendeleev:

(a) Formation of Oxides: Oxides are compounds of elements with oxygen.

For example:

1. Li2O , Na2O and K2O resembles to R2

2. MgO, CaO, ZnO resembles to RO.

(b) Formation of Hydrides: Hydrides are compounds of elements with hydrogen.

For example:
  The horizontal rows present in the periodic table are called periods.
 The vertical columns present in it are called groups. There were total eight
groups in Mendeleev’s periodic table, I to VIII.
 Properties of elements in a particular period show regular gradation (i.e.
increase or decrease) from left to right.
 Groups I to VII are subdivided into A and B subgroups. Groups VIII don’t have
any subgroups.
 All the elements in a particular group have similar properties. They show
regular gradation in their physical properties and chemical reactivities.

Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:

1. Position of Isotopes

 Isotopes are atoms of same element having different atomic masses but have
similar chemical properties.
  Isotopes are placed together by Mendeleev as they have similar properties. But
then this violated the arrangement scheme of increasing atomic masses.
Mendeleev could not explain that problem.

2. Anomalous pairs of elements

At some locations, elements were put in order of decreasing atomic mass.

For example; Co, Ni and Te, I.

This was not explained by Mendeleev.

3. Position of hydrogen

Properties of H are similar to group 1 as well as group 7. But Mendeleev placed it in

group 1 without any proper explanation.

Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic classification:

 Earlier 63 elements were known.

 Mendeleev discovered Prediction of new elements.
 Mendeleev’s periodic table had some blank spaces in it. These vacant spaces
were for elements that were yet to be discovered.
 For example, he proposed the existence of some unknown elements
1. Eka – boron → Scandium

2. Eka – aluminium → Gallium

3. Eka – silicon → Germanium

Scandium, Gallium and Germanium were discovered later and their properties
matched very closely with the predicted properties of Eka - boron, Eka – aluminium
and Eka – silicon respectively.
Atomic Number
 Atomic number is defined as the total number of protons present in the nucleus
of an atom. It is denoted by ‘Z’.
 Atoms of two different elements will always have different number of protons.
 Atoms of same element have same number of protons and thus they have same
atomic number ‘Z’.
In fact, elements are defined by the number of protons they possess. For hydrogen, Z
= 1, because in hydrogen atom, only one proton is present in the nucleus.

Electron Distribution in Orbits

It is arrangement of electrons in atomic orbitals.

Rules for Electron Distribution:

There are major rules for e- distribution:

1. An orbit can have a maximum of 2n2 e-.

2. Orbits are filled from inside to outside. First, n = 1 shell is filled, then n = 2 shell,
and so on.

3. The outermost shell of an atom cannot accommodate more than 8 electrons, even
if it has a capacity to accommodate more electrons.

This is a very important rule and is also called the Octet rule. The presence of 8
electrons in the outermost shell makes the atom very stable.

Electronic configuration of some elements :

Valency

Valence Electrons: Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost orbit of
an atom. Outermost orbit is also called valence shell.

Stable and Unstable Electronic Configuration :

If K shell is outermost shell of an atom and if the atom has 2e - in outermost shell,

Or

if K shell is not the outermost shell of an atom and if the atom has 8e - in outermost
shell, the arrangement of electrons is called stable electronic configuration.
  Atoms do chemical reactions with each other to achieve stable electronic
configuration.
 Noble gases (He, Ne and Ar) are inert as they already have stable electronic
configuration.
 Valency of an element is the number of electrons that its atom should give
away or take to attain stable electronic configuration.
 The number of electrons present in the valence shell/outermost shell
determines the valency.

Silver has 1 electron in its outermost shell. Silver donates one electron to complete
its octet so valency of silver is 1.
Modern Periodic Table
  In 1913, Moseley showed or proved that atomic number is a very important
property of a element.
 After that, Neil Bohr made the modern periodic table using atomic number.

Basic concept of Modern Periodic Table:

 Most of the properties of an element depend on number of valence electrons.

 Elements having same number of valance electrons are grouped together.
 Thus elements in a group have similar properties.

Exception: In 18th group, element have 8 valence e- except Helium. But still helium is
a appropriately placed in 8th group as it also has stable electronic configuration in that
group. Also its properties are very similar to other elements of that group.
Characteristics of Modern Periodic Table:

 In periodic table, elements have been arranged by increasing atomic number.

 Horizontal rows on the periodic chart are called periods.
 There are seven rows in the periodic table. Each row is called a period. The
periods have been numbered from 1 to 7.
 The first period is the shortest period of all and contains only 2 elements, H
and He.
 The second and third periods are called short periods and contain 8 elements
each.
 Fourth and fifth periods are long periods and contain 18 elements each.
 Sixth period is very long period containing 32 elements.
 Vertical columns are called groups. There are 18 groups in the periodic table.
 Group 1 on extreme left position contains alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and
Fr).
 Group 18 on extreme right side position contains noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr,
Xe and Rn).

Inner Transition Elements:

 14 elements with atomic numbers 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu) are called lanthanides.

 14 elements with atomic numbers 90 to103 (Th to Lr) are called actinides.

Trends in Modern Periodic Table:

1. Valence e- and valence shell

a) Across a period:

 Valence e- increases from left to right.

 Valence shell is constant.
b) Down the group:

 Valence e- remains constant.

 Valence shell increases.
2. Valency

a) Across the period:

 Valency increases till group 14 and then decreases till 18.

b) Down the group:

 Valency remains constant.

3. Size of atom

a) Across the period:

 As we move to right, positive charge on nucleus increases, so attraction of

outer electron increases. Therefore, electron comes close to nucleus. Thus size
of atom decreases from left to right.
b) Down the group:

 As we go down, number of shells increases, so size of atom also increases.

4. Metallic character

a) Across the period:

 Decreases from left to right.

b) Down the group:

 Increases down the group.

5. Electro positivity

It is the ability of an atom to loose electron.

 If electropositivity is high, it is easy to loose electron.

 If electropositivity is low, it is difficult to loose electron.
a) Across the period:

 As we move to right, size of atom decreases and therefore more attraction on

electrons. So it is difficult to take e - Thus electropositivity decreases from left
to right.
b) Down the group:

 As we move down in a group, size of atom increases so less attraction on

electrons. So it is easy to take e- Thus electropositivity increases down the
group.

6. Nature of oxides

a) Across the period:

 Acidic nature of oxides increases from left to right.

b) Down the group:
  Acidic nature of oxides decreases down the group.

 Metals normally form basic oxides and are electropositive.

 Non – metals normally form acidic oxides and are electronegative.

7. Chemical reactivity

a) Across the period:

 First decreases as it is more difficult to loose more e - and then increases from
left to right as it is easier to gain lesser number of e-.
b) Down the group:

 As we move down in a group, chemical reactivity increases for metals and

increases for non-metals.

Explanation of Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:

1. Position of Isotopes:

 As we know isotopes are atoms of same element having different atomic

masses but have similar chemical properties.
  They are placed together by Mendeleev as they have similar properties. But
then this violated the arrangement scheme of increasing atomic masses.
 Modern periodic table use atomic number for arrangement of element.
 Atomic number of isotopes is same so they should be at same location in per
table.

2. Anomalous pairs of elements

 In Mendeleev’s periodic table, elements were put in order of decreasing atomic

mass at some locations. For example Co and Ni. This was not explained by
Mendeleev.
 As Modern periodic table use atomic number for arrangement and Ni has higher
atomic number, so it should follow Co in per table.

3. Position of hydrogen

 Electronic configuration of hydrogen matches with electronic configuration of

other elements of group 1. So hydrogen should be placed in group 1.